1 Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in ...

22 downloads 123 Views 460KB Size Report
Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in the Great Western Woodlands ..... South Australian Register. 1896. Near telegraph line towards Eyre [73].
Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in the Great Western Woodlands Suzanne Prober, Emma Yuen, Michael H. O’Connor and Les Schultz Supplementary Material Appendix 1. Glossary Common, Ngadju and latin names/notes for plants, animals, seasons, Aboriginal groups and other terms referred to in this report. Ngadju terms spelt according to the draft Ngadju dictionary (or in inverted commas if not in the dictionary). Latin names follow the Australian Plant Census (https://www.anbg.gov.au/chah/apc/about-APC.html) and the Australian Faunal Directory (http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/) Common name

Ngadju term

Latin name, notes

PLANTS TREES Kurrajong

Brachychiton populneus

She-oak

kurli, raalinj

Casuarina pauper, Allocasuarina huegelliana

Blackbutt

e.g. ‘kundarn’

Eucalyptus dundasii, E. lesoefii, E. clelandii

Black morrell

Eucalyptus melanoxylon

Giant mallee

kutan

Eucalyptus oleosa

Salmon gum

marrlinja

Eucalyptus salmonophloia

Gimlet

joorderee , ‘tutara’

Eucalyptus salubris

murrun

Acacia burkittii, A. acuminata

SHRUBS & CLIMBERS Jam Bluebush

Maireana sedifolia

Broombush

noondoo, pukan

Eremophila spp., Melaleuca spp.

Samphire

‘kukunjeri’

Tecticornia spp.

Christmas tree

kunhapiti

Grevillea nematophylla

Tea-tree

pukan

Melaleuca spp. including M. pauperiflora

Quandong

tumpari

Santalum acuminatum

Saltbush

Atriplex spp.

Sandalwood

Santalum spicatum

GRASSES Spear grass

Austrostipa spp.

Spinifex

Triodia spp.

HERBS Wild cucumber

ngaajunh

Billardiera lehmanniana

Twining fringe lily

jungkajungka

Thysanotus patersoni, T. mangliesianus

1

Common name

Ngadju term

Latin name, notes

Bush turkey, bustard

kipara

Ardeotis australis

Dingo

ngurpany

Canis lupus dingo

Emu

jula

Dromaius novaehollandiae

Mallee fowl

‘ngunnamara’

Leiopa ocellata

Grey kangaroo (Western)

kulpirr

Macropus fuliginosus

Red kangaroo

marlu

Macropus rufus

Bobtail

yurna

Tiliqua rugosa

Goanna

karulka

Varanus sp.

Regrowth woodland, saplings

ngarta kaja

Trees, child

Trees, woodland

ngarta, ngarta-waarr

Trees and bushes

Stony or rocky ground

parna purinya

Ground, little rocks

Sandplains

tarpan piriny

Flat, sand

ANIMALS

LANDSCAPE TYPES

FIRE Fire

kala

SEASONS Egging season

Ngawu

About September to October

Hot season

Nganji

About November to March

Hibernating season

Kupilya ngarrin

About April to June

Courting and mating season

Karrlkunja

About July to August

The first mild days in March

Maarday

Mild days at the end of Nganji (about March), term could be a corruption of ‘mild days’

Blanket

‘kulura’, ‘kujera’

‘This was our electric blanket’

Water tree

pillirri, kumbal

Eucalypt with watery roots?

Grass/greenpick

yurlki

Water tree

wanyall

Tree formed to hold water

Esperance Doctor

winaka

Sea-breeze coming up from Esperance, wind

OTHER

2

Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in the Great Western Woodlands Suzanne Prober, Emma Yuen, Michael H. O’Connor and Les Schultz Supplementary Material Appendix 2. Early historical records of fire in Ngadju landscapes. INTRODUCTION AND METHODS Historical information about Aboriginal fire knowledge is often sought from journals, memoirs and other records of early European travellers, explorers and colonisers. To augment documentation of Ngadju fire knowledge obtained directly from Ngadju sources, we searched available historical records relevant to the Ngadju Native Title Area or nearby. We identified key sources (e.g. travellers records, newspapers via the National Library of Australia Trove database http://trove.nla.gov.au/), and devised a search strategy for each (e.g. online catalogue, database queries, manually reviewing, etc.). We revised the scope and search strategy in the light of material found where necessary. For example, we initially confined the search to documents originating before 1910 when many elements of traditional life were likely still practised. This scope was refined iteratively to eventually include some post-1920 material, such as post-1950 reporting about early fire management practice in the region. Material searched included: reports of maritime and terrestrial journeys, reports of scientific and ethnographic investigation, and newspaper reports in relation to infrastructure (particularly the establishment and maintenance of the Telegraph line), industry, inspection (particularly for rabbits), travel, survey, and residence (Table A2.1). Maps of key early land journeys are provided to broadly indicate coverage (Figure A2.1). Electronically-available material was searched for the terms ‘fire’ and ‘burn*’. Often, these records involved campfires or other uses of fire; or unfortunately, in many cases references to ‘native fires’ or ‘smokes’ could not be placed either as landscape or campfires. Thus, the information presented in this Appendix is confined to material that most likely referred to aspects of landscape fire, i.e. bushfires, burnt ground or burning of the vegetation. Individual records (as described in Table A2.2) varied in whether they referred to a single fire, multiple fires or more generalised use of fire. Given the number of fires or burnt patches is often unspecified, we used the number of records rather than number of fires to indicate prevalence of different types of fires. Note that this Appendix contains a digest of key material from the draft manuscript “O’Connor MH (in prep.)” cited in Prober et al. (2013).

