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Alejandro Ramirez has worked in education for 30 years; currently he is at the Sprott School of Business at Carleton University in the Information Systems area. He has a Ph. D. in Administration from Concordia University, a Masters’ of Science from Syracuse University, and a Bachelor of Science from ITESM (Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey). His research interests include the analysis, design, adoption, and evaluation of information systems in organizations, emergent information and communication technologies (social software, wikis, blogs, syndication, cloud computing). He has studied the impact of ICTs in education and his research has been published in areas of curriculum development and student empowerment through ICTs.

In many ways it is not a matter of whether information and communication technologies have a place in universities, but of how and when they will be fully adopted.

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Youssef A. Youssef, Associate Professor at Unisul Business School, Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (Unisul), Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil and Visiting Scholar to Sprott School of Business Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. He has Ph.D. degree in Management, from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC). His research Interest concatenates Knowledge Management Systems, Sustainable Management, and International Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Dr. Youssef has long standing records in Higher Education that include serving as senior advisor to the president of the Inter-American Organization for higher Education (IOHE).

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The Editors

It’s not whether or not. It’s when and how. When Michael Preston posted a couple of rhetorical questions on ‘EnhancED’, the site of the Columbia Center for New Media Teaching and Learning, perhaps he was trying to answer them in a way that would set a new direction on the use of social media in the classroom. His ques-

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ISBN 978-85-8019-017-5

9 788580 190175 >

tions – Should you meet students “where they are”? Does Facebook have a more formal place in your academic life? – assumed that there is indeed an educational value on doing it and wanted to know if teachers were ready to embrace it. Similar assumptions are appearing in the media and are discussed in different forums. In many ways it is not a matter of whether information and communication technologies have a place in universities, but of how and when they will be fully adopted.

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Reitor Ailton Nazareno Soares

Pró-Reitor de Desenvolvimento e Inovação Institucional Valter Alves Schmitz Neto

Vice-Reitor Sebastião Salésio Herdt

Diretora do Campus Universitário de Tubarão Milene Pacheco Kindermann

Chefe de Gabinete Willian Corrêa Máximo Pró-Reitor de Ensino Mauri Luiz Heerdt

Diretor do Campus Universitário da Grande Florianópolis Hércules Nunes de Araújo

Pró-Reitora de Administração Acadêmica Miriam de Fátima Bora Rosa

Diretora do Campus Universitário UnisulVirtual Jucimara Roesler

Pró-Reitora de Pesquisa, Pós-Graduação e Inovação Mauri Luiz Heerdt

Assessoria de Comunicação e Marketing – C&M Assessor Laudelino J. Sardá

Diretora Maria do Rosário Stotz Gestora Editorial Alessandra Turnes Editoração Officio (officiocom.com.br) Revisão ortográfica do português Fred Stapazzoli Jr.

Y76

Youssef, Youssef Ahmad, 1967Social software in higher education : pedagogical models and universities strategies / Youssef A. Youssef, Alejandro Ramirez. - Palhoça : Ed. Unisul, 2011. 339 p. ; 21 cm Inclui bibliografias. ISBN 978-85-8019-017-5. Texto em português e inglês. 1.Educação superior. 2. Educação – Processamento de dados. 3. Educação - Modelos. I. Ramirez, Alejandro, 1957. II. Título. CDD (21. ed.) – 378.1 Ficha catalográfica elaborada pela Biblioteca Universitária da Unisul

Sumário [Contents] Contributors [AUTORES]

7

The need for a reflection on ict praxis in higher education Youssef A. Youssef and Alejandro Ramirez

17

The consequences of information and communication technologies in higher education: the age of the network society Alejandro Ramirez

29

Role of quality in the future of e-learning Rosa Cabedo Gallén

51

Interactive pedagogical design: the collaborative learning and the use of concept maps in distance education Jucimara Roesler and Ademilde Sartori

103

Embedded audio feedback Shirley Hunter-Barnett and Sue Murrin-Bailey

135

Estratégias de ensino para o planejamento didático pedagógico de um sistema de ensino a distância mediado pelo ambiente virtual de ensino aprendizagem Madalena P. da Silva, José Cé Júnior, Sergio M. Schütz e Lia Caetano Bastos

183

Jogos de empresas na educação: um método inovador de ensino aprendizagem Mauricio Capobianco Lopes, Sofia Ines Niveiros e Francisco Antonio Pereira Fialho

239

An interactive self-assessment system for student-centered learning in European higher education Jorge Pomares Baeza, Pablo Gil Vázquez, Francisco A. Candelas Herías, Santiago T., Puente Méndez, Fernando Torres Medina, Juan A. Corrales Ramón, Carlos A. Jara Bravo, Gabriel J. García Gómez and Iván Perea Fuentes

295

Um relato de experiência de uso de mapas conceituais como ferramenta para uso de aprendizagem significativa em cursos presenciais e a distância Patricia Lupion Torres e Teresa Vargas Sierra

317

6

Contributors [AUTORES]

Lia C. Bastos possui graduação em Engenharia Civil pela Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina - UFSC (1981), mestrado em Engenharia de Produção pela UFSC (1987) e doutorado em Engenharia de Produção pela UFSC (1994). Atualmente é professora associada da UFSC. Tem experiência na área de Planejamento Urbano e Regional, com ênfase em Técnicas de Planejamento e Projeto Urbanos e Regionais, atuando principalmente nos seguintes temas: sensoriamento remoto, tomada de decisão, sistema de informações geográficas e qualidade da informação. Rosa Cabedo is Ph.D. student at Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain. She researches on the development of a quality model for Spanish eLearning teaching. She is the author of several articles and online publications. Her work focuses on e-Learning quality, blended learning quality, e-Learning best practices and e-Learning applied to languages learning. She is currently studying blended learning applied to Spanish teaching. F. A. Candelas was born in Alicante (Spain). He received the Computer Science Engineer and the Ph.D. degrees in the University of Alicante (UA) in 1996 and 2001 respectively. He is full-time Professor in the Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory of the UA since 1999. He also researches in the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group in the UA, since 1996, where has been involved in several research projects supported by the Spanish Government, as well as 7

development projects in collaboration with regional industry. His current major researching interests are virtual and remote laboratories, industrial automation. Dr. Candelas also belongs to Spanish Committee of Automatics (CEA) since 1999. José Cé Júnior é mestre em Ciência da Computação pela Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina e especialista em Redes e Sistemas Distribuídos pela Universidade do Planalto Catarinense. Possui licenciatura Plena em Informática pela Universidade do Alto Vale do Itajaí e graduação em Informática pela Universidade do Planalto Catarinense. Atualmente é professor no Centro de Educação Profissionalizante - CEDUP Renato Ramos da Silva e no SENAI – Unidade Lages. Tem experiência na área de Ciência da Computação, com ênfase em Redes e Sistemas Distribuídos e Qualidade de Serviço (QoS) em Redes, envolvendo semântica. Atuou como professor Colaborador do Projeto de EaD. J. A. Corrales received his B.S. degree in Computer Science Engineering in 2005 with high honors and his M.S. degree in Automatics and Robotics in 2007, both from the University of Alicante (Spain). He is now a researcher of the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group at the University of Alicante. He has participated in several research projects supported by the Spanish Government and is the author of several journal articles and international conference papers. His current research interests are focused on human-robot interaction, robotic manipulation and new teaching methodologies in engineering degrees. He belongs to the Spanish Committee of Automatics (CEA) since 2006. Francisco Antonio Pereira Fialho has graduated in Electronic Engineering in 1973 and Psychology in 1998. He earned his Doctoral Degree in Production Engineering in 1994 from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. His researching areas are virtual immersion, organizations modeled as cognitive agents, cognitive ergonomics. Also, he has 8

special interest in the works of Piaget, Lacan and Jung. He is currently professor of Master and Doctorate degrees in Knowledge Engineering and Management Program at the Federal University of Santa Catarina.    G. J. Garcia received his B.S. degree in Computer Science Engineering in 2005 and his PhD degree from the University of Alicante (Spain) in 2010, both from the University of Alicante (Spain). He is now an assistant teacher of the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group at the University of Alicante. He has participated in several research projects supported by the Spanish Government and is the author of several journal articles and international conference papers. His current research interests are focused on visual servoing, force control and new teaching methodologies in engineering degrees. He belongs to the Spanish Committee of Automatics (CEA) since 2006. Pablo Gil received the Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from University of Alicante where he is currently a full-time Professor in the Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory since 2003. He teaches courses in computer networks, automatics and robotics. His research interests include virtual laboratories and computer vision for robotic systems. He is member of CEA-IFAC and he has published several international papers as well as participated as reviewer in international journals and conferences. Shirley Hunter-Barnett is a lecturer at Edge Hill University within the Business Schools Computing and Information Systems department. She is a SOLSTICE Fellow, acting as a champion of technology within her faculty and service area by providing expertise and leadership in technology enhanced learning. Shirley holds an MSc in E-learning and her principle interests and areas of expertise lie in technology enhanced learning and online course design, focusing on distance and blended learning. Her previous research has explored the use of embedded au9

dio feedback/feed forward and the impact it has on learner experience and the use of audio feedback as a method that can be used to help students feel less isolated, whilst on an online course. C. A. Jara received the industrial engineer degree from Miguel Hernandez University of Elche. He is now teacher assistant in the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group at the University of Alicante. His research interests include virtual and remote laboratories, collaborative learning and industrial automation. Contact him at [email protected]. Mauricio Capobianco Lopes is graduated in Computer Science (1990) and is Master in Production Engineering (1994). Since 1988 he works in the development and application of business games in undergraduate and graduate courses and in companies. He has two games developed: Virtual and Lider. Currently he is a Computing professor in the Regional University of Blumenau and is a Doctoral student in Knowledge Engineering and Management Program at the Federal University of Santa Catarina, working on the improvement of Lider Business Game. Sue Murrin-Bailey has 15 years commercial experience as a senior manager level at AT&T and GUS and as a General Manager of an on and off-line Marketing Agency. A move into Higher Education in brought together practical business acumen and an academic profile.  She has an interest in the use of technology in business, teaching and learning which has developed since the infancy of the Internet and now forms a strong base across Consultancy projects and within her subject-specific teaching in the Business School at Edge Hill University. Sue’s main area of interest lies in the use of audio within teaching and learning for assessment and for students with specific learning needs.  Her research has led to further interest in the development of communities of practice to share dialogue with fellow researchers in this field. 10

Sofia Ines Niveiros has graduation in  Accountancy  and earned her Master and Doctoral degree in Production Engineering from the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC). Currently she is an Accounting professor at the Federal University of Mato Grosso (UFMT), Brazil. Currently, she is Post-Doctoral Fellow in Knowledge Engineering and Management, researching in the area of Business Game. Furthermore, she is a member of UFSC study group on Cognition and Complexity and is the leader of the study group on Financial, Auditing and Managerial Accounting of UFMT. I. Perea received his B.S. degree in Computer Systems in 2007 and he has participated in various collaboration projects. Now he is current working as laboratory technical assistant in a research project supported by the Spanish Government, designing and building a robotic joint structure. J. Pomares was born in Alicante (Spain). He received the Computer Science Engineer and the Ph.D.degrees in the University of Alicante (UA) in 1999 and 2004 respectively. He is a full-time Professor in the Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory of the UA since 2000. He also researches in the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group in the UA, since 2000, where has involved in several research projects supported by the Spanish Government, as well as development projects in collaboration with regional industry. His current major researching interests are robotics, visual servoing and new teaching methodologies in engineering degrees. Dr. Pomares also belongs to Spanish Committee of Automatics (CEA). Santiago T. Puente received the Computer Science Engineer and the Ph.D. degrees from the University of Alicante (UA) in 1998 and 2002 respectively. He is full-time Professor in the Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory of the UA since 2003. He also researches in the Automatics, Robotics and Computer Vision Group in the 11

UA, since 1999, where has been involved in several research projects supported by the Spanish Government, as well as development projects in collaboration with regional industry. His research interests include robotics, manufacturing automation, virtual and remote laboratories. He has published several international papers as well as participated as reviewer in international journals and conferences. Alejandro Ramirez has worked in education for 30 years; currently he is at the Sprott School of Business at Carleton University in the Information Systems area. He has a Ph. D. in Administration from Concordia University, a Masters’ of Science from Syracuse University, and a Bachelor of Science from ITESM (Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey). His research interests include the analysis, design, adoption, and evaluation of information systems in organizations, emergent information and communication technologies (social software, wikis, blogs, syndication, cloud computing). He has studied the impact of ICTs in education and his research has been published in areas of curriculum development and student empowerment through ICTs. Jucimara Roesler possui graduação em Pedagogia pela Universidade do Oeste de Santa Catarina (1993), especialização em Desenvolvimento Gerencial (UNOESC), em Informática na Educação (PUC), em Gestão e Liderança Universitária pela UNISUL e Organização Universitária Interamericana – OUI. É mestre em Educação pela Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (2001), doutora em Comunicação Social pela PUC/ RS e pós-doutorada em Educação e Novas Tecnologias pela Universidad Complutense de Madri (UCM), em 2010. Atualmente é professora e diretora do Campus Virtual da Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina. Tem experiência na administração universitária e Tecnologia Educacional, atuando principalmente nos seguintes temas: educação superior a distância, comunidades virtuais de aprendizagem, administração universitária, informática na educação, desenho pedagógico e desenvolvi12

mento de metodologias para Educação on-line. Foi bolsista da CAPES em 2007 na Universidad Oberta da Catalunya, Barcelona. Ademilde Silveira Sartori é doutora em Ciências da Comunicação pela USP (2005), possui especialização em Gestão da Educação a Distância pela UFJF, mestrado em Educação pela UFSC. É professora efetiva do Departamento de Pedagogia do Centro de Ciências Humanas e da Educação da Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (FAED/UDESC), ministra a disciplina Educação e Comunicação no Programa de Pósgraduação em Educação. Atualmente é diretora de ensino de graduação do Centro de Educação a Distância CEAD/UDESC e coordenadora do Laboratório de Mídias e Práticas Educativas (LAMPE/FAED). Sergio Murilo Schütz é bacharel em Ciência da Computação pela Universidade do Vale do Itajaí (1995), possui especialização em Engenharia de Produção e Sistemas, na área de concentração em Inteligência Artificial, pela UFSC - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2000) e mestrado em Ciência da Informação pela UFSC (2007). Foi coordenador dos cursos de Ciência da Computação e do curso de Tecnologia em Redes de Computadores de setembro de 2005 a agosto de 2010, coordenador geral do EaD desde o processo de avaliação de autorização do MEC (2008), coordenador da Pós-graduação do Núcleo de Tecnologia Aplicada até agosto de 2010 e atualmente é professor titular da Universidade do Planalto Catarinense e dos cursos técnicos e de aprendizagem da Unidade SENAI – Lages(SC). Teresa Vargas Sierra é mestre em Educação pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Paraná PUC-PR (2009), especialista em Metodologias Inovadoras Aplicadas na Educação, Psicopedagogia e Ensino Superior Tecnológico. Graduação: Comunicação Social, com ênfase em Jornalismo, pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica Javeriana de Bogotá - Colômbia. E-mail: [email protected]. 13

Madalena Pereira da Silva é doutoranda no Programa de Engenharia e Gestão do Conhecimento da UFSC - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2006-2010). Possui mestrado em Ciência da Computação pela UFSC (2004), é bacharel em Informática pela UNIPLAC - Universidade do Planalto Catarinense (2002) e graduada em Ciências de 1º Grau pela UNIPLAC (1999). Atualmente é Analista de Informática da Fundação de Apoio ao Hemosc e Cepon e professora titular do Centro Universitário UNIVESC, nos cursos de graduação e pós-graduação em Ciência da Computação, atuando nas áreas de Redes de Computadores, Comunicação de Dados, Programação de Sistemas Distribuídos, Inteligência Computacional aplicada na Web Semântica. Atuou como professora Colaboradora do Projeto de EaD. Fernando Torres received the industrial engineer and PhD degrees from Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM) in 1991 and 1995 respectively. Since 1994, he has been at the Alicante University, as professor in control, robotics and computer vision. His research interests include automatic visual inspection, robotics, manufacturing automation, visual servoing, morphological processing and new technologies for teaching. Prof. Torres is a member of the CEA-IFAC, IEEE and the Spanish Image Analysis and Pattern Recognition Society. He has published several international papers. Patricia Lupion Torres é doutora em Engenharia da Produção – Meios e Conhecimento (2002), pela Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, mestre em Educação (1994) pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, especialista em Teorias Psicossociológicas (1983) pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. É graduada em Pedagogia (1981) pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. E-mail: [email protected].

14

Youssef A. Youssef, Associate Professor at Unisul Business School, Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (Unisul), Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil and Visiting Scholar to Sprott School of Business Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. He earned Ph.D. and Master degrees in Business and information Technology from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC). His research Interest concatenates Knowledge Management Systems, Sustainable Management, and International Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Dr. Youssef has long standing records in Higher Education that include serving as senior advisor to the president of the Inter-American Organization for higher Education (IOHE).

15

16

THE NEED FOR A REFLECTION ON ICT PRAXIS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Youssef A. Youssef

UNISUL Business School

Alejandro Ramirez Sprott School of Business

INTRODUCTION

W

hen Preston (2011) posted a couple of rhetorical questions on ‘EnhancED’ the site of the Columbia Center for New Media Teaching and Learning, perhaps he was trying to answer them in a way that would set a new direction on the use of social media in the classroom. His questions –Should you meet students “where they are”? Does Facebook have a more formal place in your academic life? – assumed that there is indeed an educational value on doing it and wanted to know if teachers were ready to embrace it. Similar assumptions are appearing in the media and are discussed in different forums. In many ways it is not a matter of whether information and communication technologies have a place in universities, but of how and when they will be fully adopted. Not much has changed in universities’ position on the role of ICTs in the curriculum. Underwood (2004) indicated that “Education research in general does not always value the significance of work in ICT, and whether the criticism is valid or not, we need to address this perception” (p 135). 17

Many of the tools that we are presenting in this volume did not even exist when she wrote those words; still the perception has not changed regarding any ICT, even in an age of social software and after the arrival of the Net Generation into universities. We want to move the discourse forward by offering some examples of what researchers are doing to incorporate ICTs in the curriculum, how pedagogy is adopting them, and how assessments are taking them in consideration when evaluating students. Perhaps the most important and relevant role of ICTs in the classroom is in how these technologies empower students to do things on their own, at their best, when they think they are ready, regardless if it’s in the middle of the night, weekends or far from the university campus. For educators, perhaps, is the power we get to study almost on an individual level the process of learning, through e-mail messages we engage in conversations with students going through the material, answering questions that will help them move on and continue instead of giving up and closing the books. Through discussing forums, students engage in conversations among peers and together tackle issues that seem difficult and by listening to other how they overcame those difficulties, they learn to overcome them as well. It seems that finally these technologies have the characteristics promised before but never delivered: ease of use, user friendliness, low learning curves, powerful and reliable. An important aspect in Heidegger’s (1962, 1977) philosophy is his insistence that objects are not inherent in the world, but arise only in the event of breaking down in which they become present-at-hand. ICTs are precisely these types of objects; they present themselves as objects only when there is some kind of breakdown or unreadiness-at-hand. They are objects only if they are not informing or allowing communication or if the need for information and communication arises and there are no ICTs. For different people, engaged in different activities, the existence of ICTs and their properties emerge in different types of breakdowns: some may need to use a word processor or an e-mail program. They think of what to write/say, they do not think on the keyboard, the software running, the 18

operating system, the display, etc. unless there is a problem, only then the ICT becomes real. In sum, Heidegger claims that it is pointless to discuss the existence of objects and their properties in the absence of concerns or activities related to breakdowns. Therefore, breakdowns are possibilities to reinvent ourselves in the discourses we engage regarding ICTs. Day’s (2010) analysis of Heidegger’s critique of informational modernity reminds us that individuals are historically, socially, and culturally constructed, in addition to their more fundamental ontological manners of being as human beings. For Heidegger, information and communication theory hide the facticity of language; that we first of all respond to language rather than to any particular speaker. The danger, for Heidegger (1977), is that the social, cultural, historical, and material co-affordances for emergence may be forgotten and thus, the historicity of man’s being is forgotten in representations that transmitted globally through standardized social and cultural forms constitute representations. Heidegger (1977) challenges the social sciences’“thesis of the precedence of method,” reasserting the need for foundational critical thought prior to the fallacious appropriation of epistemologies (e.g., the model of causation) and methods (e.g., the privilege of statistics) borrowed from the physical sciences when analyzing the relation between humans and ICTs. Basically, it is in the doing where we can see how ICTs are relevant in learning. It is in the way they are adopted, adapted and designed, in the way they are included in the curriculum, in the pedagogies, and assessments that we will see how ICTs are incorporated in higher education. These were the views we shared when we decided to open a conversation regarding these themes with other academics in the form of a book; to join other researchers and educators moving the discourse of ICTs in education (Gallagher 1992, McDougall 2010, Wallin 2010). Even when Shirky (2011) indicates that “access to information is far less important, politically, than access to conversation” (p 35), we can make a similar case that educationally speaking, the greatest advantage of ICTs is access to conversations with other people going through the same process. 19

American Blogger Andrew Barras posted in Michael Kuhn’s (2010) Blog “Shift to the Future” about Michael’s first day of college in 2020. In his description, ICTs play a predominant role; they are essential to the learning process in ways that are beyond today’s capabilities (virtual reality glasses streaming information, personal AI assistants, JIT –just in time– learning courses, social-index ratings, on-the-fly translating devices, personal learning networks), merged with today’s tools (synchronous online webinars). In that close future, degrees are no longer offered since are considered “too blunt of an instrument for employers to find new talent.” Schooling is described as personalized, lifelong and interesting. But perhaps what Barras offers is a vision of what is possible to achieve if we use ICTs to transform higher education and break from the historical reasons to keep on doing things “as usual.” Similarly Miklitsch (2001) questions the role of “education-as-a-social-reproduction” (p.270). We have being successful in using higher education to satisfy the needs of the industrial revolution; can we do the same to satisfy the needs of the information revolution? He also encourages us to look for ways to “empower students to interrogate not only their teacher’s but their own beliefs? In other words, what can we do –as teachers- to encourage them to think, and to think long and hard, about those things they hold dearest to their hearts (p.274)?” We, the editors of this volume, think that the only way to transform what we do and innovate is to exchange our experiences and allowing others to test them and try them in their schools. It is within this spirit that we offer this collection.

Introduction to this volume This book is intended for everyone who has an interest in the use of technology in higher education: academics, researchers, students, teachers, university administrators, policy makers, and others. We want to engage in a conversation that will advance some of the changes we 20

think are necessary to adjust to the changing needs of students arriving at institutions of higher education. If these chapters facilitate this conversation by engaging in a thought provoking discussion, we think that we have achieved our goal. Feldstein (2001), at the dawn of the millennium observed that “the saturation of electronic technologies in our image-driven society has enabled people to see cultural structures change in their lifetimes, and this has had a detrimental effect for right-wing propagandists intent upon conserving past traditions for future generations” (p.317). We think that changes are imminent and we have to encourage them. Now more than ever his claim makes sense: “as we enter the twenty-first century, it becomes especially important to encourage our students to rent, not buy our explanations of interpreted information” (Feldstein 2001, p.326). We have to adapt to an era where information and knowledge are disseminated rapidly and constantly change. Some of the strategies that are currently used are presented in this volume. Ramirez’ the Consequences of Information and Communication Technologies in Higher Education: The Age of the Network Society is a position chapter that looks at the opportunities that arise when we understand the role that these technologies play when adopted in higher education. He recognizes that there is a symbiosis between technology and society as envisioned by Giddens (1980). To better explain this synergy he uses Orlikowski and Robey’s (1991) framework relating technology and organizations. In his analysis, it is clear that there is no neutrality in adopting ICTs in universities. Recognizing that a new generation of students is entering these organizations: the Net generation. According to Tapscott (1997, 2009) this generation is changing the world. Ramirez position is to encourage educators to rethink their role and see in technology an ally to transform the educational experience. But, he also warns us that we have to understand what these technologies offer and understand what can be gained by using them, not only hoping that good thing may happen. 21

Cabedo Gallen in her chapter: The Role of Quality in the Future of E-Learning, uses the subjective concept of Quality as a reminder of the importance of the individual in the process of learning, especially within E-Learning. She aims to present an exhaustive list of best practices that can be used to deliver these programs. These best practices come from work conducted by the European Commission and grouped into nine dimensions: objectives, strategic, investment, pedagogical, technological, motivation, assessment, ethical and quality. Cabedo Gallen analyzes factors associated with success stories as well as those associated with failures. It seems that these collection of best practices are a good way to assure quality of delivery of E-Learning programs, especially when adopting social software models. In Interactive Pedagogical Design: Collaborative Learning and the Use of Concept Maps in Distance Education, Silva, Cé Junior, Shutz and Bastos bring to the spotlight that Distance Learning (DL) system is characterized by physical and temporal separation between the agents represents a challenge to be won. These separations represent support factors to the strategies used in the design of didactic artefacts and technological resources to grant better pedagogical interaction. In order to achieve this, some inter and multidisciplinary teams should be formed to design the instructional goals, and teaching strategies aiming to help students with their individual studies throughout constructivist, collaborative and as a partaker process which ground the knowledge creation process. These pedagogical actions should be supported by the didactic subjects through Virtual Environment of Teaching-Learning (VETL). According to the authors, DL proposed system design combines the cultural-historic and constructivist (interactionist) approaches, and focuses mainly on the cognitive process as proposed by Bloom´s Taxonomy. As explained by the authors, Bloom´s Taxonomy has been used to classify instructional goals, and to select and organize contents, manage activities, and proceess evaluations, as well as to select learning strategies. Hence, in this chapter, the authors introduce a framework that takes in22

to consideration student’s learning objectives, teachers´ best practices, as well as tutorial and evaluation processes. Roesler and Sartori observe that constant evaluations help to improve the learning process. Teaching strategies applied with DL are planned in order to supply the dynamic and inventive pedagogical work, making the teaching-learning process easier. In Embedded Audio Feedback: A Tutor’s Perspective, HunterBarnett and Murrin-Bailey recognize that our students are knowledgeable of the tools offered by social software and Web 2.0 tools. Technology is not a problem for them anymore, as it was the case before to previous generations. Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey have been studying the benefits of using audio feedback to improve the learning experience among their students, specifically, embedded audio feedback. One of the main issues students grow disenchanted with the education system is the way in which they are assessed and how poorly they are provided with feedback, even though, most educational systems recognize the important role of timely and meaningful feedback. In their study, they described at length the process they have developed to train tutors to effectively use embedded audio as means to provide feedback-using tools available in every single computer running MS Word. Their recommendations are presented as guidelines for delivering audio feedback discussing at the same time problems that may arise. Roesler and Sartori discuss in Teaching Strategies: Pedagogical Planning for Distance Learning Using a Virtual Learning System the concern of the management team with the conception of a pedagogical design that provides collaborative learning. The authors observe that when performing their tasks of learning management, the management team can use concept maps to provide a meaningful and collaborative learning. The chapter bring to the table a theoretical discussion that allows the reflection on the connection between teaching tools, technological devices and practical actions to promote learning. Hence the authors posit that the meaningful portion of the students and teachers re23

lations Between Distance Education in modality Happen by human and technological mediation, which requires the development of a pedagogical design that ensures interaction between all involved. The team of management must search for the construction of an interactive and collaborative pedagogical design. When assigning a structural organization to content, they decide the thematic sequence the approach and the hierarchic relation among concepts. In this sense, conceptual maps constitute interesting tools, because make possible represent the concepts and their relations hierarchically. Conceptual Maps may serve as development tools for various learning promotion strategies. In Games in Business Education: An innovative approach in the teaching and learning process, Lopes, Niveiros and Fialho posit that technological innovations and culture have demanded educators and researchers to review their approach. To respond to these demands there is need for more dynamic pedagogical practices that necessarily include the student’s involvement in a more active role in the learning process. Many authors have considered Business games as a useful tool for the integration between the social cultural and learning ecosystems. In this chapter the authors’ aim to discuss the role that business game would play in the learning process through the discussion of three Brazilian business games: GI-MICRO, VIRTUAL and LIDER. Pomares Baeza and a group of other eight researchers at the department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory, at the University of Alicante have developed, used and tested a system to support the learning activities of their students. They report their experience in An Interactive Self-Assessment System for Student-Centred Learning in European Higher Education. The greater learning outcome of using this system is the self-assessment component, in which students are empowered to be in control of their learning experience in understanding the issues surrounding computer networks. The results obtained when comparing traditional vs. interactive learning methods are encouraging. Students using the interactive system improved significantly, and 24

are able to understand the material when compared with those using traditional methods. In The use of conceptual maps as valuable tool and pedagogical method in traditional and online education, Torres and Sierra discuss the benefits of using conceptual maps as a tool in the teaching and learning processes. The authors present in this chapter a case study of the deployment of conceptual maps on graduate and undergraduate in both traditional and online courses. Ausubel (1975), Cañas (2000), Díaz Barriga (2006), Ontória (1995), and Torres (2002) among others are the theoretical base for the chapter. The research method includes qualitative interviews. The research findings indicate the consolidation of the conceptual maps as a valid method that improves the pedagogical practices among instructors helping them to strengthen their pedagogical approach. Our purpose is to allow all these authors to find an audience where their message can be discussed and engage in a conversation. We hope that you find them useful and thought provoking, that their experiences can be used, adopted and adapted, and that soon another volume can be added to this ongoing discussion on the role of Information and Communication Technologies in Higher Education.

REFERENCES Ausubel, D. P. A. Aprendizagem significativa: a teoria de David Ausubel. São Paulo: Moraes, 1976. Cañas, Alberto (2000). Herramientas para Construir y Compartir Modelos Basados en Mapas Conceptuales. Revista de Informática Educativa, 13, (2) 145-148. Colombia [Available at http://lidie.uniandes.edu.co/revista). Day, Ronald (2010). Martin Heidegger’s Critique of Informational Modernity, in Leckie, Given & Buschman (eds.) Critical Theory for Library and Information Science: Exploring the Social from Across the Disciplines. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited, 173-188.

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Díaz Barriga, Frida (2006). Estrategias Docentes para un Aprendizaje Significativo. Una Interpretación Constructivista. México: McGraw-Hill Interamericana. Feldstein, Richard (2001). Multimedia Pedagogy and Sunday Morning Millennial Fever, In Giroux & Myrsiades (eds.) Beyond the Corporate University: Culture and Pedagogy in the New Millennium, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Chapter 16, 309-330. Gallagher, Shaun (1992). Hermeneutics and Education, Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Giddens, Anthony (1984). The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Giroux, Henry and Susan S. Giroux (2004). Take Back Higher Education: Race, Youth, and the Crisis of Democracy in the Post-Civil Rights Era, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Giroux, Henry and Kostas Myrsiades (2001). Beyond the Corporate University: Culture and Pedagogy in the New Millennium, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Heidegger, Martin (1962). Being and Time –translated by J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson– New York, NY: Harper and Row. Heidegger, Martin (1977). The Question concerning Technology. In D. Farrell Krell (ed.) Basic Writings: Ten Key Essays, plus the Introduction to Being and Time, New York, NY: Harper Collins, 307-341. Kuhn, Michael (2010). Michael’s First Day of College 2020, posted in Kuhn’s Blog: Shift to The Future, http://www.shift2future.com/2010/09/michaels-first-day-of-collegein-2020.html [visited 2011/01/10]. McDougall, Anne (2010). Researching IT in Education: Theory, Practice and Future Directions, Abigdon, Oxon, UK: Routledge. Miklitsch, Robert (2001). The Politics of Teaching Literature: The “Paedagogical Effect,” in Giroux & Myrsiades (eds.) Beyond the Corporate University: Culture and Pedagogy in the New Millennium, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Chapter 14, 267-285. Ontaria, A (1995). Mapas Conceptuales: Una Técnica para Aprender. Madrid: Narcea Orlikowski, Wanda and Daniel Robey (1991). Information Technology and the Structuring of Organizations, Information Systems Research, 2, (2), 143-169. Parry, Marc and Jeffrey Young (2010). New Social Software Tries to Make Studying Feel Like Facebook, The Chronicle of Higher Education, November 28, [visited Feb 9, 2011 – available at http://chronicle.com/article/New-Social-Software-Tries-to/125542/]. Preston, Michael (2011). Facebook in the Classroom, posted February 3, 2011. [Visited Feb 9, 2011 - Available at http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/enhanced/primers/facebook_ in_the_classroom.html].

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Shirky, Clay (2011). The Political Power of Social Media: Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change, Foreign Affairs, January/February, 90, (1), 28-41. Tapscott, Don (1997). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Tapscott, Don (2009). Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is changing your world, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Torres, Patrícia Lupion (2002). Laboratório on line de aprendizagem: uma proposta crítica de aprendizagem colaborativa para a educação. Florianópolis, Tese (Doutorado) – Programa de Pós Graduação em Engenharia de Produção. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Underwood, J. (2004). Research into Information and Communication Technologies: Where now? Technology, Pedagogy, and Education, 13, 135-145. Wallin, Jason (2010). A Deleuzian Approach to Curriculum: Essays on a Pedagogical Life, New York: NY: Palgrave MacMillan.

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THE CONSEQUENCES OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE AGE OF THE NETWORK SOCIETY

Alejandro Ramirez

Sprott School of Business, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT This chapter argues that instead of forecasting the demise of the university we need to understand the changing role of these institutions, their contributions and aims. New generation of students (net gens) are arriving to institutions of higher education expecting to have access to the tools they use to socialize. We use Orlikowski and Robey’s (1991) framework relating information and communication technologies (ICT) and the Structuring of Organizations to look at the impact that these tools have in universities. We argue that sociotechnology theory is essential to establish a research agenda to advance our understanding of the impact of ICT in universities, especially on those institutions willing to address the evolving needs of the new generation of students. Keywords: Social Theory, Sociotechnology, Organizational Transformation, Net Generation.

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INTRODUCTION

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astells (2004) defines the Network Society as “a society whose social structure is made of networks powered by microelectronicsbased information and communication technologies” (p.3). He goes on discussing his understanding of social structures as “the organizational arrangements of humans in relations of production, consumption, reproduction, experience, and power expressed in meaningful communication coded by culture.” In this chapter we use his analysis to observe how these networks have been used to offer two equally strong views in opposite directions, as a collapse of civilization and as the rise of a new era. The protocols of communication between different cultures are presented by Castells (2004) as the cornerstone of the network society; a society where “technology can only yield its promise in the framework of cultural, organizational, and institutional transformations” (p. 42) in which the purposes of the past have shaped the present. With the introduction of computers in our lives and the emergence of the information society, he sees this new era as “the apogee of the continuum from nomadic to agricultural to industrial societies, so that human history is then the record of the long march of progress under the guidance of reason” (p. 14). But, he also argues that the history of technology is one grand exercise in anachronism in which technology itself, not only enters history, but redefines what history is to a point in which history becomes the accumulation of great discoveries and inventions. The concept of the network society, in Williams (2004) and Castells (2004), shifts the emphasis to organizational transformation and to the emergence of “a globally independent social structure, with its processes of domination and counter-domination” (p. 43). Beyond his Marxist position, Castells also allows for the possibility to explore how these networks of people and machines have changed many of the processes we designed during the last two centuries. We are particularly interested in contributing to theory building by re applying Orlikowski and Robey’s 30

(1991) framework of Information Technology and the Structuring of Organizations. This chapter looks at ICT and Web 2.0 technologies and their role in the Structuring of universities. We also propose a new understanding of the role of these technologies in framing the role they need to play when we re think education and transform universities. Sociotechnology theory is at the front of these arguments, since there are neither technology problems that are not social nor technical opportunities available outside society. The chapter presents a brief recount of the argument depicting the role of ICT in universities as a dichotomy between the impending demise of these institutions (Tapscott 2009b) and the utopian Wikiversity (http://en.wikiversity.org) as a new model of a free universal university (Leinone, Vadén and Suoranta 2007). It also presents Orlikowski and Robey’s (1991) framework of IT and the Structuring of Organizations as a way to understand the impact that ICT have in universities. The chapter then argues that if we want to transform these institutions –universities—we need to rethink what we understand for education. Strangelove (2005) denounces that academic literature tends to present the benefits of ICT while overlooking or denying the problems. This, he says, “seriously undermines one’s ability to arrive at a balanced model of Internet behaviour” (p. 7). By bringing his argument into this chapter we want to overcome that problem at the same time that, in so doing, we want to open the discussion to establish a clear sociotechnical research agenda around the impact of ICT in universities if we are to better serve the net generation.

ICT IN HIGHER EDUCATION What are the consequences of integrating Information and Communication Technologies in the curricula in higher education? What are the implications of adjusting these institutions to the demands of the infor31

mation society? In an era of globalization in which technology is at the centre of major changes in which we analyze society, we cannot ignore the impact these technologies have in institutions of higher education. This chapter argues that recognizing that we are experiencing a social revolution, that the organization of economic relations has changed, that political practices are changing, and that ICT are playing a central role in these changes. Some of these issues are discussed in the literature looking at the impact of pedagogy with the emergence of Neoliberalism. Here we are only concerned with the role of ICT in this context. Readers interested in the political and pedagogical implications of these aspects, can expand by looking at the work of Apple 2000, Burbules 2000, Burbules & Torres 2000, Kellner 2000, Giroux & Myrsiades 2001, Rodriguez 2001, Giroux & Giroux 2004, Giroux 2006, and Abbot & MacTaggart 2010. Universities role in society is fourfold: to produce knowledge, to disseminate knowledge, to form and cultivate the cognitive character of students, and to engage with the community. Universities, as all institutions, are socially created and emerged out of some social concerns, differently in different societies (Giddens 1984). The western university system has had a great influence in the rest of the world; to a point that today’s world universities have a common function. What is less acknowledged is the recognition of how this function has changed over the centuries. Universities continue to be the world’s most fruitful institutions fostering humanism, scholarship, social responsibility and scientific development. In every continent they have served as vehicles to help people realize their highest aspirations. Looking through their history, we can see that these institutions have been forced to struggle with difficulties created by suspicious bureaucracies, political manipulators, ecclesiastical or ideological dogmatists, and myopic utilitarians. Somehow these institutions have managed to survive and remain dedicated to further the quest for truth and release the full potential of human creativity (Rudy 1984). Fish (2008) argues that there is but one proper role for the academe in society: to advance bodies of knowledge and to equip students for do32

ing the same, not to promote good moral character or to bring an end to racism, sexism, economic oppression, and other social ills or to foster diversity and democracy and produce responsible citizens. He insists that a professor’s only obligation is “to present the material in the syllabus and introduce students to state-of-the-art methods of analysis. Not to practice politics, but to study it; not to proselytize for or against religious doctrines, but to describe them; not to affirm or condemn Intelligent Design, but to explain what it is and analyze its appeal” Shapiro (1999) observes that like news organizations and public officials, educational institutions face the prospect of being des-intermediated —cast aside as inefficient and anachronistic – and claims that “we must recognize that schools and teachers are truly unique and necessary intermediaries: they are community anchors – we must strengthen public education recognizing that it is society’s best opportunity to give children a sense of openness to difference, as well as a sense of common destiny and mutual obligation” (p. 203). For Ashby (1967) a university is “a mechanism for the inheritance of Western civilization. It preserves, transmits, and enriches learning, and it undergoes evolution as animals and plants do.” Universities are the primary vehicle in all parts of the world for the preservation and transmission of higher learning, the advancement of scholarship, the training of specialists in the fields of endeavour vital to society, and the improvement of national life. And Rybak (2007) indicates that “Universities and Colleges have a monopoly on the credentials that prove what you know. They are licensed by the government as participants in a closed syndicate that controls the various forms of accreditation used to establish what people know and can do.” He goes on and calls it a “conspiracy of accreditation” (p. 44). Having an institution that can provide certification to the abilities of people joining the work force is not a small task. These institutions must recognize the changes in the workforce and adapt their curricula to meet these changes, but at the same time, they need to have the ability to allow their students to create new solu33

tions to old problems, identify new opportunities and push the boundaries of knowledge. Lately there has been an increase in the number of critics that are forecasting the demise of the university. Tapscott (2009b) argues that the universities face many challenges, not only one about the current (in his view –outdated) model of pedagogy. The challenges he mentions are: 1) the purpose of the university, 2) teaching, 3) their revenue model, 4) credentialing, 5) campus, and 6) the relationship of universities to other institutions. Briefly, what he means is that the purpose of the university should change form a place to teach to a place to learn. For that to happen, students should be left alone so they can discover things by themselves. Teaching has to change from the mass education model of the industrial revolution where students are taught the same thing, at the same time, the same way and assess using multiple choice examinations corrected using a computer program. Obviously, for those changes to happen, the revenue model of the university has to change as well. Currently universities receive funding based part on the number of students they can sit in a classroom, and another part coming from those students’ fees; which may explain the mass education model, but cannot longer work when students can get all the lecture material for free somewhere else. Still society relies heavily on universities to sort out the intellectual capital for future employers. But if students demonstrate that they are able to provide solutions that will benefit employers, they most likely will be sought after by any employer, regardless of credentials. Unless universities change what they do to stimulate learning while in campus, students won’t necessarily will go there, especially now that they can interact, participate, contribute and submit their work using information and communication technologies (ICT) from anywhere in the world. Finally, regarding the relationship with other institutions, universities should embrace the collaborative nature of ICT and used them to connect, cooperate, collaborate and communicate with other institutions. 34

Tapscott (2009b) remind us that “old paradigms die hard” and that new paradigms “cause dislocation, disruption, confusion and uncertainty” and that the leaders of the old paradigms are “often the last to embrace the new.” What options do we have? For one, we can see how ICT can be as well a solution to embrace the changes that will allow universities to continue to thrive in this new age of the network society. Many of these changes have been challenged with arguments that universities need to move beyond being suppliers to corporations (Giroux and Giroux 2004). Giroux (2006) reminds us that “addressing education as a democratic endeavour begins with the recognition that higher education is more than investment opportunity; citizenship is about more than consuming; learning is about more than preparing for a job; and democracy is about more than making choices at the local mall” (p 245). Universities must necessarily intersect and effectively engage with the economic and social challenges of local, national, regional, continental and global contexts; but not exclusively. They must as well work on issues regarding equity, social justice, human rights, creating a vibrant civil society, and promoting a culture of vigorous and critical intellectual public discourse. At the heart of these commitments, universities must develop curricula that “should affirm and critically enrich the meaning, language and knowledge forms that students actually use to negotiate and inform their lives” (Giroux 2006, p.248). We add that they also must allow students to use the tools they use everyday to socialize. Abbot and MacTaggart (2010) have a similar view, especially when they recognize that using ICT generates “a dynamic process to which students are progressively wean from their dependence on teachers and institutions, and given the confidence to manage their own learning, collaborating with colleagues as appropriate, and using a range of resources and learning situations” (p214). Giroux (2006) points that “academics can in part exercise their role as public intellectuals via such curricula by giving students the opportunity to understand how power is organized through the enormous number of 35

“popular” cultural spheres that range from libraries, movie theatres, and schools to high tech media conglomerates that circulate signs and meanings through newspapers, magazines, advertisements, new information technologies, machines, films, and television programs” (p249). This role is enhanced using ICT that students consider theirs; even though these are the same technologies that are “disrupting hierarchies and encouraging the growth of non-institutional, ever shifting networks of learners” (Abbot and MacTaggart 2010, p214).

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRUCTURING OF ORGANIZATIONS Orlikowski and Robey (1991) argue that social phenomena comprising both subjective and objective elements can be used to understand the relationship between information technology and organizations. They propose a framework, based on Giddens’ (1984) structuration theory in which the development and deployment of information technology in organizations is a social phenomenon with both material and social dimensions. In so doing, they aim to overcome the failure to explore ontological assumptions in conceptions of information technology by IS researchers whose research is vulnerable to the simplifying assumptions of subjectivism and objectivism. Giddens’ (1984) theory assumes social systems as exhibiting structural properties that are produced and reproduced through the interaction of human actors, rather than as having structures. With this duality, structures do not merely emerge out of subjective human action; they are also objective because they provide the conditions for human action to occur. He proposes that all human interaction is composed of structures of power, meaning, and morality. The way human actions and institutions are related is through three modalities of structuration, i.e., interpretative schemes, resources and norms. Interpretative schemes 36

emerge by meaning given by human actions and institutions’ structure of signification. Resources arise out of power exercised by human actions and institutions’ structure of domination. Norms are rules governing human actions and institutions’ structure of legitimation. Orlikowski and Robey (1991) use structuration theory to understand the relationship between organizations and information technology. They propose an underlying duality of information technology expressed in its constituted nature –information technology as a social product of human action within specific structural and cultural contexts—an its constitutive role –information technology is simultaneously an objective set of rules and resources involved in mediating human action, hence, contributing in the creation, recreation and transformation of these contexts. Reaching a conclusion that information technology is both an antecedent and a consequence of organizational action. In their model for information technology, Orlikowski and Robey (1991) recognize four key influences that continuously and simultaneously regulate the interaction between organizations and technology: information technology is an outcome of human action, developed and used by humans; it is also the means of other human action that facilitates the accomplishment of computer-based work or communication; it is built and used within particular social contexts; and interaction with it influences the social contexts within which it is built and used. By giving this predominant role to information technology in the process of structuration, they also offer an explanation of how each one of Giddens’ modalities of the duality of structuration are understood: IT and Interpretative Schemes – “IT is a medium for the construction of social reality” (p. 154) indicating that when the technology is used to support specific organizational functions, i.e., accounting, the realm of accountancy is brought up within the technology and people discuss issues of ‘assets,’ ‘liabilities,’ ‘equity,’ ‘costs’ and ‘capital’ not about keyboards, mice clicks, screen colors, etc. in such a way that these practices are reinforced or changed over time. 37

IT and Resources – “IT, by formalizing information processing in organizations, is the resource that enables human actors to accomplish their information processing activities” (p. 155) indicating that IT in itself is a system of domination that enforces organizational rules. It may generate power struggles by imposing a particular view (the one of its designer), therefore forcing users to change the way they work. IT reinforces systems of domination by allowing (or not) access to organizational information. IT and Norms – “IT enables the formalization of sanctions and the creation of an institutionalized moral order” (p. 155) through routines that monitor work, check accounting controls, indicating accepted actions, interests and practices in that organization. Once the technology is introduced in an organization, people generally must comply by using the technology to perform their actions. Noting that an information technology is not always used the way it was envisioned by its developers or intended by its implementers as well as social practices around the life cycle of these technologies result in both intended and unintended consequences, and depend on anticipated and unanticipated conditions, Orlikowski and Robey’s (1991) structuration framework for information technology’s major contribution is to bring attention to the duality of technology to information systems researchers. Orlikowski (1992) extends this concept by arguing that not only technology is both shaped by and shapes human action, but also that the interaction between people and technology is ongoing and dynamic. She argues that technology is physically and socially constructed by human action, while also becoming reified and institutionalized within processes of structuration. Howcroft, Mitev and Wilson (2004) argue that there cannot be a technological problem that does not have social components, so both issues must be taken simultaneously, with a sociotechnical approach. They indicate that in order to understand the duality of technology one must identify its relevant social groups. These groups are delineated 38

according to similarities among their interpretations of technology in such a way that all members of that group share the same meaning attached to a specific artifact. Pinch and Bijker (1984) discuss the issue of interpretative flexibility as a way to show that different interpretations of the natural world are available indicating that “nature does not force the issue of the existence or non-existence of some purported phenomenon, one way or the other” (p. 420). These views of structuration (Giddens 1984, Jones, Orlikowski and Munir 2004, Orlikowski and Robey 1991, Orlikowski 1992) and sociotechnology (Howcroft et al. 2004, Pinch and Bijker 1984) can be used to analyze how ICT are affecting the structure of universities. Basically, looking at how ICT are a medium for the construction of social reality in universities. How ICT as resources brought into universities are shifting the power structures of those using them; and what are the sanctions and the moral order governing ICT in universities.

RETHINKING EDUCATION – TRANSFORMING INSTITUTIONS If we want to transform universities, we must first rethink what we understand by education. We are educated in society –at least in the developed countries— and whether it is expressed or not, there is an expectation that eventually we will arrive at a university; Even though the majority do not (National Post 2008). Somewhere along the way the dream is shattered. Critics of Education through the years have made their views known and criticized the educational system of their times: Castiglione (1959) and DeMontaigne (1958) in the Renaissance, Rousseau (1979) in the Enlightenment, Bloom (1987) and Frye (1990) in the Twentieth-Century. Those views, as Bloom (1987) mentions: “might seem ridiculous because [they] propose a system of education which is manifestly impossible 39

for most men and virtually impossible for any man” (p28). But that in a way will be missing the point of reading those books. The by product of reading them is that once read, one “cannot help but change one’s own general perspective.” How to rethink education? How to make it relevant to the ‘net generation’? Frye (1990) in addressing this issue of relevance says: “it is not the relation of education to the world that matters; it is the relation of the world to education that matters.” In a way, it is the responsibility of the net generation to establish the relevance of what they study. What universities need to address is not the issue of relevance, but to make available the tools these students are using in their learning experience. The conversations in the classroom must shift from facts presentation to establishing conversations that will empower students to identify possibilities and to understand the current problems for which society is looking for solutions (Bement 2007, Bennett et al. 2008, Dede 1987, Little and Page 2009, McNamara 2009, OECD 2008, Pence 2009, Ramirez et al. 2010, Rivoltella 2008, Rosen and Nelson 2008, Sheehy and Bucknall 2008, St. George 2007, Williams 2007). Using Orlikowski and Robey’s (1991) interpretation of how ICT fit Giddens’ (1984) modalities of structuration. When looking at interpretative schemes, we can see ICT as new media for constructing new realities inside and outside the classroom. Students can use them to work in virtual teams, or to keep up with team work. ICT facilitate communication and collaboration which are at the centre of constructivism. Looking at ICT as resources universities are expected to offer. No one questions that students arrive with skills using these technologies. It is now taken for granted the skills needed to use effectively and efficiently a personal computer, we expected to know how to use internet browsers in the same way that they are expected to function in the language of instruction, that they know how to read and write. Universities provide labs, ubiquitous internet access, e-mail accounts, access to learning management systems (Blackboard, Web CT). Similarly, they are ex40

pected to conform to some norms governing the use of ICT, some kind of netiquette, no spam, proper language used while communicating with peers and mentors, electronic submissions instead of paper-based assignments, specific formats or versions (MS-word, MS-Excel 2007, pdfs). Universities provide labs but not the software, students who own their own computers must comply. To bring these tools to this generation, universities must modernize technologically speaking as never before in the history of academic institutions. Whether we agree or not with it, the Internet has become a pervasive presence in everything we do. What we do with those tools will be highly dependent on the way in which teachers choose to teach, and, above all, on their epistemological preferences. Ramirez et al. (2009) have used a constructivist approach to introduce Web 2.0 tools in one of their courses redesigned to welcome the net generation. Adoption of these ICT tools is an outcome of instructors that have adapted them into their curricula. For many of them, it is the prefer medium for clarification, guidance, resolving conflict, keeping students informed. They have embedded them in the social context of education. Assignments are still due, but instead of students handing them in personally and physically, they now upload them into a learning management system, e-mail them to their TAs or instructors. Those who have developed skills using ICT will definitely benefit and those without them will struggle to compete. Lee (2009) discusses how advances in ICT will impact teaching by becoming a complement of instead of eliminating traditional classroom instruction. New discourses have to design in which teachers, as a supplier of services to students, becomes as well an agent that motivates, encourages, evaluates and help students to develop new skills. The material is available, but the discourse of what to do with it, how to critically evaluate it, how to analyse, synthesize and apply that material into specific situations or circumstances. What ICT bring to education is an increase in productivity, especially of the time spent outside the classroom. 41

Universities as well have in place some type of norms to deal with legislation imposed on them by governments that have legislated who to proceed when adopting these tools in the curricula. Whether it is FIPPA (the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act) in Ontario, the USA PATRIOT (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism) Act in the USA, or similar legislation in other provinces, and jurisdictions, student now know that some of the information that is exchange using this tools while they are enrolled in a university, they can use it and they can verify that it is not abused. Going back to Fish (2008) claim that the role of a professor is to “1) introduce students to bodies of knowledge and traditions of inquiry that had not previously been part of their experience; and 2) equip these same students with the analytical skills –of argument, statistical modelling, laboratory procedures– that will enable them to move confidently within those traditions and to engage in independent research after a course is over” (p12). He is basically saying that the role of a professor is to empower their students. If we want to rethink education in a way that will empower students to succeed in the new world of business, Fish (2008) also hints that: “what can be designed are courses that introduce students to a demarcated field, reading lists that reflect the current state of disciplinary knowledge, exams or experiments that test the ability of students to extend what they have studied to novel fact situations, and in-class exercises that provoke students to construct and solve problems on their own” (p13). Ramirez et al. (2010) have done exactly that, and we need to hear from other instructors that are using ICT to change their pedagogy. Other researchers are as well analysing ICT in higher education (Bates 2004, Bement 2007, Bennett et al. 2008, Lin and Ha 2009, Rivotella 2008, Rosen and Nelson 2008, Sanz and Bergan 2006, Sheehy and Bucknall 2008, Tyner 1998).

