2018 Vol. 54, No. 4

2018 Vol. 54, No. 4

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek Toruń 2018 ISSN 1732-6729 The hard copy is an original version

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CONTENTS

Stanisław Juszczyk Editor’s Preface �� 11

SOCIAL PEDAGOGY Jolita Dudaitė Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform: Comparison Among the Post-Soviet Countries �� 17 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communitiesof Schools with Polish as the Teaching Language – a Comparative Study �� 29 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth �� 41 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas on Korean Youth Education and Culture and Teaching Method – Based on the Data of University Students �� 51 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland: A Case Study �� 62 Anna Brosch Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy? �� 75 Joanna Smyła The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girlsin the Social and Educational Processes �� 86 Katarzyna Krasoń Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish SchoolSeen through the Eyes of Its Students �� 98

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Contents

Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Trainingin Technical Higher Education Institutions �� 110 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activitiesin Tertiary Education Institutions in North-Central Nigeria �� 122 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Processand Their Influence on the Quality of Education of Ukrainian Junior Schoolchildren �� 135 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public vs. Private Universities in Indonesia �� 146 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy �� 157

GENERAL DIDACTICS Beata Mazepa-Domagała Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediariesin the Contact Between a Child and an Illustration/Literary Illustration – Empirical Perspective �� 171 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han Should We Let Them Play or Not? �� 182 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom �� 193 Amalija Žakelj Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics �� 206

PEDEUTOLOGY Jolanta Szempruch Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools �� 219

Contents

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Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School on the Nature Relatedness of Pre-service Primary Teachers �� 231

SPECIAL PEDAGOGY Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová Social Representations of Inclusive Schoolfrom the Point of View of Slovak Education Actors �� 247

METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Stanisław Juszczyk A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article �� 261 Slawomir Pasikowski The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement of Variables Modelled as Sets of Oppositional Pairs �� 271

SOCIOLOGY Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz Welfare State Support for Families: a Comparative Family Policies Analysis in Poland and Spain �� 285

REVIEWERS

Reviewers of the Manuscripts Sentfrom the Czech Republic, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and from the Whole World to “The New Educational Review” in 2018 �� 301

CONTRIBUTORS Abdulaziz Isiaka

PhD., Department of Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

E-mail: abdulaziz.i@unilorin. edu.ng

Balogun Abdulrasaq Olatunji

PhD., Department of Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria

BorzuckaSitkiewicz Katarzyna

PhD., Dr hab., Department of Social Pedagogy, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland

E-mail: [email protected]

Brosch Anna

PhD, Department of Early Education and Media Pedagogy, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland

E-mail: [email protected]. pl, Web Site: www.annabrosch. pl

Chytrý Vlastimil

PhD., Department of preschool & primary education, Faculty of Education, University of J. E. Purkyně, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

E-mail: [email protected], Website: https://www.pf.ujep. cz/cs/kontakt/vlastimil-chytry

Dudaitė Jolita

Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius, Lithuania

Gałązka Alicja

PhD., Dr hab., Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland

Han Sang Hyun

PhD., Namseoul University, Seobuk-gu, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, Republic of Korea

Email: [email protected]

Han Yongseung

PhD., University of North Georgia, Watkinsville, GA 30677, USA

Email: yongseung.han@ung. edu

Ionova Olena

Professor, PhD., Department of NaturalMathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine

E-mail: elenaionova25@ukr. net,

Iyekolo Alexander PhD., Department of Social Sciences Olushola Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Juszczyk Stanisław

Professor, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland

E-mail: stanislaw.juszczyk@ us.edu.pl

Juszczyk ‑Frelkiewicz Katarzyna

PhD., University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Sociology, Katowice, Poland

E-mail: katarzyna.juszczyk@ us.edu.pl

Kącka Katarzyna

PhD, Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland


8 Kim Myeong Hwan

Contributors PhD., Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA

Email: myeonghwan.kim@ pfw.edu

Krasoń Katarzyna Professor, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Kroufek Roman

PhD., Department of preschool & primary education, Faculty of Education, University of J. E. Purkyně, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