3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In total we found only 30 records describing landscape fires (Table A2.2), potentially due to the sparseness of early records in this relatively remote region. Records were concentrated in the southeastern near-coastal parts of Ngadju country, where the telegraph line ran through Israelite Bay towards Eyre, and around the main pastoral stations (e.g. Fraser Range, Balbinia, Nanambinnia) that were taken up by pastoralists from around the 1860s. We found few records of fire from the northern and western areas of the Ngadju Native Title Area, despite more extensive colonisation of the Norseman and Widgiemooltha areas after gold was found in the 1890s. Five of the records clearly related to uncontrolled fires, given damage to life and property reported (although their origin may still have been human, as was assumed in one newspaper article). Nine records reported fires that had been lit by Aboriginal people; and we inferred an Aboriginal origin as likely for an additional 5 records (Table S2). As pastoralists had taken up some of the country by as early as the 1860s, Aboriginal-lit fires referred to in some of these records may have been influenced by goals to promote grass for livestock grazing. Indeed, at least two of the late records were clearly associated with promoting grass for this purpose (1934–35), and an early record was associated with an Aboriginal ‘shepherd’ (1891). One record documents a fire lit in self-defence, and another suggests the natives were ‘burning the country for game’ (Roe 1849 [109]). The remaining 11 records refer only to burnt country or vegetation so the causes of these fires are unknown (Table S2). The time of year in which the fires occurred is typically unclear because it is only burnt ground that is seen. Four of the five uncontrolled fires occurred between October and March (the other of unknown timing). Aboriginal-lit fires associated with station management were from February to March, or on ‘very hot days’; three other Aboriginal-lit fires were recorded from September– November. Fires could be attributed to two main groupings of vegetation type, noting this is sometimes a best estimate based on location and descriptions, rather than an explicit statement: mallee/shrubland/coastal scrub (commonly called scrub) or grassy vegetation (grassland/rockholes). About 17 of the 30 records appeared to be associated with fire in mallee/shrubland/coastal scrub, including three uncontrolled ‘bushfires’ and two for station management. The concentration of records in this vegetation may be partly due to the location of most records in the south-east of Ngadju country (21/30) where this vegetation predominates, but may also relate to the general flammability of this vegetation. One record from the south-east notes ‘in the thousands of square 4

miles of scrub there are small plains and burnt spaces’ (Page 1898a [118]); consistent with Carey (1877 [124]) which maps 11 burnt areas as well as a series of grassy patches on a 180 km route from Point Culver to Eyre. It is possible these ‘plains’ and/or ‘burnt patches’ involved active management by Aboriginal people, although open grassy patches in this area are still evident today and may reflect natural landscape features (P. J. Waddell, pers. comm.). Seven records appeared applicable to grassland, rockholes or other grassy vegetation; and seven records (often in mallee) mention good growth of grass as a reason for, or consequence of, the fire. Six records could not be attributed to any vegetation type. No records were clearly from woodland (or open forest as it was called on some maps), although significant woodland stands are known in the vicinity of one of the unattributable records, between Lake Lefroy and Lake Cowan (Brooks & Ponton 1875 [86], ‘camp where we got burnt out’).

5

Table A2.1. Historical journeys for which records were searched, indicating those containing references to fire or smoke (Fire obs.). Year

Travel mode

Leader

Fire obs.

Sources

Notes

Yes*

[75,80]

Gulden Zeepaard traversing W to E along the southern coast

Sea journeys 1627

Sailing ship

1792–93

Sailing ship

Bruny-D’Entrecasteaux

Yes*

[87]

L’Recherche, L.Esperance

1802–03

Sailing Ship

Flinders, M.

Yes*

[67]

Investigator

Early land journeys 1841

Walk

Eyre, E.J.

Yes

[64]

Travelled E to W

1848–49

Horse

Roe, J.S.

Yes

[108, 63, 109]

SW to Peak Charles, Mt Ragged

1863

Horse

Dempster

Yes*

[85]

Search for pastoral land

1863

Horse

Lefroy, H.M.

Yes*

[90–94]

Passed north of Ngadju area

1865–66

Horse

Hunt, C.C.

Yes

[117]

Approached W of Lake Cowan

1866

Horse

Delisser

Yes*

[105]

East of Ngadju country

1870

Horse

Forrest, J.

No

[71, 123]

Perth to Eucla along coast

1871

Horse

Forrest, A

No

[68–70]

No route plan

1875

Horse

Brooks

Yes

[86]

JP Brooks and S Ponton

Science and ethnographic investigation 1891

Camel

Lindsay, D.

Yes

[88, 115, 81]

The Elder Expedition

1908,12

Train, walk

Bates, D.

Yes*

[7–39]

Norseman 1908, Eucla 1912–3

Development and travel 1876

Horse

Carey, H.S.

Yes*

[124]

Survey, fieldbook 4

1877

Horse

Price, C.D.

Yes*

[106]

Survey, fieldbook 2,3

1895

Horse

Turner

Yes*

[78]

Survey

1896

Horse

Mason

Yes*

[62.1]

Rabbits

1895–96

Camel

Hübbe, S.G.

Yes

[83,110]

Stock routes

about 1901

Camel

Hann, F.

Yes*

[65]

Mining

1910

Unknown

Watkins, C.E.

Yes

[60,116]

Land classification

1905–38

Various

Dimer, H.

Yes

[57]

Diaries at Battye library

*These records pertain to campfires or other fire that could not be reasonably attributed to landscape fires (e.g. reference to ‘smokes’ without associated terms such as burnt ground, burnt vegetation, burning bush etc.), so are not further documented here.

6

Table A2.2. Records found from the Ngadju Native Title Area (or nearby areas in the Great Western Woodlands) that refer to landscape fires. Record

Source

Timing of fire

Likely vegetation

Type of fire

Location

Hunt’s map notes Native fires seen in this direction [NE] from Mt. Thirsty [marked in probable granite hills on the other side of Lake Cowan]. In a published newspaper account of this same journey, Hunt noted: Several fires were seen in our locality towards the lake and eastwards.

Hunt 1866. Given the fires are perhaps 20–30 km away, they could be landscape fires. [117]

September

possibly rockholes

Aboriginal-lit

Lake Cowan

One of them, named Bappah, made a most desperate resistance, not only by freely using his spear but also by setting fire to the spinifex, thus endeavouring to burn his pursuers.

Colac Herald 1884. Relates to an incident at Fraser Range [99]

November

grassy (spinifex)

Aboriginal-lit in self-defence

South-east

They [the Aborigines]...are always careful to carry a piece of burning bark with them on their day’s march, or whenever they go any distance away from camp; this is partly for the purpose of setting the spinifex-grass on fire...

Helms 1896, p. 247, on Elder Expedition 1891 [81]

-

grassland (spinifex)

Aboriginal-lit

Generalised

With exception of a few small patches of bluebush, acacia, and speargrass (the latter being found on burnt ground only), the soil traversed this day is most inferior.

Hübbe expedition, noted west of Fraser Range on 4 September 1896. [83]

-

grassy

not evident

South-east

The country consists of cliffs and sandhills on the coast... The soil here is brown clay covered with dry grass, especially so where the country has been burnt.

Page 1898a in The West Australian - report on rabbits around Israelite Bay [118]

-

grassy

not evident

South-east

I then ran the old Israelite track from the Nine-Mile till I struck the old Clear Streak road, passing through country which had been previously burned, and which was then carrying tall, waving grass.