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CONCLUSION The Net Generation started to arrive to our university about ten years ago. At that time, the buzz was all about digital economy, electronic commerce and the web. Enrolment in information systems and computer science programs was growing beyond very optimistic expectations. Students were attracted to those programs in large numbers as a result of the Dot-Com Boom. Many left immediately after the Dot-Com Bust. Those arriving today are more cautious and want to know more about the field before committing to it. But as Anderson (2004), Friedman (2007), O’Reilly (2005), and Surowiecki (2004) have argued, the bust was only the beginning of changes that radically changed the Internet. Obviously, not everyone is happy with these changes. Keen (2007) claims the Internet is “killing our culture.” Siegel (2008) argues that we haven’t stopped to think how the Internet is reshaping our minds and culture, have turned privacy into performance, transformed play into commerce, and confused “self-expression” with Art. Carr (2008) says that “Google is making us stupid.” Strangelove (2005) says that the Internet has the potential to undermine the current economic order and has become “the primary location for the elaboration and expression of mass discontent.” Castells (2004) considers that the network society has the potential to unleash the power of the mind, increase productivity, foster greater leisure, achieve greater spiritual depth, and more environmental consciousness. Can we really have it all? While Williams (2004) praises Castells’ views, Strangelove (2005) argues that Castells by basing his analysis on Marx and offering a liberal promise similar to the one the Enlightenment, he is changing the metaphor of the machine that arose out of the Industrial Revolution for a new metaphor, that of the network. We need to investigate how this metaphor can help universities to continue with their mission of promoting humanism and the search for truth. 43

Universities have a great opportunity to reinvent themselves by teaching the net generation. This opportunity will renew the old dream of universal knowledge accessible and available, just one “click away.” Universities should not compromise the quality of their processes as unanticipated consequence of adopting ICT. It is very important to recognize how these technologies will change the interpretative schemes, resources and norms, as Orlikowski and Robey (1991) described. At the end, these ICT will be shaped by what we do, as much as what we do is shaped by them. Our aim is to shape ICT to help universities realize their mission and to deaden the struggle between society and technology. This is why sociotechnology theories are needed to guide us to rethink education, therefore to transform our universities. We have looked at the arguments brought out by Castells (2004) regarding a new era: The Network Society and how “In a very short space of time we have come to live in a web-dependent society within a web-dependent world” (Hall 2009). We also looked at the role of universities in society, and how information technologies affect the structuring of organizations mainly from the perspective of Orlikowski and Robey (1991), Orlikowski (1992) and Giddens (1984). We argued that in order to transform our universities we need to rethink our understanding of education. ICT play a very complex role because they are simultaneously communication media and product, object of analysis and infrastructure for analysis, intimate and formal, allowing the study of a variety of processes: how culture develops, how networks evolve, how language fails, how power is related to infrastructure (Star 1995). We can look at universities as communities of practice that have the opportunity to strengthen their position by adopting and adapting ICT. Sociotechnology researchers must address these issues and provide some answers to guide universities in these turbulent times. As Hall (2009) said: “There is a growing realization that a clear research agenda aimed at understanding the current, evolving, and potential Web is needed.” This is particularly true when we want to understand the role of ICT in education and the impact they have on universities. 44

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Tyner, Kathleen (1998). Literacy in a digital world: teaching and learning in the age of information, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers USA PATRIOT Act (2011). Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act. Full text available at http:// www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=h107-3162&version=enr [visited 2011/01/ 10] Williams, Peter J. (2007). Valid Knowledge: The Economy and the Academy, Higher Education – The International Journal of Higher Education and Educational Planning, 54, (4), 511-523 Williams, Rosalind (2004). Afterword: an historian’s view on the network society, in Castells, M. (ed). The Network Society: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 432-448

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ROLE OF QUALITY IN THE FUTURE OF E-LEARNING Rosa Cabedo Gallén

Dpto. Linguística Aplicada a la Ciencia y la Tecnología Universidad Politécnica de Madrid [email protected]

ABSTRACT The final purpose of this study is to obtain a list of e-Learning best practices (eLBP) from an e-Learning quality strategic project that considers e-Learning quality from a pedagogical perspective. ELBP are positioned as a valid tool for the development of new pedagogical models that meet the training needs of the digital society. The emergence of the Internet has represented a new way of communicating and not many years later the Software Social explosion has generated a new group of terms and “2.0” concepts. Higher Education (HE) institutions that decide to adopt a strategy e-Learning based on the Web 2.0 model can make use of eLBP. E-Learning quality assurance with the adoption of the eLBP framework will benefit the whole community, including administrators, instructors and students. The list of eLBP has been obtained thanks to an interpretation on Quality of e-Learning – “The quality of e-Learning: evaluation of training effectiveness and impact measures” conducted by the European Commission. Those best practices have been grouped into nine quality dimensions (objectives, strategic, investment, pedagogical, technological, motivation, assessment, ethical and quality). There are some success and failure e-Learning factors as well as some final challenges related to e-Learning over Web 2.0 future. The results of this work show that e-Learning Best Practices are good tools for quality assurance in e-Learning environments. The adoption of Social Software models in e-Learning training required of new quality tools and e-Learning best practices are positioning as a valid tool. Keywords: Quality e-Learning, e-Learning best practices, Social Software, Web 2.0.

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INTRODUCTION

T

he evolution to access of information and knowledge has resulted in a technological, industrial, cultural and social amalgamation that facilitates technological convergence of sectors, including education. Therefore, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can be deeply integrated in the educational processes, as well as in the economic and social processes. Innovation plays a relevant role across the impact of ICT in all sectors in which they are present. A particular technology should require a change in the way of doing things. Moreover, an innovative technology breakthrough also requires important changes but mediating a period of chaos until the new model is consolidated [De la Peña 2010]. This technological behaviour makes reference to the 40 years of the Internet, the 20 years of the WWW and the 5 years of Social Web. Web 1.0 is characterized by the confrontation between user and computer. Web 2.0 is related to a group of people that exchange experiences. They are both consumers and producers, that is to say, prosumers that provide comments and anyone is free to do so. This model places people at the center, the user is the main character and generates content. Digital reputation, that is to say, digital identity has a relevant importance with this model [De la Peña 2010]. New principles will form the basis of the new knowledge society in which ICT facilitates learning not only formal but also lifelong learning, the emergence of learning communities and therefore knowledge generation. Many borders are winding to current emerging innovation processes, such as differences between formal and informal learning, or, the rigid structures of educational systems. Society is overwhelmed by a boom generated by social networking, new educational trends, sustainable technologies, open source software movement, among others. Social Web technologies have become an everyday reality for users called digital natives and are more and more present at public and private institutions. This new generation has the challenge of revolu52

tionizing at a particular moment the society because the day to day is surrounded by new technologies. Skills demanded by companies are changing. Today’s professionals are familiar with the new Social Web model, more collaborative, participative and interactive; that is to say, professionals with different skills are claimed. A new educational approach and a different learning style are needed for meeting demands of today’s society, every day moving more and more away from an industrial society. At present, society requires highly skilled professionals with different competencies than those required in the 20th century. Universities, as origin of those professionals, are forced to take note of those institutions needs and manage their internal processes to contribute with the professionals that society is demanding. A brief historical overview of different educational models is needed to be aware of the importance of technology and how it serves as a guide in our own cultural, social and economic development. Focusing on e-Learning, it seems an educational approach that integrates the use of technology and didactical elements, which promotes the use of ICT and prepares users for their insertion into the knowledge society. The adoption of an e-Learning approach in Higher Education (HE) institutions goes through meeting the needs and demands of today’s society, but always from a quality perspective. The chapter is structured as follow. Section II provides a short evolution through different technological concepts such as the Internet, the Web 2.0 or e-Learning 2.0. Section III shows a new scenario with approaches for the near future where people, network and technology are the main characters. This triangle has its pedagogical references with new pedagogical approaches that incorporate the technology (Section IV). The Qual e-Learning project [2004] provides a list of eLBP according to nine dimensions (objectives, strategic, investment, pedagogical, technological, motivation, assessment, ethical and quality), which are illustrated in Section V. Some success and failure factors of e-Learning, according to QUAL e-Learning project are described in Sections VI and 53

VII, as well as some final challenges (Section VIII) are fully transferable to e-Learning and Web 2.0 models. Finally, Section IX includes the chapter’s conclusions. In summary, the different sections covered in this chapter have the purpose of positioning a list of eLBP as a valid tool for assurance quality in e-Learning environments.

EVOLUTION THROUGH CONCEPTS There have been several revolutions that have deeply marked the future of society. The advent of writing arose first in several civilizations and the invention of printing triggered what it has been called the beginning of the modern world. More recently, in the 20th century, computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web have emerged. Within the short historical path covered by ICT we can talk about a transformation in the way of managing information in the network. The development of more powerful and transportable computers as well as the Internet, facilitate users’ access to knowledge with high interpersonal interactions. The changing nature of learning considers the need of innovation with new training approaches to meet the needs of knowledge society. Learning is the engine that the 21st century society needs to achieve the economical progress and social welfare, and all with the help of sustainable technologies. Education and technology come together and the network is the platform of what we call the learning society [CISCO 2010]. Today’s society calls for lifelong learning and the learning society believes that learning is for everyone and nobody should be excluded. Unfortunately, reality is far from this principle and society has to ensure that the existing digital divide does not become a real insurmountable barrier. The Web appeared as a wealth of information resource at its users’ service. Overtime the Web has evolved and it has become interactive, has adapted to users’ needs and finally users have the opportunity of contributing with content. This is the birth of the Web 2.0 model [O’Reilly 2005]. 54

The first principle of Web 2.0 or Social Web is “The Web as Platform”, where users have control of their own data, generate content, share information and promote collaboration among them in a service-oriented architecture. Blogging, conversing, media sharing, online gaming and virtual worlds, social bookmarking, social networking, syndication, trading, wikis or immersive technologies are some of the types of Web 20 activities [JISC 2009]. Behind the Web 2.0 philosophy emerges a new business model and communities of learning and research, in which systems have no owner and there is cooperation in form of protocols, open standards and agreements. Some authors as Stephen Downes opt for a structure based on community. Downes says that “instead of envisioning a system that focuses on producers (such as universities and publishers) who produce resources that consumers (students and other learners) consume, we think of a system where communities produce and consume their own resources” [Downes 2007]. The importance of social interaction results in social learning, “based on the premise that our understanding of content is socially constructed through conversations about that content and through grounded interactions, especially with others, around problems or actions. The focus is not so much on what we are learning but on how we are learning” [Seely and Adler 2008, 18]. The web as platform requires users’ participation according to concepts such as collective intelligence and collaborative intelligence. Collective intelligence has its origin related to very simple applications that are positioned to the extent that people increase their use and add new content and represents one of the most important expressions of virtual sociability [Islas and Arribas 2010]. Companies whose business model is related to digital products and/or services are able to capture this collective intelligence thanks to their users’ comments, habits and/or preferences. It can say that collective intelligence meets the statement of the whole is more than the sum of the parts [Quemada 2010]. William Gibson said “the future is already here, it’s just not evenly distributed” [Fenn 2010, 5]. Nowadays the Web 2.0 model is supporting 55

students’ learning in higher education, but this model is not yet mainstream. Web 3.0, “the portable personal web”, is starting now with rich service-based applications, future web browsers or the web as a service platform. Knowledge is already connected with the first applications and it will be able to interact more easily with people and websites. Thanks to current experiences, it can be said that a Semantic Web is already applied to search engines and it is able to develop a users’ social graph [Uman and Venesio 2010]. Independently of the terms more relevant through time, it is clear it is the parallel development of all of them in coming years. No one can guess what will be the core of a Web X.0 in future terms, but there are some future trends such as Semantic Web, Semantic-based Social Web (Web 4.0) or the sensory-emotive Web (Web 5.0).

NEW SCENARIO AND NEW APPROACHES IN THE 21ST CENTURY There is a new economic environment, which according to [Zufiria 2010] in an IBM CEO Study, is more volatile, with greater uncertainly, more complex and in which technological factors influence in a growing way. New models are needed in a near future and it is necessary a contextualization of current trends [De la Peña 2010]. An approach to a new model for understanding the future can have three main characters: people, network and technology. There are new rules for connecting people through network technology, developing new formats for interconnecting people in the network, and using technology in a different way. There is a close relationship between people’s behaviour and media consumption thanks to new technological models. The characteristics of a component profile (individual and/or any type of institution) of Social Web according to the decalogue presented by De la Peña [2010] are: hearing much, talking which suggests a proactive attitude, gaining flex56

ibility for adapting users’ profiles, making use of multiple media, communicating in an active and interactive way, anticipating in media as online press, being transparent because it is impossible to keep forever false identities and/or behaviours, establishing long-term relationships, and generating an atmosphere of trust and dialogue. The use of technology has to be optimized, but behind any model there are people. Needs and expectations of society are changing everyday and the educational environment is not stranger to this current scenario. HE institutions need institutional strategies for training future professionals and establishing agreements with industry with the goal of promoting economic development. HEFCE has developed a framework for assisting institutions in enhancing learning and teaching through the use of technology and where one of the examples of development goals is the institutional strategy. “Institutional strategies (for example for learning, teaching and assessment, widening participation, learning spaces, information management and human resources) include consideration of potential enhancements through technology” [HEFCE 2009, 14]. In the specific context of learning, social software can be defined in words of JISC [2009, 15] as “networked tools that support and encourage individuals to learn together whilst retaining control over their time, space, presence, activity, identity and relationship”. Social Software model adoption is a reality for most HE institutions, but it is urgently required to fill gaps in their context because they are not able to know how appropriate or not are their innovative educational processes. Current students are adapting to different approaches for gaining their qualifications but not for a long term. Some adjustments in higher education will be necessary for the next generation of students, which will request stimulating, challenging and relevant learning experiences. Due to the rise of learning demand, the network has become a link between instructors and learners that facilitates the access to knowledge and shared resources. Definitely, education’s future lies in networks and learning needs to be redefined. A digital society demands new pat57

terns that require new knowledge and skills, as well as providing the need to provide a solid learning infrastructure that meets the needs of citizens who require lifelong learning. At present an online learning environment is important for HE and the future is placed as essential for this new social in which needs and expectations are also new. Social technologies can provide a rich learning experience that could exceed the static experience of a Learning Management System (LMS). Users with high degree of technical knowledge in online environments will feel comfortable with Personal Learning Environment (PLE), and will take part of a learning experience that includes multiple 2.0 tools with access to all sorts of resources, including formal and informal educational materials. PLEs can be considered as a future strong commitment for technology enhanced learning, but there are some doubts in how students deal with PLEs, how teachers can implement them within their didactical approaches. It also raises an important challenge for research and implementation to ensure the appropriate support for students, including the potential learning resources recommendations as content, tools and/or people [Taraghil et al. 2009]. PEDAGOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY There have been important developments with regard to learning in the second half of the 20th century. According to CERI [2008, 4], “learning is developed through explicit learning strategies, learning to learn skills, technological capacities for individual and social learning activities, and through learning communities with collaborative learning models”. Some research results have uncovered the following [CISCO 2010, 12]: » Learning is an active social process. According to [Seely et al. 1998] students learning is made through interaction with others, experimentation and risks taking. An example is the 58

Terra Incognita project of the University of Southern Queensland (Australia), which has built a classroom in Second Life [Seely and Adler 2008]. » Motivation is essential for effective learning. Effective learning can be influenced positively or negatively depending on students’ emotional state. According to CERI [2008, 9], “the motivation to learn, the belief about one’s own abilities and the existence of learning strategies are a precondition for successful and lifelong learning”. In accordance with Johnson [2005], students’ cognitive structures are different because they use different channels with different behaviour. Students test (probing) and learn from experience (telescoping) and their skills are not very common in current teaching-learning processes. Training discourse is not aligned with content managed by students, content with some ambiguity narrative and several story lines (fill in and tolerate ambiguity). Different parallel stories (complex narratives) are not always related between them and their structure is similar to new discoveries and theories that occur in parallel too. Training follows a lineal management and this approach does not encourage students’ critical thinking. Students’ attitude is active towards information and knowledge, in contrast to passive attitude in classroom (lean-back vs. sit-forward). » Students provide different knowledge for a new learning challenge. Students provide previous knowledge based on effective learning for achieving a better comprehension of new knowledge. » Students start from different places and follow different ways to reach the same learning outcome. Students have to improve themselves and manage their own resources to optimize their learning process. For pedagogical dimension people learn in very different ways, which creates lots of needs and expectations before training. E-Learning 2.0 irruption entails a movement from a system focused on teachers and established knowledge to a networked approach where teachers should change their roles to become coaches and facilitators of the learning processes. 59

» Looking for effectiveness, knowledge has to be seen as an integrated and authentic whole. A student’s mind does not distinguish different subjects organized into different compartment, but it is identified with a comprehensive knowledge. In the 20th century, a training scenario is characterized by traditional educational systems and the incorporation of ICT has been done without a quality approach (quality models, best practices and frameworks, different standards, etc) and with important technological problems. There is a great need to introduce innovation to learning processes due to people’s demands and needs have changed, people with different formative backgrounds, ages, familiar context, etc. New educational models are needed to reduce the gap between traditional teaching methodologies and new ways of learning, that is to say, new educational models should meet society needs and expectations. ICT are necessary to facilitate this approach, today’s society and new technologies are part of everyday life. ICT integration is not only identified with the provision of computer equipment, but it is required a comprehensive strategy that affects the whole institution structure. Trucano says that ICT have a positive impact more likely when are linked to pedagogy. “It is believed that specific uses of ICT can have positive effects on student achievement when ICTs are used appropriately to complement a teacher’s existing pedagogical philosophies” [Trucano 2005, 6]. Unfortunately, “in many universities web technology is primarily used for support of logistical processes rather than for pedagogical change” [Collis and Moonen 2008 in Siemens and Tittenberger 2009, 3]. This scenario entails the adoption of new pedagogical schemas, new organizational processes and institutions administration. New learning models incorporate technology and are based on participation, collaboration and negotiation. Some new terms seem more appropriate for online teaching and learning, such as net pedagogy. Ac60

cording to Piscitelli [2010] net pedagogy approach is totally incompatible with university hierarchical structure; he recommends the disappearance of linear and hierarchical courses structure. Neuroscience supports these findings and tries to understand the way how learning occurs [CERI 2008]. Findings are promising but there is a long way to cover before considering practical experiences in this field. It is important to note how brain functions will be affected by this new environment, the network and its multiple channels [Bruer 1999].

LEARNING THEORIES Pedagogical concepts as individualized learning, student-centered education, active learning, students’ motivation, management for reducing abandon, collaborative learning, [Govendir 2007] are very common. Collaborative learning is based on the established relationship among people with an individual and group responsibility in achieving training action objectives. New collaborative tools could cover the sense of isolation of students and teaching-learning processes management addresses the gaps. For this reason, among others, interaction management becomes a vital element, either in a synchronous or asynchronous discussion threads. Teachers assume the responsibility for mentoring students and allowing group membership relationships to build and enhance group stability and social learning [Moallem 2003]. Students should develop skills such as their critical thinking or reflexivity. Traditional pedagogical approaches such as behaviorism and cognitivism are not enough for meeting requirements of the new generation of students. Therefore, other approaches such as constructivism and connectivism are moving those requirements to training processes with the aim of meeting the labor market challenges. These have important implications for online learning and communication and collaboration activities. 61

In accordance with Ertmer and Newby [1993 in Ally 2004, 7], the behaviorism “can be used to teach the ‘what’ (facts)”, the cognitivism can be used “to teach the ‘how’ (processes and principles)”, and the construtivism strategies can be used “to teach the ‘why’ (higher level thinking that promotes personal meaning and situated and contextual learning)”. Therefore, different pedagogical approaches are not mutually exclusive, but they can all participate in the design of online materials. Constructivism implications for online learning, according to Ally [2004, 18-20], are that the “learning should be an active process”, the “learners should construct their own knowledge rather than accepting that given by the instructor” with the help of interactions with other students and the instructor, the “collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate constructivist learning” and develop learners’ metacognitive skills. The learner is the centre of the learning process and the instructor develops a role of facilitator. Therefore, “learners should be given control of the learning process, and time and opportunity to reflect” and internalize the information. Finally, Ally affirms that the “learning should be made meaningful for learners and interactive to promote higher-level learning and social presence, and to help develop personal meaning”. At present constructivism is the most referenced model, an approach where learning the more effective is, the more active becomes. This model, according to McMahon [1997] studies “how the brain stores and retrieves information to examine the ways in which learners make meaning from experience”, that is to say, constructivism approach is based on students’ previous knowledge. According to Arnold and Schüssler [1998, in Steinert and Ehlers 2010, 6], this theory opens a perspective for “acquiring knowledge, sharing knowledge or solving problems self-guided”. But learning is also a social activity, so social aspects of online learning are also taken into consideration. Social constructivism followers affirm that learning is got involved in a social process where learners is taking advantage of the support of the instructors and other learners 62

who are at a higher level of development. The Web 2.0 tools are facilitators of learners social interactions, which are going to result in “a radical change in the way in which people perceive both the world and themselves” [Simões and Gouveia 2008, 10]. Vidal [2009] is one of constructivism detractors, who considers the possibility of new pedagogical approaches beyond constructivism with the introduction of new tools that require new skills and competences, as well as a new way of facing major changes. Education system, furthermore, is increasingly isolated from the real needs of society, and therefore, from the trainees. According to that, Siemens affirms that the “education system is mismatched to the needs of today’s society” [Vidal 2009, 3]. Steven Johnson says that the cognitive structures of learners have changed from generation to generation and also the way they face the knowledge [Vidal 2009, 3]. The collaboration and cooperation concepts are related to constructivism and covered by the community, other one of a higher level of abstraction. Learners are part of the community, in which they themselves are the nodes that build the learning networks and feed with information. This new approach has been called connectivism by George Siemens [2006] and facilitates the improvement on two important skills, such as the capacity of discovering current information and of selecting the relevant one. Connectivism’s model contains principles of chaos, network, complexity and self-organization theories. Siemens & Tittenberger [2009, 11] defines connectivism as “the view that knowledge and cognition are distributed across networks of people and technology and learning is the process of connecting, growing, and navigating those networks”. Siemens [2006] considers connectivism as traditional theories complement, which provides the ability to search connections between ideas and concepts. Connecting information and knowledge is the key for their distribution through learning networks. According to connectivism perspective, knowledge goes beyond the borders of the brain, and can even 63

be found in non-human appliances such as within a database. From my particular point of view, the most important aspect is that connectivism, compared to other learning theories as constructivism, is being developed in a time where technology is commonly associated to learning. The growth rate of knowledge has increased and there is a need of a network learning model, in which context is the main character. New learning and teaching approaches will be researched in the digital age related to context. Contributions to Network Theory and Social Networking Analysis have allowed to think about an “era of connectivity” characterized by a highly connected and clustered world [Uman and Venesio 2010]. Learning and knowledge require parts to represent the whole and, therefore, connections should be reviewed to provide a continuous learning [Siemens 2006]. Learning with a decentralized approach of information and chaos flows into the mixture of technologies. A distributed learning view according to Cabero [2010] allows the components distribution of training action through many media, it is suitable for online training actions creation and its key objective provide students space and temporal flexibility. The connectivism, despite being a very recent perspective, has its detractors and other approaches are appearing, in which the connectivism is a part of the whole, not the main component. A new paradigm, the networked learning, that are fed by constructivism, connectivism, situated learning and social network analysis can be taken as an example [Steinert and Ehlers 2010, 10]. Seely Brown [2008 in Reig 2010] provides a link between connectivism and social learning where the Internet makes important small efforts of many people thanks to great efforts of few people. This statement goes through Social Software concepts such as collaboration and membership, and even there are other approaches as rhizomatic learning, a connectivism evolution. A rhizomatic knowledge community seems to be “a strong current tradition of random ideas and solid scholarship”, 64

without a precise centre, no piece is essential but they make a whole, but they need to be adjusted to the right kind of habitat [Cormier 2008]. Regardless of models, three figures are important in learning processes improvement. These figures are the student, the teacher and the computer. These figures will be basic in any future learning theories in which technology will be an essential component for learning environment. However, the final goal is to facilitate learning and good teaching in whatever format will result in learning.

QUALITY Quality, understood as customer’s needs and expectations with a services viewpoint is a right approach for e-Learning. Quality is considered by organizations that provide services as a strategic tool, so they have to make an effective management of their services. The perception in advance of a service quality is complicated because the value of a service appears when the service begins. Maximizing service quality is associated with meeting customers’ needs and expectations (internal and/ or external customers) and as a result their satisfaction level increases. According to Ehlers [2007], the quality development is a group of activities and efforts developed to improve the learning process. Subjectivity is a characteristic of e-Learning quality and is related to students’ needs [ELQ-SME Project 2006]. A learner has an important role in eLearning and its involvement in the learning process has direct consequences on the quality assurance process. E-Learning sector requires initiatives concerning quality implementation and some e-Learning projects have researched about if from different approaches. At the beginning of the 21st century the interest of the European Commission for quality e-Learning materialized in several projects. One of them is the QUAL e-Learning project, focused on analysis of eLBP. The Quality of e-Learning – “The quality of e-Learning: 65

evaluation of training effectiveness and impact measures” is a European Commission project aimed to establish relationships between e-Learning quality and didactical approaches. This project was implemented between January 2003 and October 2004, and five organizations participated from four different European countries. The QUAL e-Learning project assumed quality from a pedagogical approach and contributed to define a general framework for e-Learning quality, which helped in the assessment of didactical quality of a training action. The establishment of best practices contributes to decision making related to pedagogy and management, that is to say, how the educational community components could benefit from their implementation. Moreover, actions resulted from these best practices will contribute to new pedagogical models thanks to their flexibility with a pedagogical dimension. E-Learning quality management is focused on establishing a technical, organizational and pedagogical balance [Marshall and Mitchell 2002]. However, new e-Learning quality models should be independent of technological platforms, organizational structures and pedagogical frameworks. Current quality models do not fit with needs and expectations of HE institutions and they do not seem to be a reference tool for future map of e-Learning quality. Under the adoption of a Web 2.0, model e-Learning requires of new quality approaches that meet customers’ needs and expectations thanks to web 2.0 services. Those 2.0 services are either on the web as a platform or as organizations ad hoc platforms. Research is needed in appropriate ways of incorporating and evaluating Web 2.0 tools and students’ learning processes with those tools. Nowadays “official academic policies and procedures do not assist many aspects of assessment students Web 2.0 standards, practices and reporting” [ALTC 2009, 9]. ALTC work paper makes reference to identification, ownership, safety, recording, privacy and preservation of student work. 66

The list of nine dimensions explained below are the set of eLBP that has resulted from the study of QUAL e-Learning project: objectives, strategic, investment, pedagogical, technological, motivation, assessment, ethical and quality.

Objectives Dimension The incorporation of a Web 2.0 model to e-Learning facilitates students’ active membership in a learning community. This approach transfers to Social Web tools such as discussion forums, blogs, wikis and online collaborative activities that allow educational content creation by students. Within this new context and according to JISC [2009, 36], “Web 2.0 technology has the capacity to support new business models in HE“. Flexibility is positioned as a necessary feature for both teachers and students. Learner-centred education requires a training structure that allows the acquisition of skills and competencies, the discovery of students’ own learning and learning produced from a variety of media [Cabero 2010]. Learning communities are positioning as a pedagogical commitment adaptable to e-Learning because of its technological component. This model is generated as a non-hierarchical structure, students are placed in the center and collaborative work is encouraged. Siemens and Tittenberger [2009, 18] affirm that “enlarging learning opportunities to include online resources provides a richer, connected model of learning that often permits learners to stay connected to a community even after completing a course or program”. E-Learning aims to have the same recognition as traditional training and is often underestimated and considered as a second category by institutions. Therefore, it is required a high degree of commitment of the institution with a campaign for creating a trust and credibility environment. Nowadays recognition is obtained with the help of international 67

certifications. Therefore, e-Learning certification could be a way for obtaining recognition. The list of eLBP is the following: » Understanding training as progress. » Increasing training efficiency. » Increasing training flexibility. » Reducing training duration. » Reducing waste of time. » Adapting content to user profiles. » Aligning content with economic needs. » Aligning content with social needs. » Aligning content with cultural needs. » Working groups continuity beyond training ending. » Enabling networks and professional communities to exchange information. » Promoting official recognition through certification.

Strategic Dimension The adoption of eLBP is a strategic decision of HE institutions from which everyone participates with a view focused on e-Learning. ELBP applications can be understood as help for a maturing e-Learning market. The e-Learning strategy designed has to be focused on meeting growing demand related to e-Learning. E-Learning promotes an organizational structure change, that is to say, establishment of new roles, new training tools, technological infrastructure needs, etc. Institutions can take advantage of the Web 2.0 model to meet their target audience needs and expectations, to contact with them and to generate a sense of membership to learning community. 68

HE institutions are in charge of providing educational technology services according to defined strategy, which main goal will be improving learning processes of e-Learning. Students make daily use of Web 2.0 tools that can be inside and/or outside of academic policies and protocols. This behaviour forces institutions to plan for clear strategy policies on tools 2.0 management. ICT incorporation to traditional training processes can result in maintaining face-to-face instruction or combining face-to-face and online activities. According to UNESCO [2005], mixed models are the most promising in the context of formal education. HE institutions manage communication campaigns for spreading their products and/or services. These campaigns are an essential part of the institution strategy. Communication campaigns should take into consideration the strategy diffusion within the institution. The list of eLBP is the following: » Doing an updated e-Learning market analysis. » Using e-Learning as tool for organizational change and innovation. » Planning a e-Learning training strategy in the institution. » Setting target audience for institution e-Learning training strategy. » Diffusion and monitoring of existing e-Learning strategy. » Using e-Learning as complement to traditional methods providing innovation. » Implementing a blended learning solution. » Doing communication campaigns to e-Learning to enhance eLearning role. » Responding effectively to growing demand of e-Learning training. » Encouraging training incentive. » Providing flexible tools that respond to users’ needs by encouraging learning. » Being focused on training process.

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Investment Dimension Assurance quality projects require an important resources investment. Resources include the time needed to carry out quality project, training resources, infrastructure investment and future certifications cost. Best practices e-Learning framework gives recognition in e-Learning environment as well as increased profits. As result, institution branding will be increased its recognition and investment for eLBP framework will be justified. The list of eLBP is the following: » Optimizing relationship between quality and budget for a training action. » Setting allocated budget according to current needs. » Investing in resources needed for training action. » Enhancing professional skills and competencies in order to improve investments. Pedagogical Dimension Some preliminary stages are needed by HE institutions before starting training actions. Initially, future students have to be informed about training objectives as well as pre-requisites to institution access. At second stage students receive information related to training action duration, a detailed description of different structured modules in terms of duration, content and effort required to work with them. The QUAL e-Learning project has selected a questionnaire as tool for meeting previous expectations of both training action responsible and students. However, institutions are free to choose the most appropriate tool for getting information because eLBP indicate WHAT should be done but not HOW. Responsible expectations management takes advantage of a tighter planning. Students are final customers and therefore they assess educa70

tional services provided by HE institution. Students’ needs and expectations knowledge before starting training actions give important information to those that are responsible. Some previous tests contextualize training action and prepare HE institution for the adoption of adjustment measures related to e-Learning pedagogical model and for students’ specific pedagogical design. Specific trainers’ training should provide their optimal performance with the help of ICT as well as learners’ basic training of platform tools (institutions are free with reference to training approach). Independently of the pedagogical approach, best practices should promote a communication and cooperation spirit between students. Connectivity generated with the creation of communities allows new relationships between network users. These relationships may become support networks or learning communities with added value to educational processes. The list of eLBP is the following: » Describing training objectives. » Describing pre-requisite to training action access. » Informing students of training action duration. » Describing training modules. » Adapting modules in time and effort. » Informing students of effort needed for each module. » Getting information about expectations of training action responsible. » Meeting students’ expectations. » Getting information about students’ capabilities at the starting of training action. » Reviewing pedagogical strategy based on previous tests. » Customizing content based on previous tests results. » Training students in the use of e-Learning platform. » Training responsible team of training action is important. » Enabling downloading of any web material. » Encouraging communication between students. 71

» Encouraging cooperation as a study aid. » Facilitating community creation by students. » Enabling blockages to prevent training progression if student has not acquired enough knowledge.

Technological Dimension Technology is present in students’ daily life by multimedia experiences on different media such as mobile phones or touch devices and other more traditional such as television or consoles. Services 2.0 do not require installation as they are available on the network. However, personalized services and services on demand integration in the 21st century education and particularly in HE institutions are a great challenge today. “Learners want and expect to be able to use their own devices in institutional contexts, and to personalise institutional services to meet their own requirements” [HEFCE 2009, 6]. Of course, these needs are transferred to e-Learning environment in which services could be personalized according to each user’s preferences and roles. Access to users’ platform is controlled by administrators (usually teachers), who should manage it according to policies established by institutions. Some elements such as a list of content, navigation with a quick and easy access and some adequate instructions facilitates the learning environment use. Platform (open or ad hoc) should provide actions such as downloading materials, group management, tasks monitoring, tracking system for personalized content tours, evolution of students’ progress through time, creation of cooperative tools, among other alternatives. Technical support gives students and responsible of training action technical assistance. Online support requires of a TI provider (external 72

or internal). The most important is restoring the service as quickly as possible and with the minimum impact. The list of eLBP is the following: » Should not be necessary to install software to access e-Learning training. » Controlling access to platform. » There should be a content and index table. » Access to different sections of training action should be clear and fast. » Navigation instructions should be clearly specified. » Training action should have a fully autonomous navigation. » Enabling download of any web material. » Platform should facilitate group management from a pedagogical point of view. » Platform should facilitate group management from a administrative point of view. » Ensuring follow-up training activities. » Enabling content personalized paths. » Facilitating verification of students training progress. » Facilitating group generation of cooperative training. » Facilitating communication forums. » Facilitating communities’ creation for students. » Accessing progress and score reports. » Integrating examinations and tests management in training action. » Sending immediately examinations and tests results to students. » Providing support to responsible of training action. » Facilitating an online help for technical issues. » Providing a “hotline” service for technical questions. » Enabling the existence of a search engine.

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Motivation Dimension E-Learning is one among multiple training alternatives which uses technological tools and generates a technological awareness in individuals. Tutorial action throughout training action process is essential to avoid students’ isolation sense that could lead to a loss of motivation. Maintenance and if possible increase students’ motivation is a difficult task. Using eLBP can provide guidelines on how to maintain as high as possible motivation levels. A good technical design results in a better usability, a system optimized performance and a more user-friendly interface. A good pedagogical design encourages an optimal performance of teachers’ competencies and creativity. This proactive attitude provides new professional opportunities and institutions should manage as a future opportunities source. Students should improve their day to day thanks to a HE institution quality strategy and be aware of the external recognition of their institution that translates into recognition at labour market. Teachers gain professional recognition within the institution and educational community related to the use of best practices. Quality represents for HE institution a competitive factor, a way to gain more market shared and a reinforcement to continue with support quality policy. The list of eLBP is the following: » Considering e-Learning training as an alternative more for teachers. » Motivation: Main element for e-Learning program success. » Encouraging teachers and trainers is essential for e-Learning quality. » E-Learning training with a good technical and pedagogical design facilitates teachers’ activity. » Promoting recognition and improvement of professional career. » Resolution of organizations conflicts. » Ensuring e-Learning training quality. 74

Assessment Dimension The adoption of appropriate best practices for assessing students could improve students’ learning. On the other side, if they are not appropriate, learning process could be seriously threatened. Unfortunately, there are scarcely any model assignments or examples of good assessment practice to draw on [ALTC 2009]. At institutional level the situation is even worst if possible, because institutions have no ways (guidelines and/or assistance) of managing assessment extended to institution in a whole, ensuring academic integrity and other aspects related to educational quality. Traditional assessment is orientated toward content ascertainment. The evolution of the assessment could develop to different assessment approaches. An example of that is the Proyecto Facebook [Adaime 2010, 30], in which the feedback is an important tool. This is composed by a research conducted by students and presented in multiple formats such as videos, hypothesis, ideas, presentations, etc. A challenge of this project was to find the best criteria for assessing both individual and group work and results through the whole project. Feedback between students and teachers should be flexible, personalized and not delayed in time. Before starting training action students should be informed about feedback guidelines. Students’ assessment evaluation regarding training action is made through the whole learning process with the goal of making necessary adjustment. Students should be initially informed about assessment planning for a proper management. After ending training action, both students and teachers should bring their impressions to determine their satisfaction level. Complaints and suggestions are important and should be managed as improvement opportunities of institution services provision. This way commitment to quality is reinforced. HE institutions should collect information with reference to time students take to put into practice their knowledge. Because of that, HE institution should continue tracking students after training action. 75

Nowadays it is not possible to compare skills associated with eLearning over a Web 2.0 model. There is an important development in the use of Web 2.0 tools but there are not available research results that can be consulted. The list of eLBP is the following: » Verifying learning progress. » Managing examinations and tests. » Identifying monitoring and notes reports. » Continuous evaluation without blocking. » Informing immediately on the tests outcome performed by students. » Analyzing training action feedback. » Getting information after training action to identify complaints and suggestions. » Comparing data before and after training action information. » Assessment training action efficiency. » Comparing results with other models: traditional training, bLearning training.

Ethical Dimension Ethical dimension refers to issues such as cultural diversity, digital divide, information accessibility or laws. These eLBP are associated with rules and principles of content authors, data and information contained into training actions and materials worked in learning processes Intellectual Protection Rights (IPR) refers to legal protection of an intangible property and its aim is protecting intellectual work. According to Casey [2006, 6], copyright and moral rights are the areas that most affect e-Learning content development. Copyright exists automatically and it’s owned by the author’s intellectual work. There is other trend that protects author’s rights but it wants to ensure content freely use and distribution, and whose name is copyleft. 76

There are different positions concerning authoring rights. Some believe that there is only one author and others radically different that defend non authorship. This second option has been reinforced with the emergence of the web. An intermediate option allows work collaboratively but without losing authors’ identities. E-Learning materials are expensive to create and it requires a lot of effort to develop digital libraries and repositories for storing them. There is a lack of security to protect these resources and materials used in e-Learning training. This is a complex situation for institutions that generate and manage as intellectual capital their own eLearning content. Seely and Adler [2008, 18] suggest that “arguably, the most visible impact of the Internet on education to date has been the Open Educational Resources (OER) movement, which has provided free access to a wide range of courses and other educational materials to anyone who wants to use them”. This access to content may have a positive influence on students’ motivation levels. HE institutions should ensure students’ data are neither transferred nor sold to other organizations and are managed as confidential. A sensitive issue and a difficult problem is the absence of laws concerning the privacy of data in some countries. With this context it is important the recognition of institution and its confidence to students, professionals and society. The list of eLBP is the following: » Protecting copyright. » Ensuring digital rights. » Feeling of lack of guarantees of material protection produced for the web. » Ensuring data privacity.

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Quality Dimension From the point of view of HE institutions the adoption of a quality model should prepare them to arrange in an effective way the changes that may arise due to technology evolution. Traditional training and e-Learning quality assessment criteria are not the same because of their particularities. Traditional training has more confidence and credibility than e-Learning, which tries to overcome this problem with the use of synchronous tools that establish real time communications among users. Therefore, perceived quality is higher for traditional training than for e-Learning and certain attitudes do not help to a turnaround. Relationship between quality and training is complex but it is less than the one between quality and e-Learning. Human and technological factors are involved in e-Learning characteristics, so relationship between quality and e-Learning makes a complex environment. A factor such as geographical dispersion determines cultural, ideological, training differences. This diversity on one side enriches e-Learning and the other makes its quality environment more complex. According to De Vijlder [2002 in Boshuizen and Kirschner 2003, 167] from a learning where “quality criteria are based upon internal ‘educational’ standards” is considered other learning where “quality is determined by the effect of what is learnt on society”. An Information Technology (IT) services-centered strategy is very suitable for HE institutions that adopt e-Learning training approach and the adoption of a best practices model in the IT services management area is a practice to be taken into consideration. According to quality, a good pedagogical design meets customers’ needs, that is to say, HE students. Students assess positively activities with a good definition and clear and concise objectives. Students have real time interactivity as a highly valued characteristic in their actions related to the web [Jara and Mohamad 2007]. Those 78

new systems follow teachers’ work optimization so they may focus on other coaching activities. It would be desirable to enable a communication channel between teachers and students according to institution strategy. The creation of repositories meets users’ needs to perform new content storage, search, reuse and inclusion. Models such as Web 2.0 or Semantic Web may facilitate content access in a more intuitive and accessible way in a near future. E-Learning standardization is a very recent matter. Worldwide organizations are working on content management alternatives. Standards for e-Learning platforms design should fit technological compatibility so content do not become obsolete within a short time. The adoption of standards for content creation and management facilitates their update. Knowledge, definition, management and evaluation of needs and expectations of universities community components (students, teachers, managers, staff, etc) help in the search of their satisfaction degree. Therefore, monitoring services quality provides knowledge to determine if its implementation is correct and helps over time with the detection of customers’ needs and expectations. An overall information management related to e-Learning training actions ensures avoiding information duplication, data in different locations, redundancies and so on. Initial costs associated with quality implementation are high and it is necessary to reuse the training actions for a period of time for getting profitability. Moreover, cost of non-quality justifies its adoption. Examples of non-quality costs can be repetition of tasks due to poor quality, a decrease of institution branding, overload work resources, etc. Certification is a way of ensuring services quality. E-Learning scope needs establishment and definition standards for quality assurance, but most current standards are suited to production. Some standards are focused on IT services management, so this is a first step for any organization with high-level technology components as HE institutions that provide e-Learning training actions. 79

Moreover, HE institutions should consider technology for enhancing learning, teaching and assessment as a strategic priority and they do make investment on technology [HEFCE 2009]. Feedback informs students of correctness and explains how and why things went wrong or could have gone better. It is important that feedback meets the number of quality criteria considered necessary by the professional in charge of this item. A good feedback promotes dialog and a relationship of trust between the giver and the receiver, and considers their necessities. It is focused on observed behaviour and it is descriptive rather than judgmental. Feedback involves sharing information and the amount of information that the receiver needs. [Bregquist and Phillips 1975 in Prins et al. 2005] The list of eLBP is the following: » Differentiating between classroom and e-Learning training. » Considering e-Learning as a knowledge transfer system. » Promoting the use of best practices. » Doing a pedagogical design clear, explicit, appropriate to students, their needs and context. » Enhancing interactivity level. » Providing collaborative tools. » Maintaining updated content. » Establishing efficiency degree. » Determining students and customer satisfaction level. » Simplifying information management. » Optimizing relationship quality, e-Learning training and used resources. » Reducing the feeling of poor quality of training action. » Reducing quality costs. » Establishing quality certifications. » Defining profiles and roles appropriated to training action. » Avoiding technical problems. » Managing feedback for technical questions and for training action. 80

SUCCESS FACTORS UNESCO [UNESCO et. al 2008 in Cobo 2010] indicates that ICT’s impact in learning processes depends on combining some elements and dimensions as redefinition of public policies, rethinking of organizational dynamics, permanent updating of teachers, implementation of appropriate pedagogical practices, redesign both the curriculum and assessment and validation learning systems, among other things. All these actions are fully transferable to e-Learning and Web 2.0 model. Some important e-Learning success factors according to QUAL e-Learning project are the following: » Considering quality as main objective of institution strategy. HE institutions strategies and actions have to be oriented to enhance and improve their e-Learning services quality. According to HEFCE [2009, 14], “quality strategic priority from some institutions can support objectives and enhance benefits in all the other areas. Institutional quality processes respond quickly to learner and employer needs and quality assurance arrangements take into account enhancements through use of technology”. » Optimizing training costs. E-Learning management has to be oriented towards reducing direct costs and eliminating indirect ones. Direct costs are academic and an optimum management of administrative services can generate value to both the institution and users. Indirect costs such as transportation or downtime are reducing by breaking time-space dimension till its value is irrelevant. » Creating new structures in institution. The adoption of a social networking model without affecting the service quality provided requires of an important technological investment. A HE institution has to reflect if it is prepared for meeting that challenge. E-Learning training actions have an important technological component and there are many institutions interested in these new edu81

cational models. However, they have to adapt their current structure before adopting e-Learning new reality [Piscitelli 2010]. Tim Berners-Lee said that the Web 2.0 model does not improve anything from a technical perspective, but he thinks that a convergence of W3C standards and Web 2.0 it is possible [Quemada 2010]. E-Learning training generates new needs and roles and HE institution will have to adapt to new profiles. New structures have to cover this new social context for ensuring future e-Learning training. » Generating added value to students. E-Learning training because of its own particularities should reduce the time between learning and its practical application, that is to say, an immediate application of learning. Some examples could be real-time environments simulation tools, interaction thanks to forums or messaging, collaborative tools, among others. Therefore, technology is positioned as a way of generating value for institution. » Optimizing training methods. Dynamic training processes that are required by students are going to lead to a restructuring plan of traditional teaching methods. It is important to take into consideration students’ environment and their needs of maximize their efforts. » Adapting content to students needs. E-Learning systems have to be flexible and adapted to students’ need, which contribute to their involvement in learning process. » Considering systems scalability. E-Learning training has to be prepared to act adequately both technical and pedagogical and administrative support to a potential increase in the number of students. Structure scalability of HE institution is positioned as a solution to an expected increase of students, and all at a reasonable cost. » Increasing collaboration between students. Social space is important “since it facilitates and reinforces social interaction and, in turn, influences the effectiveness of collaborative learning” 82

[Kreijns 2004, 628]. The design and implementation of social environments require for maximizing the improvement “an instrument that measures the degree of the perceived quality of the social space in distributed learning groups” [Kreijns 2004, 609]. E-Learning training promotes the exchange of information and experiences between students and students with instructors. The result is the establishment of more proactive relationships. » Improving corporate image with the help of innovation. Investment made with these eLBP is an important technological innovation project with a clear pedagogical approach. Recognition and benefit obtained thanks to this quality investment will result in an improved corporate image of a HE institution. FAILURE FACTORS Failure factors deserve a carefully monitoring from institutions. Some important e-Learning failure factors according to QUAL e-Learning project are the following: » Understanding the meaning of e-Learning. E-Learning demand is increasing in HE institutions, partly due to the potential advantages of its teaching-learning processes [Jara and Mohamad 2007]. However, HE institutions have to clearly define what they mean by e-Learning because of e-Learning term means different things for different people and institutions. If a HE institution understands e-Learning in a wrong way the institution will be involved into general confusion and the following step will be the failure of training actions. HEFCE E-Learning Strategy states that “[we] aim to support the HE sector as it moves towards embedding e-Learning appropriately, using technology to transform higher education into a more student-focused and flexible system, as part of lifelong learning for all who can benefit” [HEFCE 2005, 3]. The adoption of e-Learning systems has to encompass and integrate the whole community, from students and instructors (the 83

academia community) to non-academic staffs (administrative community) and facilitate information flow. » Inadequate management of human and financial resources. Without human and financial resources training actions are going a greater probability of failure. This reason is very simple and it is called neglect, students do not received the agreed service and they feel discouraged because of this lack of attention. On the other hand it is necessary cover the new e-Learning profiles and their absence may accelerate the training actions failure. Certain roles are not adequate to e-Learning training, which leads to the existence of areas in which not all roles can be covered. » Preparation of training materials. The generation of quality content for e-Learning training is a very complex process. There is almost no experience and the lack of contrasted researches could guide HE institutions to generation and/or selection of relevant training materials. An important research branch for quality assurance is the way in which students interact with content and how knowledge in e-Learning is generated. Moreover, inadequate content produce lack of interest and sense of loss of time in students. HE institution is also affected by a loss of image, a direct loss of quality. The ending result is the failure of e-Learning training actions. » Lack of infrastructure investment. E-Learning market is highly dependent on ICT, so they have a key role in achieving its business processes. Infrastructure investment is necessary for HE institutions, students’ home, public spaces, that is to say, it is required society’s adaptation. » New profiles required for training. This failure factor is closely related to previous factor but because of its importance it deserves a special attention. According to Boschma, a new instructor is more a tutor and a coach than an expert on a subject matter [Boschma 2008 in Islas & Arribas 2010]. A coach help students to develop skills and strategies, focus on the whole toward to reduce the gap between the present state and the future state goal. 84