E-mail: [email protected], Website: https://www.pf.ujep. cz/cs/kontakt/roman-kroufek

Lapuzina Olena

PhD., National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, Kharkiv, Ukraine

E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://web.kpi. kharkov.ua/ken/60-2/ employees-of-the-department/

Leksy Karina

PhD., Department of Social Pedagogy, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland


Lisachuk Lidiya


E-mail: lnlisachuk@gmail. com, Website: http://web.kpi. kharkov.ua/ken/60-2/ employees-of-the-department/

Luparenko Svitlana

PhD., Department of General Pedagogy and Pedagogy of Higher Education, Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine

E-mail: svetlana.luparenko@ gmail.com

MazepaDomagała Beata

PhD., Dr hab., Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland


Michalak Bartłomiej

Professor, Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland

E-mail: Bartlomiej.Michalak@ umk.pl

Moon Hyoung‑Jin

PhD., Professor, DongDuk Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea


Nam Jong-h

PhD., Assistant Professor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yongin, South Korea


Ogrodzka-Mazur Ewa

Prof. PhD., Dr hab., University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Ethnology and Educational Science, Institute of Education, Poland


Oksana Gres

PhD Candidate, Department of NaturalMathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine


Partola Viktoriia

PhD Candidate, Department of NaturalMathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine, E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: kumano.yoshisuke@ shizuoka.ac.jp

Contributors

9

Pasikowski Sławomir

PhD., Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Educational Science, University of Lodz, Poland

E-mail: slawomir. [email protected]

Piechowiak ‑Lamparska Joanna

PhD., Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland


Romanov Yuri


E-mail: yu.aleks63@gmail. com, Website: http://web.kpi. kharkov.ua/kgn/departmentof-humanities/the-teachingstaff-of-the-department/

Sabo Robert

Slovakia

Siemieniecka Dorota Anna

PhD., Dr hab., Department of Disability Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland


Siemieniecki Bronisław Franciszek

Professor, Faculty of Education, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland


Simó-Solsona Montserrat

PhD., University of Barcelona, Faculty of Economics and Business Department of Sociology, Barcelona, Spain


Smyła Joanna

The Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Poland

Šukolová Denisa

Slovakia

Szempruch Jolanta

Professor, The Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Poland

Trinder Magdalena

University of Rzeszow, Poland

Uhrinová Miriam

PhD., Department of preschool and elementary education, Faculty of Education, Catholic university in Ružomberok, Slovakia

Vančíková Katarína

Slovakia

Vaníková Terézia

Slovakia

W de Jager Johan

Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

Wulandari Nuri

Indonesia Banking School, Jakarta, Indonesia

Žakelj Amalija

PhD., Uiversity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenija

E-mail: miriam.uhrinova@ ku.sk, Website: http://ludia. ku.sk/person. xhtml?id=miriam.uhrinova@ ku.sk

E-mail: amalija.zakelj@pef. upr.si

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Contributors

Stanisław Juszczyk

Editor’s Preface The fourth number of The New Educational Review in 2018 is the fifty-forth issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are mainly papers from: the Czech Republic, Indonesia, Lithuania, Nigeria, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Ukraine, and the USA, because our journal is open for presentation of scientific papers from all over the world. In the present issue the International Editors’ Board have proposed the following subject sessions: Social Pedagogy, General Didactics, Pedeutology, Special Pedagogy, Methodology of Social Sciences, and Sociology. In the subject session “Social Pedagogy” we publish thirteen articles. The purpose of the article by Jolita Dudaitė is to compare the results of education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the population literacy considered as a result of former learning. The study by Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur comprises the presentation of an authorial approach to cultural identity, viewed from the perspective of the communities (consisting of children, parents and teachers) of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some selected European countries (Austria, France, the Czech Republic). In their work, Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz and Karina Leksy refer to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying and the described research was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. The aim of the research described by Hyoung-Jin Moon and Jong-ho Nam is to examine the current status of Chinese Confucian ideas that have affected Korean youth culture and to draw up more effective education models. In their paper, Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak and Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska analyse correlations between selected factors such as an employee’s academic title and position in a scientific unit’s hierarchy or their teaching load and their scientific effectiveness as measured by publications. In her article, Anna Brosch presents a theoretical analysis of the concept of sharenting, emphasizing its role in violating children’s privacy. The paper by