Page 1898b in The West Australian, report on investigations regarding rabbit proof fence [118]

-

grassy

possibly Aboriginal-lit

South-east

...have just returned from the north-east corner of Lake Cowan... A bush fire started while I was absent from camp at Dinyarinjama, and but for the timely arrival of Harkins and natives, I should surely have lost all my plant and dogs. Harkin and natives, whom I left fencing wells, lost all their clothes, blankets and stores.

The West Australian 1901, newspaper report from Norseman [119]

January/ February

grassland (see Brooks & Ponton 1875)

uncontrolled

Lake Cowan

Grassy vegetation

7

Record

Source

Timing of fire

Likely vegetation

Type of fire

Location

On the 30th we pushed on to the N.E. 12 miles, over sand plains, and through much close thicket, including the stubborn burnt sticks of last year 6 to 8 feet high which much impeded our progress, and tore our clothes and packs. After searching many clumps of trees in vain, we at length found good rain water and excellent grass among some burnt thicket, and encamped for the night.

Roe 1849. JS Roe expedition through the far south-west of Ngadju country on October 30 1848 [63]

-

(mallee) shrubland

not evident

South-west

...south side of the range...a total absence of grass at this time, altho. there was reason to believe some good grass had covered the hill sides previous to the last fires, which had swept all minor vegetation away, and left standing only that close thicket and scrub we heartily wished had shared the same fate.

Roe 1849, JS Roe expedition through the Bremer Range on 3 November 1848 [63]

-

scrub and thicket

not evident

South-west

Carey’s map of a traverse between Point Culver and Eyre Sand Patch (about 180 km) makes reference to 11 burnt areas: p. 54 Open burnt sand hills. Limestone outcrop in places. p. 55. Open burnt country. p. 64. Burnt malee. p. 65. Open burnt country, good deal of limestone. p. 67. Open burnt country. p. 68. Open burnt malee/open burnt country. p. 68. Open burnt country. p. 69. Open burnt country. p. 82. Open burnt country. p. 83. Burnt/End of burnt country. p. 83. Open burnt country.

Carey 1877, pp. 54-83. South coast Telegraph Line and coast survey, Point Culver to Eyre Sand Patch [124]

-

All likely mallee or coastal scrub; one possibly grassland

patchiness suggests Aboriginal-lit

South-east

Mount Ridley appears to be a huge mass of intrusive granite rising abruptly from the surrounding country, which is a beautifully clear grassy plain... After going about two miles the country to the North and East (at first sight) bears a melancholy aspect, owing to the density of the mallee scrub with which it is overrun. ... Little or no herbage comes up, which I should imagine is owing to the exclusion of light and heat from the soil, as wherever patches of the scrub have been burnt off by the natives spontaneous grasses spring up in abundance.

Inquirer & Commercial News 1887, unnamed traveller [103]

-

mallee scrub

Aboriginal-lit

South-east

No houses are passed en route, not a solitary white shepherd on the scrubby plains, not even the smoke of a fire to be seen to mark the presence of a travelling black. . . .A few miles further on in a thicket where they are burning bush, I encounter a third blackie, who is shepherding, accompanied by his wife and child.

Inquirer & Commercial News 1891, unnamed traveller between Point Malcolm and Israelite Bay [115]

about February

mallee or coastal scrub

Aboriginal-lit (possibly station management)

South-east

Passed over most miserable country—undulating, sandy, clothed with stunted bushes of many kinds, dwarf casuarina, mallee, acacias, dead pines, spinifex, and rushes, numerous flowering plants; Gastrolobiums everywhere...From the extremely tortuous course of this track it is evident that twenty seven years ago, the country had many dense thickets, which fires have since destroyed.

Lindsay 1893. The Elder Expedition. Passing through Boorabbin [88]

-

shrubland

not evident

North of Ngadju country

Mallee, shrubland or coastal scrubs

8

Record

Source

Timing of fire

Likely vegetation

Type of fire

Location

-

sandhills?

not evident

South-east

December

mallee or coastal scrub

uncontrolled

South-east

October

mallee or coastal scrub

uncontrolled

South-east

Very indifferent feed for the horses on the burnt sandhills in the vicinity

Lindsay 1893. The Elder Expedition, Fraser Range. [88]

The Postmaster-General has received a telegram from Eyre regarding the interruption to the intercolonial telegraph lines. It seems that the interruption was caused by a bush fire, in which a native, with his wife and two children, also four other natives, all women, were burnt to death. The lineman at Eyre only escaped a similar fate by galloping his horse for 13 miles in front of the fire.

Sydney Morning Herald 1893 [114]

The stoppage was caused by a bush fire which crossed the line 90 miles west of Eyre, and melted the line and burnt down nine poles... The cause of the fire is attributed to the blacks, who were hunting in the locality of the line, and no doubt lighted their camp fires in close proximity.

The Daily News 1895 [3]

At twenty miles we passed the Clear Streak, a patch of open country... At 2.10 we camped on some good grass in a patch of burnt mallee. 12 October: Again we stopped on a burnt patch to let the horses have a mid-day feed. Can see Mount Ridley.

Helms 1896. The Elder Expedition 1891, south-west of Fraser Range [81]

-

mallee

patchiness suggests Aboriginal-lit

South-east

Then commenced the worst hundred miles of the Journey. The country had been burnt out by fire, and there had been no rain except that which had just fallen for two years. There was no feed of any description except sticks, consequently I had to push on as hard as possible.

South Australian Register 1896. Near telegraph line towards Eyre [73]

-

likely mallee or coastal scrub

not evident

South-east

About 22 miles from the Israelite Bay Post Office we struck the first rabbit track and followed it into some three miles of burnt country, where feed was good... When about 50 miles in a direct line N.W. of Israelite Bay, in a patch of burnt country, we dropped on evidence of the largest colony of rabbits that I have yet seen... The country about here is as dry as possible; the soil a crumbling limestone dust, covered with ashes on burnt land, where salt and blue bush, dwarf wattle, and other herbage looks really well. The scrub is mostly heavy mallee and dense ti-tree, with salt and blue bush intermixed... The mallee here is the blackbutt variety from which the natives obtain their supplies... In the thousands of square miles of scrub there are small plains and burnt spaces.

Page 1898a in The West Australian. Regarding rabbit proof fence [118]

-

mallee and tea tree with salt and blue bush

patchiness suggests Aboriginal-lit

South-east

With regard I would like to say that, in view of the prevalence of fires caused by natives, and the presence of white ants, it would be preferable for iron to be used throughout its construction.