Social Software advent requires instructors to leave the industrial age profile and to adopt professionals that empower students. These new professionals play a role as information transmitter, designer and planner of learning objects and students-teacher-learning objects interactions [Cabero 2010]. Other tutors’ functions according to HEFCE [2009, 13] include “collaborating in subject communities to produce high-quality, reusable learning resources” and “having access to relevant learning resources, and support for adapting, integrating and enhancing them” and provide guidance to students throughout their period of time at a university. » Not being familiar with the use of technologies. Students with a poor technological education have a higher probability of abandon an e-Learning training action than others, which are familiarized with technology. First group students may leave training action due to their great frustration, huge workload and with return of investment. Previous training sometimes is not enough to meet eLearning training action with a minimum success guarantee. » Negative perception of training actions. There are many failure factors of an e-Learning training, such as inadequate planning, poor pedagogical design and technological management, technical failure, and so on. This negative perception is finally materialized with the students’ abandon, failure of training action and loss of value, image and credibility of a HE institution. CHALLENGES It is definitely crucial that the Web 2.0 model is positioned as an opportunity to develop in coming years and education has to take advantage of this new trend that encourages collaborative and cooperative work. Transferred to education and particularly to e-Learning meeting future students’ needs and expectations require a profound reflection about quality in the future and how quality will be evaluated. 85

» Implementing the identified Best Practices. The use of Web 2.0 technologies are introducing in HE but in an irregular way. This process is not always built from a philosophy 2.0 adoption and moreover, there are not many international experts in this field that may provide new ideas for a Web 2.0 implantation model [JISC 2009]. Benchmarking is a good alternative, a practical methodology for identifying good practices, that is to say, measuring the quality of a particular service compared with other similar services and considering all the elements involved in a e-Learning project. QUAL e-Learning project is an example of how best practices can be managed, but there is a long way for researching e-Learning over Web 2.0 model. » Management of new structures that support e-Learning. The structural change required by HE institutions that are valuing adopt an e-Learning model is the first step for a quick adaptation to the new context. The adoption of a social networking model is always accompanied by profound organizational changes, new roles, new ways of understanding and arranging learning. » Pay special attention to communication campaigns. The perceived quality resulting of campaigns evolves into a quality perceived through network users’ channels. “The Cluetrain Manifesto” [Levine et. al 1999] says that people who are involved in networked markets have found out that they can get better information among themselves than from vendors. The HE institution strategy has to consider media, students’ motivation, positioning in resources commonly used by its target audience and its followers, providing excellent services without failures. In short, a HE institution has to focus their attention on new channels according to digital society uses. » Gaining international recognition Currently, the perception of e-Learning training is negative. E-Learning is perceived as an important failure factor that should be managed by minimizing its effects. International recognition could become the key to 86

increase e-Learning credibility. Certification may serve as a valid vehicle for this recognition, but it is also true that the corporative image of a HE institution can achieve the same recognition that offers a certification. The HE institution recognition could be managed from a pedagogical perspective. A HE institution could position itself as a centre of reference if the pedagogical model adopted by HE institutions is good enough to gain international recognition. » Constant pedagogical updating. Despite the high technology component of e-Learning should not be neglected the importance of pedagogical aspects. In many cases, pedagogical approach promotes innovation and not just the incorporation of technology and technological devices. Technologies such as spherical video or augmented reality can be incorporated in a generalized way to learning processes in the future. However, successful implementation depends on a proper technological implementation and a pedagogical model that maximizes technology profitability. » Facilitating the use of instructional methods. Experiences with different instructional methods will enrich eLearning educational context and will enhance e-Learning with an effective learning if appropriate mechanisms are managed. Innovative instructional methods can take into consideration approaches such as significative learning, learning by discovery, collaborative learning and many others. The use of instructional methods as guideline to meet training to students’ needs and expectations and to recreate the appropriate atmosphere for generating and transmitting knowledge that results in learning is facilitated by eLBP. » Research in new training modalities. Somewhere between present and future George Siemens and Stephen Downes have presented a new training modality based on connectivism in web environment and with a philosophy derived from Open Source movement. This new approach called Massive Open On87

line Course (MOOC) takes web as distributed platform for sources information, collaborative environment and self-publishing sites. MOOC includes changes not only in the way of engaging content but also methodological proposals and new roles for people that dynamize the course and participants. MOOC contributes with facilitation dynamics of participation, digital competencies, autonomy and proactively in learning thanks to development of tutorized conversation. Other methodology is Personal Learning Environment (PLE), which is based on connectivism and is adjusted to a new complexity, new knowledge characteristics that flows steadily and generously in the new environment. Knowledge is produced into a continuous flow and learning experience occurs at network entrance and exit, that is to say, learning is continuous. Learning process will be optimal in ubiquitous environments and with a Cloud Computing technology, which guarantees a wide range of formats and devices. Organizations could consider changing current Learning Management System (LMS) to Personal Learning Environment (PLE) [Reig 2010]. PLEs take care of students’ interests, while LMSs might seem a management support for teaching needs. According to Cabero [2010], future education systems have to be connected to reality, that is to say, by meeting students’ needs and expectations, adjusting and adapting quickly to changing environments, and filtering a great quantity of information, which will be accessed by students. » Constant technological updating. The Internet of the future needs to be reinvented, that is to say, to find a model that supports new services with a new architecture and new standardized protocols [Quemada 2010]. Augmented reality, realtime Web that provides a snapshot of a situation at a given time (Twitter is the most representative example), Semantic Web with linked and restructured data, the Internet of Things or mobile access thanks to the development of wireless technology, among others, are services that W3C is taking into consideration for HTML5 development. These innovation branches are of interest today. 88

» Management of future profiles. HE institutions have an added responsibility, training future teachers. Therefore, actions aimed at Social Software incorporation will directly influence in the education of the future. » New trends in content creation and distribution. E-Learning technologies standardization aims to facilitate reuse of resources, interoperability between systems and heterogeneous software. Web 2.0 tools facilitate the development of materials, their sharing as well as their valuation for the rest of the community. Therefore, the use of e-Learning standards provides cost benefits and an increase in quality. » Meeting users’ needs and expectations. Users’ satisfaction is a subjective concept that has somehow to be managed. Minimizing the negative value of subjectivity is one of the issues that most concern to HE institutions and the reason is to meet in optimal way customers’ needs and expectations. One of the HE institution challenges is to minimize the negative impact of subjectivity in eLearning training. Therefore, an adequate management of students and teachers’ needs and expectations represents a constant challenge. Depending on the degree to which users’ needs and expectations are met it is desirable that the balance of subjectivity is tilted towards the positive side and e-Learning training improves its “quality”. CONCLUSIONS Training and e-Learning in the 21st century are facing significant technological, pedagogical and social challenges. Integration of Social Software tools in HE Institutions training programs is needed as well as to ensure that students use them for educational purposes. The starting point of this work is a detailed study of the QUAL eLearning project. The list of eLBP leads the interpretation into an e89

Learning framework over a Web 2.0 model. Best practices are positioned as a quality tool very suited for highly dynamic and changing environments that require quick and efficient responses to very changing needs and expectations of its customers. E-Learning training is characterized by a high technological component and because of that the eLBP incorporation for quality assurance is a good alternative. Moreover, Web 2.0 model is perfectly adapted to the exposed approach for the adoption of best practices. Therefore, the ideas explored on eLBP are addressed in a proper context for HE institutions that are considering the incorporation of e-Learning training over a Web 2.0 model. Institutions lack tools to assess the degree of adaptation of a Social Software tool to e-Learning processes. These tools are usually implanted and in most cases the reviews are personal, that is to say, qualitative and highly conditional. The use of eLBP ensures that this implementation implies a prior evaluation of their educational value, so their suitability is implied to best practices use. ELBP consideration does not ensure the success of quality assurance in the HE institution, but they ensure the reduction of risk of failure. Thus, the general considerations that appear on different dimensions of the best practices are valid for an e-Learning environment over Web 2.0 model. The determination of success and failure factors could help HE institution to determine what decisions could be successful and what could not. Their analysis is important because of their implications to decision-making of the whole institution. Business environment is transforming daily practices with the help of social networking, and many experts are asking how the penetration of those technologies can affect to training. A social networking approach, regardless of particular characteristics, can be developed and implemented in an e-Learning system for universities, an approach that allows information exchange between university communities all stakeholders [Awolede et al. 2010]. 90

Some aspects that may increase the likelihood of success of a eLearning training are interactivity, a good management of students’ learning process, constant attention to students’ need and expectations, among others. Many students are familiar with interactivity and from which many students are already familiar. Instructors have to take advantage by incorporating interactivity into the learning process. Transferred to educational environment, one of current cognitive challenges is getting users to interact with information, contrast, make use of data and meet their needs [Uman and Venesio 2010]. Tutors, despite what may seem at first, gain prominence with the adoption of the new profile required thanks to new needs in e-Learning training and Social Software. Tutors are the new managers, the new consultants to whom students turn for advice and guidance. In short, this proactive attitude is passed on to students, who do not feel alone during their learning process and thus the likelihood of the training activity completion in a satisfactory way is increasing. All users without exception do not want to do training activities with plenty of technical problems. The adoption of Social Software brings the great advantage that it is not required any installation. If technology is not properly implemented and maintained can become much more than a problem and can lead to failure a training action with all the ingredients to become a successful training activity. Therefore, the institution must be particularly sensitive with the use of eLBP related to technology. The integration of digital media to communication campaigns of HE institution is a strategic decision to increase the knowledge of the brand image of the institution. Social networking is not considered nowadays as an emerging technology, but a technology with a strong implantation and penetration. Its popularity has overcome traditional blogs [Cabero 2010]. Social networking, according to the experience of Cortés Vásquez [Cortés 2009] predisposes their components to work together for a common goal. Move this 91

synergy to training process can promote the knowledge exchange and construction of new knowledge, strengthen the link and commitment, and asserting self-identity of components, among other effects. One of the key aspects of e-Learning training and a cross influence on most of eLBP is loss of motivation management. The triggers for the loss of motivation are many, any shortfall or decline in the level of standard service will generate in the student a feeling of discontent that often translates into a loss of interest for training activity and with the early termination of the training. In general, one might say that this situation occurs when students do not meet their needs and expectations, that is to say, when the students believe that are not getting the proper quality. E-Learning training particularities are close to quality solutions focused on IT service management, areas such as for example organizational management or customer’s satisfaction. Educational programs of institutions that adopt e-Learning training have to add value to students. Otherwise, training activities have more probability of failing and students drop out before completion their training action. If students receive an added value in the form of a proper management, a preferential treatment, etc., students loyalty occurs, that is to say, the institution is carrying out a proper management of their customers’ needs and expectations. Assessment presents a major challenge for the educational community and e-Learning community in particular. This dimension needs to be adapted to society’s changing needs. Stephen Downes’s proposal [Downes 2007] advocates an opening of the assessment of learning that will lead to lower costs while the quality and impartiality could be increased. However, at the same time there is some interest in maintaining academic standards. As Sadler says [Sadler 2009 in ALTC 2009], he prefers to assess the minimum learning outcomes rather than processes that are based on student achievement. Systems institutions need to be scalable for responding adequately to a potential increase in the number of users. Otherwise, the institution 92

could not provide the required service. It could lose the students with the consequent economic and corporate image loss. Regardless of results, it should not forget that HE Institutions are organizations and one of its objectives is to increase their income. Therefore, eLBP have to be articulated so that the quality assurance results in benefits for the institution. Several factors are worthy of consideration to justify important limitations of eLBP studies and even more limited if it is a contextualized study in e-Learning training over a Web 2.0 model. Social networking analysis with software can become over time an alternative to analyze information, but unfortunately there are still no concrete experiences in this area [Uman and Venesio 2010]. There is almost research in this field, then the results and comparatives that could serve a reference do not exist. In contrast, it is important to note the investment involved for HE institution a quality innovation project with the objective of knowing the eLBP appropriate to its particular context. Others aspects that have to be taken into consideration are the perception of e-Learning of the HE institution or different results of many initiatives related to the incorporation of ICT in education, among others. Educational systems of industrial age have to give way to other systems that adopt innovative practices based on learning communities, lifelong learning, collaboration and networking between students and teachers, etc. Institutions currently do not know the scope of pedagogical decisions involving the deployment of Web 2.0 tools in a e-Learning environment. New pedagogical approaches result of new researches on learning can not be applied at present due to institutional constraints, government policies and companies structures without new job profiles descriptions. ELBP adequacy to HE institution context is what makes these a real quality tool with a great potential if the institution knows how to make it. Therefore, the first step of the HE institution is to have a deep knowledge of itself and to implement a strategy according to its goals and objectives, that is to say, a strategy that fits its business model. Clear gen93

eral guidelines facilitate decision-making to particular situations of the institution structure. According to this reasoning, eLBP could be a good reference for all community components (students, administrators, instructors, etc) and they may be asked for help towards decision-making related to those components particular environment. Similarly, new pedagogical models could resulting of these eLBP fully integrated into the institution structure. Although findings seem to be very promising, there is clear evidence that there is a long way to cover with reference to eLBP. Future researches may focus on the multiple open branches, taking as a reference point the same study, fieldwork for an optimal implementation of eLBP and contrasting experiences of their use. ELBP adequacy to the particular context of the HE institution goes through determining whether e-Learning is really the appropriate modality for that institution, that is to say, it is needed a preliminary study. There are other modalities and among them, for example, blended learning is emerging as the optimal solutions to medium term. Investment in research on Social Software is needed. HE institutions responsible have to be encouraged and supported to make compromises that give the necessary impetus to this model. Taking a future perspective, institutions should consider a continuous monitoring process that could allow them to anticipate paradigm shifts. In this way, institutions training processes would not be blocked with the new requirements. Institutions have to be vigilant to technological, educational and quality trends. For example, trends as the introduction of artificial intelligence or virtual reality into training can be described. These technologies could at any given time triggering a reflection process on how people learn.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS ELBP

E-Learning Best Practices

HE

Higher Education

HEFCE

Higher Education for Funding Council for England

ICT

Information and Communication Technologies

IT

Information Technology

LMS

Learning Management System

MOOC

Massive Open Online Courses

PLE

Personal Learning Environment

WWW

World Wide Web

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INTERACTIVE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN: THE COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND THE USE OF CONCEPT MAPS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION Jucimara Roesler

Santa Catarina South University

Ademilde Sartori

Santa Catarina State University

ABSTRACT In this article, the authors discuss the concern of the management team with the conception of a pedagogical design that provides collaborative learning. When performing their tasks of learning management, the management team can use concept maps to provide a meaningful and collaborative learning. It is a theoretical discussion that allows the reflection on the connection between teaching tools, technological devices and practical actions to promote learning. The meaningful portion of relation among students and teachers in Distance Education happen by human and technological mediation, which requires the development of a pedagogical design that ensures interaction between all involved. The team of management must search for the construction of an interactive and collaborative pedagogical design.

103

INTRODUCTION

T

he suitable education to current society is grounded on collaborative network-participation practices, performed by the information and communication digital technologies. They enable us to work, share happy moments of life, and create co-authorship processes as well. All those aspects contribute to build our subjectivities, culture and knowledge. In our day-to-day, intimacy with more and more interactive technologies grows. From remote control to digital land TV, the viewer/user initiative is more and more stimulated, which provides the development of communicative practices with decentralized origins. Emission and reception cease to be dichotomous processes, as communication agents start to interchange functions and roles. Mass culture little by little cedes ground to a culture of communication, intimacy and action in virtual communities. Scientific, technological, cultural and behavioural transformations have crossed the school space. Collaboration, participation and co-authorship are fundamental elements for the creation of educative projects, inasmuch as the persons become more and more involved with spaces in which digital technology and their languages set the tone and pace for the concretization of educative actions. Education needs professors facing the challenge of being problemformulating agents, causers of creative learning situations. This issue is even more urgent for Distance Education, inasmuch as most relationships between students and professors are carried out through didactic materials, either printed or online, and through communication devices allowing learning based on collective processes. In this sense, this chapter aims at presenting such contributions that concept maps can bring to Distance Education based on collaborative learning. Then, the chapter is structured in two large blocks, one about the interactive pedagogical design, and another about the characteristics, theoretical fundaments and possibilities of strategic use of concept maps for learning. 104

To fulfil this goal, the concept of Distance Education is discussed in several segments, identifying the geographical separation between student and professor and the necessary technological mediation as fundamental characteristics of this modality. Then, it is argued that the interactions among the teaching and learning process agents should be contemplated in an interactive pedagogical design. A pedagogical design is interactive when makes use of all possible strategies to assure collaborative learning and knowledge collective building. Afterwards, the theoretical and pedagogical fundaments for the use of concept maps are presented and some contributions that they can give to collaborative learning in the distance educational modality are indicated. DISTANCE EDUCATION: ASYNCHRONY BETWEEN TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES The term Distance Education encompasses teaching systems with the most varied characteristics; therefore, its definition is built according to the ways through which this teaching modality is presented. Distance Education encompasses activities carried out by diverse institutions, from centres or institutes until universities and corporations; and its teaching and learning process varies from self-directed studies until those based on the web, as well as their denominations, which may be known as correspondence learning and mobile-learning. Holmberg states that Distance Education ... cover the various forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and teaching of a supporting organization. (1989, p. 33).

We notice in the words of Holmberg the variety of forms through which Distance Education may occur. In the same direction, Keegan 105

(1990, p. 44) presents a characterization of this educative modality that emphasizes the use of medias and bidirectional communication. This way, for this author, is characterized by: » The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning process; » The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support services; » The use of technical media – print, audio, video or computer – to unite teacher and learner and carry the content of the course; » The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue; » The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the learning process, so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes. The physical separation between students and professors and the use of media for the teaching and learning process mediation are common to the authors. In these terms, we can characterize Distance Education as a mediated educational system in which teaching and learning are asynchronous and the mediation is necessarily technological and pedagogic. The asynchrony is more accentuated the higher be quantity of activities developed without the presence of a professor or tutor. There is consensus among authors (KEEGAN, 1990; BATES, 1995) about the recognition of digital technologies developed as the factor responsible for the Distance Education expansion in our days, mainly due to the uprising of communicational devices allowing higher interaction, fundamental for a technologically mediated educative modality. For Bates (op. cit., page 26): 106

Although initially concentrated at the post-secondary level, open learning and distance education projects now exist at school and career, technical and vocational levels, and in the private sector, in the form of work-based training, as well as in the public sector. There are now examples of thriving open and distance education initiatives operating across all subject areas, at all academic levels, and in every continent. Distance education illustrates well the relationship between the use of technology and the need to re-organize to maximize its benefits.

In the mentioned work, the author comments about the contributions that all technologies granted for the Distance Education development; however, he points out that the technology use should be well organized and structured. Most literature about Distance Education emphasize the advantage that this modality offers for somebody to study without having scheduled time and place. The asynchrony of the act of teaching and of the act of learning have enable students to develop their management skills of their own pace, which requires self-knowledge and, along the process, generates self-discipline. Self-discipline and the capability to manage one’s own time are two great skills that, if the student does not have them when he starts the educative process, he needs to develop along it. As consequence or as condition, self-discipline and the capability of managing one’s own pace of studies built in the process are among the interesting advantages of taking a course in the Distance Education modality. The geographic distance between students and professors still inspires the fear that Distance Education does not have quality because it is not based on what we use to refer to as “face-to-face”, the live interaction. Agreeing with this statement means to tacitly accept that a student learns only because he is in front of a master, or beside a classmate. Such conception ignores, many times, that the compulsory presence does not prevent the heart from travelling, that the fact that students be at the same place where the professor is does not assure that they are willing to learn or that they will not display difficulties to pay attention for the 107

most diverse reasons (sleep, health problems, financial concerns, excitement with the championship title conquered by his football team last weekend, or due to the enchantment caused by the promising glimpse that the object of his love launched on him on the college corridor, five minutes ago). The argument in favour of the “face-to-face” primacy many times legitimates the false idea that learning is conditioned to places and times, many times to given processes. Nothing of the kind is necessarily true; persons learn when they are motivated, interested, committed, curious and predisposed. None of these conditions depends on scheduled time and place, unless due to reflecting years and years of attendance school routine to the detriment of real learning conditions. However, it is necessary to point out that the quality of an educational proposal carried out remotely depends to a high degree in the students participation, and therefore of the responsibility that they display in relation to their course. At an attendance classroom, with a little attention, or even through the sensitivity sharpened by the practice developed in many years, a teacher may notice that a student learned what is being taught if he is “linked” to what is happening at the room, even when he is silent, more prone to hear than to intervene. Such situation does not occur in Distance Education because it is characterized as a differentiated educative process. Distance Education is a modality that requires the student’s active participation. The manifestations and interventions are intrinsically necessary for the students to clarify their doubts, deepen their knowledge and demonstrate that they are learning. By displaying the participative attitude, they are not only building their knowledge but are collaborating with the classmates’ learnings. The process is collective and nobody is part of a process keeping distance. As participating of a collective is also learning, the very collective is built in the process. The quality of a distance undergraduate course does not depend only on the student dedication, but depends directly on the qualification of the team of professionals responsible for the project management, on the seriousness and commitment of the educating institution. These factors reflect the seriousness of 108

the course project to be offered, as in it there are identified all actions and decisions to be made for the institutional goals to be reached in relation to the professional that will be formed. Such organizational structure of the course is disclosed, in a significant way, in the pedagogical design proposed by educational institution. INTERACTIVE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN1 In an undergraduate course in the distance modality, the learning management team2 is responsible for the planning, coordination, execution, follow-up and evaluation of the entire teaching and learning process. Those activities imply the course pedagogical design preparation, the didactic material conception and production, the tutorial system establishing and the academic life administration. In all activities, the team tries to diagnose the teaching-learning process needs and tries to carry out actions that be pertinent to a good management of the course project, that is, it must plan, coordinate, program and evaluate the activities of pedagogical character, communicational, administrative, finance, personnel, technological infrastructure and logistics involved. With this, the managing team aims at assuring a formation offer in fine1 The term pedagogical design used in this text was developed by SARTORI & ROESLER since 2005. See SARTORI & ROESLER, 2005; SARTORI, 2006; SARTORI, 2007; SARTORI, 2009 and SARTORI & ROESLER, 2010. Pedagogic design is the conjunct of actions relative to planning, execution and evaluation of teaching-learning process, that have its beginning in elaboration and is continuously construct along of the planning, execution and evaluation stages of the course project, with the participation of diverse professionals that constitute the learning management. Therefore, pedagogic design concerns to the definition of educational objectives, to curricular conception, to the choice of educative and communication medias that will be available to students and docents/tutors, to the conception and execution of the didactic material, to the definition of teaching methodology, to the conception of the evaluation system and to the elaboration of the dynamic of tutorial assistance to the student and to the relations among students. (SARTORI & ROESLER, 2010). 2 In general, we find the term Learning Management System referring to a software management of teaching and learning (JONES, 2009); YASAR & ADIGUEL, 2010). In this article, the authors use the term Learning Management for all actions regarding the design of the instructional design of the course, the mentoring model and the design and production process of materials. The management of learning is a task of the management team is also responsible for financial management, human resources and knowledge involved in design in distance education. Each of these tasks can be developed by different people within an educational institution whose organizational model may vary from institution to institution.

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tuning with the social, economical and cultural contexts, and also tries to build a teaching-learning process suiting the student’s interests, expectations and needs (SARTORI & ROESLER, 2005). It appertains to the learning managers define the teaching strategies that the institution will employ to performed learning. By defining how the didactic materials and the interaction model will favour communication between professors and students, the management team establishes the strategies of paramount importance for the teaching and learning process, as they disclose how collaborative learning will occur. The management team set of actions has as goal the good completion of the teaching-learning process, and such actions are related in an interdependent way. Among the tasks to accomplish there are some that have immediate, direct and intrinsic repercussion on learning; they are those concerning the pedagogical design. The pedagogical design refers to the educational objectives definition, syllabus conception, choice of the educative and communication media that will be made available for students, professors and tutors, until the evaluation system conception and to the elaboration of the student tutorial assistance dynamics and of the students relations among themselves. The relationship between learning management and the pedagogical design can be represented by the following scheme: - Academic Secretary

Learning management

- Didactic material production - Tutorial System - Pedagogical Design

- Educational objectives definition - Contents distribution architecture - Teaching methodology - Interaction model -Learning evaluation system

Fig. 1 Components of Learning Management Source: SARTORI & ROESLER, 2005, p. 46.

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The learning management actions related to the student’s academic life, the definition of the tutorial system that will provide pedagogical support, the entire process of conception, production and distribution of the didactic materials, have implications in the pedagogical design of a distance undergraduate course. The above scheme exposes the need of thinking each action in its specific characteristics upon planning and execution, but they cannot be understood as isolated and independent actions. It appertains the management team produce self-sufficient didactic materials in the sense of providing all possible information to students, seeking to minimize the changes of elementary doubts and favouring the use of time with creative and productive questionings by the students. The didactic material, either printed or online, does not waive the dialog creation and maintenance strategies, and therefore leads to the management team’s quest for the knowledge conception rupture as transfer of information, an action disclosed in the way in which it performed the students’ co-authorship in collaborative processes. Little interactive pedagogical designs and which conceive knowledge as something to be transferred and accumulated, besides not being compatible with the society in which we live, do not take advantage of the potentialities made available by current technologies. In Distance Education Systems, dialogicity and interactivity are intrinsically linked to the pedagogical design. An interactive pedagogical design allows participation, intervention, co-authorship, collective construction of knowledge, dialog, and the most diverse conditions of interlocution among students and professors. This discussion is extremely pertinent when we report to DES due to the inherent relationship between the educational modality in discussion and TIC, with their growth provided by digital technologies. (SARTORI, 2006). One of the fundamental characteristics of an interactive pedagogical design consists in the forecast of educational strategies that performed collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is that in which two or more people learn or intend to learn something together, as stated by Dillenbourg (2008): 111

“Two or more” may be interpreted as a pair, a small group (3-5 subjects), a class (20-30subjects), a community (a few hundreds or thousands of people), a society (several thousands or millions of people)... and all intermediate levels. “Learn something” may be interpreted as “follow a course”, “study course material”, “perform learning activities such as problem solving”, “learn from lifelong work practice”, .... “Together” may be interpreted as different forms of interaction: face-toface or computer mediated, synchronous or not, frequent in time or not, whether it is a truly joint effort or whether the labour is divided in a systematic way.

Through the author’s words we can understand that collaborative learning admits several possible strategies for students to learn and build their knowledge collectively, with works in small or big groups, mediated by computers or carried out at attendance meetings, with specific topics within a didactic unit or approaching the entire syllabus of a subject. In this sense, collaborative learning reveals itself as an educative strategy that promotes an active learning, participative and shared. As we have just seen, collaborative learning involves individuals as group members, but also involves phenomena like the negotiation and sharing of meanings—including the construction and maintenance of shared conceptions of tasks—that are accomplished interactively in group processes. Collaborative learning involves individual learning, but is not reducible to it. (GERRY; KOSCHMANN & SUTHERS, 2008). This way, it is important to understand that collaborative learning consists rather of an attitude to be developed than of a teaching technique. Patent (1996) drew the attention to this aspect of collaboration by stating that: Collaborative learning (CL) is a personal philosophy, not just a classroom technique. In all situations where people come together in groups, it suggests a way of dealing with people which respects and highlights individual group members’ abilities and contributions. There is a sharing of authority and acceptance of responsibility among group members for the group’s actions. The underlying premise of collaborative learning is based 112

upon consensus building through cooperation by group members, in contrast to competition in which individuals best other group members. An interactive pedagogical design creates conditions for students to exchange and share experiences. For this, it makes use of team work, text collective building, group studies execution, cause collective activities implying discussion, shared decision-making, leadership turnover, among other strategies. At the end, as a result, we encounter responsibility sharing, socializing skills learning, the perception that knowledge is a collective process, and the valorisation of each one’s contribution. THE INTERACTIVE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN AND LEARNING The pedagogical design is conceived oriented according to an understanding of learning, of knowledge, of human being and of society serving as bases for the course pedagogical practice development. Therefore, the pedagogical practice conception provides the pedagogical design with the philosophical, epistemological and methodological fundaments supporting the activities developed along the teaching and learning process, and guides the decision making and solution proposing for problems that may be present, both structural and conjunctural. The Genetic Epistemologist Jean Piaget explains how, since birth, the individual builds knowledge, stating that the human being is not born intelligent, but is not passive under the environment forces; on the contrary, he responds to external stimulations, acting over them to build and organize his own knowledge, in a more and more elaborated way. For Piaget (FERNAND, 2009), the professor must dedicate special highlight to the student’s spontaneous research. The entire truth to be acquired must be reinvented, or at least rebuilt, and not simply conveyed. Piaget always defended practices based on group games, researches and work, and the professor’s task is to facilitate knowledge acquisition by students. Because it defends group work, this conception promotes collaborative proposals. 113

We can find interesting ideas for distance education at the thought of Leon Vigostky (FREEMAN, 2010). Attentive to the human being social nature, who since the cradle lives surrounded by his peers in an environment impregnated by culture, he defended that that the very development of intelligence is a product of this intimacy. For Vygotsky (RATNER, 2011) conveying the socially elaborated knowledge is part of the professor’s role, inasmuch as the individual needs to appropriate the produced knowledge to built his own. Knowledge building requires that the subject be active and interacts with the environment and with the others, using the mediation, operational and symbolic instruments, in order to internalize the knowledge, and not to assimilate them passively, without having achieved a deep understanding. All education proposal, either attendance or remote, is based on a given conception of how learning occurs, and the latter guides the entire learning process. The apprentice is part of a social group and learns from the interactions with the other members of the historic context in which he is inserted, according to the sociocultural theory approach, and it appertains to the professor to stimulate the exchange of information for the knowledge to be built collaboratively. We can glimpse consonance between the theory of Vygotsky and the principles of a distance educational proposal guided by collaboration, inasmuch as the communication, exchange of ideas, group work and knowledge social building transcend the limits of individualist pedagogy. In the sociocultural approach learning is contemplated as a collective process, in which the collaboration among peers is an inherent part of the process. By taking into account what we expected from the students, in function of the learning conception elected by the project, we are taking into account the possibility of evaluating the course pedagogical design quality. In this process, the interface quality is evaluated – the Learning Virtual Environment –, the contents adequacy to the syllabus, the efficiency of the means of communication employed and the didactic materials quality (printed or online). These sectorial evaluations make it possible to 114

evaluate the entire project proposed by the management team aiming at assuring an emancipated and quality Distance Education. The evaluation has a fundamental role in the teaching-learning process, as it indicates to the professor the advances and difficulties of his students, making it possible to correct any possible planning and execution failures of the pedagogical activities. The evaluation has its beginning when the team elects the educational objectives, as the evaluation checks to what extent they were achieved. It is based on a consistent and discerning evaluation that we check the quality and efficiency of the various components of the teaching-learning process: the learning, didactic materials, collaborative strategies, syllabus and the means of communication used to carry out the pedagogical mediation. In order for us to evaluate the learning performance in the Distance Education modality, we can take into account several technologies made available, such as forums and chats, with the purpose of checking collaboration and interaction among the professors. As an incentive to autonomy, it has been developed the practice of self-evaluation and peer evaluation, which also incentives group work. We need to take into account that learning is individual (DRAPPER, 2011), but derived from group and interpersonal interactions. Thus, we need objective instruments that enable us to evaluate the students performance, but that also enable us to follow-up the learning process, in order for us to avoid the risk of only evaluating the results obtained and failing to follow-up the process experienced by the group, missing the possibility of obtaining feedback as to the process planning as a whole. A new evaluation focus is necessary in case of Distance Education, as a re-meaning of education and evaluation practices concerns directly a contemporary re(reading) of the challenges facing education. This fact becomes even more critical, inasmuch as we need to take into account the path travelled by the student, that is, evaluative strategies taking into account the process and its product must be conceived. In these terms, the consultation to new sources, the researches carried out, the qual115

ity and frequency of interventions and collaborations in communication environments with synchronous and asynchronous devices appear, among others. The procedural and continuous learning evaluation, at its individual and collective moments, is conceived in consonance with the pedagogical strategies allowing the subject and the course objectives to be fulfilled. From this viewpoint, the process developed by the students provides criteria to check to what extent the collaborative practice is performed by a given pedagogical design, which must, therefore, contemplate strategies and instruments of learning follow-up and of checking the results achieved. THE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN AND DIDACTIC MATERIALS The pedagogical design must contemplate actions enabling students to fulfil the educational objectives established by the project, such as, for instance, the acquisition of the skills and competences required for their professional and critical citizen formation. For this, it needs strategies providing a broad and critical approach of contents. In this sense, the content distribution architecture concerns the contents organization and presentation in such a way as to offer to the student a study script and a determined systematization of knowledge that provides learning, that is, it starts with the conception and development of the didactic material structure, typology and format to establish the study and learning evaluation activities progress. The teaching-learning process begins with the preparation of the curriculum, and the last, that the definition of the practice of teaching, expected profile graduates students and delimitation of areas of knowledge related to the course as well as their distribution in disciplines and their distribution in time. (CARDOSO & SILVA, 2011). The syllabus is an important item of the pedagogical performance because it structures the information and contents flow, reverberating in the didactic materi116

als production and delivery schedule and in professor and specialist hiring, as the management team can follow a production and hiring temporal scale according to the syllabus structure progress. Team production is one of the Distance Education fundamental characteristics. The products and services that are part of the teaching and learning process are planned by a multidisciplinary and, many times, multifunctional team, inasmuch as they add the contribution of professionals who develop tasks such as teaching, content development, virtual environments conception, didactic materials production, among others. (RIBEIRO & ZARO, 2008). The didactic materials deserve special attention, as they occupy a central place in the pedagogical design, perform a role of unquestionable importance in the processes that have mediating character, and for this are produced not only as content supports but as sources of guidance for the students trajectory and support points for researches and collaborative projects preparation. The professional responsible for the didactic material conception (called instructional designer) develops the actions related to the distance teaching methodology, which requires the planning and execution of actions linked to the contents distribution architecture, to the definition of didactic material composition strategies, to the pedagogical conception of online environments, to the didactic materials aesthetic definition, to the proposition of collaborative strategies, to the implementation of the subjects study and execution schedule, and to the learning evaluation structure preparation (SMITH, TIMM & RAGAN, 2011). It appertains to the instructional designer to coordinate, guide and support the authors team in the didactic materials building, production schedule fulfilment, learning objectives preparation, contents selection, evaluation activities and criteria selection, and in the use of the interactive and collaborative possibilities of the communication devices used by the course. The instructional designer follows-up the entire didactic material production process since its planning, with 117

deadline fixation, selection of the involved resources and team, until the graphic model preparation and the Learning Virtual Environment pedagogical conception. He participates in the author’s qualification and in the project evaluation as a whole, and selects resources and establishes deadlines for the work team. The didactic material composition strategies are defined by the instructional designer and by the authors in function of the learning objectives and of adequacy to the approached contents (REISER, 2007). Among the composition strategies there are language, text organization, hyper-textual and evaluation, which consist of: language adequacy; image selection; indication of literature, cybernetic literature, hearings and audiovisuals; indication of auxiliary texts; use of synchronous and asynchronous communication devices; development of projects and/or case studies; browse script building; and, besides, learning and didactic material evaluation and self-evaluation. Distance Education is an educative modality that has always given much importance to the didactic material composition (PEÑALVO & CARRASCO, 2011), with the purpose of facilitating reading understanding by the student. The didactic materials must contain all elements for the students to proceed, in the best possible way, with their learning, research and evaluation activities. Thus, they are self-sufficient, not because they create fixed points of arrival, but because they do not add obstacles to the possible trajectories that the students will build. In order to assure their role of mediators and inaugurators of dialog spaces, the didactic materials must be conceived to provide imagination, interpretation and invitation to co-authorship of built contents and in the collective buildings performed by the communicational devices.

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THE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN AND THE COMMUNICATION DEVICES In order to allow asynchrony between the actions of teaching and learning, the Distance Education always employed the information and communication technologies, which characterizes it as a technologically mediated education. The technological development, however, has performed the interaction increment in real time, which increased the range of possibilities for the pedagogical design conception. The latter can offer synchronous communication devices to faciliteted the knowledge collective building from the real-time interaction between the teaching-learning process agents and asynchronous communication devices that allow an interaction decentralized in time, but not decentralized from the collective or from the process. Among those devices we have the chat and the forum, to give some examples, which allow the interaction and deepening of the ongoing discussion and the collective building of knowledge based on collaboration. They are devices that make it possible to establish affection, cognitive and social links in an atmosphere of cordiality and companionship, favouring the feeling of belonging to the group. The traditional Distance Education is defined by a broadcasting communication model, in which an emitting source emits messages simultaneously to many addressees. The New Information and Communication Technologies made it possible for new pedagogical design models to be visualized, offering communicative possibilities that allowed co-authorship to the extent that students can be sources, inaugurate communicative processes and participate in them as instituting and significant components. A very important task of those responsible for the pedagogical design or a course consists in the forecast and conception of the communication devices among the teaching system agents, both the communication among the students and the communication between the latter 119

and professors and those responsible for the course progress at large. By choosing the communicational devices that will be part of the pedagogical design, the managers should use their own characteristics and project the moments and the modes in which they will be used, in order to potentialise interaction between students and professors, as well as execution of activities and projects to be developed by the students. The choice of medias is one of the fundamental aspects of the preparation of the pedagogical design of a course, as they facilitate the relationship between students and the topics to be studied and discussed, inasmuch as they provide structure for different architectural conceptions of the contents distribution. The media choice is directly related to the interaction model between students, professors and pedagogical coordination, as well as to the possibility of assisting several types of learning. A well elaborated pedagogical design contemplates a consistent dialog between the contents to be taught and the media that will be used, in function of the public to be assisted and of the project educational objectives. In these terms, technology access is a determinant factor in the pedagogical design elaboration for a specific target public, inasmuch as it performs the mediation function in the teaching and learning process. The participation in pre-determined times and/or the physical presence at a given place are necessary conditions when the pedagogical design is based on synchronous communication devices, with which interaction occurs in real time. The asynchronous communication devices allow a longer time for reflection, as the interaction occurs without fixed times. In this case, the pedagogical design offers higher flexibility for the contents access and the contribution can occur according to the student’s possibilities. The asynchronous communication devices allow the proposition of flexible interactive pedagogical designs, more recommendable for projects that assist an adult public that use to have relatively busy professional and family agendas, which many times brings difficulties for the execution of activities with pre-determined times. More and more, con120

venience and flexibility of times have become basic criteria for the professional formation of youths and adults. The communicational system in the pedagogical design has the function of promoting interaction among the teaching-learning process agents and its pedagogical role goes beyond interaction between professors and students, offering means for the students to clarify their doubts, both academic and administrative, as well as those relative to technical procedures. CONCEPT MAPS: GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS When elaborating the pedagogical design, the program management team must be concerned with the quality of education proposed to the students. The teaching and learning process quality depends on the way as the didactic materials are structured. In other words, the efficient didactic material elaboration is fundamental for the Distance Education. The contents ordering and structuring must such that provokes the interaction among the students and assures a significant learning. The concept maps are then presented as a feasible proposal for the offer of an interactive pedagogical design that […] serves readers by ‘locating’ the concepts and categories that have played a role in each particular circumstance; it helps to signal what concepts and categories are common, and which ones are context specific. The reader who uses a concept map is essentially led to analyze the subject matter from a systems thinking perspective. (RAMIREZ, 2008).

The structure of a course contents reveals the managers concern with the development of a collaborative practice based on the conception of an interactive pedagogical design. Attributing a structural organization to a course implies decisions complying with the following 121

questions: “which thematic sequence, which approach and how will the hierarchic relations between the concepts be?”. In this sense, the concept map are interesting tools, as with diagrams it is possible to hierarchically represent the concepts and their relations, thus providing a broader view of the contents and of the existing relations between the fundamental concepts of a knowledge area. A concept map helps the user ‘locate’ the themes and concepts that are relevant. The map is part of a ‘methodology’ in that it organizes the stock of ideas by means of which we interpret the world around us. The map serves as a foundation to organize the parts of a puzzle. (RAMIREZ, op. cit.).

A concept map is a graphic representation of knowledge that can use circles and squares to represent concepts and lines expressing the relation between the concepts. For Joseph D. Novak and Albert J. Caña (2008), a concept is “(…) a perceived regularity in events or objects, or records of events or objects, designated by a label”. In a concept map, a concept is usually represented by a single word, but it can be composed by more than one word or by symbols. Two concepts united by an express relation form what the authors call proposition. “Propositions are statements about some object or event in the universe, either naturally occurring or constructed. Propositions contain two or more concepts connected using linking words or phrases to form a meaningful statement”(NOVAK ; CAÑA, op. cit.). Propositions are sometimes referred to as semantic units or meaning units, inasmuch as they are constituted by a basic assertion. The trinity formed by two concepts and the relation between them constitute more than a phrase; it is a statement that can be true or false. A proposition expresses the thinking in a perceptible way, tells us about the ‘status of things’, as Wittgenstein teaches us. The sentences ‘I am not sure that I chose the right date’ or ‘The sea colour is beautiful’ do not allow a false or true attribution, as they express a 122

feeling and an opinion, while the sentence ‘The diary cattle of this farm is very productive’ can be submitted to checking and its truthfulness or falsity can be proved. This way, the relation established among the concepts must form a statement that can be confirmed – or denied, which enables us to expose a logical relation organizer of a determined content. Thus, a concept map is a set of logic relations, expressed graphically, which allows us to organize a determined body of knowledge. Besides, in a concept map, concepts are organized as from a hierarchic relation. In general, the broadest concepts are at the top of the map and the most specific concepts are encountered at the lower part of a concept map. The hierarchy, which indicates more general concepts for more specific concepts, is identified by the existence of lines with arrows that indicate the reading sense, from the most general concept to the most specific one. In concept maps in which more general concepts are at the top, horizontal lines serve to connect concepts that have the same degree of generality. This hierarchy, however, depends on the objectives that we are pursuing, on the context in which the study is being done. This way, a dominion of knowledge can be represented by several maps, and different maps can be built at different moments and contexts by the same person. Hierarchy, however, is a key concept to understand the concept maps, as they are not flow diagrams or possible mental associations of the studied matter, just like they are not organizational charts or synoptic charts or summaries expressed in words connected by arrows. The hierarchy among concepts is their fundamental characteristic, that is, concept maps indicate semantic relations, relate meanings. In this sense, a concept map should evidence meanings attributed to concepts and the relations existing among them inside a determined subject or content. In view of the foregoing, we can conclude that a concept map is an excellent learning tool, because it organizes knowledge in a semantic and spatial way, creating an arrangement of interconnected and interrelated ideas. The elaboration of a concept map allows a better deepening 123

of knowledge, which facilitates the knowledge application in new situations, that is, it helps in the solution of problems. Concept mapping is also gaining inroads as a tool for problem-solving in education. Concept mapping may be used to enhance the problem-solving phases of generating alternative solutions and options. Since problem-solving in education is usually done in small groups, learning should also benefit from the communication enhancing properties of concept mapping. (PLOTNICK, 2008). The problem solution base is in answering a well focused question, and this is the best way of producing a concept map (NOVAK; CAÑA, op. cit.). A good way to define the context for a concept map is to construct a Focus Question, that is, a question that clearly specifies the problem or issue the concept map should help to resolve. Every concept map responds to a focus question, and a good focus question can lead to a much richer concept map. When learning to construct concept maps, learners tend to deviate from the focus question and build a concept map that may be related to the domain, but which does not answer the question. It is often stated that the first step to learning about something is to ask the right questions. Besides, the preparation of concept maps can serve for the development of several strategies of learning promotion, such as, for instance, designing content complex structures, synthetically identifying and expressing the relations among the most important contents, review the studied matter to clarify points that remained confused, develop the synthesis capability of a semantic relation through the expression in words, organize the hypertext structure or of a web site, among others.

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CONCEPT MAPS AND THE SIGNIFICANT LEARNING The pedagogical use of concept maps has its theoretical fundament on the Learning Theory of the American cognitivist David Ausubel (1968), who studied how the learning in school context occurs. Learning, for him, is the process of combination, representation and ordering that occurs upon the information reception. Learning occurs according to the following principles: more general ideas should be presented first; afterwards, the professor should present the detailing; new knowledge should be presented in order to integrate to previous knowledge by comparison and crossings between new and old information. Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, nonverbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity. (KEARSLEY, op. cit.).

The basic idea of the Theory of Ausubel (op. cit.) resides in the importance that mental processes have in the development of knowledge. In order to establish an anchor with the concepts already learned, the knowledge has to be significant. The concepts already established provide a structure in which the new concept interacts and integrates to form a new concept. In this process, the new concept anchorage is not arbitrary; learning is referred to as significant. When this process does not occur and the learned material does not connect to that already known, it happens what Ausubel referred to as ‘mechanical learning’ – rote learning. In order to learn, the student has to be predisposed, and it is the individual who deter125

mines whether the information is significant for him or not. New concepts and propositions anchored more easily in the previous cognitive structure when presented in a sentence or in a graphic – a previous organizer. Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn’t involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning. (KEARSLEY, 2008).

The Theory of Ausubel (op. cit.) forecasts, besides previous organizers, advanced organizers, comparative organizers and progressive differentiation. Comparative organizers allow concepts to be discriminated from others that be approximate, identifying similarities and differences in a set of related ideas. The differentiation process increases stability and clearness of ideas. From the most general idea, successive steps gradually clarify the details; from the most important concepts in the hierarchy the most specific concepts are reached. According to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you’re teaching three related topics A, B, and C, rather than teaching all of topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is, in your first pass through the material, you would teach the “big” ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details. Along the way you would point out principles that the three topics had in common, and things that differentiated them. (ERLENDSSON, 2008).

Considering the foregoing, we perceive that the author considers the cognitive structure as a concept network hierarchically organized according to the degree of abstraction and generalization of the concepts. This statement is fundamented on the proposition of Ausubel, in which the internal cognitive organization of individuals is formed by concept 126

knowledge whose relations are more important than the quantity of concepts, and learning becomes an assimilation process. Learning can be significant or mechanic. The significant learning enriches the student’s cognitive structure, which is used for new learnings. The mechanical learning occurs when new concepts are added arbitrarily to the previous cognitive structure, that is, assimilation is mechanic and does not create new concepts. The significant learning allows knowledge to be remembered for a longer period of time and increases learning capability. The significant learning expands or modifies the cognitive structures of a student; thus, it is necessary that teaching provokes conflicts, challenges, disagreements that provoke unbalance, that open the doors to new propositions and concepts. This is only possible if the student has an active participation in the teaching and learning process. CONCEPT MAPS AND THE INTERACTIVE PEDAGOGICAL DESIGN Concept maps can contribute to an interactive pedagogical design from three distinct levels: didactic material production, studies strategies end evaluation. As a didactic material production strategy, we should take into consideration that the building of a concept map provides a broad view of the relations established among concepts. Having clearness of the concept hierarchies can contribute for the professor who writes the didactic text to locate and select the important and essential topics of the content to be approached, as well as help him in the choice of the approaching strategy that he will give to his material. Departing from more general concepts to those more specific helps the student to better understand the exposed content and the consideration of its previous knowledge increases the possibility that significant learning occurs, as it enables the student to anchor what he is learning with what he already knows. 127

As a study strategy, placing at the students’ disposal the didactic material contents in the format of a concept map provides them with a localization mode in their studies. The students can check with the available map at which point of the study and understanding they are. It this concept map be made available in virtual environments, by having an associated link, concepts can be understood as entrance or exit bridges between a matter and another, that is, as a sort of guide allowing browsing randomly or organisedly, with the contents quick location. Plotnick (op. cit.) states that a conceptual map made available in the Web can be a browse tool, if any clickables areas on the conceptual map that take the user immediately to the parts of the hypertext document. Besides, a concept map serves as a tool that facilitates consultation to the didactic material, which can be done from any point (concept) of the map. For this, in consonance with its graphical nature, a concept map can be an interesting browsing tool and make the desired information more accessible. The structural correspondence between hypertext design and concept maps makes concept mapping a suitable tool for designing the conceptual structure of hypertext. The structure of both a hypertext document and a concept map can be seen as directed graph or a knowledge graph. (PLOTNIK, op. cit.).

For the preparation of a course or subject concept map it is necessary to identify the basic concepts involved in the thematic and distribute them so that they can reveal the hierarchy degrees and the relations that they have among them. The set of propositions that the student chooses or builds helps him in two fundamental ways: the first, in the propositions choice, which implies judgment and synthesis skills; the second, in the possibility of checking the correctness or error in the selection of his set, inasmuch as a false or unsuitable statement can be detected, and that would require revision of the map that he builds. Suggest to students that they make and discuss their own concept maps of the matter that 128

they studied can generate provocative situations of new learnings and opportunities to express that knowledge re-elaboration sustains influences from the experience of each one and from the context where they are. Concept maps are also effective in helping teachers identify students’ prior knowledge and understandings and organize teaching and learning in a way that is meaningful to them. […]Last, but not least, once students learn how to externalize their understanding and create concept maps, their maps can be used as a way to monitor their conceptual development and assess their understanding and knowledge. (BIRBILI, 2008).