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Stanisław Juszczyk

Joanna Smyła concerns the problem of developing a sexual image among girls during socialization and education as well as its consequences for their position in society an in the job market. In her work, Katarzyna Krasoń presents the results of an Internet questionnaire examining high school graduates’ (general education high schools and technical schools) perceptions on aesthetical and cultural education in the institutional context. Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov and Lidiya Lisachuk show how university teachers could help future engineers acquire their skills in techno ethics, ecological ethics, computer ethics skills, etc., by teaching an interactive course “Professional Ethics for Engineers”. Isiaka Abdulaziz and his co-workers describe the causes and management strategies of violent activities in tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. In their study, Olena Ionova and her co-workers determine the influence of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process on the quality of education of Ukrainian junior schoolchildren. The study presented by Nuri Wulandari and Johan W de Jager tries to apply a student-customer orientation questionnaire to investigate differences between student expectations of their educational experience in public vs. private universities. Dorota Anna Siemieniecka and Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki discuss the problems of human functioning in cyberspace seen from the perspective of cognitive pedagogy. In the subject session “General Didactics” we publish four articles. The article by Beata Mazepa-Domagała contains reflections on the pictorial character of our environment; it presents the underlying assumptions of the strategy of recognizing image preferences related to book illustration and trends in the preferences of adult intermediaries in the area of book illustration in the aspect of areas of image realization and artistic quality recognized as the dominant elements of imaging. The purpose of the study by Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Ham, and Sang Hyun Han is to gauge the effect of video games and its correlation with college entranceexam scores. In their paper, Alicja Gałązka and Magdalena Trinder establish the influence of drama on the creation of a positive educational environment, taking into consideration such variable factors as: feeling of security, feeling of identity, sense of belonging, sense of purpose, feeling of competence, and through this an improvement in language competence. In the research by Amalija Žakelj, the question is answered of what impact the implementation of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics has on the learner’s knowledge, which can be tested and assessed. In the subject session “Pedeutology” we publish two articles. The article by Jolanta Szempruch presents the results of research on the feelings of professional burnout in teachers of secondary schools. In their paper, Roman Kroufek, Vlasti-

Editor’s Preface

13

mil Chytrý and Miriam Uhrinová deal with an individual’s nature relatedness and a selected significant variable which may have an effect on it. In the subject session “Special Pedagogy” we publish a paper by Robert Sabo and his co-workers, which identifies social representations of inclusive school from the point of view of Slovak education actors. In the subject session “Methodology of Social Sciences” we publish two papers. Stanisław Juszczyk presents a hermeneutical analysis of academic texts related to the methodological criticism of individual elements of the structure of designed quantitative research, published in the form of articles, chapters in collective works and monographs. In the paper by Sławomir Pasikowski, the validity of educational measurements of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs is determined, among other things, by matching the rating scale to the properties of the operationalised variables. In the subject session “Sociology” we present an article by Montse Simó-Solsona and Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz, which focuses on the analysis of contemporary family policies in selected programs and actions in Spain and Poland. We hope that this edition, like previous ones, will encourage new readers not only from the Central European countries to participate in an open international discussion. On behalf of the International Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives of different pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts in The New Educational Review, according to the formal as well as essential requirements placed on our website: www.educationalrev.us.edu. pl – For Authors.