Page 1898b in The West Australian. Regarding rabbit proof fence at Israelite Bay [120]

-

mallee or coastal scrub

Aboriginal-lit

South-east

9

Record

Source

Timing of fire

Likely vegetation

Type of fire

Location

[Th]e overland trio, White Brother’s and McKay, have arrived safely at the Eucla [Tel]egraph station, South Australia, says a [M]elbourne writer, and have wired as fol[lo]ws: “We left Balladonia on Wednes[da]y,last, and did a terrible perish for three [da]ys owing to the fierce bush fires which [we]re raging across the country. We could hold out no longer than the third day, and [th]erefore we put into Graham’s station [Eyre], [w]here we stopped the night. Next morn[in]g we started again, and, getting out of [th]e fire region...

Morning Bulletin 1900 [53]

March

mallee or coastal scrub

uncontrolled

South-east

Large areas of mallee and ti-tree have been burnt at different times, and a new growth is coming up, and is several feet high. Where the fires have occurred during the last few years the land is comparatively clear, and places the native grass has come very thick and tall. As the mallee starts to grow to any height the grass dies off and the country goes back to a condition similar to what it was before the fires occurred. Where no fires have occurred the mallee, titree and blue bush are, in places, too dense to get a horse through.

Watkins 1910 in The Kalgoorlie Miner. Survey of potential agricultural land 60–100km north of Esperance [60]

-

mallee and tea tree with salt and blue bush

‘have been burnt at different times’ suggests Aboriginal-lit

Esperance– Norseman

However, the water in the springs at Mt Ragged and Cundeena disappeared after bush fires had been over them.

Dimer 1989 p. 43. Event likely post-1911 [57]

-

mallee or shrubland

not evident

South-east

Every year, whenever there were very hot days, one after another, some of us would go around, lighting bush fires to burn the scrub, which allowed the better feed to grow. Burning was done every year and one would get a clear patch of grass, but if it was left, the suckers would grow up, and you were in trouble. Fires were always lit in the coastal country as well.

Dimer 1989, p. 266. Events around Balladonia in 1934 [57]

very hot days

scrub

Aboriginal-lit for station management

South-east

November

not evident

Aboriginal-lit for hunting

South-west

Unknown vegetation type Several native fires to the WNW 7 or 8 miles, probably the same party seen from E39 burning the country for game.

Roe 1849. West of Mt Ragged [109]

Camp where we got burnt out.

Brooks & Ponton 1875, marked on map between Lake Lefroy and Lake Cowan [86]

-

not evident (possibly woodland or rockhole)

uncontrolled

Lake Lefroy

I noticed some natives tracks at about 3 miles out [from Balbinia Station]. I came to newly burnt ground where every track showed plainly & I discovered there were 10 or 12 sheep & 5 natives driving them at a gallop.

Brooks 1889. Esperance Police Station report [43]

-

not evident

not evident

South-east

10

Record

Source

Timing of fire

Likely vegetation

Type of fire

Location

Again we stopped on a burnt patch to let the horses have a mid-day feed. Can see Mount Ridley.

Lindsay 1893. The Elder Expedition [88]

-

not evident

not evident

South-east

Rabbits were found in isolated colonies at various points along this route, the advance guard of the invading army having reached a patch of burnt country about fifty miles in a direct line north-west of Israelite Bay.

Editor, 1898 The West Australian, summarising HJ Page's report on rabbits [58]

-

not evident

not evident

South-east

...and Bertha, with two aborigines, was out lighting bush fires, to improve the new grass growth...

Dimer 1989, p. 277. Referring to annual burning by Aboriginal people on Balladonia Station in 1935 [57]

late Feb-early March

not evident

Aboriginal-lit for station managment

South-east

11

Figure A2.1 Terrestrial journeys by Europeans in historical times across the Ngadju Native Title area, shown by expedition leader (see details of journeys in Table A2.1). Routes were derived from historical maps, sketches, plans, and latitude/longitude records, then cross-checked and adjusted using observations in narrative accounts. Solid routes yielded at least one record of landscape fire, dashed routes yielded no records of landscape fire. Two journeys yielding records (Watkins, Dimer, Table A2.1) and four not yielding records (Table A2.1) could not be mapped.