Besides serving as teaching strategy, the preparation of a concept map also serves as an evaluation strategy, despite all subjectivity that may be involved in it. When providing information about the conceptual structure to the student, a map makes it possible to check whether there were changes and whether there is coherence between the set of contexts and its relations with the contents taught. Besides, it makes it possible to explain that the structure of a subject is not something rigid, inflexible and unchangeable, but, on the contrary, it is a proposal from which to start and for which to expect the contribution of every one. In the didactic material preparation, at the moment when he decides the text structure, and when asking students to build their own concept maps, the professor, by asking the students to build their own concept maps, will provide them with chances for learning to be significant, and there will certainly be meaning recognition by students. This is a way of preventing learning from being mechanical, with the arbitrary overlapping of new concepts to the concepts that the students already had. By not being guided by memorization, but in the critical thought exercise, the studies proposed by the professor incite to the challenge of understanding, instigate the asking of questions by the student, both to the professor and to himself. In this sense, learning becomes a process of assimilation and occurs by confrontation of the studied contents with what the stu129

dent already knows. This way, a new concept appears from the interaction between the already known and the new knowledge acquired, which become significant for the student, providing bases for new learnings. A conceptual map can be an individual construction, from the student’s interaction with the studied contents, or a collective product, from the discussion and contribution of every one to the group. In terms of evaluation, the students themselves can self-evaluate them from the critical comparison between the concept map that they built and the concept map provided by the didactic material or built by classmates. The concept maps built by classmates can provoke the evaluation of the map proposed by the material, and likewise enables the professor to follow-up their students’ learning development, thinking and re-thinking his pedagogical strategies. As significant learning depends on the student consolidating the significant contents for him, it is fundamental to provide moments of discussion and confrontation of ideas and positions. In this sense, an interactive pedagogical design proposes several strategies for interaction to exist among students, professors and administrative team. This way, the students can confront their ideas and conceptions with those of other people, and acquire tools for the critical thought development. At the end, they learn how they learn. Concept map can serve as tool for the development of several learning promotion strategies. They directly collaborate with learning, serving as a tool of thought and contents organization by the students can contribute to evaluation activities and can be used as contents organization strategies by the elaborators of didactic material, aiding in the production process. Considering the didactic material importance and its conjugation with communication devices, that facilitate interaction among the teaching and learning process agents, we can conclude that concept maps are interesting tools to provide collaborative learning in the Distance Educational modality, and it contributes to an interactive pedagogical design. 130

REFERENCES AUSUBEL, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: a cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. BATES, A. W. (1995).Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. BIRBILI, M. (2008). Mapping Knowledge: Concept Maps in Early Childhood Education. Retrieved march 25, 2008, from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v8n2/birbili.html BRUFFEE, K. A. (1984). Collaborative Learning and the “Conversation of Mankind”. College English, v. 46, n. 7, p. 635-652, nov. 1984. CARDOSO, M. Y. , SILVA, A. C. C. (2011). Methodology for a distance education didatic material production: from the teaching plan to the tutorial script. Retrieved Jan. 1, 2011, from: http://www.abed.org.br/congresso2008/tc/ ing/1152008220039.pdf DILLENBOURG, P. (2008). What do you mean by ‘collaborative learning’? Retrieved 12 june, 2008, from http://tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/publicat/dil-papers-2/Dil.7.1.14.pdf DRAPPER, S. W. (2011). From active learning to interactive teaching individual activity and interpersonal interaction. Retrieved jan. 2011, from: http://celt.ust.hk/tlsymp04/paper/draper_stephen.pdf ERLENDSSON, J. (2008). Ausubel’s meaningful reception learning. Retrieved may 22, 2008, from http://www.hi.is/~joner/eaps/wh_ausub.htm FERNAND, N. (2009). Les courants de la psycologie modern. Paris : De Book Université. FREEMAN, M. (2010). Vigotsky and the virtual classroom: sociocultural theory comes to the communicatios classroom. Christian Perspectives in Education. Volume 4. Issue 1-5. Retrieved jan. 18, 2011, from http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cpe/vol4/iss1/5/ HARASIM, L. (1989).On-Line Education: A New Domain. In: MASON, R., KAYE, A. (eds). Mindweave: Communication, Computers and Distance instruction. Oxford: Pergamon Press. JONES, D. (2009). “One ring to rule them all”: Limitations and implications of the LMS/VLE product model. Retrieved January 10, 2011, from http://davidtjones.wordpress.com/2009/03/27/onering-to-rule-them-all-limitations-and-implications-of-the-lmsvle-product-model/. KEARSLEY, G. (2008) Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database. Retrieved may 23, 2008, from http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html

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KEEGAN, D. (1990). Foundations of distance education. 2ed. London: Routledge. NOVAK, J. D. ; CAÑAS, A. J. The theory underlying Concept Maps and how to construct and use them. Retrieved March 30, 2008, from http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderlyinConceptMaps.htm MOORE, M. G.; KEARSLEY, G. (2005). Distance Education: A Systems View (Second ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. RAMÍREZ, R. (2008). A conceptual map of land conflict management: Organizing the parts of two puzzles. Retrieved June 29, 2008, from http://www.fao.org/sd/2002/IN0301a_en.htm SARTORI, A. S. (2006). Communication and the distance education: the dialogue between interaction modes and the instructional design. In Current Developments in Technology-Assisted Education. Formatex, Seville, Spain, 2006. Retrieved June 12, from http://www.formatex.org/micte2006/pdf/1809-1814.pdf STAHL, G., KOSCHMANN T., SUTHERS, D. (2008). Computer-supported collaborative learning: An historical perspective. Retrieved Jan. 10, 2011, from http://www.gerrystahl.net/cscl/CSCL_English.pdf PANITZ, T. (1996). A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning. Retrieved Jan. 05, 2011, from http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collaborative-learning/panitz-paper.cfm PEÑALVO, CARRASCO. (2011). Issues in design, creation and production of distance-learning resources. Retrieved jan. 5, 2011, from http://campus.usal.es/~teoriaeducacion/rev_numero_04/n4_art_penalvo-carrasco.htm PLOTNICK, E. (1997). Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship Between Concepts. In Clearinghouse on information & Technology. Retrieved Jan. 12, 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED407938&ERICExtS earch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED407938 Retrieved jan.13, 2011, from http://www.sonic.net/~cr2/sociohis.htm RATNER, C. (2011). Historical and contemporary significance of Vigotsky’s sociohistoriacal psychology. Retrieved jan.13, 2011, from http://www.sonic.net/~cr2/sociohis.htm REISER, R. A. & DEMPSEY, J. V. (2007). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technologye. (2nd edition). Saddle River, Pearson education.

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SARTORI, A. S. & ROESLER, J. (2005). Educação Superior a Distancia. Gestão da aprendizagem e da produção de materiais didáticos impressos e on-line. Unisul. SARTORI, A. S. & ROESLER, J. The contribution of conceptual maps to interactive pedagogic design. EDULEARN10 proceedings, pages 5809-5815. ISBN 978-84-613.9386-2 Available: http://library.iated.org/view/SARTORI2010THE SARTORI, A. S. (2006). Communication and the distance education: the dialogue between interaction modes and the instructional design. M-ICTE2009 proceeding. http://www.formatex.org/micte2006/index.php SARTORI, A. S. (2007). A comunicação na educação a distância: o desenho pedagógico e os modos de interação. Anuário Internacional de Comunicação Lusófona. Portugal: LUSOCOM. SARTORI, A. S. (2009). Communication in the distance education. Interaction modes and the pedagogical design. Technology, Education and Development. Croácia: Intech, pages 75-92. Available: http://www.intechopen.com/articles/show/title/communication-in-thedistance-education-interaction-modes-and-the-pedagogical-design SMITH, P. L. & RAGAN, T. J. (2011). Instructional Design. Snd edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieved Jan, 7, 2011, from http://create.alt.ed.nyu.edu/courses/2174/reading/ smith_ragan_1_2.pdf RIBEIRO, L.O., TIMM, M.I. & ZARO, M.A. (2008). Technical and Operational Requirements for Distance Education, According to Teachers and Tutors View. In K. McFerrin et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2008 (pp. 661-666). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved Jan. 3, from http://www.editlib.org/p/27244. YASAR, O. & ADIGUZEL, T. A. (2010). Working sucesor of learning Management Systems: SLOODLE. Procedia – Social Behavioral Sciences. Volume 2. Issue 2, pages 56825685.

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EMBEDDED AUDIO FEEDBACK Shirley Hunter-Barnett

The business school: computing Edge Hill University, UK [email protected]

Sue Murrin-Bailey

The business school: business & management Edge Hill University, UK

ABSTRACT Most students today work in a digital age, with the appearance of social software and Web 2.0 technologies, and although in the past access to technology has been considered problematic, this is not currently the case. Therefore, how technology can be harnessed to promote students’ learning is nowadays often under debate. One such technology is the use of digital audio feedback, as previous studies have found students learning can benefit from its use [Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2010]. The focus of this chapter is on tutor responsiveness to embedded audio feedback and whether it is a technology that they are prepared to use.     Results from National Student Surveys show students are clearly not satisfied with assessment and feedback [HEFCE, 2009], to help transform these results the Higher Education Academy (HEA) identified a series of practices to enhance students’ feedback on their assessed work, one such suggestion was the delivery of feedback in an alternative format [HEA, 2008]. Although the capabilities of mobile technology are still advancing and as yet, not been fully exploited within Higher Education (HE), the use of digitally recorded audio feedback offers a suitable technological alternative and e-tool to help address this problem.

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Durbridge [1984] found that students learning benefits from the use of audio, and the results from a study carried out by Informal Mobile Podcasting and Learning Adaptation (IMPALA) in 2006/2007, confirm “audio … improve[s] the emotional aspects of learning”, by personalising and individualising content and bringing “immediacy, engagement and stimulation” [Pg: 5] to a student’s education. Following the work of IMPALA [2008], the Sounds Good Project at Leeds Metropolitan University [2008] and research conducted at Edge Hill University, that shows the use of embedded audio commenting can develop student responsiveness to feedback [Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2009], this chapter focuses on the use of embedded audio feedback and feed forward from a tutor perspective. Although there has been a substantial amount of research conducted into the use of audio feedback, the embedding of sound files within electronically submitted course work is not so well documented [Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2010]. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness and the effects of embedding digital audio feedback within a Word document whilst ascertaining what impact it would have on tutors’ everyday teaching commitments. Assessment should be a positive process, where students receive feedback that will assist their further learning and acknowledge their achievements, and it is hoped that the outcomes of this study will begin to progressively change approaches to the assessment and feedback process by encouraging other tutors to engage with audio feedback, helping to deepen and enrich students’ learning. The participants were tutors from Edge Hill University in Ormskirk, West Lancashire, UK, who had a wide variety of teaching experience and taught various subjects, at all levels. Most participants were digitally literate but not all. At the start of our studies, tutors had no previous experience of delivering audio feedback. Previous research shows tutors feel that the quality of feedback could be enhanced using digitally embedded audio comments and students “Pick up more information from voice rather than written comments” [Hunter-Barnett, 2009]. It is also a method of feedback that tutors are prepared to use and has helped improve teaching and feedback practice. However, although the findings show that feedback and feed forward can be enhanced using audio as an e-learning tool, they also demonstrate care must be given when considering its appropriateness as a single method of feedback. Following further investigation our preliminary findings are now showing that although tutors still find embedded audio feedback can be beneficial for students, it can have an impact on their attitude towards marking work, due to time constraints. This promotes the need for careful consideration when planning to use audio as a feedback mecha-

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nism and confirms that tutors should not use audio feedback just because it is available, it should be used for reasons of pedagogy [Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2009]. Based on these findings, recommended guidelines for delivering audio feedback are given and any problems encountered are discussed and suggestions for improvement in the feedback feed forward process included in this chapter. Keywords: Audio, feedback, feed forward, embedded, pedagogy, assessment, MP3, digital, recorded, formative, summative, learning, VLE

INTRODUCTION

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ith the appearance of social software and Web 2.0 technologies, students today work in a digital age, and although in the past accessibility to technology for students has been considered problematic, this is not currently the case. Therefore, how technology can be harnessed to promote students’ learning is nowadays often under debate. One such technology is the use of digital audio recordings, as previous studies have found that students learning can benefit from their use. Results from National Student Surveys show that although students are on the whole, happy with their experience in Higher Education (HE), they are not satisfied with the assessment and feedback process. To help alleviate this problem, the Higher Education Academy (HEA) has identified a series of practices to enhance students’ feedback on their assessed work. One such suggestion is the delivery of feedback in an alternative format. This chapter examines how digitally recorded audio comments, can be used as an alternative method of feedback for students currently studying within HE, and explores tutor and student responsiveness to its use as a feedback tool. Although there has been a substantial amount of research conducted into the use of audio feedback [IMPALA, 2008, Sound Good Project 2008/9], the embedding of sound files within electronically submitted course work is not so well documented. 137

The following pages report on three digitally embedded audio feedback research projects, conducted over a period of two years. All student participants were enrolled in the academic years 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 and studying various subjects, at levels three3, four4, five5 and six6. Although tutor participants had a range of teaching experience, none of them had experience of delivering digital audio feedback. The focus of our discussion will focus mainly around tutor responsiveness to the use of embedded audio feedback.  It will describe how there is a potential to use embedded digital sound files in HE and that its use seems to enable greater flexibility in the feedback process, whilst being a technology that tutors are prepared to use and students find easy to understand.  BACKGROUND Assessment The Oxford English dictionary defines assessment as “the process or means of evaluating academic work”. This meaning is appropriate whether a course is delivered in an online or face-to-face environment. Tutors assess their students to check their understanding of a given goal or objective. This is completed through a variety of methods, both formal and informal. Although, according to [Hall, 2009, p.2] the methods used have very little relevance to “21st century students and their modes of learning”. Assessment generates feedback information which is both useful to tutors and students. By using feedback students can “enhance [their] learning and achievement” ([Juwah et al, 2004] and tutors can reflect on their practice and how it can be changed to meet students’ specific needs. 3 4 5 6

Pre-graduate study Year 1 undergraduate study Year 2 undergraduate study Year 3 undergraduate study

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Assessment should be a positive process, where students receive feedback that will assist their further learning and acknowledge their achievements, and it is hoped that the outcomes of our studies will begin to progressively change approaches to the assessment and feedback process, by encouraging other tutors to engage with audio feedback, helping to deepen and enrich students’ learning. Feedback Feedback is seen as the key to assessment by Hramiak [2007] and can be given in the form of direct comments relating to performance via an assortment of mechanisms. However, the ability to give good feedback is something “that needs to be taught, developed and supported” [QAA, cited in Swain, 2008] for it to be useful to a student’s progression and should be aimed at improvement and any mistakes or misunderstanding identified, with suggestions for development made [Toohey, 1999]. When giving feedback the way students make sense of and use the feedback to improve their learning must be considered (Juwah et al 2004). Learning can be classified as both active and passive. In order for students to become active learners and judge their own performance they need to utilise feedback obtained from their tutors during the assessment process [Burns and Sinfield, 2006]. Toohey [2002] calls this the “reflection stage” and suggests that this stage of the learning process is usually something that is a private process between the student and the feedback they have received. Crook et al [2008, p.31] reinforce this when they say a learner “must privately orchestrate” their learning and “become reflective about their own thinking”. It is essential therefore, that feedback should be given in a way that assists a student with their own self evaluation and becomes a channel through which progression can be made [Reece and Walker, 2000]. It is also considered to be part of the relationship between students and tutors and as Gibbs and Simp139

son [2004, p.9] state “the most powerful single influence” on student achievement. Despite this they go on to say that “studies of what students do with feedback makes for depressing reading” [ibid, p.10] as it is sometimes not understood [Lea and Street, 1998], or may be used ineffectively [Higgins et al, 2002]. Furthermore, results from National Student Surveys show that students are markedly less positive about assessment and feedback than about other aspects of their learning experience [HEA, 2008]. Many suggestions for good practice are available to help guide and support tutors during the feedback process. One example is the seven principles of good feedback practice suggested by Nicol and MacfarlaneDick [2006, p.7] which they “broadly define as anything that might strengthen the students capacity to self-regulate their own performance”. These principles were used as guidelines for tutors as they were not familiar with delivering audio feedback and are discussed further in section lV. The HEA also identifies a series of effective practices to enhance students’ feedback on their assessed work. These suggestions include more timely feedback and the provision of feedback in alternative forms. Juwah et al [2004, p.7], suggest that “one way of increasing the effectiveness of feedback and the likelihood that the information provided is understood, is to conceptualise feedback more as a dialogue rather than as information transmission”, although they recognise that in face- to- face situations where there are large class numbers this may be difficult. Again, these suggestions formed part of the guidelines and reasoning for tutors delivering embedded audio feedback and are discussed later in the chapter. Results drawn by Black and William [1998] from their review of literature on formative assessment showed that descriptive feedback, rather than grades, led to the highest improvements in performance. Their research showed conclusively that feedback improved learning. However, as students consider grades as an indicator of their personal ability and as a final result, getting them to read feedback after they receive 140

a grade cannot be without difficulty and receiving a satisfactory grade may prevent students from channelling their effort toward further mastery of their work. Students who are offered feedback specific to their own work, without grades, find ways to incorporate it into future submissions and improve their results. This is reinforced by a study carried out by Lipnevich and Smith [2008, p.43], the results of which “demonstrated that feedback consisting of grades and comments led to significantly lower improvement than comments alone”. For the study, discussed in this chapter, feedback was descriptive and consisted of comments specific to an individual or group of students work. If a grade, for assessment purposes, was required it was given at the end of the monologue, or separately via the Universities Virtual Learning Environment [VLE], Blackboard, to encourage students to listen to the feedback prior to receiving the grade [Rotheram, 2007]. Communication Nowadays students communicate in ways that would have been not only impossible years ago, but unattainable. Evidence of technology is everywhere and it is quite normal for people to digitally communicate with each other [Wagner, 2005]. Today 17.8 million people residing in Britain aged over fifteen have three or more mobiles in their homes.  7000,000 of these are adults who have used their mobiles for social networking.  In addition to this, 80% of 11-15 year olds and 69% of 16-24 year olds own MP3 players [BMRB, 2007, JISC, 2009] and access to digital technology is no longer considered to be a problem for students, as “almost all full time students arrive at university with their own laptops and/or other mobile communications devices” [HEA, 2009, p. 20]. Taking this into consideration the HEA (2009) suggest that the technology used to develop students learning, should build on the experiences and skills they have previously developed whilst interacting with the Web 2.0 world. Many at141

tempts have already been made to harness these technologies, to enhance students’ learning experiences, and the utilisation of digital audio in the assessment and feedback process is one such method. History of Audio The use of audio as a learning tool is not a new phenomenon as it has been used in distance and face-to-face teaching for many years, via the radio, audio cassettes and CD’s [World Bank, cited in McLoughlin, et al., 1990; Salmon and Edirisingha, 2008]. It precedes the use of VLE’s and other digital technologies [Nortcliffe and Middleton, 2008]. Enno Klammer [1973], one of the founders of audio feedback, found using cassettes to give feedback to students on English courses both helpful to the students and time saving for himself, while in 1980, Alexander Medlicott considered his use of recording written comments to be a new development. After using audio as a form of feedback for a student who had difficulties reading text after a minor operation, Anson [1997] was so impressed with the experience he implemented it for other students. Following on from this several years later, Mellen and Sommers [2003] discuss the appropriateness of tape-recorded comments and their effectiveness as a method of communication between tutors and students. In 2004, discussion surrounding embedded comments within electronic assignment submissions started to appear, with Yohon and Zimmerman [2004] showing it to be an effective form of feedback. They also suggested that voice comments could be used to supplement the written embedded comment, in fact Stills (2006) trialled this form of embedding audio commenting for two years with positive results. Although research has proved that audio as a method of feedback is not new, its use is going through a period of regeneration, energised by ever-present portable audio players, the increasing capability of MP3 and MP4 devices in mainstream society, faster Internet access and “soft142

ware tools that allow the relatively easy creation and distribution of audio files” [Schlosser and Burmeister, 2006]. Nowadays, the use of audio enables educational content to be produced in alternative formats enhancing traditional delivery and acting as another method of communication [JISC, 2009]. Nevertheless, audio should only be used for reasons of pedagogy such as the enhancement of a student’s learning experience and not simply because it is available and relatively simple to produce, as discussed in section V [JISC, 2009; Lee, 2007]. The use of audio feedback encourages self-reflection, can be given to large classes without the need for face-to-face contact and is an alternative technology whose purpose is to “affect learning rather than to transmit knowledge” [Bradley et al, cited in Nortcliffe and Middleton, 2008, p.48]. This is because more information can be obtained from recorded comments, including tone of voice [Rust, 2001]. It is therefore seen to have good pedagogical underpinning [Salmon, 2004]. Participants in a study conducted by Jelfs and Whitelock [2000] felt that the use of audio created a feeling of tutor attendance, which substantiated research conducted by Reeves and Nass [1998] who concluded that the human voice increases social presence. Using audio to deliver feedback helps students to conceptualise it more as a dialogue, even though this form of delivery is a one-way communication and not interactive [Corbell and Valdes-Corbeil, 2007]. This could be as Durbridge [1984] suggests due to the fact cognition is improved through the clarity of the instruction given. Yet results of research conducted into students’ learning experiences and their impressions of audio feedback have shown that although it can be more time-consuming to receive feedback in an auditory format [Ice et al, 2007, Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey 2010] some students prefer feedback to be given this way and understand the advantages of it [Ice et al, 2007; Nortcliffe and Middleton, 2008; Rotherham, 2009, Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2010]. This is not true for all students, though, as some have reservations about receiving audio feedback, whilst others indicate a preference for both au143

dio and written comments [Still, 2006; Nortcliffe, 2007; Salmon and Edirisingha, 2008; Rotheram, 2009, Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2009]. It may be argued that other external factors have influenced this preference, the main contributors being the time the feedback was received [Gibbs and Simpson, 2005; Nicol and Macfarland-Dick, 2006; Hramiak, 2007; Rotheram, 2009] and the novelty factor of audio in the feedback process [Oomen-Early et al., 2008; Rotheram, 2009, HunterBarnett and Murrin-Bailey, 2010]. Pedagogy Lauillard D [2002] suggests any study evaluating technology as a new approach within teaching and learning should sit firmly within sound pedagogical principles and practices and the HEFCE 2005 elearning strategy recognises that the focus should be: “on student learning rather than on developments in technology per se, enabling students to learn through and be supported by technology” (Pg: 7). To address these issues, the utilisation of a VLE at Edge Hill University for Course Content Management is a minimum resource requirement for all modules. Opportunities also exist to broaden the use of technology that can be packaged within it, such as the delivery of electronic assessment and feedback that includes embedded digital commentaries. Thus increasing the interactivity of students towards more self-directed and self-paced learning [JISC, 2009] Lauillard [2002] also, suggests that the one-on-one tutorial approaches that can be offered to students as an additional form of support are often not possible in the current University teaching climate. This was certainly the case for the students who participated in our studies as they were either enrolled on part time, blended or online courses. It was therefore necessary, for alternatives to be developed that attempted to replicate this experience for students [HEFCE, 2009]. As discussed in 144

this chapter, the use of embedded audio commentary as a feedback and feed forward tool was one such option, and used as a replacement for one-on-one or face to face tutorials. DETAILS OF THE STUDY Purpose The results of the studies discussed in this chapter all had an overarching theme and that was to establish whether there was a potential to use embedded digital audio comments, on electronically submitted coursework as a form of feedback, enabling greater flexibility and enhancement to the feedback process. We also sought to ascertain if it was potentially a form of feedback that HE tutors were prepared to use. Although, our research has considered the use of audio from both a student and a tutor perspective, the focus of the findings discussed in this chapter relate mainly to the use of audio from a tutor perspective and collates research evidence and observations taken from three separate research projects conducted over a period of two years. Methodology As there was a distinct purpose behind the study, which was to evaluate the effectiveness and the effects of digital audio feedback, an outcome and process evaluative research approach was used, as it is concerned with the systematic observation and study of what actually occurred, “the ‘how?’ or ‘what is going on?’ question” [Robson, 2002, p.208]. This was considered appropriate as evaluative research works well with a flexible research strategy and lends itself to projects that have a short time span and fixed deadlines (ibid). 145

Therefore, a multiple research methodology that incorporated techniques from qualitative and quantitative methods was used for the “empirical data collection, using numerical and verbal data, in order to gather rounded reliable data. Data was collected via; an electronic self-completion, questionnaire, which was made available to all student participants; structured interviews which aimed to explore individual experiences of audio feedback and semi structured focus groups that further explored tutor and student perceptions of audio feedback, prior to and post delivery. The multi-method strategy adopted for the purpose of our studies is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Evaluation of technology

Interviews

Secondary Data Digital Audio Feedback

Survey

Participant Observtion Figure 1: Design Process

As flexible designs were used, for our studies, it was important the process for analysis and interpretation was not left until the end of each enquiry. This ensured that if, through the process of analysis further questions arose, further enquiry could be completed. A questionnaire was created for each study, where respondents were offered a choice of 146

alternative answers, and open-ended questions. This was delivered via an online survey tool, which enabled us to make efficient use of our time, interacting with the development, data capture and data analysis phases. Interviews and focus groups were recorded and transcribed. Respondents’ answers were coded according to predefined themes. For each study, the data was assembled into sub categories dependent upon an additional identification of coding paradigms. At the end of the three enquiries tutors took part in a series of focus groups, where they evaluated their use of embedded audio feedback. Participants Sixteen tutors who teach on a variety of courses took part in preliminary interviews. Fourteen of whom indicated, during discussion, that they would be prepared to use audio as a form of feedback. As can be seen in Table 1, out of the tutors who showed an interest in delivering feedback using this media, in addition to the authors, eight were randomly selected to use embedded audio commentaries. Subject Taught

Male

Female

Applied Social Science

1

Business

1

Computing

1

Criminology, Law

1

Developing Academic Skills

1

Psychology

4 1

Totals

2 (20%)

Table 1: Gender and subject (tutor)

147

8 (80%)

Five tutors used audio for an average of 30 weeks, with varying student cohorts, the remaining tutors used audio over a period of approximately 15 weeks with one student cohort. The number of students, who received audio, varied dependent upon the cohort at the time of the study. 2008/2009 » 2 widening participation students studying at level three » 38 business students studying at level four and five » 19 computing students studying at level six 2009/2010 » 36 widening participation students studying at level three » 14 computing students studying at level six As can be seen above there were four different levels of study involved in our research and a range of subjects. Widening participation students subjects included: Study Skills Applied Social Sciences Criminology

Business Computing Psychology

DELIVERY OF FEEDBACK Selecting the media How the feedback becomes digital and how it is distributed to students can differ dependent upon the technical knowledge of tutors and the availability of software. Careful consideration was given to this as none of the participating tutors had previous experience in delivering audio feedback. Neither were they, by self admission, experts in the use of digital technology. 148

One approach was to use Microsoft’s Word commenting features to provide the audio feedback to students. Although fairly simple and straightforward to implement, for those with an aptitude for ICT, for a non-expert the use of this facility may be somewhat daunting, as it involves selecting sound quality levels for recording and compressing the completed sound file [Still, 2006]. In a study conducted by Merry and Orsmond [2007] tutors used a multi-step procedure, recording their comments using the software Audacity, a free, cross-platform audio editor and speech recorder. Similar to the approach used by Still [2006], they then converted the files using freely available software [Switch] to MP3 format suitable for downloading [Holtz and Hobson, 2007; BBC Radio, 2009]. Audacity, although easy to download, needs some amount of practice and is another method not recommended for the less technically able [Rotheram 2006] and therefore, deemed unsuitable for our use. The capability of tutors to use technology effectively is an issue acknowledged by JISC [2009], who consider tutors to be “central to [the] development of approaches to learning and teaching in HE” [p.9]. They also feel it is important to consider the role of the tutor and support them as they become skilled users of varying technologies. To help tutors become familiar with the software a series of training sessions were provided, were guidance was given and the recording of digitally embedded comments demonstrated. Help and support was also continuously provided throughout each project for all tutors. Expecting tutors to record their voice in ways that “provoke students thoughts” [Corbell and Valdes-Corbeil, 2007, p.57] and check that each student receives the correct audio file [Rotherham, 2007] can be enough of a challenge without navigating around unfamiliar software; navigation can impact on the amount of time taken to provide the feedback, which is considered by Hiramiak [2007], to be central to the feedback process. One of the main aims of the Sounds Good Project directed by Rotheram [2009, Pg:10] was to test the hypothesis that using digital au149

dio for feedback will save assessors time. The results of this were mixed and indicated that only “in some circumstances” did the use of audio save time. Indeed, results from a study carried out by King et al [2008] and Hunter-Barnett and Murrin-Bailey [2010] confirm that the average time spent on giving auditory feedback is slightly longer than in the standard written format. It was therefore important that the technology chosen, for our tutors, should be straightforward and easy to use so they were not spending unnecessary time navigating unknown territory. In addition, unless tutors use a sound format such as MP3, the large size of the file can make the feedback incompatible with the method of distribution to the students [Merry and Orsmond, 2008]. With the advancement of technology, hand-held digital voice recorders can now record directly as an MP3 or WMA file. These devices are readily available, easy to use and come with PC connectivity through an USB socket [GALT, 2009]. They are considered by Rotheram [2007] to be a suitable method for recording feedback and more likely to be adopted by tutors as they provide a better service. Using these devices helps diminish problems such as students receiving the wrong feedback, as the sound files can be re-named for easy reference. Also, as the files are smaller than other file types the sending and receiving of them is quicker, making it a cheaper method of delivery for students and tutors who do not have fast Internet access (ibid). After looking at the options available, hand held digital recorders were thought to be the most appropriate form of recording media as they are a technology that all tutors will find accessible, convenient and something that most lecturers will find easy to use [Rotherham, 2009]. All participating tutors were supplied with Sony MP3 recorders. Recording feedback onto the digital recorders enabled the embedding of feedback into a Word document to be implemented quickly and easily, ensuring it could be delivered in a timely manner.

150

Figure 2: Example of embedded audio commentary

Method of delivery Various methods of delivery were considered as feedback can be forwarded to students in various ways. It can be sent as an attachment to a student or personal e-mail [Merry and Orsmond, 2008; Rotheram, 2009], posted to a VLE [Nortcliffe, 2007; Rotheram, 2009], sent via Xstream [Rotheram, 2009] or “integrated and interfaced with text-based and visual information” [Robberecht, 2007]. Strangely, with the current trend for portable technology and almost all students owning their own mobile phones and other portable mobile communication devices [JISC, 2009], very few students access their feedback through these devices and prefer to use their computers or laptops [Rotheram, 2009]. 151

Therefore, it could be argued that if students are not using portable communication devices to access their audio feedback there is no need for individual MP3 files containing the feedback to be sent to students. Therefore, to return marked assignments with their embedded audio comments, tutors uploaded via the VLE assignment drop in box, where previously students had submitted their coursework. During our studies, we ascertained no students accessed their feedback with a portable device. All students who participated in the study accessed their feedback via PC’s running the Microsoft Windows Operating System. However, problems were encountered when delivering the sound files to one particular group of students not using the university’s VLE. This group of students used another VLE as a repository for the course information and any correspondence between tutor and student was through this alternate learning environment. When sending the feedback to the students, it could not be uploaded as there was a limit on the file size of 500Kb, due to the restrictions placed on the VLE during set up. An alternative method of delivery was therefore used via the university’s student e-mail system without further hindrance. It is therefore worth considering what form of delivery is suitable when implementing embedded audio feedback for the first time. As previously mentioned all our students opened their feedback via PC’s running the Microsoft Windows Operating System, based on the problems encountered with the uploading of documents via the two different VLE’s we felt that it would be beneficial to see if embedded audio files could be opened using other operating systems. The results shown in the table below have raised particular concerns with regards to future usage and student access, and is an area were further guidance would be needed for tutors delivering to students, using a mixed-platform environment.

152

Windows Vista

Windows XP

Mac OS

Embedded





X

Sound File - MP3









Only if RealPlayer is installed

Sound File - WMA



Table 2: Operating Systems

To alleviate other concerns that some tutors had with regards to returning the wrong coursework, their audio files were re-named with the student’s initials or their name. An example of this is shown below in figure 3. Feedback_ServiceProviders_LG.mp3

Feedback_GC_Internet_2.mp3

HJ Audio ACC2002.WMA Figure 3: Example of embedded audio commentary

This way tutors easily kept track of their sound files and ensured they embedded the correct file into the correct submission. There were no instances of wrong files received. Simple random sampling was used to select a number of marked assignments to ascertain if there were any differences between uploading text only files and audio embedded content files. The files were all uploaded via the University’s VLE, without any difficulty. As can been seen in the following table there was no significant differences other than the slightly increased upload time.

153

Problems encountered

Embedded File Size (Kb)

Upload Time (Mins)

Text Only (Kb)

Upload Time (Mins)

File 1_MP3

None

1247

0.26

43

0

File 2_MP3

None

1958

0.42

43

0

File 3_MP3

None

1657

0.35

65

0.01

File 4_MP3

None

2058

0.44

54

0

File 5_MP3

None

1888

0.40

55

0

File 6_MP3

None

1162

0.24

49

0

File 7_MP3

None

3487

1.14

43

0

File 8_MP3

None

10228

3.51

40

0

File 9_MP3

None

3922

1.24

87

0.01

File 10_MP3

None

2231

0.47

314

0.06

File 11_WMA

None

629

0.13

29

0

Average

0.78

0.01

Table 3: Upload Times

Electronic submission The assessment methods were all pertinent to the subject and designed to be valid, reliable and consistent setting authentic opportunities, through both summative and formative assessment. What each subject had in common was the method of delivery, which was electronic via the universities VLE assignment drop in box. Boxes were set up for each piece of coursework that required grading and/or feedback, for future development. Students submitted work, via the drop in box, to their tutor, it was downloaded, marked and an audio commentary embedded within it, in the form of a button (Figure 3). The marked work was then uploaded via the same drop in box so students could access it and listen to the commentary provided, simultaneously, as they read through the marked text. 154

Guidelines given As mentioned previously, in section lV, no tutors had used audio as a form of feedback before and were selected randomly, for the purpose of our research. It was therefore deemed necessary to set up a series of workshops prior to tutors delivering the feedback. All tutor participants took part in at least one. The workshops varied in time and content, dependent upon the tutors needs. During the workshops each tutor was each given an MP3 recorder to use for the duration of the course. Demonstrations were given to show tutors how to record, embed and send feedback. Tutors then, were allocated time to practice. Further support was readily available face to face, and via e-mail or phone after the workshops, if problems or questions occurred at a later date. Only one tutor requested an additional one-on-one training session. In the early stages of delivery, several other tutors requested assistance or advice via e-mail. To ensure consistency in the delivery, tutors were asked to use the seven principles of good feedback practice suggested by Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick [2006, p.7] which are “broadly defined as anything that might strengthen the students capacity to self-regulate their own performance”. Juwah et al [2004, p.7], suggest that “one way of increasing the effectiveness of feedback and the likelihood that the information provided is understood is to conceptualise feedback more as a dialogue rather than as information transmission”, our tutors all approached their feedback in this way, making each piece of feedback personal to the student. For the study, discussed in this chapter, feedback was descriptive and consisted of comments specific to an individual or group of students work. If a grade, for assessment purposes, was required it was given at the end of the monologue to encourage students to listen to the feedback prior to receiving the grade [Rotheram, 2007]. Tutors were advised to state the students name at the start of the recording. This was recommended for two reasons: 155

1. Ensure the feedback was personal to the student 2. Guarantee the feedback was easily identifiable for embedding purposes For tutors delivering online, the turnaround time for all feedback was 48 hours. Therefore no additional guidelines were given with regards to timeliness of feedback, instead tutors were asked to concentrate on personalising, strengthening and furthering their written comments or advice. STUDENT AND TUTOR EXPERIENCES The following section consists of an accumulation of evidence taken from our studies in the use of embedded audio feedback. It by no means documents all our results. Hopefully, it will give some insight into our findings which form the basis of the recommended guidelines, discussed in section Vl. Subject To ascertain if there was a potential to use embedded digital audio as a form of feedback, at the start of our studies, tutors across various disciplines were asked if they would be prepared to use audio as a feedback tool. The results indicated that there were no major differences between subject and tutor attitudes towards the use of digital audio feedback. However, there was some confusion about what audio feedback meant. Some participants who were unaware that our studies were based on recorded comments felt they were already utilising audio as a form of feedback: “I do, I do in mine… something they can sit and discuss with a tutor there and then” 156

This respondent when questioned further stated they had: “Never thought about recording oral feedback for them as well [as written], although I suppose it is something that can be done” Other participants asked: “What do you class as auditory format?” “Face to face or as a recorded format?” One computing tutor, although responding positively to the use of audio feedback, felt that it should be used only as a change to the standard form of written feedback. “I would not mind using it, as a change to writing all the comments on a piece of paper” Another tutor participant stated they were not sure about its use as: “I am not very keen on the sound of own voice. I don’t think it is particularly inspiring and I think in my case the written word would be more powerful than what I had to say” “I would give it a go but I think I would be horrified at the sound of my own voice, I don’t think I would be comfortable, it would be outside my comfort zone” The one tutor respondent who stated they would not be prepared to use audio as a form of feedback felt that it would be: “Not much benefit to the average pupil” Although, the comments from tutors show there was an inconsistency in the interpretation of how audio feedback is delivered, which could possibly be linked to effective use of technology [JISC, 2009] and “the very different amount of experience with giving audio feedback” [Rotheram, 2009], 14 (87.5%) of respondents were prepared to use digital audio as a feedback tool. Eight of whom took part in the studies discussed in this chapter. At the end of our research the eight participating tutors were again asked if they would be prepared to use audio as a feedback tool. Not all tutors agreed that they would be. This was for various reasons, the majority of which are discussed in the following sections. 157

Student Learning Learning is both active and passive and for a student to become an active learner they must make use of feedback obtained during the assessment process [Burns and Sinfield, 2006]. Our results show that the use of an embedded auditory commentary can help with active learner development. As comments from one tutor confirm, the use of audio feedback has encouraged students to become active in their learning through the utilisation of feedback obtained. “I believe it gave them the motivation to actually go and do what I asked them to do far more than a written comment…” “Theoretically they should have been ones they were looking at anyway within their lit review, if they had’nt done it they certainly had for their final piece of work” The tutor later goes on to say: “They have got quotes from that article within their work and their final draft. I could track, because I’ve still got the audio files, I could track if I said I want you to go away and look at…article I could see quotes from it, and it’s in the bibliography.. that is some sort of measureable”. This is further evidence that students are able to co-ordinate their own learning, if feedback is received in a way which aids their progression. However, at the commencement of our studies, what was not clear was whether it was the provision of feedback in an alternative form, the novelty factor of audio feedback or the precise prescriptive comments received from the tutor that increased the effectiveness of the feedback. Audio as a regular feedback mechanism The results shown below are taken from one of our first studies, where an investigation was conducted to ascertain if students would like to receive audio as a regular feedback mechanism. As can be seen from the data in table 4, there was clearly a student preference for audio as a regular feedback mechanism. 158

Would you like audio as a regular feedback mechanism?

BSc/Ba Business

BSc Fast Forward Computing (any subject)

Totals

Yes

11

12

2

25 (89.2%)

No

1

2

0

3 (10%)

Totals

12

14

2

28

Table 4: Sample of responses: Feedback and Subject (student)

Further investigation, was carried out to ascertain if this was not just due to the novelty factor surrounding the use of audio which was a concern raised by Rotherham [2009] who suggests that his significantly positive results about audio feedback could be due to its novelty. Unsolicited comments made by two students show both Rotherham [2009] and our concerns to be realistic: “The method of feedback was a sound file which was unique to other modules” “The audio feedback was a first for me and was actually quite a nice change” However, when we take into consideration, further projects, one of which consisted of a 30 week study, our findings strongly indicate that the use of embedded audio feedback can facilitate greater flexibility in the feedback process and it is not the novelty factor that influences the effectiveness, but the means of delivery. However, from a tutor’s perspective, once the novelty of delivery wore off, their comments show a very different view from the one at the start of our studies. Although, most tutors were still in favour of using embedded audio feedback, they had strong reservations about the delivery of it to all students in all cohorts, as can be seen in the following sections. One tutors comment supports this when, after 30 weeks of audio feedback delivery, they said: 159

“The novelty factor is wearing off and it’s becoming a chore. It is a chore; it’s easier to give written feedback as you can do it any place, anytime on any computer” Time factor The overall concern for all tutors was the extra amount of time it took to deliver the feedback. One tutor said they would not like to use embedded audio feedback again because: “I’ve got loads on and I don’t really want to spend the extra time delivering it’ Similarly, another tutor stated: “It was a lot of work” Furthermore, a third tutor who had been delivering embedded audio feedback for a period of 15 weeks estimated: “It probably took 3 times as long” [although, it will] “possibly get quicker with practice” The issue of cost effectiveness was also raised during one focus group and one tutor felt that it was: “Not cost effective if paid by the hour” The use of key phrases was discussed and it was felt by several participants that this could save time. However, overall this comment made by one tutor seemed to sum up all the feelings of one focus group when she said that embedded audio feedback was: “Time consuming and the thought of having to do it for 95 1st years … you just couldn’t do it” In fact another tutor, in a different focus group, similarly summed up the time constraints by stating: “So I am doing double the work, I’m okay with 5 but if I had 10 students or as a Lecturer with 30 students, I don’t think I would have time to do that much work, even with the best will in the world. That is the snag” 160

Furthermore, the third group’s comments substantiate this when they succinctly said: “It’s double the work” Although the time factor has been identified, by tutors, as a major issue, when delivering audio embedded feedback, they agreed that the quality of the feedback process was enhanced by the use of embedded audio comments. Quality of feedback Table 5 shows the results from two cohorts of computing students studying at level 6, who had not experienced audio feedback before. They were asked whether they thought embedding a verbal commentary within the marked text had been useful and if it had helped them develop a better insight into what was required to progress their learning in the future. As can be seen in table 5, participants responded positively to this with 35 students agreeing or strongly agreeing that it had been useful. Strongly agree:

44.7%

17

Agree:

47.36%

18

Don’t Agree:

7.89%

3

Strongly Disagree:

0.0%

0

Table 5: Learning Progression

Similar positive results were obtained from other subject participants. These results were further confirmed when a sample of students’ first reactions to receiving their feedback was also analysed. As this was a qualitative question the results were broken down into emerging themes in order to make sense of the data, as demonstrated in table 6: 161

Understanding

Usefulness

Impression

Feelings

Clear Constructive Easy Refreshed Understandable Sense

Better Effective Informative Prefer Refreshed Useful

Agreeing Different Good Impressed Interest Interesting Personal Pleased Normal Strange Surreal

Amazing Confuzzald Converted Dubious Funny Nervous

Table 6: First reactions

Studies completed in 2009 show the students’ thoughts about usefulness and understanding are positive with some clear evidence that the use of audio can enhance the feedback process. One student stated that they were: “Very pleased, I thought the audio method of feedback was much better and informative than the standard text. More points of interest were indicated by my tutor. I think I would prefer to have any future feedback delivered this way!” Another felt audio feedback was a; “good and informative way of doing this. At first I was dubious but was completely converted” Similarly, studies completed in 2010 show comparable results: “It is easier to take in the information by audio rather than text” Another student stated: “Overall, the feedback was very positive and outlined the many good points of the presentation along with the negatives. I think overall I prefer getting feedback this way. Usually when work is marked you tend to just ignore the comments and look straight at the percentage but in this case I listened through, heard the advice and then the final result at the end. It makes sense!” 162

When asked, 10 tutors also felt that the quality of feedback could be enhanced using digitally embedded audio comments. The following remarks were made by tutors, who were introduced to the concept of audio feedback for the first time: “Explain in a more accessible and full way” “Give more detailed feedback” “To put a human note into feedback” “Technical feedback could be given” “Greater emphasis and personalisation” Furthermore, a tutor who used audio feedback for students stated in a concluding interview that students can: “Pick up more information from voice rather than written comments, far more expansive by using audio. Quality of the feedback really suggests that it is a useful vehicle for students” In contrast to this some tutors and students were not sure that the quality would be enhanced. One tutor suggested a need for both written and auditory feedback. Another stated that although they would be prepared to try using audio again, they had a preference for face to face feedback if possible. Whilst a third felt they would need to backup everything in writing as well. Three tutors had neutral opinions. A tutor who used audio for thirty weeks, with two cohorts and was therefore experienced in its application commented: “Out of six …[students], four said they felt they [had] gained some benefit because it felt a bit collective … rather than being individuals. One said it made no difference, one could not fathom it” After delivering audio feedback for 30 weeks, other tutors were unsure about its use for all students and they were: “Not certain [if] it is great for everybody but” … “some people would definitely benefit from it but not necessarily everybody”. The above comment shows that the more experienced tutors were not quite as positive about the use of audio as those new to it. 163

Written vs verbal Although students were overwhelmingly positive about receiving audio feedback, many stated that they would appreciate both written and verbal comments. “it would be nice to have both formats, written and audio” “if using audio feedback, also use written feedback to complement it” Tutors overall agreed with this and felt that audio feedback would: “need to [be] back[ed] up with writing, comments on essay or assignments” and it “shouldn’t be one it shouldn’t be the other, it should be both. Sometimes students don’t read written feedback and they need to have oral feedback as well, but I wouldn’t have the oral without the written” In fact one tutor felt that it is the use of both: “Written and verbal feedback that enhances the learner experience” This reinforces the findings from the Sounds Good Project, which suggest that some students “asked for both audio and written comments on their work” [Rotherman, 2009, p.2], and the results from a similar study carried out by Nortcliffe and Middleton [2008, p.55], which states that “both forms of feedback should be used to support students”. Active Participation At the outset of our studies, thought was given to the type of participation students need to enhance the feedback process, as audio is a one-way form of communication that does not encourage interaction [Corbeil and Vales-Corbeil, 2007], or allow for engagement with tutors in discussion about the feedback [Juwah et al, 2004]. Throughout all our studies, evidence suggests that most of the students demonstrated active participation with the feedback, including the three students, in our first study, who said they would prefer not to receive feedback in an auditory format (Table 5). 164

One commented that it is: “Easier to check back on written feedback” Another comment was quite interesting and looks at interactivity between students and tutors: “Although it is effective and provides good feedback about the grade it takes away the initial chance to ask questions back to the tutor unless an appointment is made” This comment reinforces the thoughts of Corbeil and Vales-Corbeil [2007], who consider the transferring of data via audio files to be a negative aspect of mobile learning as it is a media which does not include interactivity. One remark from unsolicited qualitative feedback received, further emphasises the need for some form of interactivity: “I liked the audio feedback however it lacked the possibility of responding” During interviews tutors also mentioned the lack of interaction. One participant felt that students: “don’t get the interaction…I would rather speak to them personally” They also suggested that audio feedback is: “[not the] same as one to one feedback because they need it to discuss how they perform, so they will improve and encourage them to do so” The other participant who suggested there was no interaction with students, when delivering embedded audio feedback stated: “not [having] a two way communication, would feel one sided, just like a normal kind of paper feedback” Despite the fact there is a lack of interactivity in this form of feedback, it is obvious from students comments that an embedded audio commentary makes for more personal learning. This was demonstrated by one student’s comments when they said: “the audio feedback made me feel that” … “was there to help and that she knew me not just a user number” This is further evidenced in this statement: 165

“It was more personal and helped me understand a lot better what I had done and what I could improve on” Although our findings imply that most students and some tutors showed a preference for the use of audio, despite it being a one-way communication tool, some respondents still felt a need for some sort of synchronous interaction between student and tutor, which according to the key findings of JISC [2009] is the traditional, personal elements of study, which students still require, and as one tutor stated you: “Need to be careful what you say”…”because you might upset somebody” …” whereas in a face to face [discussion] you can explain it properly and get a bit of feedback from them, introduce it and take them over the path. Whereas you can’t if they are not responding”. On the other hand tutors also felt that students “found us more approachable and that they could approach us because it was more sort of down to earth and friendly with audio” because: “you can go into more detail than on written comments” and it is: “Very, very individual” Although, the overall the consensus of our tutors opinion is that embedded audio feedback “wouldn’t ever replace written feedback in any way, it enhances it” Specific use of audio Due to the time constraints, instead of a mechanism for all students, generally tutors felt that embedded audio feedback would be effective for students who have some form of learning difficulty or for less able students: Probably [be] good for some people, like dyslexic people, or people who have a particular problem with reading information” 166

It was also felt that it would be a good way to feedback when: “you would have dozens and dozens of comments .. I found it would give the opportunity to be more encouraging … it allowed you to be that bit more positive” Or when you need to: “Enlarge on written comment[s]” It may be a good time to mention that embedded audio commentary is a medium that can be used for many purposes and not is not specifically for feedback. This is demonstrated through the unsolicited, additional use of audio that a small number of our participant tutors implemented. Additional use of audio It is apparent that that the use of embedding audio commentaries was sufficiently “main stream” as not to pose barriers to tutors and that it can sit quite comfortably as part of the pedagogic thinking in packaging technology to support student learning. It also shows that the original reason for its production in providing audio feedback can be taken further and used as a form of additional guidance and instruction for students to acquire a deeper appreciation of material in their own time. In addition to using audio for embedded feedback, one tutor used her recorder to help with a student: “who struggled with grasping a concept, I did a step by step guide and talked her through it, not feedback for an assignment but the fact I had a recorder, I thought, I could do this and took the worked example and talked her through that” Another tutor, teaching level 57 undergraduate business students used her recorder to add a: “digital audio commentary as an embedded sound-file within a Power Point Lecture. The development of the audio commentary examined a particular business model … [and] was produced … after the lecture had 7 Year 2 undergraduate

167

ended, and reviewed each slide of the Power Point, slide by slide, it was not a recording of the lecture itself ” When the tutor further explained the reasoning behind the embedded commentary in her lecture slides she said: “The reason for creating the audio commentary was in light of previous experiences with this module, where some students had required supplementary one to one sessions to fully grasp the concepts of the model. The embedded commentary allowed all the students to re-engage, as many times as they required, with the detail after the lecture, at a slower pace and with the capability of being able to stop and start when needed”. Another method of using embedded audio was suggested by a tutor. They created an embedded audio commentary for visually impaired examination candidates who: “need the exam paper recording  [at present] this is done using a cassette, which means if there is more than one student needing their exam paper recording there has to be several copies made. Each student needs a cassette machine, however if there is an audio recording [embedded] on the exam paper this only needs to be done once. Any number of students can access the audio version”. The tutor sent examples of embedded audio commentaries on exam papers to the exams office for further exploration and consideration. At the time of writing the implementation of this method is being considered for future examination delivery. We feel this additional usage is really encouraging as tutors are looking at how they can further implement digitally embedded comments to help student learning. Although overall our findings indicate that, embedding audio comments is a feedback mechanism that tutors are prepared to employ, and as Rotheram [2007, p.2] suggests is a technology “which most lectures could soon use, after a short period of learning”, it must be remembered that embedded audio feedback should be used to enhance learning, enabling greater flexibility in the feedback process and not simply because 168

it is available and relatively simple to use [JISC, 2009; Lee, 2007]. And, although the previous sections discussion is a positive indication that both students and tutors see audio feedback as a potential tool which can be used to enhance the feedback process, it should be remembered that it does incur problems and raise questions showing that careful consideration should be given to the type of feedback and when it is more effective to use written, audio or both [Ice et al., 2007]. Tutor Recommendations The following recommendations are derived directly from the analysis of tutor responses during the focus groups conducted at two key stages during our studies. Stage one consisted of tutors who delivered embedded audio feedback for approximately 15 weeks. Stage two included those tutors who continued to use audio commentaries as a feedback mechanism for an approximate further 15 weeks. The ensuing comments and discussion were evaluated and combined to form the subsequent recommendations for providing embedded audio feedback to students: The tutors who took part in our studies were all asked what advice they would give to tutors new to audio feedback. There were various responses and quite a bit of discussion, amongst one focus group, regarding the use of audio and the logistics of delivering audio feedback for small numbers. Some tutors discussed and agreed that it should be used only in certain circumstances, perhaps for weaker students. One tutor felt that the: “Only time I would choose audio [was] if you did have had someone with a specific disability and they requested it” Especially as it: “Allows you to be more encouraging to students who might get disheartened” Although, this was contradicted by another tutor who felt “it encourages good students as well” 169

Discrimination Tutors feedback and recommendations with regard to accusations of discrimination were considered when the suggestion for ‘an opt-in’ for students was offered. They felt strongly that tutors, new to the delivery of audio feedback, should be aware of the potential dangers regarding discrimination and the use of audio for specific needs and or students. All tutors felt, choosing the students to receive the feedback could lead to potential problems. Ways to eliminate this were examined and it was recommended, by some, that it would need to be made explicit, to all students, that audio commentaries as a feedback mechanism were available for a small number of students only. Following on from this it was decided that a suitable action for tutors to take was to inform students they would need to opt for audio feedback. It was also suggested that the use of audio feedback could link to “learning styles … and maybe be used for auditory learners”, although, please note a discussion surrounding discrimination ensued after this was suggested. It was also felt that anyone new to the delivery of embedded audio feedback would benefit from making “sure it is what the students want, it is of course additional and a lot of work if students are not that bothered about it” To do this it was suggested that tutors should “ask students if they would want it?” Positioning of audio feedback within assessment The positioning of audio feedback within assessment suggested, as indicated in the above discussion, that it could be tailored and personalised for more specific needs as a supplementary form of feedback. The tutors all recommended that it was an enhancement to traditional written feedback and should NOT replace this method. They suggested that 170

as assessments were increasingly submitted, and returned electronically, that for consistency, written feedback should be the main vehicle, with audio inclusion being utilised to provide additional guidance or support. The feedback should be relevant to certain requirements, in particular on formative and draft summative assessment. Environment Tutors feedback and recommendations regarding the physical environment for producing the audio sound-files was unanimous in that it required a quiet area without background noise or potential interference. Most tutors produced their feedback files at home. It was suggested that in the future, institutions designate “quiet areas” for this work to be conducted. Although tutors found the hand-held devices effective and straightforward to use they did require some practice to gain familiarity with the process. They suggested colleagues be used to test the process for full effectiveness before using it with students. Length of audio commentary Tutor feedback and recommendations regarding how much audio feedback to offer was a major issue raised. Tutors felt that students would not engage with audio feedback if it were overly long as they could potentially ‘switch off ’ and not listen to all the commentary. They felt although the audio should enhance the written comments, it needed to be concise and accurate and not to dwell on one area too much. They felt that the length of the recording related to student ability, as a piece of work falling below standard would demand a greater amount of tutor input to improve. 171

Creating and distributing the audio sound-files The process of creating the audio sound-files and distributing them would include a review of the student’s work and comments, ie; mark it first and latterly produce the audio file, with richer detail pertinent to the written comments. Tutors also expressed the need to ensure that for consistency in process and from a security viewpoint, all student work should be treated separately and saved with a unique revised filename. This filename should include the student’s name (or initials) for identification purposes. It was also recommended that accompanying instructions be sent to the student when sending an embedded audio file, for the first time. The instructions should include; the process of downloading, listening and if required responding to the tutor comments. Tutors also suggested that a mechanism be put in place to check whether students are listening to the audio feedback. RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES Based on our research and tutor suggestions, we feel there are a number of points that professionals should consider before embarking on the delivery of audio feedback. This section outlines these suggestions. » Follow normal principles of feedback practice - audio should not replace but enhance written comments » Implement guidelines/strategies regarding the use of audio feedback to ensure consistency » Become familiar with the hand held device and embedding a sound file prior to delivery and check the quality of the sound (test) Ì Make certain that the audio messages come across in a way that the student will understand and that “it will come across right” » Check that the method of delivery is suitable 172

» Ensure the audio is recorded in an amenable environment, free from background noise » Provide guidance for students on how to use and engage with the feedback » Ensure audio comments are not overly long (more like a sound-bite!). Ì This would amount to around a 3 minute resume for the student, as opposed to an audio comment at each point of the essay to enhance the written feedback Ì Use for an overview of where the student could improve upon the piece of work (for the future) » Read the script through first and make some jottings/comments and then produce the audio » Should be individual for the student Ì Use the students name within the audio commentary to personalise the recording And finally: » Emphasise to new tutors using this method of feedback does take more time therefore: Ì Use on particular activities during a course, and not for everything Ì Identify relevant coursework, suitable for audio feedback Ì Use for students with a specific learning difficulty where it has been requested (Opt-in) Ì Asking the students their preference would be a useful thing to do Ì Recommended for draft and formative submissions Based on the above recommendations, it is easy to see why we recommend that audio feedback should not be used just because it is available. Although we are strong advocates of audio feedback and feed forward, we feel strongly, based on our research findings, that it should only be used for reasons of pedagogy, and thought must be given as to the suitability of the feedback for certain students and whether they would benefit from verbal, written or both written and verbal commentary. 173

CONCLUSION Throughout our studies, evidence has suggested that the embedding of digital audio feedback within a Word document seems to enable greater flexibility in the feedback process. It is also a method that tutors in HE appear to be prepared to use. However, there is a need for tutors to ascertain if the delivery of feedback is suitable for the student and careful consideration needs to be given to the time implications if choosing this method of delivery. Participants thought that the use of audio would help develop future learning and did enhance the quality of feedback, although a few students and tutors felt it was not a method that encouraged interaction. This is because embedded audio feedback is a one-way communication tool. However, it could be argued, that written feedback is also a oneway communication tool and does not engage the teacher in discussion about that feedback. Overall, our findings show that students would like to receive audio feedback regularly, with the majority of the students stating they would listen to it more than once. This demonstrates that students are prepared to become active, reflective practitioners, which should enhance their learning. Again though, this would need to be given for reasons of pedagogy and not just because it is available due to the time constraints that tutors feel are important to consider when choosing to use this method of feedback. Even though results have been very positive overall, a few technological problems were encountered. Although not mentioned previously in this chapter, in an insignificant number of cases sound appeared to be an issue with a few students commenting on its poor quality, or lack of access to the files. Mixed-platform environments are also an issue when embedding sound files into Word documents and the method of feedback delivery also needs to be considered, as our findings showed this could sometimes be problematic for tutors. 174

Although at first there was an apparent lack of understanding with regard to the technical side of embedding audio feedback into electronically submitted coursework, it has not had a significant impact on its use. As our investigations reveal the recording and embedding of sound files within an electronically submitted piece of coursework are tasks that tutors can easily complete, without previous experience and “technical know how”. Again though it must, be noted that tutors at first thought the use of audio as a feedback tool would be a faster method of delivery, whereas results illustrate it is not and as already discussed, the overall process can have substantial time implications for tutors. Although there has been an overwhelming liking for audio feedback, and evidence suggests that the use of audio can enhance the feedback process, some students felt that the use of audio feedback should be accompanied by some form of written commentary or perhaps be used as a change to their normal methods of feedback. Furthermore, a significant number of tutors also felt that auditory feedback should be delivered in conjunction with written comments. Therefore, careful consideration must be given to the suitability of the feedback for individual students and a certain amount of flexibility in the method of delivery must be allowed for. In spite of our results showing a small number of areas that could be considered problematic and the tutors concerns about the time factor involved when delivering embedded audio feedback, it is apparent, based on the outcome of our studies, that there is the potential in HE to use audio as a form of feedback and that it can add greater flexibility to the feedback process. It is a method of feedback that most tutors are prepared to use as its use can enhance the feedback given.