Social Pedagogy

Jolita Dudaitė Lithuania

Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform: Comparison Among the Post-Soviet Countries DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.01

Abstract In 1989 – 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, it was an auspicious moment for structural changes in education systems in the new independent countries, which had been under control of the Soviet government for a long time. About three decades have passed since the beginning of the education reforms in the post-Soviet countries and several generations who studied within the framework of the reformed systems starting from the first grade have already grown up. Therefore, it is relevant to estimate the results of the reforms. One of the possible measures for estimating the results of the education system or education reform is the change in population literacy within certain education systems. The purpose of the article is to compare the results of education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the population literacy considered as a result of former learning. The data of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) organised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are used for literacy comparison. The OECD PIAAC survey databases of Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia were used for comparison of the results of the reforms implemented in the post-Soviet countries. Data analysis showed that at the lower and upper secondary education levels, the most positive results of the education reform were observed in Lithuania, while in Russia, the results were negative. Keywords: PIAAC, education reform, literacy, post-Soviet countries

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Jolita Dudaitė

Introduction Over the last decades, in both developed and developing countries, education reform has become one of the key political matters. Improvement of the education quality becomes increasingly valued as a source of international economic competitiveness (Maroy, 2008), and it is agreed that such economic competitiveness is betoken by better educated population/employees (Zajda, 2009). Moreover, high quality of education has become a synonym for sustainable development of a country. Education reform is generally defined as change in one or more aspects of the education system: goals and tasks, policy-making and management system or power structures, funding and budget processes, system organisation, education content, pedagogy, social relations of teaching and learning, assessment and rewards (Gaziel, 2010). The change in education is intended for modeling future society change by responding to newly emerging/comprehended values. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 – 1991 enabled 28 new countries to implement structural changes in their education systems, which had been controlled by the Soviet government for a long time (Khavenson and Carnoy, 2016). In many post-Soviet countries, the education reform began around 1988 and celebrates its thirtieth anniversary this year. From a historical point of view, the end of the 20th century was particularly opportune and important time for the education reform in the post-Soviet countries: the restoration of independence of the countries created the necessity of systematic reform covering all fields of education. With the essential change in the political situation, the post-Soviet countries had to develop fundamentally new education systems instead of adapting them in one way or another. The literature analysis of the post-Soviet education changes in the societies of the Eastern and Central Europe during the transition period implies that the reforms implemented in the societies of the former Soviet republics and countries controlled by the Soviet government after 1989 – 1991 were clearly focused on the dissolution of the communist ideology and on the necessity to validate the new countries (Silova, 2004). New education systems had to be created gradually by disproving and essentially changing the former Soviet education framework – its structure, values, content, methods and principles. The literature analysis shows that academic effects of the education reforms of these countries are considered positive but secondary compared to the political and ideological goals set for the reforms (Silova, Johnson and Heyneman, 2007). Taking into account that about three decades have already passed and several generations who studied within the framework of the reformed systems start-

Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform

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ing from the first grade have already grown up, it is important and relevant to estimate the results of these reforms. One – although not the only one – of the measures to estimate the results of the education system or education reform is change in literacy and competencies of population brought up by certain education systems. It is obvious that population literacy is determined not only by the education system implemented in a given country, but also by informal learning and social environment (which is particularly rapidly changing as it happened in the post-Soviet countries). However, change in population literacy can, to a certain extent, be considered as one of the indicators of the education reform results, albeit an approximate one. The purpose of this paper is to compare the results of the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the change in population literacy which is regarded as a result of former learning. The data of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) organised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are used for literacy comparison. The OECD PIAAC survey is one of the major international education surveys designed for the estimation of adults’ literacy. Literacy and education system efficiency are usually analysed in the student/school context. The novelty of this analysis is the use of data concerning the literacy of adults instead of schoolchildren for the comparison of the results of the education reforms. Attempts to find similar analysis in the scientific literature proved fruitless. The question posed in the survey is: In which post-Soviet countries did the education reforms condition the greatest positive change in population literacy? The education reforms of the post-Soviet countries, their specific goals and implementation are not analysed in this article. The focus is on the change in population literacy as one of the possible indicators of the results of the education reforms, irrespective of philosophies of specific education reforms in the post-Soviet countries.