12

Appendix 2 References (and other records searched that include mention of fire) [1] “A. Mason - track of expedition to obtain information inspecting incursion of rabbits (Plan endorsed by A. Mason), January 1897.” Exploration plans; SROWA, WAS 50, Cons 3423, item 076. 1897. URL: http://aeon.sro.wa.gov.au/Investigator/Details/Item_Detail.asp?Id=4841642&SearchPage=Item. [2] “Adventurous life of old postmaster”. In: Recorder [newspaper] (July 26, 1938), p. 3. [3] Anon. “General news”. In: Daily News [newspaper] (Oct. 31, 1895), p. 02. [4] Anon. “Native tribes of Australia: Mr. A. W. Howitt’s book”. In: Western Mail [newspaper] (Jan. 14, 1905), p. 35. [5] Anon. “The Eucla telegraph line. Mr. Brown’s statements. Further reports.” In:Western Mail [newspaper] (Mar. 13, 1896), p. 23. [6] Anon. [‘By a lady’]. “Wood notes from Western Australia: The lonely south coast”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper; originally published in The Australasian] (Feb. 4, 1891), p. 6. [7] D. M. Bates. “Balgalea and Gauera — Israelite Bay [vocabulary]”. Ms 365 folio 39/1–33. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [8] D. M. Bates. “Balgalea — Eucla district”. Ms 365 folio 39/54–60. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [9] D. M. Bates. “Balgalea of Eucla MSS”. Ms 365 folio 39/239. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [10] D. M. Bates. “Bandila of Norseman MSS”. Ms 365 folio 47/121–122. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [11] D. M. Bates. “Bandila of Norseman [vocabulary]”. Ms 365 folio 47/1–27. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [12] D. M. Bates. “Beedee, Bailberin and Gweea of Southern Cross”. Ms 365 folio 47/58–113. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [13] D. M. Bates. “Beedee, Bailberin and Gweea of Southern Cross MSS”. Ms 365 folio 47/126–127. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [14] D. M. Bates. “Bijarda of Eucla MSS”. Ms 365 folio 39/237. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [15] D. M. Bates. “Biljarda and Gauera — Eucla”. Ms 365 folio 39/34–48. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [16] D. M. Bates. “Binyunyu of Ravensthorpe”. Ms 365 folio 40/29–41. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [17] D. M. Bates. “Binyunyu of Ravensthorpe MSS”. Ms 365 folio 40/258. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [18] D. M. Bates. “Eucla district [compilation]”. Ms 365 folio 39/61–77. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [19] D. M. Bates. “Eucla district MSS [compilation]”. Ms 365 folio 39/240. NLA Canberra, c. 1912. [20] D. M. Bates. “Food — types, how prepared etc”. Ms 365 folio 27/1–116. 1899–1941. [21] D. M. Bates. “Jimmer of Drollinya”. Ms 365 folio 39/190–212. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [22] D. M. Bates. “Jimmer of Drollinya MSS”. Ms 365 folio 39/234. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [23] D. M. Bates. “Karnduing — Eucla”. Ms 365 folio 39/49–53. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [24] D. M. Bates. “Karnduing of Eucla MSS”. Ms 365 folio 39/238. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [25] D. M. Bates. “My natives and I. No. 14 — Songs of the Dream Time.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Feb. 26, 1936), p. 21. [26] D. M. Bates. “Myths and legends— Central Australia [includes ‘A Drallinya legend — Balladonia]”. Ms 365 folio 26/1–48. c.1908. [27] D. M. Bates. “Ngoongulea and others”. Ms 365 folio 39/122–161. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [28] D. M. Bates. “Nimbool of Norseman”. Ms 365 folio 47/28–33. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [29] D. M. Bates. “Nimbool of Norseman MSS”. Ms 365 folio 47/123. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [30] D. M. Bates. “RR Harvey of Dundas”. Ms 365 folio 47/114–120. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [31] D. M. Bates. “RR Harvey of Dundas MSS”. Ms 365 folio 47/128. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [32] D. M. Bates. “The Aborigines at home”. In: Western Mail [newspaper] (May 15, 1914), pp. 52–3. [33] D. M. Bates. The native tribes of Western Australia. English. Ed. by I. White. National Library of Australia, Canberra : 1985, xii, 387 p., [12] p. of plates : ISBN: 0642993335. [34] D. M. Bates. “Wardunda of Eucla”. Ms 365 folio 39/213–215. NLA Canberra, c. 1912. [35] D. M. Bates. “Warndan and Charroon of Coolgardie MSS”. Ms 365 folio 47/124–125. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [36] D. M. Bates. “Warndan and Dharroon of Coolgardie”. Ms 365 folio 47/34–57. NLA, Canberra, c. 1908. [37] D. M. Bates. “Was she 107? Death of “Nory Ann””. In: Western Mail [newspaper] (Dec. 11, 1924), pp. 23– 4. [38] D. M. Bates. “Yalguru, Injiri — Eucla”. Ms 365 folio 39/78–121. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [39] D. M. Bates. “Yalguru, Injiri — Eucla MSS”. Ms 365 folio 39/241. NLA, Canberra, c. 1912. [40] C. G. von Brandenstein. “Aboriginal ecological order in the south-west of Australia—meaning and examples”. In: Oceania 47.3 (1977), pp. 169–186.

13

[41] C. G. von Brandenstein. Ngadjumaja: an Aboriginal language of south-east Western Australia. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenshaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1980. [42] J. P. Brooks. “The Eucla telegraph line. To the Editor.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (May 13, 1895), p. 6. [43] J.P. Brooks. “[Statement to PC Evans regarding seeking certain Aboriginal people at Balbinia Station, August 1889]”. Police correspondence files; SROWA, WAS 76, Acc 430 File 1889/1413. 1889. [44] “Camping with the blacks. A white woman’s experience.” In: Chronicle [newspaper] (July 4, 1914), p. 42. [45] C.F. Chaplin. “To the east of Esperance: Land settlement and minerals”. In: Albany Advertiser [newspaper] (Sept. 20, 1922), p. 3. [46] “Charge of wilful murder.” In: The Kalgoorlie Miner [newspaper] (May 1, 1931), p. 2. [47] Colonial Secretary’s Office. “Daisy Bates — Personal Files (1904–1910)”. SROWA, Acc 1023 [AN24]. 1904. [48] A. E. Crocker. “The Nullarbor’s Doorstep [unpublished memoir; copy pers. comm. to CSIRO, c.1980]”. c. 1970. [49] A. E. Crocker. To Strive, to achieve, to leave a splendid memory: being a brief history of the pioneering Pontons and their descendants of Balladonia Station. Tech. rep. Self published, c. 1979. [50] E. M. Curr. “No. 34 Eyre’s Sand Patch”. In: The Australian race: its origin, languages, customs, place of landing in Australia and the routes by which it spread itself over the continent. Melbourne, Vic.: J. Ferres, 1887, pp. 394–99. [51] E. M. Curr. “No. 35 Eucla”. In: The Australian race: its origin, languages, customs, place of landing in Australia and the routes by which it spread itself over the continent. Melbourne, Vic.: J. Ferres, 1887, pp. 400– 6. [52] E. M. Curr. “No. 36 Head of the Great Australian Bight [word list; from Eyre’s Discoveries in Central Australia.]” In: The Australian race: its origin, languages, customs, place of landing in Australia and the routes by which it spread itself over the continent. Melbourne, Vic.: J. Ferres, 1887, p. 407. [53] “Cycling”. In: Morning Bulletin [newspaper] (Mar. 13, 1900), p. 7. [54] A. Dempster. “Extract from a diary kept by one of the Dempster brothers when pioneering the Fraser Range, 187[5]”. In: RWAHS Manuscript collection, HS/694. Battye Library, Perth,WA, 1875. [55] J Denniss. Ngajumaya Dictionary [draft 2009 edition]. Tech. rep. Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre, 2009. [56] Dorothy Dimer. “A Goldfields life [oral history interview conducted by Bill Bunbury; transcript of sound recording]”. ABC Radio National: Hindsight program. 2004. [57] Karl Dimer. Elsewhere fine. Kalgoorlie, WA: [self-published], 1989. [58] “[Editorial]”. In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Sept. 28, 1898), p. 4. [59] “Esperance news.” In: Albany Advertiser [newspaper] (June 13, 1897), p. 3. [60] “Esperance: Norseman lands: Another official report”. In: The Kalgoorlie Miner [newspaper] (June 9, 1910), p. 2. [61] “Eucla telegraph extension”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Oct. 4, 1876), p. 1. [62] “Exploration party and search for rabbit incursion in the Eastern districts led by A Mason. Proposals for publication of expedition report. Includes CSO file 9/1896 Station Master at Eyre reporting traces of rabbits.” SROWA, WAS 211, Cons 541, item 1896/1451. 1896. [63] “Explorations by J.S. Roe, Surveyor General, Western Australia, 1848–1849 [also shows Hunt’s routes, 1864]”. Exploration plans; SROWA, WAS 50, Cons 3423, item 069A. 1849. URL: http://aeon.sro.wa.gov.au/Investigator/Details/Item_Detail.asp?Id=4841637&SearchPage=Item. [64] Edward John Eyre. Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia and Overland from Adelaide to King George’s Sound in the Years 1840-1: Sent By the Colonists of South Australia, with the Sanction and Support of the Government: Including an Account of the Manners and Customs of the Aborigines and the State of Their Relations with Europeans (2 vols). London: T. and W. Boone, 1845. [65] “F.H. Hann — explorations [between Ravensthorpe and Comet Vale].” SROWA, WAS 50, Cons 3423, item 085. 1901. [66] “Fire at Israelite Bay. A house destroyed.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Mar. 22, 1897), p. 4. [67] Matthew Flinders. A voyage to Terra Australis: undertaken for the purpose of completing the discovery of that vast country, and prosecuted in the years 1801, 1802 and 1803, in His Majesty’s ship the Investigator, and subsequently in the armed vessel Porpoise and Cumberland schooner : with an account of the shipwreck of the Porpoise, arrival of the Cumberland at Mauritius, and imprisonment of the commander during six years and a half in that island. English. Digital edition. Vol. 1. Project Gutenberg, 1814.