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HOW TO CREATE AN EMBEDDED AUDIO COMMENTARY This additional section has been included for potential new users of audio feedback and gives details of the processes involved in the creation of an audio commentary. The following advice is similar to the guidance we gave to our tutor participants when asking them to create an embedded audio commentary for the first time. To get you started you will need to have the use of a small digital MP3, or similar, recording device. The digital recorder should be fairly straightforward to use, however, as there are so many devices available we recommend you follow the manufacturer’s instructions, when recording. 1. Create a new folder on your PC to contain your recordings. 2. Save, in the folder, the document you wish to use for an embedded audio commentary. Use a relevant file name. 3. Use you digital recorder to record your comments, in a quiet environment. Remember to start with your student’s name (if relevant). 4. Once, you have completed your recording; attach the recorders USB to the appropriate port on your PC. 5. Once connected, locate the recording. Copy your recording and paste it into your newly created folder. 6. Rename your sound file, with a relevant name. To save confusion, we recommend you include your student’s initials. 7. Open the document you wish to embed the sound file into. 8. Copy and paste the sound file, from your folder, to the top of this document. 176

9. Highlight the sound file using the Text Highlight Colour feature on your toolbar. This will give the impression of a button. Feedback_GC_Internet_2.mp3

10. DOUBLE CLICK ON THE FILE TO CHECK YOU CAN HEAR YOUR EMBEDDED COMMENTS. SAVE THE CHANGES TO YOUR FILE AND RETURN YOUR STUDENTS WORK ELECTRONICALLY.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Our grateful thanks are extended to all participants from Edge Hill University who helped us with this study.  Especially the tutors who used embedded audio feedback and willingly shared their experiences and thoughts with us. Also, a big thank to the students who gave their viewpoints on engaging with and receiving the audio feedback.

REFERENCES Editor’s Note: The following reference list contains references to World Wide Web pages. Readers are warned, however, that 1. these links existed as of the date of publication but are not guaranteed to be working thereafter. 2. the contents of Web pages may change over time. Where version information is provided in the References, different versions may not contain the information or the conclusions referenced. 3. the author(s) of the Web pages, not the publisher, is (are) responsible for the accuracy of their content. 4. the author(s) of this chapter, not the publisher, is (are) responsible for the accuracy of the URL and version information.

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Annson, C. (1997), “In Our Own Voices: Using Recorded Commentary to Respond to Writing”, New directions for teaching and learning, 69, pp. 105 - 113 Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998), “Assessment and classroom learning”, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5 (1), pp. 7 – 68 British Market Research Bureau (2007), Internet usage via mobile phones is yet to reach mainstream http://www.bmrb.co.uk/images/uploads/downloads/MEDIAUPDATE_23_ APRIL_07.PDF accessed April 2008 Burns, T. & Sinfield, S. (2006), Essential Study Skills, The complete guide to success @ university, Sage Publications: London, UK Corbeil, J & Valdes-Corbeil, (2007), Are you Ready for Mobile Learning? http://net. educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM0726.pdf : accessed May 2009 Crook, C., Fisher, T., Harrison, C., Lucking, R., Sharples, M. (2008), Web 2.0 technologies for learning: The current landscape- opportunities, challenges and tensions, Becta, http://partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/page_documents/research/ web2_technologies_learning.pdf : accessed May 2009 Durbridge, N. (1984). Media in Course Design, No. 9 Audio Cassettes. In A. W. Bates, The Role of Technology in Distance Education (p. 231). London: Croom Helm. Gibbs, G. & Simpson, C. (2005), “Conidtions under which assessment supports students learning” Learning and teaching in Higher Education, 1, pp. 3 - 31 Hall, J, (n.d), Assessment to enhance learning http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/learningandteaching/assessment/index.html: accessed July 2009 HEFCE. (2009, March). E-Learning Strategy. Retrieved March 7th, 2010, from Higher Education Funding Council for England. Retrieved 6th March 2010 from http://www. hefce.ac.uk/pubs/hefce/2009/09_12/ Higgins, R. Hartley, P. Skelton, A. (2002), “The Conscientious Consumer: reconsidering the role of assessment feedback in student learning” Studies in Higher Education, 27 (1) pp. 53 - 64 Hramiak, A. (2007), The Busy teacher educator’s guide to developing assessment feedback, The Higher Education Academy, Escalate, http://escalate.ac.uk/4147 : accessed May 2009 Holtz. S. & Hobson, N. (2007), How to do everything with Podcasting McGrawHill: USA Hunter-Barnett S & Murrin-Bailey (2009) Is Audio Feedback an option? SOLSTICE 4th International conference , England 4th June 2009

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Hunter-Barnett S & Murrin Bailey S (2010) Should audio feedback be used because it is easily available or for reasons of pedagogy?. 2nd International Conference on Computer Supported Education, Spain, 7-10 April. [peer reviewed paper]. Hunter-Barnett, (2009) Is there potential to use digitally recorded comments as a form of feedback, enabling greater flexibility and enhancement to the feedback process within Higher Education? MSc: University of Edinburgh Ice, P. Curtis, R. Phillips, P. Wells, J. (2007), “Using Asynchronous Audio Feedback to Enhance Teaching Presence and Students Sense of Community”, Sloan C., 11 (2), pp. 3 - 25 IMPALA (n.d.), Informal mobile podcasting and Learning Adaptation http://www.impala.ac.uk/index.html: accessed July 2009 JISC (2009) Effective Practice in a Digital Age: A guide to technology enhanced learning & teaching, JISC Innovations Group: Bristol Juwah, C. Macfarlane-Dick, D. Matthew, B. Nicol, D. Ross, D. & Smith, B. (2004), “Enhancing Student Learning Through Effective Formative Feedback” The Higher Education Academy http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/resources/detail/id353_effective_formative_feedback_juwah_etal : accessed May 2009 Klammer, E. (1973), “Cassettes in the classroom”, College English 35 (2), pp.179 - 189 King, D. McGugan, S. & Bunyan, N. (2008), “Does it make a difference? Replacing text with audio feedback”, Assessment in Higher Education conference, The Learning Gateway at the University of Cumbria , UK (9th July) Lauillard D (2002) Rethinking University Teaching, Routledge: London Lea, M. & Street, B. (1998), “Student writing in higher education: An academic literacies approach”, Studies in Higher Education, 23 (2), pp. 157 – 172 Lee, M. (2007), “Reducing the effects of isolation and promoting inlcusivity for distance learners through podcasting”, Turkish online journal of distance education, 8 (7), pp. 1 - 17 Lipnevich, A, & Smith, J. (2008), Response to Assessment Feedback: The Effects of Grades, Praise, and Source of Information, http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/ RR-08-30.pdf: accessed May 2009 Mellen, C. & Sommers, J. (2003), “Audiotaped response and the two-year-campus writing classroom”, Teaching English in the Two Year College, 31 (1), pp. 25 – 39 Nicol, D.J. and Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31 (2), 199–218 Nortclife, A. & Middleton, A. (2008), “A three year case study of using audio to blend the engineer’s learning environment”, Engineering education 3 (2), pp. 45 - 57

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Oomen-Early, J., Bold, M, Wiginton K, Gallien, T. & Anderson (2008), “Using Asynchronous Audio Communication (AAC) in the Online Classroom: A Comparative Study”, MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 4 (3) Reece, I. & Walker, S. (2000), Teaching Training and Learning a practical guide, 4th Ed, Business Education publishers Ltd: Tyne & Wear, UK Reeves, B. & Nass, C. (1998), The Media Equation : how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places, Cambridge university Press: Cambridge, UK Robberecht, R. (2007), “Interactive Nonlinear Learning Environments”, The Electronic Journal of e-learning, 5 (1), pp. 59 - 68 Robson, C. (2002), Real World Research, 2nd Ed, Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, England Rotheram, B. (2006), Using an MP3 recorder to give feedback on student assignments, http://sites.google.com/site/soundsgooduk/Home: accessed April 2009 Rust, C. (2001), A Briefing on Assessment of Large Groups, Assessment LTSN Generic Centre Series No 12 http://www.swap.ac.uk/docs/ltsnbrief12largegroups.pdf : accessed May 2009 12 Salmon, G. & Edirisingha, P. (2008), Podcasting for Learning in universities, McGrawHill Education: Berkshire Salmon, G. (2006), e-tivities The key to active online learning, Routledge Falmer: Oxon, UK Schlosser, C. & Burmeister, M. (2006). Audio in Online Courses: Beyond Podcasting http://www.nova.edu/~burmeist/audio_online.html : accessed May 2009 Stills, B. (2006), “Talking to students: Embedded voice commenting as a tool for critiquing student writing”, “Journal of Buisness and Technical Communication”, 20, pp. 460 - 475 Swain, H. (2008), “Student Feedback”, Times higher Education http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=400637&c=1: accessed July 2009 Toohey, S. (2002), Designing courses for higher education, Open University Press: Buckinghamshire, UK Wagner, E. (2005), “Enabling Mobile Learning”, EDUCAUSE Review, 40 (3), pp. 40 – 53 Yohon, T. & Zimmerman, D. (2004), “Strategies for Online Critiquing of Student Assignments”, Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 18 (2), pp. 220 - 232

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LIST OF ACRONYMS HE

Higher Education

HEA

Higher Education Academy

HEFCE

Higher Education Funding Council for England

VLE

Virtual Learning Environment

ICT

Information Communication Technology

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ESTRATÉGIAS DE ENSINO PARA O PLANEJAMENTO DIDÁTICO PEDAGÓGICO DE UM SISTEMA DE ENSINO A DISTÂNCIA MEDIADO PELO AMBIENTE VIRTUAL DE ENSINO APRENDIZAGEM Madalena P. da Silva

Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia e Gestão do Conhecimento - UFSC [email protected]

José Cé Júnior

Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência da Computação - UFSC [email protected]

Sergio M. Schütz

Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência da Informação - UFSC [email protected]

Lia Caetano Bastos

Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia e Gestão do Conhecimento - UFSC [email protected]

ABSTRACT This work shows an EaD (Distance Learning) system for a university. An EaD is a kind of teaching where the actors are separated spatially and temporarily. The didactic intervention mainly occurs by the TICs (Communication Information Technologies). The physical and temporal separation between the agents represents a challenge to be won. This separations points as basic features the strategies used in the elaboration of didactic subjects and in the technological resources for a pedagogical interaction.

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In this context some inter and multidisciplinary teams must be formed to elaborate the instructional aims, and to adopt teaching strategies in order to help students with their individual studies, constructivist, collaborative and as a partaker – thus favoring knowledge making. Those pedagogical actions were joined with the didactic subjects by AVEA (Virtual Environment of Teaching-Learning). EaD system was designed by merging the cultural-historic and constructivist (interactionist) approaches, and mainly focusing the cognitive process proposed by Bloom´s Taxonomy. Bloom´s Taxonomy has been used to classify instructional aims, to select and organize contents, to manage some activities, to make evaluations, and to choose learning strategies. In the presented system, besides the preoccupation with students´ learning, some teachers´ education practices are approached, as well as the tutorial and evaluation system for students, and finally the evaluation goal concerning students and their course. Constant evaluations help to decide about a better teaching quality. Teaching strategies applied with EaD were planned in order to supply a dynamic and inventive pedagogical work, making the teaching-learning process easier. This practice is closely articulated with the mental resources which teachers have been using to subsidize the learning (achievement) of a certain content. Keywords: AVEA, EaD, Bloom’s Taxonomy.

RESUMO Este trabalho apresenta um sistema de EaD (Educação a Distância) de uma instituição de ensino superior. A EaD é uma modalidade de ensino onde os atores estão separados espacial e/ou temporalmente e a mediação didático pedagógica nos processos de ensino aprendizagem ocorre principalmente pelas TICs (Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação). A separação física e temporal entre os agentes representa um desafio a ser vencido, apontando como aspectos fundamentais as estratégias empregadas na elaboração dos materiais didáticos e nos recursos tecnológicos de interação pedagógica. Nesse contexto, equipes inter e multidisciplinares foram constituídas para elaborar os objetivos instrucionais e adotar estratégias de ensino que visam auxiliar o aluno no seu estudo autônomo, construtivista, colaborativo e participativo favorecendo a construção do conhecimento. Essas ações pedagógicas foram integradas nos materiais didáticos e no AVEA (Ambiente Virtual de Ensino Aprendizagem). O sistema de EaD foi modelado mesclando as abordagens histórico cultural, construtivista-inter-

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acionista e principalmente com foco no processo cognitivo proposto pela Taxonomia de Bloom. A Taxonomia de Bloom foi aplicada para classificar os objetivos instrucionais; selecionar e organizar conteúdos; direcionar atividades; produzir avaliações e escolher técnicas de ensino. No sistema apresentado, além da preocupação com a aprendizagem dos alunos, são abordadas as práticas educacionais dos professores, o sistema de orientação e tutoria dos alunos e a meta avaliação no que se refere ao aluno e ao curso. As avaliações constantes favorecem as tomadas de decisões para a melhoria da qualidade do ensino. As estratégias de ensino aplicadas ao EaD foram projetadas para prover uma prática pedagógica dinâmica e criativa, facilitando o processo de ensino aprendizagem. O uso desses procedimentos está estreitamente articulado aos objetivos e conseqüentemente, com os recursos mentais que as equipes de professores colocaram em movimento para subsidiar a aprendizagem de um determinado conteúdo. Palavras-chave: AVEA, EaD, Taxonomia de Bloom.

INTRODUÇÃO

A

Educação a Distância (EaD) é um recurso de incalculável importância como modo apropriado para atender a grandes contingentes de alunos de forma mais efetiva que outras modalidades e sem riscos de reduzir a qualidade dos serviços oferecidos em decorrência da ampliação da clientela atendida. A “Educação a Distância promove uma possibilidade de indiscutível eficácia que aponta para impactos positivos no tocante à acessibilidade à educação superior em diversas universidades – as quais apresentam potencialidades rumo à democratização do acesso, o que se comprova pela existência de um parque universitário robusto e malha consolidada de pesquisa. Dessa forma, a modalidade EaD pode contribuir significativamente com o atendimento de demandas educacionais urgentes, dentre as quais, destacam-se a necessidade de formação ou capacitação de mais de um milhão de docentes para a educação básica, bem como a formação continuada, em serviço, de uma grande demanda por esta modalidade” [Mota 2009]. 185

A partir dos anos 90, a EaD começou a distinguir-se como uma modalidade não convencional de educação, capaz de atender, com grande perspectiva de eficiência e eficácia aos anseios de universalização do ensino e, também, como meio apropriado à permanente atualização dos conhecimentos gerados de forma cada vez mais intensa pela ciência e cultura humana. É importante observar que a EaD não pode ser vista como substitutiva da educação convencional, presencial. São duas modalidades do mesmo processo. A educação a distância não concorre com a educação convencional, tendo em vista que não é este o seu objetivo, nem poderá ser. A EaD, resultando tanto dos avanços da tecnologia, como das aspirações de democratização, constitui-se numa das possibilidades mais promissoras para enfrentar os inúmeros problemas da sociedade, já que vem se tornando um procedimento didático pedagógico eficiente e de qualidade, como bem demonstram as experiências de longa data, em outros países, tais como: Inglaterra, Espanha, Suécia, França, Portugal, Alemanha, Estados Unidos, Canadá, México, Japão, África do Sul, Costa Rica, Argentina, Venezuela, Equador, Colômbia, Peru, entre outros países. Não muito diferente de dados de países Asiáticos, Europeus, Americanos e outros Latino Americanos, no Brasil o número de alunos que freqüentam cursos a distância cresce constantemente, assim como o número de instituições credenciadas, segundo dados em [Eproinfo 2009]. O crescimento, segundo especialistas da área, deve-se ao impulso que o Ministério da Educação (MEC), através do uso da nova Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação [LDB 1996], oferece a esta modalidade de ensino. A característica fundamental da EaD é a de permitir que o estudante realize sua formação independente de tempo e de lugar específicos para a aprendizagem, pressupondo a separação geográfica entre o professor e aluno. Além disso, a EaD possibilita a simultaneidade entre o estudo e o trabalho; facilita o acesso ao ensino de uma ampla população muitas vezes geograficamente distante e que, portanto, encontra-se impedida de freqüentar programas educacionais organizados, visando a sua formação para a cidadania e a sua qualificação. 186

A EaD possibilita, também, aos estudantes percorrerem trajetórias diferentes de estudo, não apenas porque os alunos estabelecem seus horários, mas porque podem realizar estudos diferentes dos indicados pelos professores, de acordo com seus interesses próprios. Além disso, como os estudantes não se encontram vinculados ao mesmo espaço e tempo, abrem-se espaços para estudos em grupo, formação de equipes para juntos sanarem suas dificuldades e compartilharem suas descobertas, pois a necessidade de interação e troca e apoio mútuo se fazem presentes em sua real significação. Em seu trabalho, o autor [Mota 2009] relata que por meio da EaD pode-se criar uma rede de aprendizagem significativa na qual professores e alunos interagem constantemente, vivenciando experiências inter e multidisciplinares, de construção coletiva e individual do conhecimento, desenvolvendo competências e habilidades, atitudes e hábitos, relativos tanto ao estudo e à profissão quanto à sua própria vida. Nesse sentido, podem-se transformar os educadores e seus respectivos alunos em autores do seu próprio conhecimento com o uso da tecnologia, que cada vez mais está próxima da educação, em que se criam e se efetivam possibilidades de seu uso como um valioso instrumento e recurso didático. Quando as tecnologias são usadas como instrumentos mediadores do processo de ensino aprendizado, o desafio é ainda maior, pois toda informação relacionada com aprendizagem integrada ao AVEA, por exemplo, precisa ter conotação didática, motivadora e desafiadora (na medida certa, respeitando limites e individualidades) para que os alunos possam progredir cognitivamente. Considerando esses fatos, a instituição na qual o sistema de EaD foi implementado se dispôs a garantir os meios necessários para o alcance desses objetivos, em especial, os meios didáticos, já que estes, nesta modalidade de ensino, assumem maior relevância, requerendo mecanismos de comunicação multidirecional, através de diálogos simulados, aulas presenciais, redes de apoio, tutorial e uso contínuo das TICs [Moran 2000]. A utilização desses diversificados meios visa motivar o aluno, constituindo187

-se em rico apoio para o seu processo de aprendizagem, objetivando o enriquecimento e a complementação do processo educacional. O objetivo deste trabalho consiste no uso das abordagens histórico cultural [Melo et al. 2009], cognitivista interacionista [Piaget 1970] e no processo cognitivo da Taxonomia de Bloom [Anderson et al. 2001] para apoiar o planejamento didático pedagógico, definir os objetivos instrucionais, escolher instrumentos de avaliação, selecionar e organizar conteúdos, estruturar o sistema de EaD e construir o AVEA. Os componentes humanos do sistema de EaD são formados por membros pertencentes a equipes inter e multidisciplinares, que trabalhando de maneira colaborativa e integrada mesclaram as metodologias de ensino já difundidas para a consolidação do projeto e a implantação do EaD. A Taxonomia de Bloom foi aplicada para classificar os objetivos instrucionais; selecionar e organizar conteúdos; direcionar atividades; produzir avaliações e escolher técnicas de ensino. A CONCEPÇÃO DE EDUCAÇÃO A DISTÂNCIA NA INSTITUIÇÃO DE ENSINO SUPERIOR A instituição de ensino superior onde o sistema de EaD foi implementado considera a EaD uma prática educativa e, como tal, considera esta realidade e compromete-se com os processos de libertação do homem em direção a uma sociedade mais justa, solidária e igualitária. Trata-se de uma prática mediatizada, em que faz recurso à tecnologia, entendida conforme [Moore e Kearsley 2007] que a “Educação a distância é o aprendizado planejado que ocorre normalmente em um lugar diferente do local do ensino, exigindo técnicas especiais de criação do curso e de instrução, comunicação por meio de várias tecnologias e disposições organizacionais e administrativas especiais.” A EaD contempla uma organização de apoio institucional e uma mediação pedagógica que garantem as condições necessárias à efetivação 188

do ato educativo. A EaD, na concepção do autor [Preti 1996] é constituído pelos elementos: » Distância física entre professor e aluno: a aprendizagem ocorre de maneira virtual, ou seja, sem a necessidade da presença física do professor ou do autor, isto é, do interlocutor, da pessoa com quem o estudante vai dialogar. » Estudo individualizado e independente: reconhece-se a capacidade do estudante de construir seu caminho, seu conhecimento por ele mesmo, de se tornar autodidata, ator e autor de suas práticas e reflexões. » Processo de ensino aprendizagem mediatizado: oferta de suportes e de uma plataforma que viabilizem e incentivem a autonomia dos estudantes nos processos de aprendizagem. E isso acontece “predominantemente através do tratamento dado aos conteúdos e formas de expressão mediatizados pelos materiais didáticos, meios tecnológicos, sistema de Tutoria e de avaliação” [Maroto 1995]. » Uso de tecnologias: os recursos técnicos de comunicação (rádio, TV, áudio e vídeo conferência, hipermídia interativa, Internet) permitem romper com as barreiras das distâncias, das dificuldades de acesso à educação e dos problemas de aprendizagem por parte dos alunos que estudam individualmente, mas não isolados e sozinhos. Oferecem possibilidades de estimular e motivar o estudante, de armazenamento e divulgação de dados, de acesso às informações mais distantes e com rapidez. » Comunicação multidirecional: o estudante não é mero receptor de informações, esse tipo de comunicação é de muitos para muitos, ou seja; apesar da distância, busca-se estabelecer relações dialogais, criativas, críticas e participativas em âmbito globalizado de diversas esferas educacionais desta modalidade de ensino.

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Pressupostos Teóricos e Metodológicos no sistema de EAD O conhecimento na modalidade EaD é ativamente construído pelo aluno em cada uma das situações onde ele está inserido. O conhecimento provém da atividade do aluno e forma-se em relação com sua ação e sua experiência do mundo. A EaD é um processo que prima pela excelência da relação ensino aprendizagem, que ganha relevância quando deixa explícita sua potencialidade de ampliar o acesso à educação, sendo uma forte aliada do processo de democratização da educação e do saber. O sistema de EaD proposto visa ser um agente social compromissado com a democratização do conhecimento e com o surgimento de sistemas educacionais mais abertos, flexíveis e ágeis. Seus resultados dentro desta linha de pensamento são firmados pela qualidade do serviço educacional proposto. Alguns educadores usam abordagens distintas para fundamentar o processo de ensino aprendizagem na EaD. As mais significativas estão na Teoria Construtivista – Interacionista [Piaget, 1970], [Bruner 1990], na Teoria da Flexibilidade Cognitiva [Spiro e Jehng 1990], na Teoria da Inclusão [Ausubel et al. 1978] e na Teoria Histórico Cultural [Melo et al. 2009]. Outros se apóiam nos pressupostos teóricos do domínio cognitivo, proposto pela Taxonomia de Bloom [Bloom 1956], [Anderson et al. 2001] para definirem, em seus planejamentos educacionais, objetivos, estratégias e sistemas de avaliação. O projeto do EaD proposto foi modelado mesclando as abordagens histórico cultural, construtivista interacionista e principalmente com foco na abordagem cognitiva proposta pela Taxonomia de Bloom. Na concepção histórico cultural [Melo et al. 2009], o conceito de EaD compreende um processo em que aluno e professor não são objetos distintos, separados, que se pode por em relação de forma mecânica, mas definem-se mutuamente ao participarem de um processo que é coletivo e mediado pelos instrumentos culturais presentes no meio social. 190

A abordagem histórico cultural apresenta-se como uma concepção que propõe uma compreensão de indivíduo e de mundo num processo dialético. Não há sentido de consciência sem que seja consciência de algo, nem há sentido de realidade que não realidade percebida, realidade com relação a uma consciência que a percebe e lhe dá sentido. A realidade seria, então, construída na relação indivíduo-mundo. Nesta perspectiva, não há sentido em valorizar a transmissão de informações e sim as ações e operações dos alunos sobre o meio. Na abordagem teórica histórico cultural [Melo et al. 2009] a EaD caracteriza-se como um processo contínuo e permanente, parte de uma vivência cultural, social e histórica do ser humano. Um processo que considera o indivíduo num movimento ativo e interativo na busca do conhecimento. Que possibilita a criação de zonas de desenvolvimento capazes de elevar as funções psicológicas superiores em níveis de reorganizar a relação pensamento e linguagem. Re-significando como conseqüência às ações do sujeito no mundo. A teoria histórico cultural em sua contribuição para uma análise da EaD no âmbito da Universidade, foco deste estudo, pauta-se por um compromisso com a realidade do aluno, com a autonomia do aluno, com a reflexão sobre o aluno, com o reconhecimento da ideologia e com a identidade cultural do aluno. A mais conhecida concepção construtivista da formação da inteligência é explicada pela Teoria Psicogenética [Piaget 1970]. Essa teoria explica como se constrói o conhecimento desde o nascimento, subvertendo as teorias tradicionais. A teoria construtivista, ao contrário do que pressupunha o modelo tradicional, defende que o aluno não aprende por memorização, nem por associação entre estímulo e resposta, ou pela transmissão do conhecimento pelo professor e assimilação pelo aluno. Essa corrente de pensamente propicia mudanças inovadoras [Rezende 2005], que entende o indivíduo como: “... um sujeito que procura ativamente compreender o mundo que o rodeia e trata de resolver as interro191

gações que este mundo provoca. Não é um sujeito à espera de alguém que possui um conhecimento para lhe transmitir, por benevolência. É um sujeito que aprende basicamente através das suas próprias ações sobre os objetos do mundo, que constrói suas próprias categorias de pensamento ao mesmo tempo em que organiza o mundo” [Ferreiro e Teberosky 1985]. A concepção construtivista [Piaget 1970] não apresenta um método pedagógico ou sugestões de técnicas de como ensinar, e sim uma estratégia de pesquisa. A sua preocupação científica é com a aprendizagem, como o indivíduo aprende. Os métodos de ensino passam a ser considerados passos do ensino e não podem ser confundidos com os processos de aprendizagem [Rosa 1994]. A Taxonomia de Bloom “é um instrumento usado para apoiar o planejamento didático pedagógico, a estruturação, a organização, a definição de objetivos instrucionais e a escolha de instrumentos de avaliação” [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]. Benjamin Bloom e seus colaboradores criaram uma divisão dos objetivos educacionais, separando-os em três domínios: cognitivo, afetivo e psicomotor. Embora todos os três domínios tenham sido amplamente discutidos e divulgados, em momentos diferentes e por pesquisadores diferentes, o domínio cognitivo é o mais conhecido e utilizado. Em suas publicações [Bloom 1944, 1972] o autor destaca que muitas pessoas reconhecem que a capacidade de aprendizagem do ser humano difere de uma pessoa para outra e, por um grande período, acreditou-se que a razão pela qual uma porcentagem de discentes obtinha desempenho melhor do que outros estava relacionada às situações e variáveis existentes fora do ambiente educacional e que, nas mesmas condições de aprendizagem, todos aprenderiam com a mesma competência e profundidade o conteúdo. Entretanto, em seus estudos, os autores [Bloom et al. 1971] fizeram uma descoberta que viria a ser de grande notoriedade no meio educacional: nas mesmas condições de ensino (desconsiderando as variáveis externas ao ambiente educacional) todos os discentes aprendiam, mas 192

se diferenciavam em relação ao nível de profundidade e abstração do conhecimento adquirido. Essa diferença poderia ser caracterizada pelas estratégias utilizadas (que levariam ao estudo de estilos de ensino e aprendizagem) e pela organização dos processos de aprendizagem para estimular o desenvolvimento cognitivo. Naquele momento, o desenvolvimento cognitivo e sua relação com a definição do objetivo do processo de aprendizagem foram a direção tomada para a definição da taxonomia. De encontro com a Taxonomia de Bloom e a Teoria Construtivista, no sistema de EaD implementado, os alunos são tratados de acordo com suas particularidades cognitivas. A abordagem é construtivista principalmente porque os ajuda a pensar o conhecimento científico na perspectiva do sujeito que aprende. O seu estudo é principalmente centrado em compreender como o aprendiz passa de um estado de menor conhecimento a outro de maior conhecimento, o que está intimamente relacionado com o desenvolvimento pessoal do indivíduo. No modelo de EaD apresentado esses pressupostos são considerados de forma que o aluno precisa passar de uma situação de receptor passivo e, através de uma postura participativa, reflexiva e interativa, construir seu conhecimento através de um comportamento pró ativo. Assim, o aluno observando, analisando, levantando hipóteses, aplicando estratégias, irá elaborar um novo encadeamento de idéias e construir seus próprios esquemas de pensamento, construindo e reconstruindo seu conhecimento, devendo desenvolver maior capacidade em comparar, contrastar, verificar e concluir. Nessa perspectiva o papel do professor muda, passando a ser o de orientar a aprendizagem, devendo se preocupar em propor atividades que envolvam operações do pensamento, das mais simples às mais complexas. O professor desempenha o papel de um investigador, capaz de realizar as mudanças requeridas para a adequação metodológica. 193

Taxonomia de Bloom Benjamin Bloom escreveu a Taxionomia dos Objetivos Educacionais: Domínio Cognitivo [Bloom 1956] e, desde então, sua descrição em seis níveis do raciocínio foi amplamente adotada e usada em inúmeros contextos. Sua lista de processos cognitivos é organizada do mais simples, que é ter a informação, ao mais complexo, que implica julgamento sobre o valor a importância da idéia. A Taxonomia proposta [Bloom 1956] tornou-se tão importante e trouxe significativas contribuições à área acadêmica pelo fato de que antes dos anos 50 um dos grandes problemas na literatura educacional era a falta de consenso com relação a determinadas palavras usualmente relacionadas à definição dos objetivos instrucionais como, por exemplo, o verbo conhecer era utilizado com o sentido de ter consciência, saber da existência ou para expressar domínio de um determinado assunto [Conklin 2005]. A taxonomia trouxe a possibilidade de padronização da linguagem no meio acadêmico e, com isso, também novas discussões ao redor dos assuntos relacionados à definição de objetivos instrucionais. Neste contexto, instrumentos de aprendizagem puderam ser trabalhados de forma mais integrada e estruturada, inclusive considerando os avanços tecnológicos que podiam prover novas e diferentes ferramentas para facilitar o processo de ensino e aprendizagem [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]. Taxonomia de Bloom Original No domínio cognitivo, mais utilizado freqüentemente, os objetivos de aprendizagem são divididos em seis níveis, apresentados numa seqüência que vai do mais simples ao mais complexo: conhecimento, compreensão, aplicação, análise, síntese e avaliação. Cada nível utiliza as capacidades adquiridas nos níveis anteriores (Figura 1). 194

Figura 1. Categorias da Taxonomia de Bloom Original Fonte: Bloom, 1956.

A estrutura da Taxonomia de Bloom, com suas categorias, subcategorias e verbos são descritas no Quadro 1. Quadro 1 - Estrutura da Taxonomia de Bloom Original: Domínio Cognitivo CATEGORIA

DECRIÇÃO

1. Conhecimento

Definição: Habilidade de lembrar informações e conteúdos previamente abordados como fatos, datas, palavras, teorias, métodos, classificações, lugares, regras, critérios, procedimentos etc. A habilidade pode envolver lembrar uma significativa quantidade de informação ou fatos específicos. O objetivo principal desta categoria é trazer à consciência esses conhecimentos. Subcategorias: 1.1 Conhecimento específico: de terminologia; tendências e seqüência; 1.2 Conhecimento de formas e significados relacionados às especificidades do conteúdo: de convenção; tendência e seqüência; Conhecimento de classificação e categoria; Conhecimento de critério; Conhecimento de metodologia; e 1.3 Conhecimento universal e abstração relacionado a um determinado campo de conhecimento: de princípios e generalizações; Conhecimento de teorias e estruturas. Verbos: enumerar, definir, descrever, identificar, denominar, listar, nomear, combinar, realçar, apontar, relembrar, recordar, relacionar, reproduzir, solucionar, declarar, distinguir, rotular, memorizar, ordenar e reconhecer.

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2. Compreensão

Definição: Habilidade de compreender e dar significado ao conteúdo. Essa habilidade pode ser demonstrada por meio da tradução do conteúdo compreendido para uma nova forma (oral, escrita, diagramas etc.) ou contexto. Nessa categoria, encontra-se a capacidade de entender a informação ou fato, de captar seu significado e de utilizá-la em contextos diferentes. Subcategorias: 2.1 Translação; 2.2 Interpretação e 2.3 Extrapolação. Verbos: alterar, construir, converter, decodificar, defender, definir, descrever, distinguir, discriminar, estimar, explicar, generalizar, dar exemplos, ilustrar, inferir, reformular, prever, reescrever, resolver, resumir, classificar, discutir, identificar, interpretar, reconhecer, redefinir, selecionar, situar e traduzir.

3. Aplicação

Definição: Habilidade de usar informações, métodos e conteúdos aprendidos em novas situações concretas. Isso pode incluir aplicações de regras, métodos, modelos, conceitos, princípios, leis e teorias. Verbos: aplicar, alterar, programar, demonstrar, desenvolver, descobrir, dramatizar, empregar, ilustrar, interpretar, manipular, modificar, operacionalizar, organizar, prever, preparar, produzir, relatar, resolver, transferir, usar, construir, esboçar, escolher, escrever, operar e praticar

4. Análise

Definição: Habilidade de subdividir o conteúdo em partes menores com a finalidade de entender a estrutura final. Essa habilidade pode incluir a identificação das partes, análise de relacionamento entre as partes e reconhecimento dos princípios organizacionais envolvidos. Identificar partes e suas inter-relações. Nesse ponto é necessário não apenas ter compreendido o conteúdo, mas também a estrutura do objeto de estudo. Subcategorias: Análise de elementos; Análise de relacionamentos; e Análise de princípios organizacionais. Verbos: analisar, reduzir, classificar, comparar, contrastar, determinar, deduzir, diagramar, distinguir, diferenciar, identificar, ilustrar, apontar, inferir, relacionar, selecionar, separar, subdividir, calcular, discriminar, examinar, experimentar, testar, esquematizar e questionar.

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5. Síntese

Definição: Habilidade de agregar e juntar partes com a finalidade de criar um novo todo. Essa habilidade envolve a produção de uma comunicação única (tema ou discurso), um plano de operações (propostas de pesquisas) ou um conjunto de relações abstratas (esquema para classificar informações). Combinar partes não organizadas para formar um “todo”. Subcategorias: 5.1 Produção de uma comunicação original; 5.2 Produção de um plano ou propostas de um conjunto de operações; e 5.3 Derivação de um conjunto de relacionamentos abstratos. Verbos: categorizar, combinar, compilar, compor, conceber, construir, criar, desenhar, elaborar, estabelecer, explicar, formular, generalizar, inventar, modificar, organizar, originar, planejar, propor, reorganizar, relacionar, revisar, reescrever, resumir, sistematizar, escrever, desenvolver, estruturar, montar e projetar.

6. Avaliação

Definição: Habilidade de julgar o valor do material (proposta, pesquisa, projeto) para um propósito específico. O julgamento é baseado em critérios bem definidos que podem ser externos (relevância) ou internos (organização) e podem ser fornecidos ou conjuntamente identificados. Julgar o valor do conhecimento. Subcategorias: 6.1 Avaliação em termos de evidências internas; e 6.2 Julgamento em termos de critérios externos. Verbos: Avaliar, averiguar, escolher, comparar, concluir, contrastar, criticar, decidir, defender, discriminar, explicar, interpretar, justificar, relatar, resolver, resumir, apoiar, validar, escrever uma revisão sobre, detectar, estimar, julgar e selecionar.

Fonte: Bloom 1956, 1986; Driscoll, 2000; Krathwohl, 2002; [Ferraz; Vairo, 2010.

Diferentemente do que supostamente ocorria em 1956, hoje, os educadores aprenderam muito mais sobre como os alunos aprendem e os professores ensinam, e agora reconhecem que o ensino e a aprendizagem abrangem muito mais do que o simples raciocínio. Eles envolvem os sentimentos e as crenças de alunos e professores, bem como o ambiente sócio cultural das salas de aulas presenciais ou virtuais. A Taxonomia de Bloom original [Bloom 1956] tem sido criticada pela relação de dependência e hierarquia entre os níveis no âmbito do do197

mínio cognitivo [Rotterdam, 2000]. Para Rotterdam os objetivos de conhecimento não formam uma hierarquia visto que, por exemplo, tarefas de avaliação não têm valor mais alto que tarefas de aplicação. Cada elemento da taxonomia tem seus próprios objetivos e valores. Uma taxionomia hierárquica implica que cada capacitação mais alta é composta por todas as capacitações que estão abaixo dela; a compreensão requer informação; a aplicação requer compreensão e informação; e assim por diante. Segundo o autor [Marzano 2000], essa simplesmente não é a realidade dos processos cognitivos da Taxionomia de Bloom. Embora as críticas feitas à Taxonomia de Bloom sejam consideradas válidas, grande número de educadores entende que seu uso pode ser muito útil para o planejamento e desenho de eventos de aprendizagem, como apresentado em [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]. Além do que, ela oferece um bom apoio ao esforço de compatibilizar testes de avaliação com conteúdo de ensino [Waal e Teles 2004]. Alterações na Taxonomia de Bloom Segundo [Krathwohl 2002], os objetivos educacionais, geralmente, declaram o que é esperado que os alunos aprendam e esquecem de explicitar, de forma coerente, o que eles deverão ser capazes de realizar com aquele conhecimento. Os objetivos são descritos utilizando verbos de ação e substantivos que procuram descrever os processos cognitivos desejados, por exemplo: ao final dessa unidade os alunos deverão lembrar (verbo) da Teoria da Relatividade de Einstein (substantivo/conteúdo), mas não esclarecem como será verificado se realmente lembraram e aplicaram esse novo conhecimento. Os pesquisadores ao analisar a relação direta entre verbo e substantivo chegaram à conclusão de que verbos e substantivos deveriam pertencer a dimensões separadas na qual os substantivos formariam a base para a dimensão conhecimento (o que) e verbo para a dimensão relacionada aos aspectos cognitivos (como). 198

A dissociação de substantivos e verbos, conhecimento e processos cognitivos, deu um caráter bidimensional à taxonomia original e direcionou todo o trabalho de revisão. Cada uma das partes da estrutura bidimensional foi nominada como Dimensão Conhecimento e Dimensão dos Processos Cognitivos (Figura 2). Verbos (dimensão: processos cognitivos – como) Substantivos (dimensão: conhecimento – o que) Figura 2. Taxonomia de Bloom: Cárater Bidimensional [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]

Dimensão conhecimento Na taxonomia original [Bloom 1956] o conhecimento compreende: a) habilidade de lembrar especificidades e generalidades de métodos, procedimentos, padrões e instruções; e b) habilidade de achar, no problema proposto, sinais, dicas, pequenas informações que efetivamente tragam à consciência o aprendizado prévio adquirido, ou seja, conhecimento é o que é lembrado. De acordo com autor [Anderson 1999] essas duas definições, por si só, já correspondem respectivamente à diferença significativa entre processo e produto. A partir dessa observação, os pesquisadores dividem o conhecimento em dois tipos: (1) conhecimento como processo e (2) conhecimento como conteúdo assimilado. Como na taxonomia original, a categoria conhecimento está diretamente relacionada ao conteúdo e essa dimensão passou a conter quatro, ao invés das três, subcategorias como mostrado no Quadro 2.

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Quadro 2 - Adaptações da Categoria Conhecimento na Taxonomia de Bloom CATEGORIA Conhecimento

TAXONOMIA ORIGINAL 1.1 Conhecimento específico. 1.2 Conhecimento de formas e significado relacionados às especificidades do conteúdo. 1.3 Conhecimento universal e abstração relacionados a um determinado campo de conhecimento

TAXONOMIA REVISADA 1.1 Conhecimento Efetivo: relacionado ao conteúdo básico que o discente deve dominar a fim de que consiga realizar e resolver problemas apoiados nesse conhecimento. Relacionado aos fatos que não precisam ser entendidos ou combinados, apenas reproduzidos como apresentados. Conhecimento da Terminologia; e Conhecimento de detalhes e elementos específicos. 1.2 Conhecimento Conceitual: relacionado à inter relação dos elementos básicos num contexto mais elaborado que os discentes seriam capazes de descobrir. Elementos mais simples foram abordados e agora precisam ser conectados. Esquemas, estruturas e modelos foram organizados e explicados. Nessa fase, não é a aplicação de um modelo que é importante, mas a consciência de sua existência. Conhecimento de classificação e categorização; Conhecimento de princípios e generalizações; e Conhecimento de teorias, modelos e estruturas. 1.3 Conhecimento Procedural: relacionado ao conhecimento de “como realizar alguma coisa” utilizando métodos, critérios, algoritmos e técnicas. Nesse momento, o conhecimento abstrato começa a ser estimulado, mas dentro de um contexto único e não interdisciplinar. Conhecimento de conteúdos específicos, habilidades e algoritmos; Conhecimento de técnicas específicas e métodos; e Conhecimento de critérios e percepção de como e quando usar um procedimento específico. 1.4 Conhecimento Metacognitivo: relacionado ao reconhecimento da cognição em geral e da consciência da amplitude e profundidade de conhecimento adquirido de um determinado conteúdo. Em contraste com o conhecimento procedural, esse conhecimento é relacionado à interdisciplinaridade. A ideia principal é utilizar conhecimentos previamente assimilados (interdisciplinares) para resolução de problemas e/ou a escolha do melhor método, teoria ou estrutura. Conhecimento estratégico; Conhecimento sobre atividades cognitivas incluindo contextos preferenciais e situações de aprendizagem (estilos); e Autoconhecimento.

Fonte: Driscoll, 2000; Krathwohl, 2002; Ferraz; Vairo, 2010.

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O conhecimento efetivo, conceitual e procedural foram reorganizadas para usar uma terminologia mais clara e na qual fosse possível reconhecer as diferenças psicocognitivas que seriam desenvolvidas e a quarta e nova subcategoria está relacionada ao conceito de metacognição [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]. Segundo o autor [Anderson et al. 2001], a metacognição envolve o conhecimento cognitivo real assim como a consciência da aprendizagem individual. Essa subcategoria tem se tornado cada vez mais importante na área educacional uma vez que a possibilidade de autoaprendizagem e o controle do aprendizado relacionado à autonomia de aprender deve ser um processo cada vez mais consciente e passível de medição. Isso é possibilitado pela utilização da tecnologia da comunicação na educação, a criação de novas oportunidades educacionais e a popularização da modalidade a distância. Dimensão Processo Cognitivo Segundo os autores [Anderson 1999], [Bloom 1956], a taxonomia original foi concebida de maneira hierárquica e unidimensional e relacionava a aquisição de conhecimento com a mudança de comportamento observável relacionada ao objetivo previamente proposto e essas mudanças podem ser medidas em termos de atos e pensamentos. Essa análise detalhada incentivou a alteração da terminologia domínio cognitivo para domínio do processo cognitivo que, de acordo com os pesquisadores, é mais clara e diretamente relacionada ao que acontece no contexto educacional [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]. Na taxonomia original, embora as seis categorias fizessem parte do domínio cognitivo, apenas cinco delas (compreensão, aplicação, análise, síntese e avaliação) estavam diretamente relacionadas a ele, pois a categoria conhecimento, desde sua idealização, estava relacionada ao conteúdo instrucional. 201

Uma releitura da Taxionomia de Bloom foi realizada [Anderson et al. 2001] gerando uma proposta revisada com seis capacitações da mais simples para a mais complexa, conforme documentado na versão de Bloom. Sendo elas: lembrar, entender, aplicar, analisar, avaliar e criar (Figura 3).

Figura 3 - Categorias da Taxonomia de Bloom Atual Fonte: Anderson e colaboradores, 2001.

Ao separar, conceitualmente, o conhecimento do processo cognitivo, ocorreram as seguintes mudanças [Krathwohl 2002], [Ferraz e Vairo 2010]: » Os aspectos verbais utilizados na categoria Conhecimento foram mantidos, mas esta foi renomeada para Lembrar; Compreensão foi renomeada para Entender; e Aplicação, Análise, Síntese e Avaliação, foram alteradas para a forma verbal Aplicar, Analisar, Sintetizar e Criar, por expressarem melhor a ação pretendida e serem condizentes com o que se espera de resultado a determinado estímulo de instrução; » As categorias avaliação e síntese (avaliar e criar) foram trocadas de lugar; e » Os nomes das subcategorias existentes foram alterados para verbos no gerúndio (Quadro 3).