Concept of literacy The results of the education reforms can be estimated by various dimensions, yet unambiguous consideration of the effect of the reform is rather difficult and perhaps even impossible. In terms of education, any estimation is often based on academic achievement. In terms of school, literacy is one of the forms of learning achievement. However, adult literacy can be considered as a result of the previous learning, when a person was a participant in the education system. Literacy

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Jolita Dudaitė

comparison of different age groups can be considered as one of the possibilities to compare the efficiency of different education systems within which adults of certain age groups studied. Such a comparison is obviously not too accurate because literacy is determined not only by the education system but also by social environment. However, education system undoubtedly contributes substantially to literacy. The majority of international surveys of education which are focused on literacy estimate various components of literacy: numeracy, science literacy, ICT literacy, reading literacy, etc. However, the most frequent components of literacy covered by all international surveys on education are reading literacy and numeracy, which are often described as “basic” skills, in that they provide a “foundation” on which the development of other competencies rests. The reading literacy and numeracy is also covered by the PIAAC survey, the data of which are used for the analysis provided in this article. In this article, the analysis of literacy is carried out in terms of these two particular aspects. The PIAAC survey defines the reading literacy (referred to simply as “literacy”) as the ability to understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts to participate in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential. Reading literacy encompasses a range of skills from the decoding of written words and sentences to the comprehension, interpretation, and evaluation of complex texts. It does not, however, involve the production of text (i.e., writing) (OECD, 2016b). With the view of highlighting the growing importance of digital measures, which play a significant role in generating and compiling texts and providing access to the texts, the PIAAC developers decided that the texts must be provided to the survey participants in electronic format (only those who lacked computer skills could perform the tests in paper form). The electronic texts differ from the texts provided in paper form not only because they are displayed on computer or smartphone screens; the difference lies in many other important features, such as the possibility to add hypertext links to supplementary documents, possibility to add various navigation tools (scroll bars, menus, etc.) and to make it interactive. The PIAAC survey was the first in the world to include these particular technological innovations in literacy tests. In the PIAAC survey, numeracy is defined as the ability to access, use, interpret and communicate mathematical information and ideas in order to engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life. Numeracy involves managing a situation or solving a problem in a real context, by responding to mathematical content, information or ideas represented in multiple ways (OECD, 2016b). Although success in performing numeracy tasks partly depends on the ability to read and comprehend the text,


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in the PIAAC survey, numeracy covers more than just arithmetic skills: while carrying out the tasks, the participant should comprehend the text and properly perform the tasks by identifying the required information in the text.

Research Methodology Analysis of the academic effects of the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries is complicated because of the lack of reliable and comparable data on students’ achievements in the Soviet times. The post-Soviet countries started participating in the international surveys of education, the results of which can be compared across countries, only after the fall of the Soviet Union, e.g., Lithuania, Latvia, Russia and Slovakia participated in the international mathematics and science survey IEA TIMSS for the first time in 1995. Part of the post-Soviet countries have not participated in any international surveys of education yet. It was decided that the data of the OECD PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills should be used for the analysis as this is the largest international survey of education focused on adult literacy ever conducted. Seven post-Soviet countries participated in the PIAAC survey: Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia. The PIAAC tests and questionnaires databases of the said countries were used for the analysis; these databases contain data compiled in 2012 – 2015. Detailed description of the methodology, basis of the constructs of the data compilation instruments, logic of sampling, ethical guidelines of the PIAAC survey is provided in the following OECD PIAAC technical reports: Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (2013), Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (Second Edition) (2016a), Literacy, Numeracy and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments – Framework for the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (2012). PIAAC survey sample The respondents of the OECD PIAAC survey were persons aged 16 – 65. The samples of the respondents among the countries were as follows: Poland – 9366, Estonia – 7632, the Czech Republic – 6102, Slovakia – 5723, Slovenia – 5331, Lithuania – 5093, and Russia – 3892. The number of respondents representing the said seven countries in the PIAAC survey totalled 43,139. Analysis sample In order to estimate the results of the education reforms, the survey participants must be selected correctly. Two clusters of participants were selected