14

[68] Alex. Forrest. “Exploration: Journal of an expedition to explore the Interior eastward of the settled districts, and beyond Hampton Plains”. In: Perth Gazette and West Australian Times [newspaper] (29 Dec 1871), p. 3. [69] Alexander Forrest. “[Field Book 3 — Field Book No 3 — A. Forrest — Expedition from Perth eastwards 1871 & 1872]”. Survey Office: Surveyor field books; SROWA, WAS 32, Cons 3401, FORA/03. 1871. [70] Alexander Forrest. Journal of proceedings of an exploring expedition to the eastward and southward of the Hampton Plains under the leadership of Mr. Alexander Forrest, surveyor, 5th August to 22nd November, 1871. English. Perth, 1872, 10 p. [71] John Forrest and Western Australian Exploring Expedition. Journal of proceedings of the Western Australian exploring expedition through the centre of Australia : from Champion Bay, on the west coast, to the Overland Telegraph Line between Adelaide and Port Darwin, commanded by John Forrest, F.R.G.S. English. Richard Pether, Govt. Printer Perth [W.A.], 1875, 39 p., [6] leaves of plates. [72] “Fremantle to Sydney in 158 hours. Story of great drive.” In: Advocate [newspaper] (Dec. 21, 1923), p. 9. [73] “From Coolgardie to Hergott: A dreary walk. An interesting interview.—No 1.” In: South Australian Register [newspaper] (June 12, 1896), p. 7. [74] Jules Garnier. “Vocabulaire des indigènes de l’Australia occidentale recueilli par Jules Garnier, Explorateur”. In: Bulletin Société Neuchâteloise de Géographie (1902–03), pp. 247–51. [75] Hessel Gerritsz and J. E. Heeres. [Chart of the Malay Archipelago and the Dutch discoveries in Australia] [cartographic material] / by Hessel Gerritsz. met Octroy Vande H.M. Heeren de Staten Generael der Vereenichde Neerlanden. Dutch. Map, Online. 1632. URL: http://image.sl.nsw.gov.au/cgibin/ebindshow.pl?doc=crux/a127;seq=28%20http: //nla.gov.au/nla.map-rm750. [76] Martin Gibbs. “The enigma of William Jackman, “The Australian Captive”: Fictional account or true story of a 19th century castaway in Western Australia?” In: The Great Circle 24.2 (2002), pp. 3–21. [77] Peter. Gifford. Black and white and in between : Arthur Dimer and the Nullarbor. English. Hesperian Press, Carlisle, W.A. : 2002, x, 179 p. : ISBN: 0859053016 0859053016. [78] “G.R. Turner Field Book No. 8”. SROWA, WAS 32, Cons 3401, item TURG/08. 1885. [79] L. Gull and GP Stevens. “An old diary. Story of the early days. Pioneering Fraser Range.” In: Western Mail [newspaper] (Jan. 6, 1938), p. 8. [80] J. E. Heeres. The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606–1765. English. Digital edition. Vol. 1. London: LUZAC CO (Project Gutenberg edition), 1899. [81] Richard Helms. “Anthropology”. In: Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 16.3 (1896), pp. 237–332. [82] Graeme Henderson. Unfinished voyages : Western Australian shipwrecks, 1622–1850. English. 2nd ed. UWA Press Crawley, W.A, 2007, xi, 340 p. : ISBN: 9781920694883. [83] S.G. Hübbe. Stock route expedition from South to Western Australia. South Australian Parliamentary Paper No. 51., 1897. [84] “Journal of a trip overland from Euda to Fowler’s Bay. by Mr. Thomas Muir”. In: The Herald (Fremantle) [newspaper; originally published in The Perth Inquirer] (Oct. 4, 1873), p. 4. [85] “Journal of an expedition to Point Culver, in the Australian Bight.” In: The Star [newspaper] (Oct. 23, 1863), p. 3. [86] J.P.Brooks and S.Ponton. “Chart of J. P Brooks’ and S. Ponton’s route in 1875 [cartographic material] : Norseman district between Lake Roe, Lake Lefroy and Fraser Range [photostat]”. Battye Library Map Stack 1016C. 1875. [87] La Billardiere, Jacques-Julien Houtou de; John Stockdale (Bookseller). Voyage in search of La Perouse : performed by order of the Constituent Assembly during the years 1791, 1792, 1793 and 1794 / and drawn up by M. Labillardiere ; translated from the French. English. Printed for John Stockdale London, 1800, 2 v. (v. 1 [iv], xxxii, [32–33], 34–487, v. 2. [5], 344, [1], 105, [6] p.), [46] leaves of plates : [88] David Lindsay. “Journal of the Elder Scientific Exploring Expedition, 1891. under command of D. Lindsay: equipped solely at the cost of Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G.. . . under the control of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. South Australian Branch”. In: South Australian Parliamentary Papers No. 45 (1893), pp. 1–78. [89] Marshall J. Graham on behalf of the Ngadju People v State of Western Australia [WAD 6020 of 1998]. Tech. rep. [2012] FCA 1455. Melbourne, Vic.: FEDERAL COURT OF AUSTRALIA, 2012. [90] “Memoir and journal of the eastern exploring expedition by Henry Maxwell Lefroy”. In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper] (30 Sep 1863).