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Quadro 3 - Estrutura da Taxonomia de Bloom Atual: Processo Cognitivo CATEGORIA

DESCRIÇÃO

1. Lembrar

Definição: relacionado a reconhecer e reproduzir idéias e conteúdos. Reconhecer requer distinguir e selecionar uma determinada informação. Reproduzir ou recordar está mais relacionado à busca por uma informação relevante memorizada. Verbos: Reconhecendo e Reproduzindo.

2. Entender

Definição: relacionado a estabelecer uma conexão entre o novo e o conhecimento previamente adquirido. A informação é entendida quando o aprendiz consegue reproduzi-la com suas “próprias palavras”. Verbos: Interpretando, Exemplificando, Classificando, Resumindo, Inferindo, Comparando e Explicando.

3. Aplicar

Definição: relacionado a executar ou usar um procedimento numa situação específica e pode também abordar a aplicação de um conhecimento numa situação nova. Verbos: Executando e Implementando.

4. Analisar

Definição: relacionado a dividir a informação em partes relevantes e irrelevantes, importantes e menos importantes e entender a inter relação existente entre as partes. Verbos: Diferenciando, Organizando, Atribuindo e Concluindo.

5. Avaliar

Definição: relacionado a realizar julgamentos baseados em critérios e padrões qualitativos e quantitativos ou de eficiência e eficácia. Verbos: Checando e Criticando.

6. Criar

Definição: significa colocar elementos junto com o objetivo de criar uma nova visão, uma nova solução, estrutura ou modelo utilizando conhecimentos e habilidades previamente adquiridos. Envolve o desenvolvimento de ideias novas e originais, produtos e métodos por meio da percepção da interdisciplinaridade e da interdependência de conceitos. Verbos: Generalizando, Planejando e Produzindo.

Fonte: Anderson e colaboradores, 2001; Ferraz; Vairo, 2010.

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Na nova estrutura da Taxanomia de Bloom [Anderson et al. 2001] o princípio da progressão da complexidade foi mantido: do simples para o complexo; do concreto para o abstrato. Segundo o autor [Ferraz e Vairo 2010], novamente, foi atribuída mais flexibilidade ao conceito cumulativo e dependente de cada categoria, pois: » Diferentes disciplinas requerem processos cognitivos diferenciados; » Os estilos de aprendizagem possibilitam aos discentes aprenderem melhor num estágio mais elevado e depois serem capazes de entender os anteriores; e » O conceito de metacognição abre espaço para que alunos transitem livremente pelas subcategorias com o objetivo de melhorar seu autoaprendizado [Krathwohl, 2002].

IMPLEMENTAÇÃO DO SISTEMA DE EDUCAÇÃO A DISTÂNCIA No sistema de EaD proposto, as ações pedagógicas fundamentam-se nas iniciativas dos alunos. Os métodos de EaD que se pretende utilizar, além de propiciar o diálogo, respeitar os interesses e os diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento cognitivo dos alunos, favorecem a autonomia e a transferência de aprendizagem, visando, não apenas ao aprender a fazer, mas, sobretudo, ao aprender a aprender. O instrumento mediador da aprendizagem que a instituição aplica nos seus cursos de EaD são os materiais impressos e digitais e as tecnologias disponíveis no AVEA. Eles favorecem o desenvolvimento das capacidades de abstração e reflexão sobre a atividade realizada. Assim, não basta que o aluno execute com exatidão uma atividade do domínio teórico ou um processo de trabalho. Ele só vai avançar se for capaz de, conscientemente, justificar e explicar seu próprio procedimento. 204

As atividades de planejamento e implementação acadêmica dos cursos de EaD são executadas por equipes inter e multidisciplinares. Cada curso proposto terá as seguintes formas de interação e dinâmica de trabalho pedagógico: » Utilização de material impresso e digital, também disponível no AVEA para comunicação e interatividade. » Apresentação da proposta do Curso (metodologia e ferramentas). » Aula inaugural com apresentação das disciplinas pelo professor e abordando a temática geral do curso. » Oferta de disciplinas por módulos de estudos, com periodicidade semestral para as etapas de avaliação presencial. » Sistema Tutorial de atendimento às duvidas de conteúdo dos alunos. » Avaliações, estágios e defesa de trabalhos de conclusão de curso presenciais nas unidades da universidade e nas instituições conveniadas para a oferta do programa, com supervisão de professores. O projeto de EaD apresentado inclui o adequado planejamento de infraestrutura tecnológica, desenvolvido com o objetivo de atender as necessidades pedagógicas e de comunicação entre professor, aluno e instituição. O serviço de Internet, integrado ao ambiente de EaD será empregado de duas maneiras. Por um lado, como uma ferramenta que apóia a aprendizagem pela exploração, propiciando aos estudantes acesso as mais variadas fontes de informações. E, por outro lado, como ambiente interativo de aprendizagem, possibilitando aos estudantes um ambiente de colaboração e ferramenta de comunicação, baseada no computador. A EaD, globalizante e integradora, caracteriza-se por mediar uma relação em que professor e alunos estão fisicamente separados. A interação dos estudantes com os docentes e entre si, apesar de muitas vezes ter um distanciamento geográfico, será garantida por diferentes meios tecnológicos, resultando em maior eficiência para o processo de aprendizagem. Na busca da formação integral dos alunos, para que se transformem em produtores de conhecimento e não em meros receptores de 205

informações, surge a necessidade de uma comunicação multidirecional, mediada por tecnologias apropriadas. Com esse enfoque pedagógico, a aprendizagem será realizada pelos seguintes meios: » Material atraente e instigante em linguagem adequada. » Atividades relevantes e contextualizadas. » Troca de experiências e interação social. » Fontes de informação de qualidade. O aluno do curso receberá, no momento da matrícula, o manual do aluno, o qual poderá ser acessado pelo AVEA, que o informará sobre a estrutura do curso, métodos de avaliações, acesso a ambientes e materiais, cronogramas de atividades e encontros, flexibilização das grades curriculares dependendo da disponibilidade para o estudo, meios e forma de comunicação entre os atores do sistema de EaD. Em relação à flexibilização da grade curricular, é adotado um conjunto de procedimentos visando orientar o aluno na escolha de uma trajetória adequada à sua disponibilidade de tempo de estudo e formação. Nessa dinâmica serão envolvidos os professores autores, professores Tutores e as equipes docentes. Quanto aos encontros presenciais, o procedimento a ser adotado prevê a entrega de um boletim de informação a todos os estudantes do curso no início de cada período letivo. Esse boletim conterá informações sobre horas, datas e programas correspondentes aos encontros presenciais com professores Tutores. Todo o material didático correspondente às disciplinas do curso será acompanhado de um guia didático da disciplina. Nesse guia o aluno encontrará orientações sobre: » Cada unidade e cada aula do material impresso. » Tempo mínimo necessário ao estudo de cada aula. » Como ter contato com o Professor Ministrante daquela disciplina. » Critérios de aprovação. » Interação entre ele e seu Tutor e entre ele e seus colegas de disciplina. 206

Equipes multi e interdisciplinares Os recursos humanos presentes nessa modalidade de ensino são profissionais de diversas áreas do conhecimento compondo as equipes inter e multidisciplinares, cruciais ao desenvolvimento e gestão dos processos de EaD. As equipes, em sua grande maioria, caracterizam-se por serem interdisciplinares, pois os profissionais de áreas distintas interagem de forma regular dentro e fora do espaço de trabalho, colaboram na síntese e integração dos métodos e das disciplinas. As perspectivas disciplinares são reconhecidas e tornadas explícitas pelos atores, os pontos de síntese entre disciplinas são desenvolvidos e áreas de conflito são exploradas. As equipes, apresentadas a seguir, desenvolvem estratégias e procedimentos, visando garantir o acesso de todos os participantes, de acordo com as condições tecnológicas disponíveis. Equipe Pedagógica: é formada pelos especialistas da área de conhecimento do curso/disciplina, sendo eles: coordenador pedagógico, professor Autor e Ministrante. Equipe de Apoio: é composta pelas equipes de Tutoria, de produção de materiais e coordenação do AVEA. Equipe de Infraestrutura: oferece todas as interligações e acessos na estrutura de redes de computadores, telecomunicações e servidores. Está relacionada com os equipamentos e inter conexões que permitem o funcionamento local ou remoto do ambiente virtual de ensino aprendizagem. Nesta equipe atuam Administradores de Redes de Computadores e Comunicação de Dados, Programadores, Analistas de sistema, Designer Gráfico, Designer Instrucional e Desenvolvedores de Softwares. Equipe de Suporte Administrativo: a equipe de suporte, representado pelos recursos humanos da secretaria, oferece atendimento local ou remoto de questões relacionadas às áreas administrativas e acadêmicas. O apoio da secretaria é exercido pelo Técnico Administrativo, designado para a função de Direção da Unidade, com responsabilidade de acom207

panhar, registrar e encaminhar toda documentação do curso e da vida acadêmica dos estudantes. Equipe de Capacitação: essa equipe é responsável pela capacitação de Tutores presenciais e a distância para trabalharem em conjunto com os professores Ministrantes dos cursos, assim como nas habilidades de áudio e videoconferência. Equipe de Acompanhamento e Pesquisa: essa equipe é responsável por prestar atendimento, acompanhar o aluno ou dar lhe encaminhamentos necessários relacionados com estudos e pesquisas nos processos didático, cognitivo, metacognitivo, motivacional, afetivo e social. Na maioria das vezes a mediação é realizada pelo professor Mediador e/ou Tutor. Equipe de Avaliação do Ensino Aprendizagem: essa equipe é responsável por promover as avaliações e avaliar o aproveitamento escolar das atividades pedagógicas propostas. É formada pelos professores Autores, Ministrantes e Tutores. Equipe de Avaliação do Curso: essa equipe trabalha no processo de confecção e análise das avaliações periódicas do curso. É formada por coordenadores de cursos e professores. Sistema Pedagógico de Tutoria e Orientação O sistema pedagógico de tutoria e orientação do EaD proposto é constituído por uma organização institucional de indivíduos (professores e orientadores), procedimentos administrativos, tecnológicos e educacionais que no conjunto objetivam particularmente o atendimento às necessidades de ensino-aprendizagem do aluno, tendo como referência a disponibilização de informações e recursos didático pedagógicos que possibilitem os estudos de forma autônoma com qualidade e promovam a interação humana fundamental para o processo de aprendizagem. O sistema pedagógico de tutoria e orientação proposto tem como agentes principais os professores autores das disciplinas, os professores tutores e os orientadores. 208

O Professor Autor tem a responsabilidade de coordenar o desenvolvimento dos conteúdos programáticos de acordo com os tópicos de estudos concernentes as disciplinas, propor recursos didáticos apropriados às necessidades da disciplina, elaborar metodologias de ensino adequadas com os objetivos de cada módulo de conhecimento, avaliar o desempenho da disciplina a partir de seus objetivos e acompanhar continuamente o processo de aprendizagem dos alunos em consonância com o trabalho pedagógico do Professor Ministrante. Observa-se que na presente proposta de curso o Professor Autor poderá também ser o responsável pelo processo de Tutoria na qualidade de Professor Ministrante. O Professor Autor tem as seguintes atribuições: » Definir os conteúdos programáticos das disciplinas de acordo com os objetivos de cada Módulo sob sua responsabilidade autoral. » Elaborar o material didático do curso, sob orientação de Equipe de produção de Materiais. » Orientar, pedagogicamente, o Professor Ministrante nas questões relativas ao desenvolvimento dos conteúdos. » Participar na elaboração dos instrumentos de avaliação do aluno, juntamente com o Professor Ministrante. » Emitir parecer sobre os resultados da avaliação do aluno, quando solicitado pelo Professor Ministrante. » Participar do processo de avaliação do curso. O Professor Ministrante ocupa um papel importante no processo educativo por ser um elemento intermediário no sistema, na medida em que, por intermédio do seu apoio, ocorrerá a relação material didático e aluno, ou seja, tem a responsabilidade de propiciar auxílio e apoio pedagógico ao processo de aprendizagem do aluno e viabilizar oportunidades de contatos com os alunos por meio de recursos tecnológicos de comunicação, além de sanar dúvidas nos encontros presenciais, e participar das discussões em grupos sobre os exercícios propostos no final de cada módulo. 209

Haverá um Professor Ministrante para cada grupo de 50 alunos, estando disponível para o atendimento dos alunos em horários pré fixados, reservados para as comunicações assíncronas (através de fax, correio convencional, e-mail, ferramentas de assessoria do ambiente virtual) e comunicações síncronas (através de telefone, chats). No sistema de EaD, o Professor Tutor tem um papel fundamental, pois, é através dele que se garante a inter relação personalizada e contínua do educando no sistema e se viabiliza uma articulação entre os elementos do processo, necessária à consecução dos objetivos propostos. Por isso, busca construir seu modelo tutorial que atenda às especificidades regionais e aos programas e cursos propostos, incorporando as novas tecnologias. Mas, o que caracteriza e diferencia a figura do Tutor é fundamentalmente a concepção manifestada quanto à sua função dentro do sistema de EaD. Nas práticas implementadas, aparentemente não são percebidas grandes diferenças, pois, na estrutura do sistema, a tutoria é posta nas instâncias de mediação entre o estudante, o material didático e o professor, na busca de uma comunicação cada vez mais ativa e personalizada, respeitando-se a autonomia da aprendizagem. A tutoria, muito mais que uma fórmula de enquadramento e de assistência ao estudante, é vista como educação individualizada, cooperativa e uma abordagem pedagógica centrada sobre o ato de aprender que põe à disposição do estudante-adulto recursos que lhe permitem alcançar os objetivos do curso totalmente desenvolvendo a autonomia em sua caminhada de aprendizagem. A autonomia é algo que se adquire gradualmente, nos diferentes níveis de desenvolvimento. O Professor Ministrante, respeitando a autonomia da aprendizagem de cada educando, estará constantemente orientando, dirigindo e supervisionando o processo de ensino-aprendizagem dos educandos. É através dele que se garante a efetivação da avaliação do curso em todos os níveis. Para preencher adequadamente seu papel, portanto, o Professor Tutor deve possuir previamente certo número de qualidades, de capacida210

des ou aptidões. Isso devido à importância e à posição que ocupa dentro de um sistema que compreende a EaD como sendo uma prática educativa, situada e mediatizada. A participação do Professor Ministrante no curso se dará nos seguintes momentos: » Na fase de planejamento: o Professor Tutor participa e discute com o Professor Autor os conteúdos a serem trabalhados no curso, o material didático a ser utilizado e o sistema de acompanhamento e avaliação dos alunos. Junto à equipe pedagógica do Centro receberá uma formação específica sobre a modalidade de EaD e conhecerá em detalhes todo o sistema que dará suporte ao educando e serão definidas suas funções e competências. » Na fase de desenvolvimento do curso: o Professor Tutor tem a função primordial de estimular, motivar e orientar o educando, em acreditar em sua capacidade de organizar sua atividade acadêmica e de auto-aprendizagem (função orientadora e motivadora). » Deverá também estar à disposição dos educandos para tirar dúvidas quanto ao conteúdo da disciplina (função didática). Por isso um dos critérios de seleção será sua qualificação, graduação superior e competência profissional naquela área do conhecimento. Nesta fase a Tutoria pode ocorrer de duas formas: » À distância: o educando, individualmente, entrará em contato com o Tutor, através de meios de comunicação estabelecidos, nos horários definidos anteriormente; ou em pequenos grupos de estudo, poderá formular algumas questões ou dúvidas e solicitar ao Tutor que os esclareça utilizando-se de um sistema interativo de comunicação. » Presencialmente: o educando, individualmente ou em pequenos grupos, se encontrará no Instituto ou em outro local conveniado, com o seu Tutor muito mais para discutir e avaliar seu processo de aprendizagem, apresentar os resultados de suas leituras, atividades e trabalhos propostos nos materiais didáticos do que somente para tirar dúvidas. 211

O sistema de Tutoria busca estimular e fomentar a organização dos estudantes em pequenos grupos para estudarem e desenvolverem as atividades solicitadas. Isso motiva o estudante, facilita a compreensão dos conteúdos nas discussões com os colegas, contribui na superação de dificuldades e faz com que os momentos de desânimo sejam superados. Sugere-se que, os próprios estudantes formem grupos de estudo e criem a figura do monitor, isto é, do colega que “melhor entende o conteúdo”, para coordenar o grupo nas discussões do material didático. O trabalho cooperativo, portanto, permite uma interação maior entre os próprios estudantes e com o Tutor, fazendo com que avancem e cheguem mais longe do que sozinhos, evitando também criar certa “dependência” do Tutor. É um momento onde exercitam a exposição, a verbalização, a organização de seus pensamentos e aprendem a trabalhar coletivamente. O que é de suma importância para uma prática educativa no contexto onde atuam. Ao final da disciplina, o Tutor poderá promover seminários onde os alunos poderão expor seus trabalhos ou discutir temas educativos de atualidade relacionados com seu trabalho docente, convidando os professores/especialistas do curso a participarem. O contato direto com os professores, com os autores dos materiais didáticos evidencia-se como motivador para o estudante continuar no curso. Caberá também ao Tutor avaliar o estudante e informar ao professor autor sobre a necessidade de textos complementares de apoio, não previstos pelo material didático, quando detectadas dificuldades de aprendizagem. Na fase posterior ao desenvolvimento do curso, o Tutor fará um breve relato, avaliando a disciplina (quanto ao material escrito, à modalidade, à participação do Professor Autor, aos tipos de avaliações realizadas, etc.), bem como o sistema posto à disposição para dar suporte ao processo de ensino-aprendizagem. O Professor Tutor juntamente com a coordenação do Centro, definirá seu horário de atendimento. Poderá ser à noite ou em fins de semana, cumprindo a carga horária estabelecida e não tendo mais do que 50 alunos sob sua orientação. 212

O Tutor revela-se, como sendo a figura chave, não simplesmente porque facilita a compreensão do aluno em relação ao material didático tornando mais acessível o processo ensino-aprendizagem, mas porque, ao promover a comunicação e o diálogo, supera as limitações da ausência do Professor Educador, rompe com o possível isolamento do estudante e o introduz em um processo mediado pelos meios tecnológicos. A formação acadêmica e profissional do Tutor é uma das tarefas mais importantes, devendo receber uma atenção e carinho especial por parte da Equipe Pedagógica na consolidação de qualquer proposta educativa através da modalidade de EaD. Capacitação de Tutores O instituição implantou um curso de formação para Tutores realizado pela Equipe de Capacitação, desenvolvido especialmente com uso das Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação. Trata-se de um curso de extensão à distância, on-line (via Internet), com apoio de material didático impresso e on-line. Este curso é obrigatório para os professores atuantes como ministrantes em cursos oferecidos pelo EaD e disciplinas semi presenciais. O objetivo do curso é o de capacitar o professor para exercer a função de Tutor nos cursos à distância. Como objetivos específicos, a capacitação do Tutor buscará fazer com que estes: » Conheçam as funções do AVEA. » Compreendam as interações nas ferramentas do AVEA. » Conheçam os agentes e seus papéis na EaD. » Compreendam o sistema Tutorial. » Compreendam o papel do Professor Ministrante. » Compreendam o processo de avaliação nos cursos a distância.

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Ambiente Virtual de Ensino Aprendizagem O AVEA (Ambiente Virtual de Ensino Aprendizagem) é a plataforma que promove a interação e a colaboração pedagógica entre os atores que compõem um sistema de EaD, aluno, professor e Tutor. O AVEA dispõe de diversos recursos que visam auxiliar o aluno no seu estudo autônomo, participativo e colaborativo. Tem como objetivo oferecer um ambiente dinâmico e de fácil navegação, além de propiciar uma maior interatividade entre todos os participantes, ou seja, aluno, professor, Tutor. Neste ambiente de aprendizagem o aluno terá acesso aos conteúdos das disciplinas e realizará diversas atividades interativas, participativas e colaborativas. Dessa forma, a sua participação no ambiente, a utilização dos recursos e a realização das atividades são fundamentais para o processo de aprendizagem. O aluno perceberá que estudar num curso de EaD com apoio da Internet, consiste em novos desafios, novos olhares para o processo de ensino aprendizagem, novas perspectivas para o processo pedagógico, e isso inclui uma nova postura do professor, do aluno e da relação com um outro sujeito, já bastante conhecido na EaD – o Professor Ministrante. O AVEA foi modelado e desenvolvido tendo como base a ferramenta de gestão de cursos à distância chamada Moodle [UNB 2010]. O Sistema de Gerenciamento de Aprendizagem Moodle foi concebido para auxiliar instituições de ensino superior que tenham interessem em estruturar cursos de EaD com qualidade. O projeto de desenvolvimento do Moodle é contínuo e visa apoiar o social construtivismo educacional. O Moodle é Open Source e livre, sendo distribuído sob a GNU Public [GNU 2010]. Isto significa que apesar de possuir um copyright, pode ser redistribuído e o seu código fonte alterado ou desenvolvido para satisfazer necessidades específicas.

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Atores do AVEA Todos os AVEA, independente da base no qual foram construídos, contemplam quatro principais atores: administrador, professor, Tutor e aluno. Os atores são os usuários do sistema que executam ações de acordo com o perfil modelado [UNB 2010]: » Administrador: é o usuário que possui maior nível de privilégio no sistema, responsável pela formação e definição do ambiente do curso, através da definição da estrutura hierárquica das entidades (cursos, disciplinas e turmas), configuração dos recursos e ferramentas do sistema. » Professor: o professor tem como papel a mediação de conhecimentos. Para isso possui habilitação para compor todo ambiente de suas disciplinas, definindo as ferramentas a serem utilizadas na interação com os alunos. » Tutor: o Tutor tem responsabilidade semelhante ao professor em uma turma, porém executa estas atividades em relação a apenas um grupo de alunos. » Aluno: o aluno é o personagem alvo do sistema. Pretende-se que alcance o objetivo de aprendizagem através do ambiente criado para prover ferramentas necessárias a sua motivação. Interação e colaboração pedagógica utilizando o AVEA O acesso ao AVEA é feito através da digitação da url no navegador, onde o usuário deverá informar suas credenciais de autenticação (usuário e senha). Ao entrar no AVEA, o usuário terá informações sobre o Curso, os conteúdos das disciplinas, as formas de contato com os Professores Tutores, além de diversos recursos que propiciarão interatividade e aprendizagem colaborativa. Os recursos do AVEA desenvolvido são apresentados abaixo. No próprio AVEA o aluno fará uso do correio eletrônico para receber e enviar mensagens. Desta forma, o aluno está sendo permanente215

mente informado a respeito das questões pertinentes ao seu processo de aprendizagem. Para um contato de caráter especificamente pedagógico, o AVEA dispõe de uma ferramenta chamada Tutoria. A finalidade da Tutoria é a de oportunizar a interação direta entre o aluno e seu Professor Ministrante. Nesta ferramenta, o aluno manterá com seu Tutor um diálogo pedagógico no qual poderá aprofundar seus estudos, tirar dúvidas, solicitar informações e obter retorno sobre o seu desempenho. No AVEA, o aluno também encontrará um serviço exclusivo de orientação. Através da orientação, obterá informações sobre o manejo tecnológico das ferramentas pedagógicas existentes no ambiente virtual. O orientador é o responsável pelo suporte e apoio acadêmico personalizado ao aluno em questões administrativas, técnicas e operacionais, visando satisfazer necessidades que dizem respeito ou não a mediação pedagógica. O AVEA possui uma midiateca. Na midiateca o aluno encontrará indicações de bibliografias, links, artigos que lhe serão úteis na complementação dos estudos. O AVEA é composto, ainda, por uma ferramenta própria para o acompanhamento das atividades de avaliação do aluno. Esta ferramenta possibilitará aos alunos enviarem suas atividades diretamente para o Professor Ministrante. O Professor Ministrante, por sua vez, utilizando-se da ferramenta poderá ler, refletir, analisar, avaliar e encaminhar ao aluno suas contribuições e considerações sobre o seu desempenho. Recursos do AVEA Disciplinas: recurso utilizado para realizar leitura e estudo do conteúdo de forma interativa e com uma linguagem apropriada, acessar diversos links específicos de cada disciplina, tais como: Agenda, Fórum, Mala Direta, Material de Apoio, Trabalho colaborativo entre outros. 216

Tutoria: este recurso de caráter especificamente pedagógico tem por finalidade de oportunizar a interação direta entre o aluno e seu Professor Ministrante. Nesta ferramenta, o aluno manterá com seu Tutor um diálogo pedagógico no qual poderá aprofundar seus estudos, tirar dúvidas, solicitar informações e obter retorno sobre o seu desempenho. Orientação: com este recurso o aluno obterá informações sobre o manejo tecnológico das ferramentas pedagógicas existentes no ambiente virtual. Biblioteca: esse recurso coloca à disposição do aluno o conteúdo digital estruturado para oferecer bases de apoio pedagógico no que diz respeito ao uso dos acervos bibliográficos (livros, revistas) disponíveis na biblioteca física da instituição. Perfil do Curso: apresenta o perfil desejado do profissional ou que se pretende alcançar ao término do curso em questão, descrevendo as bases tecnológicas, habilidades e competências. Grade Curricular: ilustra a grade curricular completa das disciplinas e módulos que contemplam o curso. Manual do Aluno: apresenta um guia de orientação para a aprendizagem à distância. Orientação e técnicas de auto estudo. Informações acadêmicas e administrativas. Secretaria: é um espaço que permite o acesso do aluno no cronograma das atividades do curso e solicitações de documentos de seu interesse, tais como: atestado de matrícula; atestado de freqüência e declaração de comparecimento em encontros presenciais. Webmail: serviço usado para facilitar a comunicação através do envio e recebimento de mensagens. Contato: usado para acessar informações como endereço e telefone da instituição, bem como postar mensagens ao coordenador do EaD. O aluno pode, também, conhecer quem é o Tutor que irá acompanhá-lo em seus estudos. Dados do Aluno: permite que o próprio usuário possa monitorar e controlar seus dados cadastrais, ou seja, o aluno pode visualizar e alterar 217

seus dados pessoais como nome, endereço, data de nascimento, mantendo-os sempre atualizados. Agenda: neste recurso o aluno terá acesso aos principais eventos agendados pelos professores da disciplina como datas de provas, envio de atividade e chat. Fórum: importante ferramenta usada para a participação da discussão de temas relacionados às disciplinas ou realizar atividades propostas pelos professores. O aluno pode acessar o fórum de acordo com suas disponibilidades de horários. No fórum as mensagens são visualizadas em diversos formatos e podem incluir anexos. Os participantes têm a opção de receber cópias das novas mensagens via e-mail e os professores, de enviar mensagens ao fórum com cópias via email a todos os participantes. Chat: o instrumento chat permite a realização de uma discussão textual via Web em modalidade síncrona. Este instrumento contém instrumentos para a revisão e a administração das discussões. Os encontros por meio do chat são previamente agendados e postados no recurso agenda. Portfólio: este recurso corresponde a uma atividade de reflexão orientada por um moderador. O professor pede ao estudante que reflita sobre certo assunto e o estudante anota as suas reflexões progressivamente, aperfeiçoando a resposta. Esta resposta é pessoal e não pode ser vista pelos outros participantes. O professor pode adicionar comentários de feedback e avaliações a cada anotação no Diário. Esta deve ser uma atividade constante, como por exemplo, uma atividade deste tipo por semana. Lições: uma lição disponibiliza conteúdo de um modo flexível e interessante. Consiste de um número de páginas. Cada página termina normalmente com uma pergunta e um número de respostas possíveis. Dependendo da resposta escolhida pelo aluno, avança-se para a página seguinte ou retorna-se para a página anterior. Mala Direta: o aluno pode enviar mensagens eletrônicas aos seus colegas mesmo sem saber o e-mail dos mesmos. O recurso Mala Direta exibe uma lista com todos os usuários que participam da disciplina. 218

Midiateca: serviço de armazenamento de materiais usado para os professores postarem os textos complementares, áudio e vídeo aula das disciplinas, bem como outros materiais que servem para ampliar os estudos, como indicações e sugestões de artigos, bibliografias, pesquisas, links etc. Dependendo da escolha, o aluno pode visualizar o material em tela ou fazer o download do disco remoto para o disco local. Diário de Classe: esse recurso permite que o responsável por uma entidade possa registrar a freqüência e as notas dos alunos cadastrados. Trabalho Colaborativo: serviço para upload de arquivos, ou seja, o aluno poderá enviar arquivos para seus colegas e professores. Esse recurso será utilizado principalmente para a postagem de arquivos com as atividades realizadas pelos grupos nas disciplinas. Avaliação do curso: este instrumento contém alguns tipos de questionários de avaliação de cursos, específicos para avea. este tipo de atividade favorece a reflexão sobre os processos de aprendizagem durante o curso, permite o levantamento do perfil dos egressos e o conhecimento do grau de satisfação da qualidade dos serviços ofertados. Sistema de Acompanhamento As mídias utilizadas para o desenvolvimento dos estudos são os materiais impressos (livro didático, caderno de atividades, guia do aluno e instrumentos de avaliação) e, para comunicação e interatividade entre os alunos, Tutores e orientadores os recursos digitais do AVEA. Todos os materiais foram elaborados a partir de design instrucional especializado, visando à produção de instrumentos mediadores com caráter auto-instrucional, específicos para o ensino individualizado e a distância. Na Internet, o aluno tem a possibilidade de comunicação e interatividade com os colegas, Tutores e com o suporte técnico, disponível através do AVEA (Tutoria/orientação eletrônica). O aluno tem a sua disposição também via Internet todo o conteúdo dos materiais impressos, no219

vos conteúdos em mídia digital (textos didáticos; exercícios dirigidos; fóruns de discussão; chats para debates on line, entre outras). O aluno receberá todo o material impresso, referente a cada disciplina no momento da matricula, ou via correio conforme a sua opção. A ele cabe fazer a leitura dos textos e realizar as atividades recomendadas (exercícios dirigidos, trabalhos escritos, provas, elaboração/execução de projetos de investigação científica etc) e comunicar-se com o Professor Ministrante. A comunicação bidirecional entre o aluno e o seu Professor Ministrante poderá ocorrer por via escrita, por telefone/fax (Tutoria telefônica), via AVEA e através de encontros presenciais. O Professor Ministrante ocupa um papel importante no processo educativo por ser um elemento intermediário no sistema, na medida em que, por intermédio do seu apoio, ocorrerá a relação material didático e aluno. Ou seja, tem a responsabilidade de propiciar auxílio e apoio pedagógico ao processo de aprendizagem do aluno e viabilizar oportunidades de contatos com os alunos por meio de recursos tecnológicos de comunicação. Será responsável pela organização dos encontros presenciais, cuja metodologia de funcionamento deverá também possibilitar a socialização de conhecimentos, o intercâmbio de experiências e produções escritas, a indicação de referenciais bibliográficos complementares. Materiais Didáticos A escolha da tecnologia empregada na EaD está fundamentada nas necessidades dos alunos e no contexto em que se desenvolve o trabalho. No modelo de EaD, além do uso de materiais didáticos impressos, outros meios têm a função de complemento pedagógico, cada um dos quais com um suporte tecnológico distinto: áudio e vídeo aulas, CD-ROM, DVD, e, principalmente, os recursos inseridos no AVEA. O Professor Autor recorrerá, ainda a outros materiais didáticos complementares, como MP3 e Podcasting (para gravar falas que considera 220

fundamentais, apresentação da disciplina, atendimento individual em casos muito específicos), fitas de vídeo já produzidas para enriquecimento de temas ou aspectos da disciplina e de atividades complementares, redigindo um pequeno guia sobre o tema da fita para que o educando tenha clareza quanto aos objetivos a serem alcançados e que aspectos analisar. A EaD é uma alternativa pedagógica de grande alcance e que deve utilizar e incorporar as novas tecnologias como meio para alcançar os objetivos das práticas educativas implementadas, tendo sempre em vista as concepções de homem e sociedade assumidas e considerando as necessidades das populações a que se pretende servir. O modelo de EaD apresentado foi concebido para atender e atingir adeptos de diferentes classes e culturas sociais, promovendo a inclusão digital e social nos mais diversos níveis. O modelo contempla, entre outras funções já descritas, um subsistema de comunicação, ou seja, caracteriza-se pela utilização simultânea de meios. A entrega do material relativa ao curso pode ser realizada via correio, diretamente ao educando. Este poderá também utilizar este meio para se comunicar com o Tutor ou com o professor autor. Porém, o trabalho de Tutoria a distância será realizado, preferencialmente, utilizando-se o AVEA. O computador poderá ser utilizado também para intercâmbio entre a instituição e os Tutores quer do ponto de vista pedagógico quer do ponto de vista administrativo. Os dados relativos ao percurso do educando, bem como das informações de adequações do material, das atividades de Tutoria, das avaliações, etc. serão todos armazenados em disco e gerenciados por um sistema de gerenciamento de banco de dados, criando-se, assim, uma base de dados extremamente útil para funções informativas, de análise e de investigação científica. O fundamental, porém, não é estar usando este ou aquele meio de comunicação, mas que seja estabelecida, efetivada e dinamizada uma rede interativa constante e contínua que viabilize o diálogo entre todos os componentes envolvidos no processo educativo. 221

Regimes de Estudos A modalidade da EaD apresenta algumas características peculiares de funcionamento, que possibilita, aos alunos: » Simultaneidade entre estudo e trabalho. » Democratização do acesso aos estudos superiores a uma ampla população geograficamente distante de instituições universitárias. » Possibilidade de percorrer trajetórias diferentes de estudo, na medida em que os alunos estabelecem seus horários. » Possibilidade de realizar estudos diferentes daqueles orientados pelos professores, ampliando-os na medida das suas necessidades. » Realização de estudos individualizados e/ou estudos em grupo. » Formação de equipes para interagir na busca de respostas para as dificuldades, compartilhar descobertas, entre outros. No modelo de EaD proposto, o conteúdo instrucional foi desenvolvido em módulos, sendo que para cada disciplina com a carga horária de 68 horas/aula tem-se quatro módulos de aproximadamente 17 horas/ aula. Paralelamente, o aluno terá atividades de acompanhamento, de assessoria e de avaliação tanto nos encontros presenciais semanais, como também através Internet, via telefônica, fax, postagem de correio. Sistema de Avaliação Periódica do Curso » Se o produto da educação a distância é a aprendizagem, é fundamental efetivar uma avaliação periódica do curso. Avaliar a recepção das mensagens educativas, bem como verificar se os objetivos foram atingidos, isto é, validar os resultados de aprendizagem conhecendo o seu valor e evoluir dando continuidade ou elaborando novos projetos. » A avaliação do curso deverá ser conduzida para verificar, entre outros aspectos: » O nível de satisfação dos alunos. » As características da qualidade do curso que não atendem ao aluno. 222

» Novas características a serem agregadas ao curso para aumentar a satisfação do aluno. » Avaliação das interfaces que propiciam o ensino aprendizagem (AVEA, materiais, tutoria etc.). O desenvolvimento de um ensino de qualidade se refere aquelas atividades envolvidas no desenvolvimento do curso. É neste instante que se define a qualidade planejada, que pode ou não ser alcançada, dependendo apenas da capacidade do processo. O processo é avaliado para localizar os pontos prioritários para controle (ações corretivas), tendo como referência alterar o padrão técnico de processo ou corrigir as operações, de forma a atingir um “processo perfeito” (garantia de qualidade). Os cursos de qualidade são desenvolvidos quando os processos em funcionamento estão aptos a satisfazer, continuamente as necessidades do público alvo. Para avaliar os resultados decorrentes da execução e desenvolvimento do curso, estes devem ser avaliados em relação ao desempenho planejado; os desvios devem ser apurados e corrigidos, sempre que possível. TAXONOMIA DE BLOOM APLICADA AO SISTEMA DE EDUCA ÇÃO A DISTÂNCIA NA INSTITUIÇÃO DE ENSINO SUPERIOR Para estabelecer um contato mais próximo, facilitando o processo ensino aprendizagem e viabilizando uma prática educativa situada e mediatizada, recorre-se a vários meios: material didático e as mais diferentes TICs [Fidalgo e Fidalgo 2005], [Will 2006], [Oliveira 2001, 2007]. Um dos principais aspectos fundamentais na construção do planejamento e logística do EaD é a validação do material didático. Compondo, junto aos recursos tecnológicos de interação pedagógica, a interface entre os atores sociais envolvidos no processo - alunos, professores e tutores - assim como e entre estes e o conhecimento, o material didático assume um papel de suma importância em EaD. Em conjunto com os coordenadores dos cursos e equipes inter e multidisciplinares foram programados encontros para discutir as estra223

tégias na escolha dos objetivos instrucionais; na seleção e organização dos conteúdos; nos procedimentos de ensino; na definição de parâmetros de acompanhamento e avaliação. O maior desafio apontado pelas equipes foi à escolha da metodologia para definir as estratégias educacionais. Em consenso, após exaustivas pesquisas sobre qual melhor metodologia usar, os integrantes envolvidos optaram pelo uso da Taxonomia de Bloom [Bloom 1956], [Anderson et al. 2001]. Conhecimento e Processo Cognitivo Na nova estrutura proposta à Taxonomia de Bloom a dimensão conhecimento (conteúdo) e de processos cognitivos foi mais claramente diferenciada, originando um novo modelo de uso que tem como estrutura uma tabela bidimensional denominada de Tabela Bidimensional da Taxonomia de Bloom [Anderson et al. 2001]. A tabela tem sido freqüentemente utilizada pelas equipes inter e multidisciplinares do EaD com a intenção de melhor estruturar os objetivos educacionais, auxiliar na melhor elaboração do planejamento e na escolha adequada de estratégias e tecnologias educacionais. Ao estruturar a tabela, os pesquisadores diferenciaram, para cada categoria, o que estaria relacionado à aquisição do conhecimento, desenvolvimento de habilidade e competência (Quadro 4). Quadro 4 - Processo Cognitivo da Taxonomia de Bloom Atual Dimensão

Dimensão Processo Cognitivo

Conhecimento

Lembrar

Efetivo/factual

Objetivo 1

Conceitual

Entender

Aplicar

Analisar

Avaliar

Objetivo 2 Objetivo 2

Procedural

Objetivo 3

Metacognitivo Conhecimento

Competência

Fonte: Ferraz; Vairo, 2010.

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Habilidade

Criar

Na Tabela Bidimensional, a dimensão conhecimento pertence à coluna vertical e o processo cognitivo à coluna horizontal. Os objetivos são inseridos nas células, formadas pela intersecção das dimensões. Um mesmo objetivo pode ser inserido em mais de uma célula e não é necessário o preenchimento de todas as células consecutivas, como mostra a situação hipotética representada no Quadro 4. A montagem da tabela deve iniciar a partir da definição dos objetivos específicos da disciplina, curso ou conteúdo. Para a eficiência e eficácia das estratégias, conteúdos e instrumentos de avaliação, os objetivos devem ser pensados em termos de verbos, substantivos e gerúndios. Os verbos de ação da taxonomia original podem ser inseridos nas correspondentes categorias. O verbo no gerúndio é usado para descrever como será alcançado esse objetivo, e, para escolher as estratégias e tecnologias educacionais. Objetivos instrucionais Suponha uma disciplina hipotética denominada Redes Neurais dentro da qual é tratado o tópico “Aprendizagem das Redes Neurais Artificiais – RNAs”. Essa disciplina normalmente aborda outros tópicos e deverá ser dividida em módulos, e os discentes deverão entender os conceitos, a lógica de funcionamento dos algoritmos de treinamento das RNAs, analisar o desempenho dos algoritmos e, avaliar os resultados da capacidade da rede em termos de aprendizagem, reconhecimento de padrões, interpretação de observações após a “Aprendizagem das RNAs” portanto: Ao final da unidade de RNAs, os discentes deverão ser capazes de: » Lembrar do funcionamento do cérebro humano e listar os componentes básicos de um neurônio biológico, reproduzindo-os na realização de exercícios teóricos, incluindo as conexões entre os componentes e o mecanismo de transferência da informação. 225

» Entender a lógica do funcionamento dos algoritmos de aprendizagem das RNAs, comparando o grau de complexidade dos algoritmos; » Escolher e aplicar no mínimo dois algoritmos para treinar uma RNA, implementando sua lógica de funcionamento através de um programa, ou utilizando um aplicativo disponível no mercado; » Avaliar a qualidade das arquiteturas neurais da RNA treinada, escolhendo um conjunto de teste para determinar o desempenho destas redes com dados não utilizados previamente. Em cada objetivo proposto é empregado o gerúndio do verbo possibilitando que seja esclarecido o “quê” e “como” avaliar, e se o objetivo foi ou não alcançado. Após a inserção dos objetivos definidos deve-se inseri-los na Tabela. Os verbos definidos no início de cada objetivo facilitam o trabalho de inserção na dimensão processo cognitivo, o passo mais delicado consiste na diferenciação desses na dimensão conhecimento (Quadro 5). Quadro 5 - Inserção Parcial dos Objetivos Instrucionais Propostos Dimensão

Dimensão Processo Cognitivo

Conhecimento

Lembrar

Efetivo/factual

Objetivo 1

Conceitual

Entender

Aplicar

Analisar

Avaliar

Criar

Objetivo 2 Objetivo 3 Objetivo 3

Procedural

Objetivo 4

Metacognitivo Conhecimento

Competência

Habilidade

Não há nenhum problema na ordem dos objetivos inseridos na dimensão do processo cognitivo, entretanto, a ordem da dimensão conhecimento deve ser respeitada de forma hierárquica e, para se ter um maior controle do processo de aprendizagem, é sugerido que não haja 226

colunas em branco, entretanto, ao se observar o Quadro 5, pode ser que haja algum tópico ou assunto específico em determinadas disciplinas no qual o processo de criar independa do analisar. No exemplo específico, uma análise a partir do preenchimento do Quadro 5 levou a uma redefinição mais precisa dos objetivos (Quadro 6), pois, para que os discentes consigam avaliar os resultados do aprendizado da RNA (objetivo 4, Quadro 5), é necessário que sejam capazes de analisar os resultados de diferentes algoritmos aplicados no treinamento de uma RNA, sendo assim, um novo objetivo instrucional foi inserido a fim de estruturar, adequadamente, o desenvolvimento cognitivo desejado, conforme segue: » Lembrar do funcionamento do cérebro humano e listar os componentes básicos de um neurônio biológico, reproduzindo-os na realização de exercícios teóricos, incluindo as conexões entre os componentes e o mecanismo de transferência da informação. » Entender a lógica do funcionamento dos algoritmos de aprendizagem das RNAs, comparando o grau de complexidade dos algoritmos; » Escolher e aplicar no mínimo dois algoritmos para treinar uma RNA, implementando sua lógica de funcionamento através de um programa, ou utilizando um aplicativo disponível no mercado; » Analisar a capacidade da RNA treinada, demonstrando qual dos algoritmos testados é o mais adequado para a aprendizagem, para o reconhecimento de padrões e a para a interpretação de observações da RNA; » Avaliar a qualidade das arquiteturas neurais da RNA treinada, escolhendo um conjunto de teste para determinar o desempenho destas redes com dados não utilizados previamente.

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Quadro 6 - Inserção Total dos Objetivos Instrucionais Propostos Dimensão

Dimensão Processo Cognitivo

Conhecimento

Lembrar

Efetivo/factual

Objetivo 1

Conceitual

Entender

Aplicar

Objetivo 2 Objetivo 3

Analisar

Avaliar

Criar

Objetivo 4

Objetivo 3 Procedural

Objetivo 4 Objetivo 5

Metacognitivo

Objetivo 4 Objetivo 5 Conhecimento

Competência

Habilidade

Para estimular o desenvolvimento do conhecimento metacognitivo, as equipes interdisciplinares tem apoiado, implementado e implantado estratégias específicas nos objetivos instrucionais das disciplinas dos cursos de EaD. Seleção e Organização de Conteúdos e Procedimentos de Ensino As estratégias de ensino aplicadas ao EaD foram projetadas para prover uma prática pedagógica dinâmica e criativa, facilitando o processo de ensino aprendizagem. O uso desses procedimentos está estreitamente articulado aos objetivos e conseqüentemente, com os recursos mentais que as equipes de professores colocaram em movimento para subsidiar a aprendizagem de um determinado conteúdo. Material Didático Como existe uma forte relação de dependência entre objetivos e conteúdos, a seleção e organização dos materiais didáticos foram realizadas somente após a definição dos objetivos instrucionais. Nos materiais didáticos são apresentados os conteúdos mais significativos e relacionados com a prática dos educandos, levando em consi228

deração a delimitação da situação problema; o público alvo; a concepção e suportes do EaD; auxílios internos e externos ao material didático; atividades finais de avaliação e revisão de conteúdos; adaptação da linguagem e estilo de comunicação com o público alvo. As atividades propostas privilegiam as interações, as trocas de experiências, o compartilhamento das aprendizagens e, permitem que alunos e professores realizem auto-avaliações do ensino aprendizagem e reflitam sobre suas ações nas respectivas instituições e/ou comunidades. Para favorecer a construção do conhecimento foi dado ênfase em atividades participativas e colaborativas, previstas em material didático, sobretudo no AVEA. A grande maioria das atividades propostas no AVEA exige a participação ativa, relações e comunicações de todos os alunos, com competente mediação pedagógica docente. Todo conteúdo do caderno didático e material eletrônico foram estruturados com relações de dependências entre as subcategorias da dimensão conhecimento propostos na Taxonomia de Bloom [Anderson et al. 2001], no entanto, permitindo flexibilidade entre as categorias do processo cognitivo. As atividades acadêmicas, computadas como avaliações, foram planejadas e inseridas no inicio e término de cada unidade programática para favorecer a progressão do estudante em cada etapa do processo cognitivo. Assim como foram inseridas revisões e esquemas de conteúdos ao finalizar e iniciar um novo tópico. Estratégias de Ensino Após a definição dos objetivos institucionais e conteúdos dos planos de ensino, as equipes de professores fizeram a seleção dos procedimentos de ensino para subsidiar de forma eficiente e eficaz a aprendizagem dos alunos. Além das estratégicas tecnológicas incorporadas e já apresentadas no AVEA, praticamente todas as técnicas de ensino conhecidas foram 229

adotadas e inseridas em diferentes contextos no sistema de EaD, sendo elas: estratégia de estudo de texto; seminário; mapa conceitual no ensino; estudo de caso; estratégia de solução de problemas; explosão de idéias; Júri simulado; aula expositiva e dialogada; estudo do meio e estudo dirigido. As técnicas de ensino são apresentas no Quadro 7. Quadro 7 - Estratégias de Ensino Estratégias de Ensino Estratégia

O que é?

Para que serve?

Como Avaliar

Estudo de Texto

Consiste em explorar a idéia do autor a partir do estudo crítico de determinado texto, favorecendo a reflexão e devendo estar inserido em um contexto mais amplo de conhecimento do aluno

Propiciar ao aluno aquisição de conhecimentos, habilidades específicas ou atitudes.

Verificar as produções escritas e comentários do aluno, observando as habilidades de compreensão, análise, avaliação, julgamento, inferência e interpretação dos conteúdos fundamentais e as conclusões a que chegou.

Seminário

Consiste na formação de grupos de estudantes que sob a orientação de um professor investigam problemas e relatam os resultados para discussão e críticas.

Oportunizar situações para o encaminhamento de soluções de problemas colocados em discussão e propiciar condições de trabalho que induzem os membros do grupo a tomar iniciativas efetivamente.

Estabelecer critérios e pontuação para: clareza e coerência; domínio do conhecimento; participação; uso de dinâmicas e/ou recursos audiovisuais; relação teoria/prática, crítica da realidade

Mapa conceitual

É um diagrama que indica a relação de conceitos em uma perspectiva bidimensional, procurando mostrar as relações hierárquicas entre os conceitos e que derivam da própria estrutura conceitual do conteúdo. Podem ser usados para negociar significados.

Compartilhar, trocar e negociar estratégias de aprendizagem e de avaliação. São usados para investigar mudanças na estrutura cognitiva.

Fazer correções mediante critérios, desde que antes explicitados para o grupo. Os critérios de avaliação estão relacionados à observação do desenvolvimento das habilidades de compreensão, análise, avaliação do conhecimento e não só do conteúdo trabalhado.

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Estudo de caso

É a análise minuciosa e objetiva de uma situação real que foi investigada. O caso permite ampla análise e intercâmbio de relações teóricas, discernimento de conceitos, princípios éticos e práticas relevantes, além de participação de todos para efetuar operações mentais requisitadas.

Enriquecer e dinamizar o processo educacional, desenvolver habilidades cognitivas, de planejamento e, sobretudo, habilidades relacionadas à tomada de decisões. O método do caso liga o processo ensino aprendizagem às realidades do mundo exterior, encorajando uma cultura adaptativa.

Estabelecer previamente um esquema de critérios abrangendo as dimensões conceitual (concepções, objetivos e metas), humana (processo de motivação, liderança e valores éticos) e técnica (aplicação, métodos e equipamentos)

Solução problemas

Estratégia que poderá se realizar individualmente ou em grupos, podendo caracterizar-se como uma atividade de iniciação científica.

Remeter ao desenvolvimento do pensamento reflexivo e crítico, ao levantamento de hipóteses, à descoberta de soluções alternativas para determinado problema e à utilização criativa das capacidades do aluno.

Observar as habilidades dos alunos na apresentação das idéias quanto a sua concisão, logicidade, aplicabilidade e pertinência, bem como de seu desempenho na descoberta de soluções apropriadas ao problema apresentado.

Explosão idéias

Consiste na apresentação de idéias ou alternativas de solução de problemas, propiciando a imaginação criadora, sem a restrição dos esquemas lógicos de pensamento. Somente após colocação de todas as idéias, procede-se à sua análise crítica.

Permite ao aluno estabelecer associações, produzir, avaliar, selecionar, combinar e desenvolver idéias, favorecendo a iniciativa, incentivando o pensamento criador, desenvolvendo a expressão oral e estabelecendo conclusões.

Observar e da analisar a participação dos acadêmicos, propriedade e pertinência das afirmações feitas, críticas e conclusões apontadas, após a explosão de idéias.

Júri simulado

Trata-se de uma técnica que a partir do estudo de um determinado assunto, tema ou biografia, simula-se um Júri, em que são apresentados argumentos de defesa e de acusação relativos ao tema.

Analisar e avaliar um fato proposto com objetividade e realismo, crítica construtivista de uma situação determinada e à dinamização do grupo para estudar profundamente um tema real.

Considerar a apresentação concisa, clara e lógica das idéias, a profundidade dos conhecimentos e a argumentação fundamentada.

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Aula expositiva e dialogada

Preleção verbal do professor aos seus alunos, com o objetivo de transmitir conhecimentos, apresentar novos assuntos ou esclarecer princípios e conceitos.

Proporcionar a aquisição de conhecimentos e favorecer sua análise crítica, resultando na produção de novos conhecimentos.

Considerar a participação dos alunos; a compreensão e análise dos conceitos apresentados; observar a apresentação de solução de problemas, logicidade na exposição de idéias e pontos de vista.

Estudo do meio

Consiste no estudo direto do contexto natural e social no qual o aluno se insere.