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Jolita Dudaitė

for the analysis. The first cluster includes persons who studied in the reformed school from the first grade, i.e., those who have not experienced the Soviet education system. This cluster excludes persons who were still studying during the PIAAC survey (at least the majority of them had already completed their studies). Therefore, the first cluster is designed of persons aged 25 – 34. The second cluster includes persons whose entire school education was provided within the framework of the Soviet education system and who had not experienced any manifestation of the last education reform. Therefore, the second cluster is designed of persons aged 45 – 65. These two clusters represent the post- and pre-reform education systems of a country. In addition to the selection of the appropriate age groups, it is also important to take into account the respondents’ achieved education level. In terms of literacy, the entire 25 – 34 age group cannot be compared with the entire 45 – 65 age group as these two clusters contain different proportions of persons with different education levels. In the younger age cluster, there are more persons with a higher level of education completed than in the older age cluster. Therefore, it was decided to analyse only the data of the respondents with the following two lowest levels of educational attainment: lower secondary education (ISCED 2 and lower) and upper secondary education (ISCED 3). They best represent the education system of a given country. As regards the post-secondary non-tertiary and tertiary education (ISCED 4 and higher), the attainment thereof usually includes studies abroad (the Erasmus programmes and other student mobility), and thus this education is not appropriate for reliable estimation of the effects of the education system of a specific country. Moreover, the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries took the longest to implement and had the greatest emphasis at the general education school level. Methods of analysis Test results in two fields studied by the PIACC – reading literacy and numeracy, as well as the questionnaire questions about the highest level of education completed and age were used for the analysis. Descriptive statistics methods were applied for the analysis by using IBM SPSS Statistics 24. The analysis does not employ strict methods of statistical analysis because conclusions are made by comparing the countries, considering the fact that such estimation of the results of the education reforms is approximate as population literacy is not only the reflection of the education reform but only its part. The analysis was carried out by using weights which allow for reliable comparison of results among the countries. In the PIAAC survey, literacy is measured on a 500-point scale.


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Research Results The comparison of the reading literacy and numeracy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters is presented in Figures 1 and 2. Reading Literacy. Lower Secondary Education 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 Russia

Sovakia

Czech Rep.

Estonia

25–34

Lithuania

Poland

Sovenia

45–65

Figure 1. Comparison of the reading literacy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters Numeracy. Lower Secondary Education 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 Russia

Sovakia

Czech Rep.

Estonia

25–34

Poland

Lithuania

Sovenia

45–65

Figure 2. Comparison of the numeracy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters

Jolita Dudaitė

24

The figures show that in the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group), the highest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were observed for the Russian respondents, while the lowest – for the Slovenian respondents. In the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group), the highest results were recorded in the Czech Republic, the lowest – in Slovenia. The comparison between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system cluster reveals that the reading literacy and numeracy results of the younger generation of Russia and Slovakia are lower than those of the older generation. As for the remaining countries, the situation was the opposite: the reading literacy and numeracy results of the younger generation were higher than those of the older generation. In terms of numeracy, the difference in the results of the Lithuanian respondents between the two age clusters is particularly big (41 points). Therefore, it could be stated that the effect of the education reforms for lower secondary education in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Lithuania and Slovenia was positive, while in Russia and Slovakia – negative. The comparison of the reading literacy and numeracy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters is presented in Figures 3 and 4.

Reading Literacy. Upper Secondary Education 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 Sovakia

Russia

Czech Rep.

Estonia

25–34

Lithuania

Poland

Sovenia

45–65

Figure 3. Comparison of the reading literacy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters


25

Numeracy. Upper Secondary Education 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 Sovakia

Russia

Czech Rep.

Estonia

25–34

Sovenia

Poland

Lithuania

45–65

Figure 4. Comparison of the numeracy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters

In the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group), the highest results in reading literacy were observed for Slovakia and Russia, in numeracy – for Slovakia, while the lowest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were recorded in Slovenia. In the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group), the highest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were recorded in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Estonia, while the lowest – in Poland. The comparison between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system cluster provides similar results as in the case of lower secondary education. The results of the younger generation of Russia are lower than those of the older generation; the results of the younger generation of Slovakia are higher compared to lower secondary education this time, yet in terms of numeracy, the difference between the results is not considerable. As for the remaining countries, the results of the younger generation in both reading literacy and numeracy are significantly higher than those of the older generation. The difference in the results is particularly significant between the younger and older generations of Estonia, Slovenia and Lithuania. It is worth comparing the results of the Soviet education system cluster with those of the reformed education system cluster in a summarized manner. Figure 5 shows the summarized data concerning reading literacy and numeracy, presenting the difference in points between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system.