15

[91] “Memoir and journal of the eastern exploring expedition by Henry Maxwell Lefroy [continued]”. In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper] (23 Sep 1863). [92] “Memoir and journal of the eastern exploring expedition by Henry Maxwell Lefroy [continued]”. In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper] (July 1863). [93] “Memoir and journal of the eastern exploring expedition by Henry Maxwell Lefroy [continued]”. In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper] (14 Oct 1863). [94] “Memoir and journal of the eastern exploring expedition by Henry Maxwell Lefroy [continued]”. In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper] (Sept. 1863). [95] “Missing fettler. Charred body found.” In: The Kalgoorlie Miner [newspaper] (Jan. 15, 1948), p. 4. [96] David Nash. “Historical linguistic geography of south-east Western Australia”. In: Language in Native Title. Ed. by John Henderson and David Nash. Canberra: AIATSIS Native Title Research Unit, Aboriginal Studies Press, 2002, pp. 205–230. [97] G N. O’Grady. “Material on suffixing languages of Western Australia. (1957–8)”. AIATSIS Canberra Ms 320. 1957–8. [98] Geoffrey N. O’Grady. “Njunga, Malba, Ooldean data (Notebook 1957–1960)”. AIATSIS Canberra MS3799. 1960. [99] “Outrage by natives in Western Australia”. In: Colac Herald [newspaper; originally published in The Perth Inquirer] (Mar. 25, 1884), p. 4. [100] “Overland journey: from Melbourne to Perth”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Dec. 17, 1892), p. 3. [101] J. Penne. “Ethnological studies. The search for food. No. 2 — hunting.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (June 8, 1914), p. 08. [102] J. Penne. “Ethnological studies. The search for food. No. 5 — plant foods”. In: The West Australian [newspaper] (July 14, 1914), p. 05. [103] “Peregrinations of a W.A. shepherd. From Esperance to Fraser Range”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Sept. 7, 1887), p. 6. [104] “Population of Norseman”. In: Kalgoorlie Western Argus [newspaper] (July 21, 1908), p. 13. [105] “Port Eucla [correspondence from Delisser to Roe]”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Aug. 19, 1868), p. 3. [106] “Records re construction of telegraph line from Albany to Eucla. [Includes specifications, correspondence and a field progress report from the Surveyor-in-charge.]” SROWA, WAS 1243, Cons 104, item 1. 1873. [107] T. Richards. “[Report 27 May 1874 to Police, Fowler’s Bay, South Australia, re: incident on Muir’s station west of Eucla]”. SROWA, Acc 36 vol 768, f.216. 1874. [108] J. S. Roe. “Report by J.S. Roe, Esq., Surveyor General, of his expedition to explore the interior country south eastward from York, between September 1848 and February 1849”. In: Exploration Diaries. Vol. VI. Battye Library, Perth, WA, 1849, pp. 136–216. [109] J. S. Roe. “[Surveyor Field Book 8]”. Survey Office: Surveyor field books; SROWA, WAS 32, Cons 3401, ROEJ/8. 1848. [110] “S.A. Hübbe — route traversed by the South Australian Stock Route Expedition Coolgardie to Eucla. Photolitho. (endorsed by Hübbe), December 1896.” Original plans; SROWA, WAS 50, Cons 3423, item 075. 1896. URL: http://aeon.sro.wa.gov.au/Investigator/ Details/Item_Detail.asp?Id=4841642&SearchPage=Item. [111] L Silvester. Strangers on the shore: shipwreck survivors and their contact with Aboriginal groups in Western Australia 1628–1956. Tech. rep. Report no. 146. Fremantle, WA: Western Australian Museum, 1998. [112] Norseman High School staff and students. Some early Norseman History [unpublished typescript]. Tech. rep. Norseman High School [copy at Battye Library WA], 1946. [113] Campbell Taylor. “No. 33 From Doubtful Bay to Israelite Bay [word list]”. In: The Australian race: its origin, languages, customs, place of landing in Australia and the routes by which it spread itself over the continent. Ed. by E. M. Curr. Melbourne, Vic.: J. Ferres, 1887, pp. 392–3. [114] “Terrible bush fire. Eight Aborigines burnt to death.” In: Sydney Morning Herald [newspaper] (Dec. 16, 1893), p. 9. [115] “The Elder Expedition: The country and the natives”. In: Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Dec. 11, 1891), p. 2. [116] “The Esperance railway: majority report by the advisory board”. In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Mar. 27, 1911), pp. 5–6. [117] C. C. Hunt. “Eastern interior of Australia: Journal of an expedition to the eastern interior of Western Australia [Continued.]” In: The Inquirer & Commercial News [newspaper] (Dec. 12, 1866).

16

[118] “The rabbit invasion. Report by Mr H. J. Page. His proposed line of fence.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Apr. 8, 1898a), p. 2. [119] “The rabbit pest. Rodents destroyed near Lake Cowan.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Feb. 9, 1901), p. 11. [120] “The rabbit question. Report by Mr H. J. Page. Some recommendations.” In: The West Australian [newspaper] (Sept. 26, 1898b), p. 3. [121] N. B. Tindale. “Harvard and Adelaide Universites Anthropological Expedition, Australia. 1938- 1939. Journal and notes by Norman B. Tindale. 2”. South Australian Museum: Archives, AA 338/1/15/2. 1939. URL: %5Curl%7Bhttp://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/tindale/HDMS/338-1.htm%7D. [122] Western Australian Museum. Voyages of grand discovery: timeline. English. webpage. 2007. [123] “Western Exploration (continued from our last.)” In: The Bunyip [newspaper] (Mar. 11, 1871), p. 4. [124] H. S. Carey. “[Surveyor Field Book 4]”. Survey Office: Surveyor field books; SROWA, WAS 32, Cons 3401, CARE/04, 1877 [125] H.S. Carey. “Notes from the Eucla Telegraph Line.” In: The Inquirer and Commercial News [newspaper], (Feb. 14, 1877).