Criar condições para o contato do aluno com a realidade, propiciar a aquisição de conhecimentos de forma direta, por meio de experiência vivida e desenvolver habilidades de observação, pesquisa, coleta de dados, organização, análise e síntese das informações, elaboração e comunicação de conclusões.

Observar a participação dos alunos ao longo de sua realização e na produção apresentada, considerando as habilidades desenvolvidas pelos integrantes do grupo durante a execução do trabalho.

Estudo dirigido

Ato de estudar sob a orientação de um professor.

Provocar os alunos criticamente a respeito do que a realidade indica; aprofundar o conteúdo do texto didático; buscar a conexão entre o texto didático e seu contexto; desenvolver reflexão, crítica e criatividade; capacitar à leitura.

Avaliar com a colaboração do aluno, mediante os resultados obtidos. O professor observará a necessidade de re-formular e/ ou aprofundar o estudo em questão.

Avaliação do Aproveitamento Escolar O sistema de avaliação do aproveitamento escolar é realizado através das atividades propostas no material didático impresso e AVEA, sendo realizados remotamente e presencialmente. Em adição com a metodologia de Bloom [Anderson et al. 2001], o sistema de avaliação deve refletir os pressupostos que embasam a concepção de educação, conhecimento, perfil do egresso, perfil do professor, objetivos do curso, estrutura curricular e as práticas pedagógicas adotadas pelos docentes. 232

A verificação do aproveitamento escolar tem por objetivo verificar o rendimento do aluno no decorrer e ao término do conteúdo programático da disciplina. O uso da Taxonomia de Bloom usado no sistema de EaD tem permitido criar avaliações somativas possibilitando uma visão abrangente do aprendizado, melhorando a aquidade da avaliação em si. No entanto, apesar dos esforços dos pesquisadores e levando em consideração as diferentes formas de aprendizagem dos indivíduos foi observado que não existe uma metodologia genérica que favoreça de forma homogênea a construção do conhecimento. É preciso que o avaliador tenha a sensibilidade necessária para considerar as diferenças entre os perfis de cada um de seus alunos, não havendo portando uma fórmula mágica, imutável, que permita avaliar qualquer grupo de alunos sem a interação direta do professor munido das informações extraídas por ele durante o processo de aprendizagem, sejam essas informações provenientes de outros instrumentos e avaliações ou não. Os professores envolvidos no processo de avaliação consideram que um conhecimento profundo da Taxonomia de Bloom pode melhorar a capacidade do mediador para modificar funções cognitivas deficientes. Além de identificar dificuldades individuais no desempenho de cada nível do processo cognitivo, pois para ascender a uma nova categoria, é preciso ter obtido um desempenho adequado na anterior. Duas dimensões não podem ser esquecidas na verificação do aproveitamento escolar. As partes envolvidas na verificação devem participar conjuntamente, ou seja, aluno e professor devem verificar em conjunto o resultado que alcançaram no processo de ensino aprendizagem. Ainda, a verificação do processo de ensino aprendizagem deve ser a mais coerente possível e não esporádica. Em situações nas quais o Professore Ministrante constatar que o aluno apresenta dificuldades para o desenvolvimento das atividades e avaliações propostas, haverá a possibilidade de uma recuperação. Essa recu233

peração ocorrerá antes da avaliação final e se dará através da revisão dos conteúdos e das atividades previstas no material pedagógico pelo Professor Ministrante. A modalidade da recuperação, no aspecto revisão de conteúdos e atividades, será a distância, tendo em vista que o Professor Ministrante estará permanentemente acompanhando individualmente os seus alunos, através do AVEA. Portanto, entende-se que a recuperação do aluno deve ocorrer no decorrer do seu processo de estudos. Caso seja observado que mesmo tendo assessoramento remoto o aluno e ou grupos de alunos continuam apresentando dificuldades no aprendizado e não evoluindo nas etapas do processo cognitivo, a tutoria pode ser realizada presencialmente no pólo onde os alunos estão vinculados. O Tutor, em síntese, constitui um elemento dinâmico e essencial no processo ensino aprendizagem, oferecendo aos estudantes os suportes: cognitivo, metacognitivo, motivacional, afetivo e social para que estes apresentem um desempenho satisfatório ao longo do curso. Deverá, pois, ter participação ativa em todo o processo. Por isso, é importante que se estabeleça uma vinculação dialogal e um trabalho de parceria entre o Tutor, o Professor Autor e a Equipe Pedagógica. Isso valorizará a figura do Tutor, garantirá a qualidade do ensino oferecido e servirá de “exemplo” aos alunos ao ver ser posto em prática o processo pedagógico e educativo “intencionalmente” proposto no desenho curricular do curso.

CONCLUSÃO Estruturar um curso de EaD, integrando os inúmeros elementos que o compõem é uma tarefa complexa. O grau de complexidade pode aumentar ainda mais quando profissionais de diferentes áreas do conhecimento se unem para resolver um problema. As tarefas tornam-se morosas até que os membros das equipes inter e multidisciplinares estabeleçam o senso comum. No entanto, quando existe colaboração na síntese e integração dos métodos e das discipli234

nas, as perspectivas disciplinares são reconhecidas e tornadas explícitas pelos atores, os pontos de síntese entre disciplinas são desenvolvidos e áreas de conflito são exploradas, o trabalho torna-se desafiador e os resultados são compensadores. O sucesso do sistema de EaD apresentado está associado com o trabalho colaborativo e integrado das equipes e com a escolha dos instrumentos usados para apoiar o planejamento didático pedagógico. O projeto foi modelado e concebido aplicando os métodos das abordagens histórico cultural, construtivista interacionista e principalmente no processo cognitivo proposto pela Taxonomia de Bloom. Os pressupostos teóricos metodológicos apresentados nessas abordagens permitem a concepção de sistemas que preservam a realidade, a autonomia, a reflexão, a ideologia e a identidade do aluno. Os estudos são principalmente centrados em compreender como o aprendiz passa de um estado de menor conhecimento a outro de maior conhecimento, o que está intimamente relacionado com o desenvolvimento pessoal do indivíduo. Na modalidade de EaD, os professores podem fazer a avaliação da evolução cognitiva dos alunos, usando, por exemplo, softwares de apoio, como é o caso do AVEA. Desde que os recursos embutidos no ambiente (conteúdos, atividades, avaliações etc) tenham sido construídos estrategicamente com métodos didáticos pedagógicos, como é o caso do processo cognitivo da Taxonomia de Bloom, utilizado no modelo de EaD proposto. No sistema de EaD apresentado, a avaliação do aproveitamento escolar tem sido feita através das atividades propostas no material didático impresso e AVEA, realizadas presencialmente e remotamente. Contudo, apesar da Taxonomia de Bloom permitir criar avaliações cumulativas e fornecer uma visão abrangente do aprendizado, o avaliador precisa ter sensibilidade necessária para considerar as diferentes formas de aprendizagem. O AVEA apresentado foi utilizado como principal ferramenta mediadora. Todos os recursos e atividades propostas inseridos no mesmo privilegiam as interações, as trocas de experiências, o compartilhamento das aprendizagens e, permitem que alunos e professores realizem au235

to-avaliações do ensino aprendizagem e reflitam sobre suas ações nas respectivas instituições e/ou comunidades. As equipes inter e multidisciplares relacionadas com atividades didáticas, pedagógicas e tecnológicas estão estudando a Taxonomia Digital de Bloom para fazer adaptações futuras no modelo atual do AVEA. REFERÊNCIAS Anderson, L. W. (1999) Rethinking Bloom’s Taxonomy: Implication for Testing and Assessment. Columbia: University of South Carolina (Report n. MF01/PC01). Anderson, L. W. et. al. (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a Revison of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Nova York: Addison Wesley Longman, 336 p. Ausubel, D., J. Novak and H. Hanesian (1978) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bloom, B. S. (1944) “Some Major Problems in Educational Measurement”. Journal or Educational Research, v. 38, n. 1, p. 139-142, 1944. Bloom, B. S., (Ed.). (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals: Handbook I, cognitive domain. New York: Longman. Bloom, B. S., J. T. Hastings and G. F. Madaus (1971) Handbook on Formative and Sommative Evaluation of Student Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 923 p. Bloom, B. S. (1972) “Innocence in Education”. The School Review, v. 80, n. 3, p. 333-352. Bloom, B. S. (1986) What We Are Learning About Teaching and Learning: A Summary of Recent Research. Principal, v. 66, n. 2, p. 6-10. Bruner, J. (1990) Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Conklin, J. (2005) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a Revision of Blooms’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Educational Horizons, v. 83, n. 3, p. 153159. Driscoll, M. (2000) “Psychology of Learning for instruction”. Needhan Heights: Allyn & Bacon, 476 p. Eproinfo (2009) “Ambiente Colaborativo de Aprendizagem”. MEC: Ministério da Educação. Brasília, http://www.eproinfo.mec.gov.br/(acesso 10 Dez. 2009). Ferraz, A. P. C. M. e Vairo B. R. (2010) “Taxonomia de Bloom: Revisão Teórica e Apresentação das Adequações do Instrumento para Definição de Objetivos Instrucionais”.

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Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 17, n. 2, p. 421-431. Ferreiro, E. e A. Teberosk. (1985) A Psicogênese da Língua Escrita. PO: Artes Medicas 284p. GNU (2010) “GNU Operating System”, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-faq. html#GPLTranslations (acesso em 5 Jan. 2010). Krathwohl, D. R. A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory in Practice, v. 41, n. 4, p. 212-218, 2002. LDB (1996) “Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional”. Lei nº 9.394, de 20 de dezembro de 1996. Brasília, http://www.planalto.gov.br (acesso em 10 Maio 2010). Maroto, M. (1995) “Educação a Distância: Aspectos Conceituais”. SENAI-DR/Rio de Janeiro, CEAD, ano 2, nº 08 - jul/set. Marzano, R. J. (2000) Designing a New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Melo, M., Neto, C. e J. Spanhol (2009) Hipermídias: Interfaces Digitais em EAD. SP: Laborciência, ISBN 978-85-61076-07-8. Mota, R. (2009) A Universidade Aberta do Brasil. In: Litto, F. e M. Formiga. Educação a Distância: O Estado da Arte. SP: Pearson, Cap. 41, p. 297-303. Moore, M. e G. Kearsley (2007) Educação a Distância: Uma Visão Integrada. SP: Thompson. Moran, J. (2000) “Ensino e Aprendizagem Inovadores com Tecnologias Audiovisuais e Telemáticas”. In: Moran, J., T. Maseto e A. Behrens. Novas Tecnologias e Mediação Pedagógica. Campinas: Papirus. Oliveira, M. (2001) “Do Mito da Tecnologia ao Paradigma Tecnológico: A Mediação Tecnológica nas Práticas Didático-Pedagógicas”. Revista Brasileira de Educação, Campinas: Autores Associados; RJ: Anped, n. 18, p. 101-107, set./dez. Oliveira, L. (2007) “O Docente do Ensino Médio e as Tecnologias da Informação e Comunicação: Análise de Possíveis Alterações no Processo de Trabalho”, 131 f. Dissertação (Mestrado) – FaE/UFMG, Belo Horizonte. Piaget, J. (1970) L’Epistémologie Génétique. Paris: Presses Universitaire de France. Preti, O. (1996) “Educação a Distância: Uma Prática Educativa Mediadora e Mediatizada”. Cuiabá: NEAD/IE-UFMG. Rosa, S. (1994) Construtivismo e Mudança. SP: Cortez Editora. Rotterdam, Howard (2000) “The Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives”. CiteSeer. Spiro, R. and C. Jehng (1990) “Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Theory and Tech-

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nology for the Nonlinear and Multidimensional Traversal of Complex Subject Matter”. In D. Nix and R. Spiro (eds.), Cognition, Education and Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. UNB (2009) “Moodle: O Ambiente de Aprendizagem Sócio-Construtivista Adotado pelo Ponto-Futuro”. Universidade de Brasilia, http://aprender.unb.br/mod/resource/ view.php?inpopup=true&id=74 (acesso em 19 Abril 2009). Waal, P. e Telles, M. (2004) A Taxonomia de Bloom: Reflexões sobre Aprendizagem online. DynamicLab Gazette (31-08-04), http://www.dynamiclab.com/moodle/mod/forum/discuss.php?d=436 (acesso em 15 dezembro 2010).

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JOGOS DE EMPRESAS NA EDUCAÇÃO: UM MÉTODO INOVADOR DE ENSINO APRENDIZAGEM Mauricio Capobianco Lopes

Universidade Regional de Blumenau [email protected]

Sofia Ines Niveiros, Dr.

Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso [email protected]

Francisco Antonio Pereira Fialho, Dr. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina [email protected]

ABSTRACT Technological innovations and culture have demanded educators and researchers to review their approach. To respond to these demands there is need for more dynamic pedagogical practices that necessarily include the student’s involvement to a more active role in the learning process. Many authors have considered Business games as a useful tool for the integration between the social cultural and learning ecosystems. This chapter aims to discuss the role that business game plays in the learning process through the discussion of three Brazilian business games: GI-MICRO, VIRTUAL and LIDER. Keywords: Teaching and Learning models, Business Games, Models of Business Games.

RESUMO As inovações tecnológicas e culturais têm exigido novas posturas dos educadores e dos pesquisadores em educação. As demandas decorrentes deste contexto exigem práticas pedagógicas dinâmicas, onde se possa relacionar teoria e prática e nas quais os alunos estejam efetivamente envolvidos, fazendo-os superar sua condição passiva para uma atitude

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mais participativa. Um dos métodos para incrementar os novos processos educacionais requeridos neste novo ambiente social, tecnológico e cultural são os Jogos de Empresas. Este capítulo tem por objetivo apresentar e discutir os Jogos de Empresas como método eficaz de ensino aprendizagem. Entre suas principais contribuições estão: ressaltar o potencial dos jogos como um método educacional inovador e discutir elementos sobre seu processo de desenvolvimento e aplicação. Para facilitar a compreensão sobre o tema, são descritos três modelos de Jogos de Empresas utilizados atualmente no mercado brasileiro, com objetivos e modelos diferentes: o GI-MICRO, o VIRTUAL e o LIDER. As pesquisas e análises que fundamentaram este capítulo evidenciaram a importância dos Jogos de Empresas como um método inovador aplicado aos processos de ensino aprendizagem e revelaram sua importância e potencial no contexto de formação educacional. Palavras-chave: Método de ensino aprendizagem. Jogos de empresas. Dinâmicas dos jogos de empresas. Aplicação e desenvolvimento de jogos de empresas. Modelos de jogos de empresas.

INTRODUÇÃO

O

conhecimento tem sido o elemento propulsor da humanidade desde o fim da Era Industrial. As crescentes descobertas científicas e inovações tecnológicas que ocorreram a partir de meados do século XX aceleraram o ritmo das mudanças sociais e econômicas, tendo influência profunda nas organizações e na vida das pessoas. Diante das expectativas e necessidades que demandam uma sociedade ávida de novos saberes e fazeres, novas competências são exigidas impactando diretamente no sistema educacional. Neste novo ambiente, muitos são os desafios impostos à educação exigindo inovações nas práticas pedagógicas entre as quais se destacam a necessidade de mudança da dinâmica da sala de aula, na postura do professor e na superação da condição passiva do discente para uma atitude participativa. Um dos métodos para incrementar os novos processos de ensino aprendizagem é a implantação da tecnologia em sala de aula com base na aplicação de jogos educacionais (CARVALHO e IVANOFF, 2010). 240

Os jogos educacionais surgiram em consequência do avanço tecnológico e atendendo as necessidades de mudanças no ambiente de ensino aprendizagem, tanto na formação técnico-científica, como na profissional. Este método integra a teoria à prática por oportunizar aos seus participantes vivenciarem os conceitos aprendidos de modo mais próximo possível do mundo real. O processo de ensino tradicional é realizado transmitindo informações, utilizando somente o pensamento. Nos jogos se aprende por meio de vivências onde se usam os pensamentos e os sentimentos. Os jogos educacionais têm diversas terminologias entre as quais se destacam jogos sérios ou serious games e jogos para e-learning. Em comum entre elas está o fato de que nestes casos os jogos são utilizados em algum contexto de formação, tais como, jogos para educação, saúde, publicidade, e todos os demais jogos que não sejam para fins únicos de entretenimento. Estes jogos reforçam ou testam os conteúdos assimilados pelos participantes em cursos ou programas de educação profissional. Nestes casos, o jogo serve como ferramenta e meio por onde o conteúdo é ensinado pelo professor, doravante denominado de facilitador, e aprendido pelo participante. Entre os diferentes tipos de jogos educacionais destacam-se os jogos de empresas. A literatura sobre jogos de empresas é vasta e contém diferentes definições com abordagens diversas (ANDERSON e LAWTON, 2009; BEN-ZVI, 2010; FARIA et al., 2009; FORTMULLER, 2009; KOPITTKE, 1989; SANTOS, 2003; SAUAIA, 2010; TANABE, 1977; THAVIKULWAT e PILLUTLA, 2010), porém todas giram em torno de um ciclo de tomada de decisões de gestão empresarial em um ambiente simulado. Os jogos de empresas são um modelo computacional com cenários do mundo real construídos com o objetivo de desenvolver e aperfeiçoar habilidades e competências gerenciais e propiciar um aprendizado prático, flexível e dinâmico sobre os principais desafios da gestão empresarial. Nos jogos de empresas os participantes tomam decisões em ambientes de incerteza, associam conhecimentos multidisciplinares, competem, cooperam, planejam, definem estratégias, perseguem metas e obje241

tivos e devem estar sempre preparados para aproveitar as oportunidades e enfrentar as ameaças. Os jogos de empresas são utilizados com diferentes objetivos educacionais dependendo do contexto em que são aplicados (Quadro 1). Programa

Objetivos Educacionais

Graduação

Recuperar uma visão sistêmica das organizações. Incluir o ambiente econômico no foco gerencial. Desenvolver espírito crítico nas decisões. Estimular a transposição da aprendizagem.

Pós-Graduação

Aplicar os conceitos de gestão em ambiente empresarial, tratados nas demais disciplinas do programa. Interagir com os demais participantes que desempenham diferentes papéis em sua vida profissional e atuam nos variados setores da economia.

Treinamento Gerencial

Desenvolver nos participantes uma visão gerencial do ponto de vista do seu cliente. Criar visão aplicada de administração mercadológica. Criar visão sistêmica de uma organização.

Desenvolvimento Despertar atenção para uma gestão estratégica. Gerencial Orientar para uma administração competitiva. Formar uma visão sistêmica de uma organização. Quadro 1 – Objetivos educacionais nos diferentes programas com jogos de empresas Fonte: baseado em Sauaia (1995, p. 100).

Este capítulo tem por objetivo apresentar e discutir os jogos de empresas como método eficaz de ensino aprendizagem. As principais contribuições são ressaltar o potencial dos jogos como um método educacional inovador, e discutir elementos sobre seu processo de desenvolvimento e aplicação. O método é encontrado na literatura com diferentes denominações: jogos de empresas, jogos de negócios, jogos gerenciais, simulação empresarial, simulação de gestão, gestão simulada e simulação gerencial. Marion 242

e Marion (2006) preferem o uso do termo simulação ao invés de jogo por acreditar que este último tem uma conotação negativa em alguns contextos e muitas vezes é confundido com dinâmicas de grupo. Neste estudo, entretanto, os termos jogo e simulação serão utilizados de forma intercambiável, por acreditar que o termo jogo reflete de forma mais apropriada o ambiente lúdico, dinâmico e vivencial proporcionado por este método de ensino aprendizagem. Ressalta-se que se pretende destacar aqui apenas os jogos de empresas baseados em computador, denominados também de jogos de empresas eletrônicos, excluindo-se os jogos manuais. Para apresentar os jogos de empresas este capítulo está organizado em mais oito seções: sua importância como método de ensino aprendizagem; origem e evolução; diferentes classificações que os caracterizam; sua dinâmica de funcionamento; exemplos de modelos de jogos (GI-MICRO, VIRTUAL e LIDER) com diferentes tipologias; descrição do comportamento dos participantes e dos grupos observados durante suas aplicações; questões metodológicas para o desenvolvimento de jogos; considerações finais do capitulo. No fim são apresentadas as referências bibliográficas que embasam o estudo. JOGOS DE EMPRESAS COMO MÉTODO DE ENSINO APRENDIZAGEM Com o objetivo de tornar o processo de ensino aprendizagem mais eficaz, diversos pesquisadores estudaram o assunto, dentre os quais Ausubel, Bruner, Freire, Guthrie, Pavlov, Piaget, Rogers, Skinner, Thorndike, Tolman, Vygotsky, Watson e os psicólogos da Gestalt (ASHWORTH et al., 2004). Estes estudos resultaram em várias teorias com diferentes enfoques, dentre as quais se destacam a abordagem comportamentalista, humanista, cognitivista, sociocultural, vivencial, entre outras. O foco deste estudo será a abordagem vivencial. A abordagem vivencial também denominada como aprendizagem a partir das experiências, é tratada em diferentes escolas por diversos autores como Argyris e Schön (1978), 243

Bandura (1980), Kolb e Kolb (2008) e Revans (1980). Estas escolas têm em comum o foco na aprendizagem que ocorre efetivamente quando uma determinada situação é experimentada. A situação deve ser estruturada de forma a encorajar o participante a experimentar os conhecimentos adquiridos, observar e refletir, e formular conceitos e abstrações para serem testados em novas vivências, formando assim, um ciclo cumulativo de aprendizagem. A ideia central de usar um método de ensino aprendizagem baseado em jogos de empresas é criar um ambiente de laboratório onde se possam fazer experiências, formular hipóteses e planejar novas e melhores experiências. Os participantes aprendem não somente observando, mas atuando ativamente em seu processo de aprendizagem. O Quadro 2 diferencia as principais características entre o método de ensino tradicional e os jogos de empresas. Critérios

Ensino Tradicional

Jogos de Empresas

Orientação didática

Ensino

Aprendizagem

Personagem central

Educador

Educando

Ação do educador

Alto

Baixo

Ação do educando

Baixo

Alto

Técnica usual

Expositiva

Atividade em grupo

Ambiente criado

Passivo

Ativo, competitivo e cooperativo

Tipo de aprendizagem

Cognitiva

Cognitiva, afetiva, cooperativa, atitudinal e comportamental

Aplicação de conceitos

Ênfase na Teoria

Ênfase na Prática

Objetivos educacionais

Gerais e coletivos

Específicos e individualizados

Avaliação da aprendizagem

Pontual

Contínua

Andamento da aula

Estímulo do educador

Motivos do educando

Quadro 2 - Comparativo entre métodos educacionais: ensino tradicional x jogos de empresas Fonte: baseado em Sauaia (1995, p. 239).

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Uma das vantagens da utilização dos jogos de empresas como método de ensino é despertar mais interesse e motivação entre os alunos do que os tradicionais métodos, como aulas expositivas, palestras, vídeos, transparências e outros. Na pesquisa apresentada por Teixeira (1996) verifica-se que 90% das equipes participantes de um jogo de empresas consideraram a experiência positiva e com elevado nível de comprometimento. Outra pesquisa realizada por Reeves, Malone e O’Driscoll (2008) com pessoas usuárias de jogos eletrônicos demonstrou uma forte relação entre o ambiente do jogo e as atividades profissionais, assim como apresentou elementos favoráveis ao uso deste tipo de simuladores. Os jogos de empresas oferecem mecanismos para que os participantes aprendam a lidar na prática com os problemas reais. Eles reduzem tempo e espaço e proporcionam aos participantes ações como resolver problemas, trabalhar em equipe, antecipar situações futuras e consolidar as relações de causa e efeito que afetam os diferentes setores de uma organização. Os jogos criam um cenário para forjar objetivos e experimentar uma grande variedade de estratégias e diretrizes que podem ser usadas para alcançá-los. Os jogos de empresas permitem que participantes com níveis diversos de aprendizagem e diferentes aptidões compartilhem simultaneamente os mesmos métodos e instrumentos. Os que aprendem devagar concentrar-se-ão nos elementos concretos, estáticos do jogo, enquanto os que aprendem mais rapidamente desenvolverão conceitos de causa e efeito e tentarão aplicá-los. São quatro as principais características que se destacam na utilização dos jogos de empresas como método de ensino: (1) aprendizagem pela experimentação, onde o participante precisa estar aberto a novas experiências e disposto a se envolver em sua aprendizagem; (2) visão organizacional e estratégica, onde o participante precisa criar um planejamento a curto, médio e longo prazo para atingir os objetivos traçados para a empresa, observar e monitorar o ambiente interno e externo para identificar oportunidades, ameaças e problemas, e desenvolver caminhos, meios e prazos para atingir os objetivos organizacionais; (3) tomada de decisão, 245

onde o participante precisa estar apto a usar suas teorias e conhecimentos para tomar decisões e resolver problemas práticos, com a rápida visualização e análise dos seus efeitos; (4) relação interpessoal e trabalho em equipe, onde o participante lida com situações de conflito e desafio, assimila aspectos de competição e cooperação existentes no grupo e na sociedade, e desenvolve capacidades como cortesia, conciliação, liderança, comunicação, empatia, apoio e estímulo aos colegas. Origem e Evolução dos Jogos de Empresas Um vasto material bibliográfico trata da origem dos jogos de empresas no âmbito internacional e nacional, entre os quais se destacam Anderson e Lawton (2009), Chin, Dukes e Gamson (2009), Faria (2001), Faria et al. (2009), Hemzo e Lepsch (2006), Kallas (2003), Keys e Wolfe (1990), Marques Filho (2001), Rocha (1997), Sauaia (2010), Serra (1998), Stainton, Johnson e Borodzicz (2010), entre outros. Baseado nestes autores será apresentado um sucinto relato sobre o surgimento deste método de ensino e sua evolução tecnológica. Origem Histórica Os jogos acompanham a humanidade desde a pré-história. Em escavações realizadas na região da antiga cidade Suméria de Ur, na Mesopotâmia, foi encontrado um jogo de tabuleiro denominado Jogo Real de Ur com mais de 5.000 anos de idade. Entre os autores pesquisados alguns relatam que as simulações eram praticadas no Egito antigo. Os primeiros usos dos jogos para educação e desenvolvimento de habilidades que se tem notícia surgiram por volta de 3.000 A.C. com os jogos de simulação de guerra originados na China com o jogo Wei-Hai e na Índia com o jogo Chaturanga. Na segunda guerra mundial, na década de 40, as invasões da França pelos alemães e de Pearl Harbor pelos japoneses foram orquestradas 246

com o auxílio de simulações. No fim dos anos 20 e inicio dos 30, Marie Birshtein, do Instituto de Engenharia e Economia de Leningrado, elaborou e apresentou um jogo para treinar trabalhadores de lojas para posições de gerência com base nos jogos militares. Em 1955 foi desenvolvido o Rand Corporation Game Monopologs, considerado o primeiro jogo de empresas a utilizar computadores. Ele simulava o sistema de abastecimento da Força Aérea Americana e podia ser empregado na administração de negócios em geral. O objetivo de seu uso para civis era dar suporte ao desenvolvimento de executivos na área de administração de materiais. Em 1956 surgiu nos Estados Unidos o precursor mais famoso entre os jogos computarizados denominado de Top Management Decision Game desenvolvido por pesquisadores da American Management Association (AMA). Neste jogo a filosofia e os procedimentos adotados nos jogos de guerra foram adaptados para os negócios. Em meados de 1957 foi lançado por McKinsey & Company o jogo Business Management Game, baseado no modelo e observações realizadas no jogo desenvolvido pela AMA. Este jogo é considerado a primeira referência deste método para uso acadêmico. Ele foi utilizado na Universidade de Washington pela primeira vez com um publico estudantil para ser incorporado como método de ensino em sala de aula. A partir do início da década de 60, os jogos de empresas baseados em computadores de grande porte tiveram um grande impulso, resultando em mais de 100 jogos desenvolvidos no meio acadêmico. Esse crescimento não desacelerou: em 1969 eram aproximadamente 190 jogos de empresas e em 1980 se utilizavam mais de 1.500 jogos empresariais para o treinamento em universidades e empresas. No Brasil o uso dos jogos de empresas teve início em meados da década de 60, sendo aplicados em poucas universidades nas disciplinas de política de negócios. Na década de 1980 os jogos de empresas passaram a ser utilizados com mais força. Inicialmente foram importados jogos devidamente traduzidos. Atualmente equipes de pesquisadores e con247

sultores brasileiros desenvolvem simuladores que retratam as necessidades de formação e treinamento do mercado empresarial nacional. Hoje em dia presencia-se um crescimento exponencial dos jogos de empresas devido à ampla difusão dos microcomputadores e a possibilidade do acesso aos jogos pela internet. Evolução Tecnológica Tecnologicamente os jogos evoluíram em etapas de crescente complexidade descritas conforme o Quadro 3. Período

Características Jogos manuais, sem uso de recursos 1ª geração - 1955 a 1960 computacionais Jogos eletrônicos processados em com2ª geração - 1961 a 1984 putadores de grande porte Jogos eletrônicos processados em micro3ª geração - 1984 a 2000 computadores 4ª geração - 2000 em diante Jogos utilizados através da internet Quadro 3 – Evolução tecnológica dos jogos de empresas Fonte: baseado em Faria e colaboradores (2009) e Marion e Marion (2006).

A 1ª geração dos jogos, entre o período de 1955 a 1960, baseava-se em processamento manual, consumindo muito tempo, estando sujeitos a erros e limitando a complexidade e o feedback dos mesmos. A 2ª geração dos jogos surgiu em 1961 e foi até 1984. Estes jogos eram baseados no processamento em computadores de grande porte, e eram limitados em função da baixa capacidade de processamento dos computadores e da dificuldade de disponibilizar os jogos para um grande número de participantes. A partir de 1984 até o ano 2000, a ampla difusão dos microcomputadores representou também um crescimento e na difusão na popula248

ridade dos jogos de empresas, resultando no surgimento da 3ª geração. A partir de então os jogos foram mais facilmente incorporados tanto na sala de aula, para fins acadêmicos, quanto nas empresas, para fins de treinamento e desenvolvimento de executivos. A evolução dos microcomputadores permitiu a elaboração de modelos mais complexos e com um nível maior de precisão, permitindo um processamento mais rápido das informações e tornando os jogos mais dinâmicos. O hardware e o software empregados no seu desenvolvimento possibilitaram o surgimento de interfaces mais amigáveis, baseados em sofisticados recursos de computação gráfica, e o uso de sistemas de apoio à decisão para o diagnóstico e resolução de problemas, bem como para a simulação de cenários. Técnicas de inteligência artificial e processamento em redes locais começaram também a ser empregadas nos jogos de empresas. O advento da internet, a partir de meados da década de 90, resultou no surgimento da 4ª geração de jogos a partir do ano 2000, que continua até os dias de hoje. O uso da internet aumentou ainda mais a potencialidade destes tipos de simuladores, ampliando o seu alcance e as possibilidades de interatividade entre os participantes de diferentes regiões geográficas. Atualmente, jogos podem ser oferecidos e compartilhados por pessoas em locais e culturas diversos, enriquecendo as interações e dinâmicas oferecidas aos participantes. Também a simulação baseada em dados reais é facilitada pelo acesso simples a diversos tipos de informações como, por exemplo, econômicas, financeiras e de mercado. Sistemas baseados em realidade virtual, com tecnologia 3D, ou com processamento de linguagem natural na interação entre o participante e funcionários virtuais das empresas simuladas, bem como a aplicação e o uso difundido através de dispositivos móveis, são passos naturais para a próxima geração de jogos empresariais. É importante ressaltar que a qualidade de um jogo de empresas é baseada na sua capacidade de atender os objetivos de ensino aprendizagem aos quais ele se propõe e não somente no seu nível de evolução tecnológica. 249

Classificação dos Jogos de Empresas Os jogos de empresas são utilizados com diversas configurações e diferentes objetivos. Vários autores propõem formas de classificá-los de acordo com a abordagem pretendida. As classificações os diferenciam quanto aos procedimentos de modelagem, aos objetivos, a forma de aplicação do simulador, entre outras. O Quadro 4 apresenta uma classificação resumida que retrata a natureza dos jogos segundo diversos autores. Tanabe (1977)

Marion e Marion (2006)

Costa (2008)

Computadorizados x Manuais

Gerais x Funcionais

Administração Geral x Funcionais

Individual x Em Equipe

Diádicos x Triádicos x Mais Jogadores

Interativos x Não Interativos

Interativos x Não Interativos

Determinísticos x Estocásticos

Motomura (1980)

Decisões Tomadas com Auxílio de Calculadoras Kopittke (1989) x Decisões Tomadas com Gerais x Específicos x Setoriais x Auxílio de Sistemas de Apoio à Decisão (SAD) Funcionais Sistêmicos x Humanos x Mistos

Gramigna (1993) Comportamento x Processo x Mercado

1° Geração x 2° Geração x 3° Geração x 4° Geração

Hermenegildo (2002)

Finitos x Infinitos Escalares x Vetoriais Estáticos x Dinâmicos Dinâmicos Discretos x Dinâmicos Diferenciais Soma-Zero x Soma Não Zero ou Soma-Variável Determinísticos x Estocásticos Não Hierárquicos x Hierárquicos ou Multiníveis Lances Simultâneos x Lances Sequenciais

Critério 1 (Geral)

Critério 2 (Específico)

Gerais x Funcionais

Gerais x Funcionais x Sob Medida Informações Completas x x Setoriais Informações Incompletas Via Computador x Manuais Cooperativos x NãoCooperativos. Interativos x Não-interativos

Interativos x Isolados Individuais x Grupais Determinísticos x Estocásticos Estáticos x Dinâmicos

Para Treinamento Gerencial x Seleção de Pessoal x Capacitação x Pesquisa

Em Coalizão x Sem Coalizão

Quadro 4 – Classificação dos jogos de empresas segundo diversos autores Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011).

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A análise do Quadro 4 permite identificar diferentes formas de classificar os jogos, bem como alguns elementos comuns entre as classificações. Também pode ser observada a evolução das classificações com o passar dos anos. Ressalta-se que Costa (2008) introduz elementos da Teoria de Jogos aplicados à classificação dos jogos de empresas. O Quadro 5 agrupa, sintetiza e define as características dos jogos de empresas baseado nas diferentes abordagens dos autores citados, excluindo alguns elementos de classificação e inserindo novos. Critério Operacionalização

Definição Eletrônico: desenvolvidos e aplicados com o auxílio de um computador. Manual: desenvolvidos com a ajuda de quadros, tabelas, máquinas de calcular ou outros materiais auxiliares. Híbrido: exige a execução de atividades manuais e baseadas no computador. Abrangência Geral: considera e relaciona as principais funções empresariais de uma organização. Funcional: trata de uma função ou área especifica da organização. Setorial: simula um setor específico da economia. Específico ou sob medida: considera a modelagem de uma organização em particular. Forma de aplicação Presencial: todos os participantes se encontram no mesmo espaço. Remota: os participantes se encontram em diferentes locais. Hibrido: algumas atividades são presenciais e outra remotas. 251

Critério Natureza

Definição Comportamental: enfatizam habilidades comportamentais. Técnico: enfatizam habilidades técnicas. Misto: trata de elementos comportamentais e técnicos. Formação da equipe Individual: o participante não integra uma equipe tomando suas decisões isoladamente. Em equipe: os participantes constituem grupos. Interação entre os Individual: cada participante da equipe é reparticipantes sponsável por um conjunto específico de decisões. Compartilhado: as decisões são compartilhadas sendo resultado de discussões da equipe (grupo). Interação entre os re- Interativo: as decisões de uma empresa simulasultados da afeta os resultados das demais. Não interativo: as decisões de uma empresa não afetam os resultados das demais. Interação entre as Cooperativos: os participantes de diferentes equipes equipes devem conversar entre si para formular decisões ou estratégias de interesse conjunto. Competitivos: os participantes ou equipes competem de forma direta não podendo se associar com outros. Coopetitivos: as equipes se associam para tomar determinadas decisões e não para outras.

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Critério Hierarquia

Definição Hierárquico ou multinível: um ou mais participantes têm condições superiores para impor aos demais algumas ações. Não hierárquico: todos os participantes estão sujeitos às mesmas condições e tomam as decisões sob a premissa de certo equilíbrio de forças. Interferência do facil- Com interferência: o facilitador interfere nas itador variáveis que afetam as opções do processo decisório das empresas. Sem interferência: o facilitador não toma nenhuma decisão sobre as variáveis do jogo. Misto: o facilitador interfere em apenas alguns períodos do processo decisório. Modelo de simulação Determinístico: os resultados são consequência única e direta das decisões dos participantes. Estocástico: os resultados são influenciados de forma aleatória por outros elementos que não apenas as decisões dos participantes. Variável tempo Estáticos: o tempo não é levado em conta, sendo as decisões tomadas uma única vez. Dinâmicos: o jogo evolui com o tempo e as decisões e os resultados têm consequências ao longo do tempo. Grau de complexi- Simples: modela um contexto com um pequeno dade número de variáveis onde é fácil se estabelecer as relações de causa e efeito. Complexo: o modelo simula um grande número de variáveis com relações complexas entre elas.

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Critério Método de revelar as decisões

Disponibilidade de informações

Feedback

Definição Simultâneo: os participantes ou equipes são obrigados a revelar suas decisões no mesmo momento. Sequencial: os participantes ou equipes revelam suas decisões numa determinada sequência. Completo: todos os participantes ou equipes têm informações plenas para constituir seu processo decisório. Incompleto: os participantes ou equipes desconhecem total ou parcialmente as informações relevantes para o processo decisório. Automático: o jogo oferece elementos de feedback para os participantes efetuarem correções de rumo ao longo da simulação. Verbal ou Escrito: o facilitador faz análises verbais ou escritas e repassa aos participantes. Misto: existem mecanismos automáticos e verbais ou escritos.

Quadro 5 - Classificação dos Jogos de Empresas Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011). Os autores que apresentam mais de um critério de classificação observam que estes devem ser usados e combinados para determinar o tipo de jogo avaliado. Considerando os 16 critérios apresentados no Quadro 5 o jogo GI-MICRO, que será apresentado na seção VI, pode ser classificado como: eletrônico, geral, presencial, técnico, em equipe, compartilhado, interativo, competitivo, não hierárquico, com interferência do facilitador, estocástico, dinâmico, complexo, simultâneo, incompleto e automático. Este exemplo serve para mostrar a grande variedade de tipos de jogos que podem ser criados combinando-se estas características. 254

DINÂMICA DOS JOGOS DE EMPRESAS Um jogo de empresas é aplicado em diversas etapas e exige planejamento e organização por parte do facilitador. A Figura 1 apresenta a dinâmica de um processo de aplicação de um jogo de empresas eletrônico.

Figura 1 – Dinâmica de um jogo de empresas Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011).

Como visto na seção anterior, entretanto, diversas são as formas de classificar os jogos de empresas e, portanto, a dinâmica aqui descrita pode sofrer variações dependendo do tipo de jogo. As etapas apresentadas na Figura 1 serão detalhadas a seguir. Preparação A etapa de Preparação consiste em planejar todo o processo de aplicação do jogo. A Figura 1 apresenta algumas foram adaptadas atividades realizadas nesta etapa. Uma delas é conhecer o público-alvo: normalmente as turmas de jogos de empresas agrupam profissionais de diferentes áreas e com diferentes experiências sendo fundamental para o facilitador saber o perfil dos participantes, tais como, se o jogo é destinado para alunos de graduação ou pós-graduação, ou profissionais com pouca ou muita experiência no mercado de trabalho, entre outros. 255

Conhecer o público alvo é uma atividade importante para dar subsídios para a próxima atividade: definir a abordagem teórica. Um mesmo jogo de empresas de uso geral, por exemplo, vai exigir diferentes abordagens e conceitos, dependendo das características da turma. Em uma turma de contadores, a ênfase pode ser nos aspectos contábeis da organização; em uma turma de analistas de sistemas, pode ser nas ferramentas de apoio ao administrador, e assim por diante. As características e os conhecimentos prévios do grupo diferem de turma para turma o que deve auxiliar na definição do método de aplicação do modelo e das teorias. A próxima atividade deve ser definir o cronograma do curso, pois a carga horária disponível é que vai determinar o escalonamento das atividades possíveis de serem realizadas dentro do prazo disponível e em conformidade com os objetivos de aprendizagem. A última atividade é preparar o material. Esta etapa implica em providenciar cópias dos materiais necessários para a aplicação do jogo, tais como, os manuais com as regras, jornais informativos, ou outros itens auxiliares. O facilitador deve decidir os elementos ou cenários que vão nortear a aplicação do jogo, preparando os materiais usados ao longo da simulação e pré-configurando o software. Também é necessário preparar o espaço físico a ser utilizado por cada participante ou equipe. Normalmente a aplicação de jogos de empresas eletrônicos ocorre com os participantes organizados em equipes, exigindo layouts especiais tanto da sala de aula quanto do laboratório de informática, quando necessário. Neste último caso, é importante garantir que o software esteja instalado corretamente para o uso dos participantes, de forma a se evitar problemas no início ou durante o processo de aplicação. Abertura A próxima etapa da dinâmica de aplicação de um jogo de empresas, apresentada na Figura 1, é a Abertura que ocorre com a presença dos participantes. A seguir são descritas as atividades imprescindíveis desta etapa. 256

Na atividade de apresentação do curso, o facilitador apresenta os objetivos e expectativas de ensino aprendizagem que se pretende com o curso, explicando a metodologia e o cronograma das atividades a serem realizadas. A atividade seguinte é a de formação das equipes. Nela podem ser utilizadas diferentes estratégias. A mais comum é deixar os participantes se auto-organizarem. Outros fazem sorteios aleatórios usando fichas coloridas, por exemplo. O ideal, entretanto, é conhecer o perfil dos participantes e combinar pessoas com mais ou menos experiência, sexo, idade, ou outros perfis e critérios, de forma a se buscar um equilíbrio entre as equipes. A última atividade desta etapa é a ambientação com o jogo. É nesta etapa que os participantes conhecem as regras e o software que irá apoiar seu processo decisório. Para que se conheçam as regras é disponibilizado o manual do jogador. Deve ser dado um tempo para que os participantes leiam e tirem dúvidas sobre o funcionamento geral do jogo. Eventualmente podem ser disponibilizados dados de jogos anteriores para serem analisados. Também o software deve ser devidamente apresentado com um tempo para os participantes se acostumarem com seu uso e entenderem seu funcionamento. Em jogos muito complexos, normalmente são feitas etapas de aquecimento para uma melhor ambientação com as regras e com o sistema. Aplicação Após a Preparação ocorre a etapa de Aplicação do jogo propriamente dita, onde se inicia um ciclo repetitivo de processo decisório das equipes, análise dos resultados e feedback parcial, e discussões relacionando a teoria e a prática. O processo decisório das equipes consiste na análise das informações e resultados anteriores e tomada de um novo conjunto de decisões. A Figura 2 detalha a dinâmica de um ciclo de processo decisório em um jogo de empresas que inclui também a atividade de análise dos resultados e feedback parcial. 257

Figura 2 – Dinâmica do processo decisório em um jogo de empresas Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011).

O ciclo de um processo decisório em um jogo de empresas apresentado na Figura 2 ocorre normalmente do seguinte modo: 1) o facilitador elabora e entrega um jornal informativo para as equipes. Este jornal contém informações conjunturais ou de um determinado momento, como por exemplo, situação da economia, decisões de governo, movimentos sindicais, crises, entre outros. O facilitador deve usar estas informações para configurar o simulador, pois elas servem como parâmetro para o processamento das decisões; 2) os participantes discutem e tomam suas decisões, com base no jornal informativo e nos relatórios contendo informações de períodos anteriores. Em média um processo decisório de um jogo de empresas dura cerca de 30 minutos, mas normalmente se utiliza mais tempo nas decisões iniciais quando os participantes ainda estão se familiarizando com a atividade. No fim deste período, as decisões das equipes são encaminhadas para processamento no simulador; 258

3) o simulador processa as informações e produz os resultados do período baseado nas decisões das equipes, nas configurações feitas pelo facilitador, e na modelagem computacional que representa as regras do jogo; 4) os resultados são encaminhados para as equipes através de relatórios ou gráficos e são utilizados para embasar um novo período de processo decisório. A equipe deve analisar cuidadosamente seus resultados tentando identificar acertos, mas, principalmente, os erros que a conduziram a uma determinada situação. Os resultados também são encaminhados ao facilitador para que ele possa decidir alterações de cenários e novos parâmetros de configuração do simulador; 5) o facilitador analisa os dados e produz relatórios de avaliação e feedback gerais ou individuais após cada período. Em muitos jogos são produzidos rankings ou indicadores baseados em diversos critérios, tais como, lucro, vendas, produtividade, entre outros, de modo que as equipes possam comparar suas performances. Este ciclo se repete até o encerramento da dinâmica do processo decisório do jogo. O facilitador também pode fazer uso de dinâmicas extras, tais como leilões, concorrências, atividades vivenciais, prêmios, que instiguem as equipes a competir ou cooperar. Uma das atividades previstas na etapa de aplicação são as discussões teórico-práticas (Figura 1) que devem ser intercaladas entre os períodos do processo decisório. Estas discussões têm o objetivo de relacionar as questões práticas vivenciadas no jogo com os elementos teóricos modelados e com as experiências dos participantes em seu dia a dia. Esta é uma atividade fundamental pois é o momento de reflexão sobre a ação, que pode maximizar o potencial de aprendizagem oferecido pelos jogos.

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Encerramento A última etapa é o Encerramento que deve ser conduzido pelo facilitador de modo que os participantes percebam a importância de todo o conjunto de ações realizadas no decorrer do jogo. A seguir são detalhadas algumas atividades importantes desta etapa apresentadas na Figura 1. A primeira é a avaliação de desempenho. Nela os participantes devem analisar detalhadamente os resultados do seu processo decisório procurando identificar os pontos fortes e fracos de sua atuação ao longo do jogo. O facilitador também deve analisar o desempenho das equipes de modo a confrontar a sua visão com a dos participantes. Após a análise do desempenho, deve ser realizada a apresentação das equipes. Nesta atividade as equipes expõem e defendem para todo o grupo suas estratégias e resultados. Normalmente em um jogo de empresas as equipes iniciam em situações iguais e obtém resultados totalmente diferentes. Nesta atividade todos têm a oportunidade de conhecer e trocar experiências sobre o caminho percorrido por cada uma delas. A dinâmica do jogo se encerra com o feedback final dado pelo facilitador. Ele resgata os objetivos do curso e valida com os participantes se foram ou não atendidos. Também apresenta suas observações sobre o desempenho dos grupos, confrontando-as com as análises apresentadas pelas equipes. Os participantes devem ser instigados a avaliar suas ações no jogo, relacionando-as com a sua vida pessoal e profissional e refletindo sobre a aprendizagem vivenciada. Apenas nesta etapa deve ser entregue o ranking final sem enfatizar a questão de vencedores ou perdedores. Todos devem ser considerados vencedores se conseguirem se apropriar de novos comportamentos e crenças sobre o objeto de estudo no curso. JOGOS DE EMPRESAS: EXEMPLOS Nesta seção são apresentados jogos de empresas eletrônicos desenvolvidos na Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC) e Universidade Regional de Blumenau (FURB) que são utilizados como méto260

do de ensino aprendizagem. São descritos os jogos GI-MICRO, VIRTUAL e LÏDER quanto ao histórico, objetivos, cenário, decisões, relatórios e avaliação. Todos estes jogos seguem a dinâmica de aplicação demonstrada na seção V. JOGO DE EMPRESAS GI-MICRO O jogo de empresas GI-MICRO (KOPITTKE, 2001) é um jogo de administração geral do mundo empresarial. Ele simula a participação de várias empresas em um mercado competitivo, onde se vivenciam as principais atividades administrativas e gerenciais de uma micro ou pequena empresa industrial. É apresentado um cenário inicial, com uma determinada conjuntura, onde várias empresas, em condições idênticas, competem entre si para atender uma demanda sensível a fatores como prazo, preço e propaganda. O modelo é caracterizado como um jogo geral, interativo e programado em microcomputador, sendo orientado para o treinamento de habilidades gerenciais. Histórico O GI-MICRO surgiu como uma versão mais simples e reduzida do jogo GI-EPS (Gestão Industrial da Engenharia de Produção e Sistemas). O GI-EPS foi desenvolvido no Laboratório de Jogos de Empresas (LASP), do Departamento de Engenharia de Produção e Sistemas (EPS), da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), coordenado pelo Professor Bruno Hartmut Kopittke. Desde 1988 o jogo foi aplicado em cursos de graduação e pós-graduação da UFSC. Em 1997 o LASP iniciou um processo de expansão, difundindo o uso de jogos em instituições parceiras. Em 1998 o Jogo começou a ser utilizado em cursos à distância através do Laboratório de Ensino à Distância (LED) da UFSC. 261

Objetivos O objetivo principal dos participantes do GI-MICRO é efetuar a melhor gestão possível dos recursos da empresa através de uma administração eficiente de pessoal, custos, produção, financeira, e obter um lucro acumulado superior ao de seus concorrentes. Cenário No jogo os participantes são organizados em até 10 equipes de quatro pessoas. Na equipe os participantes distribuem-se entre os cargos de: Diretor Geral, Diretor de Produção e Pessoal, Diretor Financeiro e Diretor de Marketing. O Quadro 6 mostra as principais tarefas de responsabilidade de cada diretor, destacando as principais atividades internas e externas. Cargos

Tarefas Internas

Tarefas Externas

Diretor Geral

Coordenar as atividades, assegurando Analisar o desempenho que os demais diretores cumpram das outras equipes. suas tarefas.

Diretor de Produção

Assegurar produção suficiente para atender a demanda e definir política para a sazonalidade.

Fazer as negociações trabalhistas..

Diretor de Marketing

Descobrir a sensibilidade dos consumidores aos diversos fatores (preço, propaganda, etc.).

Trocar informações com outros diretores sobre eficiência de políticas.

Diretor Financeiro

Fazer a gestão dos recursos financeiros Negociar com bancos. da melhor maneira possível.

Quadro 6 – Principais tarefas dos diretores do GI-MICRO Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

As equipes atuam em diferentes mercados. O número de mercados é igual ao número de equipes do jogo mais um. Cada empresa tem um mercado na região onde ela está implantada e nas regiões das empresas concorrentes. 262

O mercado adicional é o mercado externo, que tem uma demanda maior do que a das outras regiões e é situado numa região onde não há produção local. A Figura 3 apresenta um exemplo do mundo do GI-MICRO considerando a existência de quatro equipes.

Figura 3 – Exemplo de Cenário do GI-MICRO para 4 Empresas Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

A capacidade de uma empresa de gerar lucros depende da demanda, ou seja, da procura pelos seus produtos. A demanda é sazonal, variando de acordo com a estação do ano. Os elementos que influenciam a demanda de uma empresa são: política de marketing (preço, prazo e propaganda da equipe e de seus concorrentes), a conjuntura econômica, a região onde ela atua, a sazonalidade, a taxa de crescimento do consumo e fatores casuais informados no decorrer do jogo. O bom desempenho da empresa depende de sua competitividade em atender a demanda nas diferentes regiões, pois a venda dos produtos é a maior e mais importante fonte de receita das empresas. Os rendimentos de aplicações financeiras são pequenos se comparados com a lucratividade proporcionada por uma administração de produção e vendas bem feita. 263

O facilitador faz o papel dos agentes externos à empresa: governo, banco central, sindicato de empregados, agência de publicidade, imprensa, etc. Sua principal função é mediar o jogo, definindo e alterando as variáveis do mercado, determinando as taxas de juros, salário dos empregados, impostos, custos de marketing, entre outros. Ele edita o jornal GS-Informações que contém as notícias que influenciam o processo decisório das empresas. Decisões As principais decisões dos participantes do GI-MICRO são apresentadas no Quadro 7. Diretor de Mercado

Diretor Financeiro

Preço de venda por região

Prazo de venda

Propaganda por região

Desconto para venda à vista

Diretor de Produção

Aplicações Empréstimo para capital de giro

Investimento em imobilizado Contratação

Prazo do empréstimo (quantidade de parcelas)

Demissão

Financiamento para imobilizado

Turno de operação

Forma de pagamento dos insumos

Volume de compras de insumos Quadro 7 – Decisões do Jogo de Empresas GI-MICRO Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

O Diretor Geral não toma decisões diretamente, mas participa das decisões de todos os demais diretores. A Figura 4 apresenta a folha de decisões do GI-MICRO a qual é preenchida em todos os períodos pelos participantes. 264

Figura 4 – Folha de Decisões do GI-MICRO Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

Relatórios Os principais relatórios disponibilizados para a tomada de decisão no GI-MICRO estão detalhado no Quadro 8 e exemplificados nas figuras 5, 6 e 7. Relatório

Descrição

Geral (Figura 5)

Apresenta o Balanço Patrimonial, as demandas e as vendas de todas as empresas, e os dados gerais de conjuntura econômica.

Confidencial (Figura 6)

Detalha as questões sobre estoques, produção, pessoal, demanda e vendas por região, empréstimos, pagamentos a fornecedores, demonstrativo de resultados e fluxo de caixa da empresa.

Desempenho (Figura 7)

Compara os resultados de lucro, produtividade, demanda e vendas entre as equipes.

Indicadores Econômicos e Financeiros

Apresentam índices econômicos e contábeis sobre a situação das empresas.

Quadro 8 – Relatórios do GI-MICRO Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

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Figura 5 – Relatório Geral Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

Figura 6 – Relatório Confidencial Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

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Figura 7 – Relatório de Desempenho Fonte: baseado em Kopittke (2001).

Avaliação As equipes são avaliadas pelo seu desempenho que é medido principalmente pelo lucro acumulado e pelo desempenho na Assembleia Geral realizada no fim do jogo. JOGO DE EMPRESAS VIRTUAL No jogo de empresas VIRTUAL (WILHELM e LOPES, 2005) os participantes assumem a gestão de um empreendimento no qual o foco é a realização de um processo decisório orientado para resultados econômicos. A empresa atua num mercado competitivo e o desafio é maximizar o uso da capacidade de produção instalada, as vendas e a rentabilidade patrimonial. Para apoiar o processo decisório, a empresa dispõe de um sis267

tema de informações gerenciais que oferece um painel de indicadores de desempenho da produção, vendas, finanças e contabilidade. O modelo é caracterizado como um jogo geral e interativo. Histórico O VIRTUAL foi desenvolvido no Instituto de Pesquisas Sociais (IPS) na Universidade Regional de Blumenau (FURB), sob a coordenação do professor Pedro Paulo Hugo Wilhelm. O jogo vem sendo utilizado em disciplinas de cursos de graduação e pós-graduação na FURB, e em outras universidades e empresas da região desde 1993. Uma característica particular do VIRTUAL é que ele é desenvolvido e aplicado a partir da planilha eletrônica Excel. Objetivos Os principais objetivos dos participantes do VIRTUAL são: organizar, coordenar e atuar num processo decisório baseado no trabalho em equipe; planejar e simular estratégias e cenários de mercado; lidar com situações de conflito, imprevisto e incertezas; praticar e testar a capacidade de resolução de problemas quantitativos de natureza econômica e financeira; analisar resultados e estabelecer relações sistêmicas de causa e efeito visando a identificação e o controle de fatores críticos de sucesso. Cenário No jogo as equipes são organizadas em grupos de 4 participantes. Cada um assume uma única função entre as seguintes diretorias: Produção, Mercado, Financeiro e Geral. O participante recebe apenas o manual de regras contendo informações específicas sobre sua função no jogo. 268

As equipes pertencem a um único grupo empresarial dividido em unidades de negócios idênticas. Elas não competem por demanda no mercado interno, mas sim no mercado externo. No mercado interno, o consumidor é sensível em relação a preços, prazo de vendas, juros, descontos e propaganda. Já no mercado externo a concorrência é estabelecida através de leilões. A empresa está submetida a um contexto que envolve diversas relações com o ambiente externo (Figura 8).

Figura 8 – Contexto do VIRTUAL Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

São três tipos de produtos (A, B e C) e três tipos de matéria-prima (MP1, MP2 e MP3) com os quais a empresa opera. O produto A pode ser exportado, o B tem picos de sazonalidade no verão e o C no inverno. A empresa também sofre a influência de fatores sobre os quais não exerce nenhum controle, tais como as variáveis de natureza macroeconômica (inflação, taxa de crescimento da economia, cotações de moedas e taxas de juros) e as perturbações que configuram incertezas (sazonalidades, fatores climáticos, negociações sindicais e oportunidades de exportação). 269

O papel dos agentes externos é exercido pelo facilitador que representa o governo, o banco central, o sindicato, o importador (que organiza os leilões de venda no mercado externo), entre outros. Ele é responsável pelo Jornal de Negócios que contém as informações que influenciam o processo decisório das equipes. DECISÕES As principais decisões dos participantes do VIRTUAL são apresentadas no Quadro 9. Diretor de Mercado

Diretor de Produção

Preço e quantidade para exportação do produto A

Horas de produção para os produtos A, B e C

Meta, preço e prazo de venda dos produtos A, B e C Investimento em propaganda Consultoria para política de propaganda Consultoria para política de prazo Diretor Geral Meta de uso da capacidade instalada Meta de vendas anual Meta de rentabilidade anual Piso salarial Benefícios para os operários Investimentos em equipamentos e instalações

Compra de matéria prima MP1, MP2 e MP 3 Gastos com manutenção preventiva Reposição de equipamentos Admissão e demissão de pessoal Diretor Financeiro Prazo de pagamento da compra de matéria prima Descontos e juros para venda dos produtos A, B e C Investimento em renda fixa (30 a 90 dias) Investimento e resgate em fundo de ações Desconto de duplicatas (30 a 90 dias) Valor de empréstimos para imobilizado Valor de aumento de capital

Quadro 9 – Decisões do jogo de empresas VIRTUAL Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

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Como exemplo, a Figura 9 apresenta a planilha de decisões do Diretor de Produção.

Figura 9 – Decisões do Diretor de Produção Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

Por ser desenvolvido em planilha Excel, o VIRTUAL permite a visualização de algumas informações estratégicas para o processo decisório no próprio formulário de tomada de decisão. O sistema conta também com sinalizadores que alertam os participantes sobre informações erradas ou que não permitam à empresa atingir suas metas. Relatórios Além das informações constantes da planilha de decisões, outros relatórios específicos são disponibilizados no Virtual e estão detalhados no Quadro 10 e exemplificados nas figuras 10, 11 e 12. 271

Diretor de Mercado

Diretor de Produção

Vendas e estoques

Consumo de matéria-prima, produção e estoques

Sistema de apoio para formação de preços (Figura 10)

Disponibilidade e utilização de horas de trabalho

Gráfico de evolução: vendas realizadas/meta (Figura 12)

Utilização dos equipamentos Gráfico de evolução: produção realizada/meta (Figura 12)

Diretor Geral Indicadores Estratégicos de Desempenho

Diretor Financeiro

Indicadores Contábeis

Fluxo de Caixa

Balanço Patrimonial

Contas à Pagar e Receber

Demonstrativo de Resultados (Figura 11)

Gráfico de Evolução do Saldo das Operações Financeiras (Figura 12)

Gráfico de Evolução da Rentabilidade. Patrimonial (Figura 12)

Quadro 10 – Relatórios do VIRTUAL Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

Figura 10 – Relatório de Formação de Preços Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

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Figura 11 – Demonstrativo de Resultados Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

Figura 12 – Gráficos de Avaliação de Desempenho Fonte: baseado em Wilhelm e Lopes (2005).

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Avaliação As equipes são avaliadas pelo seu desempenho que é medido por cinco critérios: produção, vendas, margem de contribuição financeira e rentabilidade. Cada participante recebe a nota relativa à sua função no jogo. JOGO DE EMPRESAS LÍDER O jogo de empresas LÍDER (LOPES, 2009) foi desenvolvido para a formação de líderes nas organizações. O jogo é um modelo de simulação da relação líder-subordinado em um contexto organizacional. Ele foi concebido para o desenvolvimento de liderança, visando simular elementos do relacionamento humano com base em teorias comportamentais, dentro de um contexto empresarial. O jogo tem como foco exercitar e fixar estilos de gestão, aumentando a qualidade do processo decisório sobre a gestão de pessoas e enfatizar a motivação e liderança eficaz, como fatores de sucesso para desenvolver equipes de alto desempenho. Entre suas características básicas destaca-se que se trata de um modelo funcional, comportamental e não interativo. Histórico O jogo de empresas LÍDER surgiu preenchendo a lacuna existente na área de desenvolvimento de pessoas utilizando recursos de informática. Antes dele, os modelos de jogos conhecidos no mercado nacional nesta área eram de caráter manual e baseados em formulários e tabelas. Eram jogos simples, concentrados em um só aspecto do comportamento humano e, por serem manuais, tinham poucas variáveis interagindo em seus modelos. O LÍDER foi desenvolvido no Laboratório de Jogos de Empresas (LASP), do Departamento de Engenharia de Produção e Sistemas (EPS), da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), coordenado pelo Professor Bruno Hartmut Kopittke. Atualmente na versão 8, novas atu274

alizações têm sido propostas no Departamento de Sistemas e Computação (DSC) da Universidade Regional de Blumenau (FURB), sob a responsabilidade do professor Maurício Capobianco Lopes, que participa do processo de desenvolvimento do jogo desde sua concepção. Objetivos O LÍDER tem evoluído e se adaptado às demandas e exigências de uma sociedade em permanente transformação. Seus principais objetivos são destacados a seguir: discutir aspectos teórico-conceituais de liderança e gestão de pessoas; enfatizar o capital humano como recurso chave na gestão estratégica das organizações; estimular a reflexão sobre elementos que envolvem o processo de gestão de pessoas; exercitar diferentes estilos de gestão e liderança de modo a contribuir para o desenvolvimento pessoal; ampliar as competências e habilidades em lidar com pessoas; possibilitar a mudança de atitude nos processos de liderança. Bases Teóricas O LÍDER oferece a oportunidade de experimentar a aplicação prática da teoria comportamental. Sua base é fundamentada principalmente nos conceitos da teoria e técnicas da Liderança Situacional, descritas por Hersey e Blanchard, da Hierarquia das Necessidades de Maslow e da teoria de Motivação-Higiene de Herzberg (HERSEY e BLANCHARD, 1986), transformando-os de teóricos e descritivos em práticos e prescritivos. Cenário No jogo o participante assume a função de Diretor de Produção de uma empresa e tem que tomar decisões sobre seus subordinados. Trata-se inicialmente de uma empresa familiar com diversas fábricas espalhadas pelo país, mas que foi tomada por uma profunda crise após a morte de seu 275

fundador. Os participantes do jogo assumem o controle destas diferentes unidades fabris, tentando resgatar a confiança, autoestima e produtividade dos funcionários. O organograma inicial do setor de produção da empresa a ser administrada segue a estrutura apresentada na Figura 13.

Figura 13 - Organograma da Empresa Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

O participante toma decisões relativas a todo o quadro funcional do seu setor, podendo eliminar cargos de gerência ou chefia. Os novos projetos representam as oportunidades de carreira que podem ser oferecidas aos funcionários que atingirem determinados níveis de qualificação e maturidade profissional. A empresa conta inicialmente com um funcionário em cada cargo de staff (gerência ou chefia) e cinco funcionários em cada setor, totalizando 14 pessoas. Este número pode chegar a no máximo 18, independente do cargo ou setor que ocupam. 276

Decisões No LÍDER os participantes decidem ações para atender aos anseios e necessidades de seus funcionários. O Quadro 11 apresenta o conjunto de decisões possíveis. Conforme pode ser observado no Quadro 11, existem dois grupos de decisões: as globais válidas para todos os funcionários, e as individuais que valem para cada funcionário especificamente, pois o nível de desenvolvimento pessoal encontra-se geralmente em estágios diferentes, sendo resultado de vivências e experiências únicas. Todas as decisões globais implicam em desembolso para a empresa. As decisões individuais também geram desembolso, com exceção daquelas assinaladas com asterisco no Quadro 11. Decisões sobre a empresa a nível global

Decisões sobre os funcionários a nível individual

Alimentação

Metas de Produção*

Melhoria Ambiental e Ergonométrica

Estilo de Liderança*

Consultoria de Job Design

Base de Poder*

Lanches

Política Salarial

Intervalos de Descanso

Prêmio

Plano de Saúde

Treinamento Específico para um Trabalho

Redução no Horário de Trabalho

Treinamento Antes de uma Promoção

Reuniões Informais

Treinamento de Liderança

Promoções Esportivas

Relatório do Perfil das Necessidades e Maturidades Relatório das Situações Perturbadoras

* Decisões sem desembolso para a empresa

Quadro 11 – Decisões do Jogo de Empresas Líder Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

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A Figura 14 apresenta a tela para tomada de decisões globais e a Figura 15 apresenta a tela para as decisões individuais no sistema computacional do jogo.

Figura 14 – Decisões Globais do LIDER Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

Figura 15 – Decisões Individuais do LIDER Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

278

Além destas decisões, os participantes definem também o posicionamento hierárquico dos indivíduos na organização. Eles podem definir promoções, contratações, demissões e um plano de sucessão. A Figura 16 apresenta a tela de tomada de decisão para esta atividade.

Figura 16 – Decisões de Alocação de Pessoal do LIDER Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

O jogo prevê ainda um mecanismo de promoção automática de um funcionário em nível de chefia para um novo projeto na organização. Esta promoção é feita quando ele atinge um desempenho predeterminado. Neste caso, o participante é informado e pode readequar o organograma, considerando a saída do funcionário promovido. Relatórios Os participantes do LIDER contam com um conjunto de dados e informações para apoiar o seu processo decisório e que são impactados pelas suas decisões. O Quadro 12 apresenta as opções de relatórios do jogo.

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Relatório

Descrição

Perfil das necessidades

Informa sobre o perfil de necessidade dos funcionários. As necessidades consideradas são: fisiológica, segurança, social, estima e realização.

Perfil das maturidades

Informa sobre a disposição (querer fazer – maturidade psicológica) e a capacidade técnica (saber fazer – maturidade técnica) dos funcionários.

Situações perturbadoras

Os funcionários podem apresentar situações que perturbem de forma negativa ou positiva o seu desempenho. Algumas informações disponíveis dizem respeito a: motivação para treinamento, facilidade de aprendizagem, motivação para liderança, fatores externos, supervalorização da segurança, comportamento destrutivo para satisfazer estima, grupos informais e desgaste do estilo ou desgaste do poder.

Produção*

Informa a produção dos funcionários. No caso dos funcionários em cargos de staff (gerência e chefia), existe um efeito multiplicador, denominado de produtividade, que revela a sua influência positiva ou negativa sobre os funcionários.

Eficácia no uso do estilo e poder*

Informa o grau de eficácia do participante ao aplicar estilos de liderança e bases de poder sobre os funcionários, que varia de 0% (totalmente ineficaz) até 100% (totalmente eficaz).

Lucro*

Informa as receitas, despesas e o resultado gerados pelos funcionários. No caso da receita, como no jogo não há questões sobre mercado a mesma é calculada diretamente em função da produção. As despesas são os desembolsos realizados. São contabilizados gastos com decisões globais e individuais, além do salário. O lucro é o resultado econômico (receita – despesa) que os funcionários proporcionam à empresa.

Banco de Currículos*

Contém um banco de candidatos, com seus respectivos perfis, que podem ser contratados pela empresa.

* Relatórios sem desembolso para a empresa

Quadro 12 – Relatórios do Jogo de Empresas Líder Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

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Os relatórios assinalados com asterisco no Quadro 12 são fornecidos aos participantes sem necessidade de desembolso. Os que não estão assinalados fazem parte da estratégia dos participantes em solicitá-los ou não, pois os mesmos têm custo para a empresa. A Figura 17 apresenta um exemplo de relatório em tela do LIDER. No relatório apresentado é possível observar o perfil das necessidades, o perfil das maturidades, a eficácia no uso do estilo e poder e as receitas, despesas e lucro gerados por cada funcionário.

Figura 17 – Relatórios do LIDER Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

A Figura 18 apresenta um exemplo de informações sobre um candidato que compõe o banco de currículos do jogo.

281

Figura 18 – Informações sobre os Candidatos do LIDER Fonte: baseado em Lopes (2009).

Avaliação A avaliação dos participantes, quanto aos resultados alcançados, considera diversos critérios: ter o maior número possível de gerentes de qualidade e inovação promovidos para novos projetos; maximizar o grau de eficácia no uso de estilos de liderança e bases de poder; ter o maior número possível de funcionários com um nível de maturidade elevado; ter o maior número possível de funcionários com necessidades maiores em estima e realização; atingir um alto nível de produtividade média entre os funcionários; maximizar a lucratividade para a empresa. O jogo tem métodos e critérios para compor numericamente cada um destes itens. Ressalta-se que o lucro é apenas um dos critérios de avaliação e, inclusive, tem menor peso que os demais, uma vez que o foco dos participantes é o desenvolvimento de pessoas. 282

COMPORTAMENTOS DOS PARTICIPANTES E DOS GRUPOS NOS JOGOS DE EMPRESAS As diversas aplicações dos jogos de empresas realizadas pelos autores deste capítulo utilizando os jogos GI-MICRO, VIRTUAL e LIDER permitiram observações e conclusões sobre o comportamento dos participantes dos jogos de empresas e sua influência nos grupos onde se inserem. Nesta seção serão apresentados e discutidos alguns destes comportamentos observados. Tempo na tomada de decisão Os participantes dos jogos de empresas apresentam diferentes níveis de conhecimento sobre o objeto de estudo. Turmas de cursos de pós-graduação, por exemplo, têm participantes de diversas áreas do conhecimento e com diferentes experiências profissionais. O tempo utilizado para assimilar o processo e tomar as decisões varia em função destas vivências pessoais. A Figura 19 apresenta a relação entre o nível de conhecimento dos participantes sobre o assunto discutido e modelado no jogo, com o tempo utilizado na tomada de decisão.

Figura 19 - Relação entre grau de conhecimento dos participantes e o tempo utilizado para a tomada de decisão Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011).

283

De acordo com a Figura 19 observa-se que as pessoas do grupo A, com pouco conhecimento sobre o assunto, adotam decisões em tempo mínimo. Isto geralmente acontece pela falta de interesse que os levam a tomar as decisões de forma intuitiva. Para as pessoas do grupo B, na medida em que o grau de conhecimento aumenta, as mesmas se envolvem mais com o jogo e utilizam mais tempo para discutir e se posicionar frente às decisões, por muitas vezes trabalhar em um processo de tentativa e erro. As pessoas do grupo C são mais dedicadas e as que realmente assimilaram a teoria modelada e discutida no jogo, necessitando cada vez de menos tempo para a tomada de decisão. Finalmente, as pessoas do grupo D, que já tem conhecimento e experiência sobre o assunto, acabam por despender pouco tempo para tomar as decisões por considerarem que já sabem tudo. Interação entre participantes na equipe Um dos principais desafios de um grupo num processo de tomada de decisão é chegar a um acordo quanto a uma determinada estratégia ou ação. Esse acordo depende de uma combinação entre os valores dos membros e as informações disponíveis. O processo decisório exige, portanto, discussões, negociações e solução de conflitos antes de se alcançar um acordo. Independente disto, o trabalho em equipe é cumulativamente mais eficiente do que o indivíduo, pois cada membro deve poder contribuir à sua própria maneira. As características observadas nos grupos dos jogos de empresas maduros e produtivos são: » progridem com eficiência em direção ao objetivo; » gastam menos tempo com detalhes; » respeitam as diferentes opiniões e pontos de vista; » mostram alto grau de comunicação, levando todos a participar; » identificam com facilidade os objetivos e fins; 284

» » » » » »

encontram soluções para os impasses com maior facilidade; tomam decisões baseadas em fatos e informações; distribuem o trabalho de acordo com as aptidões de cada um; tem flexibilidade em situações de conflito e negociação; evitam situações que prejudiquem a unidade do grupo; compartilham a liderança, variando a coordenação de acordo com as aptidões de cada um.

INFLUÊNCIA DO RESULTADO NA EQUIPE Os resultados de um grupo influenciam no comportamento e no sentimento dos participantes. Os fenômenos observados apresentam-se em duas análises: quando o grupo está vencendo ou perdendo. Quando o grupo está vencendo geralmente torna-se mais coeso, fechando-se no seu sentimento vitorioso de ser o melhor, o vencedor, o bom. Esse sentimento de potência leva-o a liberar a tensão, afrouxando o seu espírito de luta, relaxando e descuidando-se com o tempo. O grupo, nesse seu estado de euforia, concentra-se mais na satisfação das necessidades dos seus membros e declina das atenções na realização de suas tarefas. A complacência do vencedor o faz achar que o bom resultado confirma o estereótipo positivo que tem sobre si mesmo e o negativo sobre as equipes concorrentes. Isto o leva a não fazer uma avaliação crítica realista sobre seu desempenho e o de seus concorrentes. Quando o grupo está perdendo a situação é difícil de aceitar. Na derrota procuram-se “bodes expiatórios” para colocar a culpa. Quando não é possível responsabilizar alguém de fora, a culpa pela derrota é atribuída de um para outro, ou até mesmo ao jogo. No clima de tensão emergem conflitos latentes e não resolvidos entre os membros. Equipes com baixo desempenho têm maior dificuldade de manter um comportamento cooperativo intragrupal, pois seu objetivo é trabalhar arduamente para vencer na próxima etapa da competição. A aprendizagem apa285

rentemente negativa o faz se autoavaliar pela não aceitação do estereótipo negativo, levando-o a estruturar-se e organizar-se melhor para buscar ser vencedor numa futura etapa. A experiência negativa vivenciada pelos participantes se relaciona basicamente a opiniões divergentes, falta de comprometimento ou cumprimento das responsabilidades, dificuldades em reunir o grupo e ausência de consenso na tomada de decisões. Aqueles que passam por este tipo de experiência têm dificuldade em aprender a relevância da cooperação, reciprocidade e comprometimento nas relações interpessoais em um grupo, possivelmente por estarem acostumados ao aprendizado passivo. O uso do jogo tem comprovado que o desempenho alcançado está significativamente relacionado com os seguintes fatores: comprometimento do grupo com os resultados, divisão de tarefas, planejamento e simulação de cenários e estratégias, ousadia e preparo para lidar com imprevistos e oportunidades. Competição entre equipes A competição entre equipes em um jogo de empresas inicia desde o momento da formação das equipes. O próprio termo jogo desperta nos participantes o espírito competitivo. Ao executar as tarefas em um jogo os participantes estão sob contínua pressão para o bom desempenho, observando-se e comparando-se com os outros. Quanto maior a rivalidade estabelecida entre os grupos, maior a velocidade na resolução dos problemas. O ambiente dentro do grupo torna-se mais sério e profissional, exigindo-se mutuamente lealdade, seriedade e não sendo tolerada a dissidência. Por outro lado, o objetivo principal do grupo passa a ser focado no resultado, ignorando os aspectos primordiais de ensino aprendizagem proporcionados pelo jogo.

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DESENVOLVIMENTO DE JOGOS DE EMPRESAS: QUESTÕES METODOLÓGICAS Ao optar por utilizar um jogo de empresas em suas atividades, um professor ou consultor de empresas tem um entre dois caminhos a seguir. O primeiro é procurar organizações que tratam do tema e identificar no mercado produtos disponíveis para comercialização. O Quadro 13 apresenta algumas organizações nacionais e internacionais que atuam com jogos de empresas. Organização

Origem

Endereço eletrônico

SAGSAGA

Alemanha, Áustria e Suíça

www.sagsaga.org/

BERNARD

Brasil

www.bernard.com.br/

BHK

Brasil

www.jogosempresariais.com.br/

DEVPARTNER

Brasil

www.devpartner.com.br/

OGG

Brasil

www.ogg.com.br/

SEBRAE

Brasil

www.desafio.sebrae.com.br

SIMULAB

Brasil

www.simulab.com.br

SIMULARE

Brasil

www.simulare.com.br/page/

VIRTUAL

Brasil

home.furb.br/wilhelm/HPEcoEmp.html

ABSEL

EUA

www.absel.org/

NASAGA

EUA

www.nasaga.org/

SGX

EUA

www.ssagsg.org/SGX/

SIGSIM

EUA

www.acm.org/sigsim/

SAGANET

Holanda

www.saganet.nl/

ISAGA

Inglaterra

www.isaga.info/

SAGSET

Inglaterra

www.sagset.org/

JASAG

Japão

www.jasag.org

Quadro 13 – Organizações e empresas que atuam com jogos de empresas Fonte: elaborado pelos autores (2011).

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No Brasil, apesar de muitas instituições de ensino e organizações empresariais se utilizarem de jogos de empresa, poucos são os títulos comercializados. Isto se explica porque mais do que simplesmente vender um software, os produtores tem que repassar toda a metodologia de aplicação, formar os facilitadores que irão aplicar o produto, e dar manutenção, o que nem sempre é fácil e barato. O segundo caminho é desenvolver o próprio jogo. Esta é uma atividade que requer cuidados, pois trata de um método que exige planejamento, organização e a correta execução, para não torná-lo uma simples atividade lúdica. Ao utilizar um jogo de empresas deve-se ter em mente que o objetivo principal é facilitar a aprendizagem sobre um determinado objeto de estudo e não apenas entreter os participantes. Com isto, há uma grande possibilidade de se aproveitar ao máximo as potencialidades oferecidas por este método de ensino. Com base em um estudo publicado por Lopes e Wilhelm (2006), e também na experiência dos autores deste artigo, o Quadro 15 apresenta questões importantes a serem consideradas no projeto e desenvolvimento de um jogo de empresas. Componentes Descrição Objetivo

O primeiro elemento a considerar antes de se desenvolver um jogo é ter claramente definido os objetivos de ensino aprendizagem que se pretendem alcançar. A contextualização do jogo, suas regras, as relações de causa e efeito e as atividades e dinâmicas em torno do jogo devem ser definidas de modo a se obter os melhores resultados possíveis, visando atender os objetivos.

Equipe

A equipe de desenvolvimento de um jogo de empresas deve ser multidisciplinar envolvendo especialistas em informática, design e na área específica de conhecimento na qual se deseja focar o jogo. O envolvimento destes profissionais tem por objetivo aproveitar ao máximo o potencial do jogo.

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Componentes Descrição Ferramentas

Dependendo do tipo do jogo a ser desenvolvido, deve ser previsto um conjunto de ferramentas: de projeto e programação de interface, de projeto e programação das regras, e de testes. Conhecer o objetivo do jogo é importante, pois muitas vezes ferramentas comuns e de baixo custo, permitem criar o ambiente que se deseja de forma simples.

Complexidade O nível de complexidade de um modelo deve estar adequado do jogo aos conceitos e tarefas que se deseja simular. Atividades simples requerem modelos simples. Deve-se ter cuidado ao se propor modelos muito complexos, pois em alguns casos as equipes acabam sem entender corretamente as regras, comprometendo a aprendizagem. Em um jogo de empresas o ideal é que o nível de dificuldade seja inserido de forma gradativa e crescente. Regras do jogo

Um jogo de empresas deve ter um cenário e uma história bem definidos que tornem claros os seus objetivos. As regras devem ser amplamente divulgadas, evitando-se ambiguidades e possibilidades de diferentes interpretações. Devem estar próximas do mundo real de modo a facilitar a compreensão do participante sobre o domínio do problema a ser trabalhado. Isto também facilita a reflexão sobre as relações de causa e efeito existentes no ambiente do jogo.

Papel do facilitador

Ao se desenvolver um jogo deve-se projetar o papel do facilitador. O adequado é que ele possa intervir no jogo seja de forma direta, alterando parâmetros ou variáveis de controle, seja de forma indireta, participando de negociações ou mediação de conflitos.

Interface do jogo

A interface deve seguir padrões ergonômicos, permitindo ao participante visualizar as informações de forma simples e correta. Interfaces muito sofisticadas podem não ser adequadas, sendo mais interessante propostas de interfaces mais despojadas. Em um jogo de empresas a interface deve permitir a análise de gráficos e relatórios. Sinalizadores de apoio, alertas e tutoriais sobre os conceitos envolvidos no jogo podem ser utilizados tanto quanto possível.

Avaliação e feedback

O desenvolvimento de um jogo deve prever atividades de avaliação e feedback consistentes com seus objetivos. Elas podem ser oferecidas pelo próprio sistema computacional e, portanto, já previstas durante a etapa de desenvolvimento.

Quadro 15 – Componentes de um projeto de desenvolvimento de um jogo de empresas Fonte: baseado em Lopes e Wilhelm (2006).

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Ao optar por desenvolver um jogo de empresas, deve-se estar consciente de que se trata de um processo dinâmico e evolutivo, e que deve acompanhar os avanços científicos e tecnológicos, tanto da área foco da simulação quanto da área de tecnologia. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS Este capítulo apresentou os jogos de empresas na educação como um método inovador aplicado aos processos de ensino aprendizagem. Tal questão torna-se importante na medida em que cada vez mais a educação deve se utilizar de instrumentos, técnicas e ferramentas mais dinâmicas e próximas das necessidades e interesses da sociedade. Dentre as principais questões abordadas procurou-se evidenciar a importância do método no contexto de formação educacional, caracterizando os tipos, a dinâmica, os comportamentos dos participantes e dos grupos, e os elementos acerca do processo de desenvolvimento de jogos de empresas. Tal questão torna-se importante na medida em que permite ampliar a visão sobre o que são e qual a finalidade dos jogos de empresa. O foco do estudo foram os jogos de empresa eletrônicos, utilizados como método de ensino, os quais têm potencializado a aprendizagem, gerando muitos benefícios para as instituições formadoras, para os participantes e para as organizações empresariais. As instituições formadoras, sejam elas com foco educacional ou de consultoria e treinamento empresarial, encontram neste método um meio para que os participantes realizem discussões teórico-práticas sobre os objetos de estudo que ele modela. Os jogos de empresa permitem a construção de currículos interdisciplinares e integradores, com base em ferramentas tecnológicas modernas, que considerem o desenvolvimento de competências e estratégias alinhadas às necessidades das organizações atuais. Os participantes aprendem baseado na experimentação, sem estar sujeitos às graves consequências que poderiam ser causadas por decisões 290

equivocadas na vida real. A aplicação de jogos de empresa feita pelos autores deste capítulo tem comprovado a motivação, satisfação e o envolvimento dos alunos com este método, pois eles são um caminho para responder, de maneira científica, as questões mais importantes ligadas à atividade empresarial. Nos jogos, os participantes assumem um papel ativo em seu processo de formação ao vivenciarem situações que os conduzam a um processo de mudança e construção de novos conhecimentos. As organizações empresariais que recebem profissionais que experimentaram este método têm a vantagem de trabalhar com pessoas habilitadas e capacitadas nas funções gerenciais, na medida em que sua formação partiu de pressupostos práticos e não apenas teóricos. Elas se aproveitam de todos os benefícios proporcionados pelo método que foram discutidos ao longo deste capítulo. Os jogos de empresas podem auxiliar no recrutamento e seleção de pessoal para identificar profissionais com maior visão sistêmica, flexibilidade, capacidade de negociação e solução de conflitos, entre outros. Com base na visão apresentada neste capítulo acredita-se que os jogos de empresa contribuem efetivamente para a formação de pessoas em um contexto social dinâmico onde a capacidade de inovação e geração de novos conhecimentos é cada vez mais exigida.

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AN INTERACTIVE SELF-ASSESSMENT SYSTEM FOR STUDENT-CENTERED LEARNING IN EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION Jorge Pomares Baeza ! Pablo Gil Vázquez ! Francisco A. Candelas Herías ! Santiago T. Puente Méndez ! Fernando Torres Medina ! Juan A. Corrales Ramón ! Carlos A. Jara Bravo ! Gabriel J. García Gómez ! Iván Perea Fuentes !

Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory Department, University of Alicante

ABSTRACT This chapter describes an interactive and self-assessment learning system for students. Furthermore, it shows the results of using that system for a computer network subject in the degree of computer science in the University of Alicante in Spain. To perform this, a B-learning platform based on an autonomous learning system that allows the students to test their own knowledge level has been implemented. Moodle was used as main platform and the interactive learning contents used Wimba Create and EJS. Fi! Carretera de San Vicente del Raspeig s/n - 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig - Alicante – Spain. E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], fernando.torres@ ua.es, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].

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nally, the results of students who have used this method during the last three academic courses are analyzed, comparing traditional vs. interactive learning methods and interactive vs. self-assessment learning methods. Keywords: B-learning, Moodle, SCORM, learning tools, applets Java.

INTRODUCTION

T

he adaptation of the current academic degrees to the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) [Allegre et al., 1998] [Ministries of European Education, 1999] is an important challenge for European universities not only at the administrative level but also at the methodological level. In the methodological field, the teaching staff has to adapt the subjects by taking into account two main features [Huber, 2008]: the acquisition of competences and the student-centered learning. The acquisition of competences covers three main aspects [Bologna Working Group on Qualifications Frameworks, 2005]: to know, to understand and to be able to do. Thereby, the traditional education system, which is focused on the transmission of knowledge, is transformed into a teaching-learning system where the acquired knowledge must be understood by the student in order to apply it in real life. Therefore, the knowledge is not the main goal of the learning process anymore and it becomes a mere instrument to acquire competences for solving real problems. This evolution from knowledge towards competences involves an important change in the learning process of students. Students stop being spectators of traditional lectures and become the leading actor of their own learning. This student-centered learning process is based on five features [Shuell, 1986]: active learning [Bonwell & Eison, 1991], self-directed learning [Knowles, 1975], constructivist learning [Piaget, 1950], situated learning [Anderson et al. 1996] and social learning [Vygotsky, 1978]. In order to develop all these features, a teaching methodology based on b-learning (blended learning) is implemented. B-learning [Graham, 296

2005] is a learning approach which combines face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction. This approach combines the advantages of both teaching strategies: the direct help of the lecturer in face-to-face instruction with the flexibility of computer-mediated instruction. A LCMS (Learning Content Management System) has been used to manage the educational resources. In particular, the authors have used a learning environment based on Moodle [Moodle, 2010] because it is free and open-source software which can be easily extended with new custom modules developed by the user. This flexibility of the Moodle system is not only based on the programming of new modules but also on the easy importation of contents created in other systems through SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) packages [Advanced Distributed Learning, 2010]. This B-learning strategy based on Moodle has been applied on the subject ‘Computer Networks’ of the degrees on Computer Science which are taught by the authors at the University of Alicante (Spain). These subjects are composed by 45 hours of laboratory work and 30 hours of theoretical lectures which are distributed throughout the first semester of each academic year. The developed b-learning strategy contains the following elements in order to perform a student-centered learning process: » Development of interactive practical assignments: The authors have used the software Wimba Create [Wimba, 2010] to create the guides for the practical assignments of the subjects [Gil et al., 2010a,b]. This software generates HTML pages which can be imported into Moodle as SCORM packages. This software can also include interactive activities for the student to better understand the concepts and apply them in practical situations. In addition, the student can verify if the completed exercises are correct. » Development and integration of virtual laboratories: The authors have also developed several software simulations (KivaNS [Candelas & Gil, 2009] [KivaNS, 2010] and EJS-Easy Java Simulations 297

[Jara et al., 2009] [EJS, 2010]) which have been imported in Moodle. These simulations allow students to try the exercises in other network configurations different from the real laboratory. » Development of a self-assessment system: The authors included self-assessment tests for each of the practical assignments. Students can verify if they have understood completely the required concepts and if they can apply them in real problems. Thereby, students can revise before the final exam those points for which their comprehension is weaker. The incorporation of these elements entails an improvement in the learning process of the student because the learning becomes active, self-directed, constructivist and situated. Firstly, the learning is active because students have to take the initiative of the learning by following a guide which is supplied by the lecturer in conjunction with the practical assignment. Secondly, the learning is self-directed because students learn at their own rhythm and are able to evaluate their progress from the results of the interactive exercises and the self-assessment tests. Thirdly, the learning is constructivist because students have to draw their own conclusions from the results of the exercises. Fourthly, the learning is situated because the exercises are applied not only in a laboratory but also in a simulated configuration of virtual laboratories. Finally, this learning is also social because students do not lose contact with the teacher and their partners because they continue attending classes. Nevertheless, the role of the lecturer changes in these classes from the traditional knowledge transmitter towards a tutor which guides the learning process of the students and help them to clear up their doubts. The paper is organized in the following sections: first the Moodle environment and the interactive activities with SCORM are described. These tools are employed in order to include the simulations using EJS and KIVANS described in the next section. Section IV describes a statistical analysis about the improvements in the learning process of the 298

students and about the opinions of the students with regard to the developed b-learning system. Finally the conclusions and future works are presented. THE MOODLE ENVIRONMENT AND INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES WITH SCORM As mentioned above, LCMS-Moodle was used to manage the different items (i.e. resources, evaluation, etc.) involved in the student learning of the subject of Computer Networks taught in the degree of Computer Science during the academic year 2008-2009. The use of a LCMS, such as Moodle, has two key objectives. On the one hand, Moodle is used to manage the courses and their on-line contents through the web technology as in [Romero, 2008]. On the other hand, it permits the control and monitoring of the students as well as it provides tools to do the assessments and measurements of the student learning. In the study presented in this paper, these goals were both satisfactorily accomplished in the academic year 2008-2009. Thereby, a course through Moodle was created to teach Computer Networks. And some teaching units and tutorials created as SCORM content packages were created to be easily imported from Moodle and also can be used with several web browsers. A student opinion survey published in [Gil, 2010a] explored the degree of satisfaction about resources, services, teaching units, etc. of students enrolled in this subject. Furthermore, the classical methodology of assessments was modified so that the lectures and explanations delivered by the teacher were avoided and the classical exams ceased to be used in the assessments. The new methodology implemented from the year 2008 permits to quantify the amount of the knowledge acquired by the students and the quality of their learning from an evaluation and self-correction system based on Moodle’s quiz module [Gil, 2010b]. 299

However, the feedback obtained from the students’ opinion surveys generated an interaction process between professor and students which has shown that it is necessary to enhance the interactivity, flexibility and autonomy in the learning process. This one has been the goal for the year academic 2009-2010. The reasons to justify this change are varied and can be summarized as follows. Firstly, the teaching units and tutorials built as SCORM packages were only interactive guides that had the advantages to be used in different platforms. In addition, they could be equipped with browsing characteristics and could integrate several interactive components such as animations, videos, images, sounds, etc., but the student never could check the level of knowledge acquired. To do that, some interactive exercises have been embedded in the teaching units during the last academic year. These exercises have interactivity and they can show guidelines, help and tips when the exercises are not correctly answered and they also can display the correct solution. Thus, the new teaching units SCORM with interactive exercises are able to provide the correct answer, indicate where the result is wrong or indicate depending on their responses which part of the teaching unit has to be studied again. This way, the students can measure themselves their level of knowledge through the self- correction and automatic feedback. In addition, the particularities of learning Computer Networks in technological and experimental degrees require showing real study cases. These cases can be shown through the development of practical experiments in a laboratory where a set of real physical network devices are interconnected via a TCP/IP architecture. This type of technical requirements has often limited autonomous learning. To mitigate this problem, a virtual laboratory called KivaNS [Candelas, 2009] that allowed simulations and experiments without having to be present in the laboratory of real network devices was implemented in previous works. This laboratory is free, open-source, documented and easily installed but it required certain technical specifications 300

to be installed and it requires some time learning to manage it. To avoid this disadvantage, during the academic year 2009-2010, an important effort was made to create portable “Java-applets” generated from the combination of KivaNS and EJS [EJS, 2010]. This way, the teaching units have been improved with compact interactive simulations, Java-applets, which are easily embedded in Moodle and are able to simulate real experimental cases, all without adding additional software for its installation. Secondly, the new assessment methodology required new tools that would allow the students to prevent the problems of intelligibility, understanding and fear of the unknown. For this reason, in the last academic year, a self-assessment system has been implemented. This selfassessment system is composed of a set of questions or tests. These tests are very similar to the tests which are used to assess the students, but the marks obtained with them are not considered for the final evaluation. They are only used to check if the students have understood the lesson and know the most important contents and topics. Therefore, students can detect problems in their learning and, at the same time, reduce the fear of the final exam.

DEVELOPMENT OF SIMULATIONS EJS AND KIVANS AND INTEGRATION IN MOODLE The guides of the practical assignments of the Computer Networks subject have so far lied in PDF documents that students can download from the Virtual Campus. In order to provide these statements with dynamic interactive content, the software tool called Wimba Create has been used. This software can generate B/Eb/e-learning interactive content from the information contained in a Microsoft Word document. Both, Wimba and Microsoft Word, are distributed at the University of Alicante under a special license through the Vice-deanship of Technol301

ogy and Educational Innovation. Inserting certain labels on the content of the Microsoft Word document, HTML content can be generated in a few steps. In addition, Wimba Create permits users to define self-assessment questions that allow students to interact with the generated HTML documents. From the HTML content generated by Wimba Create, you can get a SCORM package which is easily integrated into Moodle. Thus, it is possible to easily introduce interactive content in different set of practices with navigability features, in a user-friendly interactive learning environment. In the final practical assignment of the subject self-assessment was introduced. This system consisted of a set of questions developed with the Moodle quiz module. These questions were similar to the evaluation questionnaires. Therefore, the student can practice on the questions similar to those that she/he can find in the exam. The student has at her/his disposal the number of attempts she/he deems appropriate to practice on these questions. Thus, the self-assessment questionnaire itself reports to them the answers they solved properly or not. Hence, the student has an additional tool for independent learning, which enables her/him to evaluate the knowledge that is acquired over the practical sessions on questions similar to those found in the exam. Easy Java Simulations (EJS) [Esquembre, 2004] is the software platform which has been used for virtual-labs’ development. EJS is a freeware, open-source tool developed in Java, specifically created for the creation of interactive dynamic simulations. EJS has been designed for people who do not need complex programming skills. Users can easily and quickly create interactive simulations. They need to provide only the most relevant core of the simulation algorithm and EJS automatically generates all the Java code needed to create a complete interactive simulation, including a wide range of sophisticated software techniques (such as handling computer graphic routines, communication protocols, multi-threading and others). EJS is totally implemented in Java language. This feature gives a full portability of the applications 302

generated with this tool and they can be executed on different operating systems. EJS can be freely downloaded from http://www.um.es/ fem/EjsWiki/, where readers can experiment with simulations developed with this software. One of the most important features of EJS is that it is a code generation program. Once the user has developed a virtual laboratory, EJS automatically generates all the Java simulation compiled code, packs the resulting files in a compressed Java file and generates HTML pages containing embedded the virtual laboratory in an applet form. Another important option of EJS is the possibility to insert external libraries in Java for developing simulation code as auxiliary framework to develop the simulation code. This property can be used to design advanced applications, as it has been done in this paper (section III). From the point of view of learning, virtual labs are tools where only a user interacts with an experimentation and practice environment from anywhere at any time. The interactivity of these platforms provides students a way to acquire professional skills from their own experiences. However, most virtual laboratories included in Web environments are designed to be used individually. Thus, it does not allow collaboration between the teacher and other students. For this reason, the authors of this report have developed a system that allows EJS applets communicate through the Internet to establish a collaborative environment between the components of a virtual classroom [Jara et al, 2009]. This new system permits a group of students distributed in the network to share experiences and knowledge in real time while they interact and experiment with virtual laboratories. This collaborative interface also enables teachers to monitor and assist students synchronously in their practical exercises, reducing considerably the mentoring process and resolving their doubts in a more guided way. This system has been fully developed and integrated into EJS. Therefore, collaborative applications based on Java applets can be generated with this software. 303

The applets created with EJS are a series of HTML pages and a series of compressed Java files. In this way, the implementation and installation in Moodle can be easily performed. You only need to upload these web pages and jar files (compiled Java code file) to the web server where Moodle is installed. Finally, this web page must be linked from the main page as an activity generated in a course for the student. Thus, the applet is directly linked from the course to an environment that combines the main pedagogical advantages of virtual laboratories and collaborative environments: the applications are based on Java applets developed with EJS, and the collaboration is a real-time communication between these applications. Therefore, teachers and students can share experiences on real time in a collaborative environment through virtual labs. RESULTS Example of interactive practice As discussed in Section III, the last practical assignment of the course has been designed using the software Wimba Create. This software permits users to develop from a static document, such as a text file in Microsoft Word format, an HTML document where the student can interact with the statement. Next, the developed interactive statement is described. The guide of the fourth practical assignment is an HTML document obtained through the software Wimba Create. The document obtained is divided into a header, and two sections of content. On the left, the table of contents of the practice is depicted, while at the center, the document corresponding to the selected section is shown. Figure 1 illustrates the layout of the elements in the interactive statement. 304

Figure 20 - Layout of the statement of the fourth practical work.

As mentioned before, interactivity features are integrated, so that the student is able to test her/his understanding of the concepts described throughout the statement. Figure 2 shows an example of these elements. In this case, it shows a multiple choice test about the concepts described in the first section of the statement.

Figure 21: Sample test questions.

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The student can answer these questions by selecting the answer she/ he deems appropriate, and then check whether the choice is correct, pressing the “Check answer” button. In Figure 3, we can see that the student can find out immediately if she/he answered correctly or otherwise, get a clue about where to consult for the solution. This interactivity enables students to identify those concepts that have not been properly acquired. This is a tool that facilitates the student self-directed learning.

Figure 22 - Example of correct multiple choice answers.

Exercises where the student has to enter text to answer the questions have also been included (Figure 4). In those exercises, the student must write in a box the correct answer. To facilitate this, the answers are specific patterns where there is no ambiguity, i.e., the student does not need to write an explanation but a solution to a given problem. Again, the student knows the number of correct answers (if there is more of an item at the same question) and different clues to solve the items of the question in which the student has failed. 306

Figure 23 - Example of a question with textual answer.

Virtual laboratory for experimenting data networks The team of teachers who has carried out this work has a lot of experience in designing and applying virtual and remote laboratories to several engineering topics [Torres et al, 2006] [Vargas et al, 2010]. The virtual laboratory called KivaNS is one of the results of that experience [Candelas & Gil, 2009]. This laboratory is focused on the design and simulation of data networks based on TCP/IP architecture, and it is mainly composed of two software modules: a simulation engine specific for data networks driven by discrete events, and a graphical user interface. The two modules are deployed as an application which has been programmed in Java language. This feature provides a great portability, that is, the possibility of executing the application in a great number of platforms. Although the user interface of KivaNS is user friendly, it has been designed as a stand-alone application which, after its local installation, gives access to a lot of capabilities for design and simulating of all the protocols and networks supported. KivaNS is not able to be included in a web page or in a LCMS, and it is not appropriate to quickly teach spe307

cific simulations about working of networks. For example, if teacher requires teaching the working of a particular communications protocol for transmitting data between two hosts in a LAN (Local Area Network) by using KivaNS, he first needs to make the whole design and configuration of the network in order to simulate how it works. It would be easier to have an application to simulate the protocol in a pre-configured network. While KivaNS allows users to load an archive with a network scheme previously designed, it should be more adequate to have other tools oriented directly to show students the working of specific situations in networks when these tools are executed, without necessity of a configuration. This kind of tools is also more appropriate to explain with detail some topics in theory classes. Taking in mind the previous fact, authors have integrated the existent simulation engine of KivaNS in the EJS environment (section III). This is not only possible, but also easily done, because the simulation engine is an independent module which was programmed as a JAR library for Java with the aim of using it to develop other applications. By combining the KivaNS simulation module with EJS, it is possible to quickly develop interactive graphical simulations which show how specific aspects of data networks work. In this way, a virtual laboratory composed by several Java applets, which are designed to explain how TCP/IP protocols work in LANs, has been developed. These applets can be accessed through a web page, and integrated in a LCMS like Moodle (section III). For example, Figure 5 shows the user interface of a Java applet developed with EJS and KivaNS, which has the aim of showing how it is made the data transmission between two hosts in a LAN Ethernet using IP. The student can select the target host for a data block and the block size, and then she/he sees, step by step, the message sequence generated by ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), in a very similar way that a protocol analyzer tool shows the traffic of a real network. 308

Figure 24 - Example of simulation applet included in the virtual laboratory

Simulations which compose the virtual laboratory for data networks allow the student to explore cases such as the following: » Operation of ARP. » Functioning of bus or switched Ethernet networks. » Working of IP, even considering fragmentation of data blocks. » IP addressing and broadcasting. » Routing of IP datagrams through one or more routers. » Commonly used ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) messages. Thus, this virtual laboratory is a very useful tool from two points of view. On the one hand, the virtual laboratory allows teachers explaining how protocols work by means of graphical examples, while students can experiment with their own simulation applets, not only in practical sessions, but also in theory lessons. On the other hand, the virtual laboratory enables students to experiment how protocols work on a simulation, without the necessity of a real network infrastructure which is only available in the faculty laboratory. In this way, student is able to review practical aspects outside the laboratory. In addition, applets can be integrated in a platform like Moodle, which is used in the subject of Networks. This facilitates its availability and access to students, as well as the possibility of complementing the virtual laboratory with the appropriate learning materials. 309

ANALYSIS OF THE SELF-ASSESSMENT SYSTEM This section compares the results obtained with the self-assessment system in one of four practical experiments which were carried out. The analysis was performed on three samples of 249, 206 and 166 students respectively in the academic years 2007/2008, 2008/2009 and 2009/2010. In Figure 25, we compare together the qualifications of the Computer Networks subject in the two degrees, B.S. in Computer Science (five years) and B.S. in Computer Systems (three years), during the academic year 2007/2008 when a classical approach without Moodle systems nor SCORM didactic guides was used. We began to use Moodle evaluation systems with self-correction and teaching guides in the academic year 2008/2009. Finally, the methodology has been improved with the approach presented in the paper during the academic year 2009/2010, since this new system provides the self-assessments on quiz of Moodle and the question’s feedback of SCORM tutorials. 50,00% 40,00% 30,00%

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