17

Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in the Great Western Woodlands Suzanne Prober, Emma Yuen, Michael O’Connor and Les Schultz Supplementary Material Appendix 3. Universal elements of traditional fire knowledge. Huffman (2013) proposed 69 universal elements of traditional fire knowledge; this table highlights which (X) were referred to by Ngadju in the Ngadju kala workshops and related activities of this study. Elements of Traditional Fire Knowledge (Huffman 2013)

Geology, Topography, Soil Soil type, moisture

Ngadju Workshops

Example

X

‘On the red soil where the ground is too bare to carry fire’; ‘when the ground is still damp’

Slope Geologic substrate, landform Elevation Aspect Soil temperature, frozen or thawed Vegetation, Fuels Moisture of live or dead fuels

X -

Plant or animal phenology

X

Fuel composition, species

X

Fuel load Fuel or vegetation structure, arrangement, continuity, height Fuel consumption: degree, speed, patchiness Fuel diameter or size (e.g., logs vs. grass) Vegetation type Weather Season Onset or end of rainy season, dry season, timing of rain Wind speed, force

X X X X

Wind direction, source Temperature Humidity of air, day Water level, stream flow, river cycle Quantity of rain

X X X

Snow or ice location, condition Lightning Phase of moon Sun's force and position in sky Clouds

X X

Fire Behavior Fire intensity, heat output (hot or cool fire) Frequency, return interval, time since fire Fire size, area, aerial extent Fire type (surface, ground, canopy) Backing, heading fire Direction of fire spread (including landmarks) Flame height

X X X X X X

X

X X X

Sandplains, stony country

‘When the grass is still green’; ‘too wet to burn’ (paperbarks) Burn just before the growing season begins so plants recover quickly Saltbush and succulents don’t burn; eucalypts burn ‘like kerosine’ ‘Not enough fuel - won’t even burn’ ‘The trees and shrubs are too far apart to burn’ ‘Slow and trickly’ fires Table 2 Maarday, Karrlkunja, Ngawu (see glossary) ‘Just before the rains, with the finishing rains’ ‘In the warmer times of year the fire needs to be started in the morning before the Esperance Doctor (winaka) comes up.’ ‘Don’t burn when it’s windy, the fire gets out of control.’ ‘When the wind is normally westerly’; upwind, downwind ‘When the weather starts to cool down’

Set a fire ‘after a small amount of rain...not a big drenching rain’. Fire interval depends on the rainfall. ‘Thunderstorms regularly ignite fires on the sandplains’

‘Or wait until rain is coming and light the fire then. The signs that rain is coming are the clouds...’ Hot fire, cool fire Every 3-5-10 years, ‘hundreds of years to recover’ Football field size ‘when the fire gets up in the trees’ Upwind, downwind, ‘burn away from woodland’ Less than 1 m in woodland

18

Rate of spread Natural extinguishment

X X

Residence time Evenness, smoothness Spotting, sparks, embers carried aloft Fire Operations Control Firebreaks, barriers

-

Time of day Landscape pattern, patch size

X X

Tools for preparation, ignition, control Crew size, use of neighbours

X X

Ignition pattern Spatio-temporal sequence of fires, including for prevention

X X

Danger, risk, destructive potential

X

Fire placement

X

Planning, monitoring conditions prior to burning Site preparation

X X

Fire duration Special clothing Fire Effects Fire effects on vegetation Fire effects on animals Consequences of not burning Fire effects on soil

X -

Smoke effects, smoke color, smoke column characteristics Scorch height, bark char, smoked leaves Fire effects on watershed, water delivery Fire Governance, Other Social Factors Burning illegal or regulated by central government Gender roles in fire management

X X ?

Land stewardship, care, cleaning up country, controlling space Knowledge transmission

X X

Burning regulated internally by community Fire as tool in social resistance, protest, local conflict Authority, decision to burn Age of participants

X X

Prohibited areas (customary, sacred, community safety)

?

Number of the 69 elements recorded

52

X X

X X X X

X X

‘The fire would slowly burn’, ‘cool and trickly’ ‘There was no break, you could leave it to trickle along’; ‘woodlands and Saltbush plains already act as natural fire breaks’; ‘looks after itself’

‘Burn to control fuels’ ‘There was no break, you could leave it to trickle along’; ‘woodlands and Saltbush plains already act as natural fire breaks’; ‘it could be good to prevent large fires by putting in some fire breaks’ ‘Burn on dewy mornings ... or in the afternoons...’ Natural mosaics; enough for a kangaroo to graze; size of a football field Firestick, flints For a hunting fire, ‘three men stay down wind, then a bunch of 3–10, kids and all, go upwind and light a fire’ May light in several places ‘Burn a different patch around the rockhole each year’; ‘Burn the Spinifex, so it [wildfire] doesn’t burn the big mallees’ ‘Fire is a best friend and worst enemy’; ‘stay upwind to stay safe’; ‘woodland takes hundreds of years to recover’ Edge of woodland; around significant sites or assets; particular vegetation types Dewy mornings, not on a hot day, not windy ‘Scrape or sweep away the litter around big trees before burning’ ‘A trickly sandplain fire might burn for a week’

Numerous Numerous Bush becomes too thick, grasses unpalatable ‘Now the soil is getting washed away’ (with burning and grazing) ‘Cool, smoky fire’ Scorch mark showed fire height on Nuytsia tree Water stores in tree roots affected by fire ‘Westminster’ laws Men made most decisions about fire, women typically maintained campfires, women and men carried firesticks. Clean up country Workshops are an important means for this today, in the past learning was by watching and not asking too much

Mostly older men Mostly led by older men, children play with flints but don’t know meaning, all ages can participate in a [hunting] fire Keep away from sandplain in summer (but not prohibited), protect sacred sites (secret knowledge)

19

Ngadju kala: Australian Aboriginal fire knowledge in the Great Western Woodlands Suzanne Prober, Emma Yuen, Michael O’Connor and Les Schultz Supplementary Material Appendix 4. Stories of the sandplain. Stories of the sandplain such as this one about the ‘little people’ related by Dorothy Dimer and Betty Logan (recorded at the Coolgardie workshop 26 February 2013) suggested a level of avoidance of sandplain country, especially in summer when wildfires are common. Nevertheless sandplains were clearly utilised for resources and it was essential to travel though them at times. ‘At Ubini, it used to be the first siding before you get to Bulla, it’s on the sandplain. That’s where the sandplain starts off from... Very creepy place, I know it’s creepy too. But anyway my mum was telling me how the old people used to camp out there. And so this one morning the rest of the people all got up before my grandmother and they all took off. And she was the last one at the camp and so she get going then with the mob of dog, and she was walking along and next thing she heard all these little dogs all barking. And there’s something up. Thought might have been a kangaroo, and dogs run back to her, with their tail between their legs. And they rushed back again. They was having a go at it. And this little thing just keep on walking towards them. So she decided to stand and wait. Next thing she see this little woman. Lo-ong hair, and had a little stick on her shoulder with her head down...and you know, grandmother got really scared then and she start screaming out to the rest of the people. And this little woman walked past and kept going...’ (Dorothy Dimer). ‘That’s why a lot of people don’t go down that way, you know, the sandplain country. Long hair here – right down [to the ground]...They were a 6-finger mob’ (Betty Logan).

20