Jolita Dudaitė

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Summarized di erence in results 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Poland

-20

-80

Lithuania

Slovakia

-40 -60

Estonia Czech Rep. Slovenia

Russia Lower Secondary

Upper Secondary

Figure 5. Overall difference in the reading literacy and numeracy results between the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group) and the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group)

Figure 5 shows that the most significant positive effect of the education reform at the lower and upper secondary education levels was observed in Lithuania (94 points), the least significant positive effect – in Poland (43 points). In Russia, a negative effect of the education reform was observed at the lower and upper secondary education levels (63 points). In Slovakia, both positive and negative effects of the education reform were observed: the negative effect was observed at the lower secondary education level (33 points), while at the upper secondary education level, the effect was positive but weak (9 points).

Conclusions 1. The most positive results of the education reform at the lower secondary education level were obtained in Lithuania, the least positive – in Poland, the most negative – in Russia. 2. The most positive results of the education reform at the upper secondary education level were recorded in Slovenia, the least positive – in Slovakia, while negative results were obtained only in Russia.


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3. In summary, at the lower and upper secondary education levels, the most positive results of the education reform were observed in Lithuania, while in Russia, the results of the education reform were negative.

Limitations The analysis of the results of the education reform was carried out in terms of the population literacy change. It is obvious that the literacy change is just one of the possible measures for estimating the results of the reform. Moreover, the degree of population literacy is determined not only by the education system, it is influenced by other factors as well. It would be relevant to estimate the results of the reform in other ways; this offers great opportunities for a series of further surveys. The presented article provides a detailed analysis of only two components of literacy – reading literacy and numeracy. Although reading literacy and numeracy are fundamental components of literacy, they do not fully cover the concept of literacy. It would be important to analyse population literacy and its change in a wider range of aspects. However, such work is limited by the actual data collected in the OECD PIAAC survey. The comparison of the education reform results did not cover all post-Soviet countries, but only the ones the data on which are available in the OECD PIAAC survey databases. Other post-Soviet countries did not participate in this survey and did not carry out the estimation of population literacy. There has been no survey of adult literacy other than PIAAC survey so far. This article provides an initial analysis of population literacy change as a result of education reform, which tends to focus on providing summarized results of literacy changes. More detailed analysis could be a further step in this subject.

References Gaziel, H.H. (2010). Why Educational Reforms Fail: The Emergence and Failure of an Educational Reform: A Case Study from Israel. In: Zajda J. (eds). Globalisation, Ideology and Education Policy Reforms. Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, vol. 11. Springer, Dordrecht. Khavenson, T., & Carnoy, M. (2016). The unintended and intended academic consequences of educational reforms: the cases of Post-Soviet Estonia, Latvia and Russia. Oxford Review Of Education, 42(2), 178 – 199. doi:10.1080/03054985.2016.1157063.

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Maroy, Ch. (2008). The new regulation forms of educational systems in Europe: towards a post bureaucratic regime. In N.C. Soguel & P. Jaccard (Eds.). Governance and performance of education systems (pp. 13 – 33). Dordrecht: Springer. OECD (2012). Literacy, Numeracy and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments – Framework for the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, , OECD Publishing. OECD (2013). Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), OECD Publishing. OECD (2016a). Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (Second Edition), OECD Publishing. OECD (2016b). The Survey of Adult Skills. Reader‘s companion (Second edition), OECD Publishing. Silova, I. (2004). Adopting the language of the new allies. In G. Steiner-Khamsi (Ed.). The global politics of educational borrowing (pp. 75 – 87). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Silova, I., Johnson, M.S., Heyneman, S.P. (2007). Education and the crisis of social cohesion in Azerbaijan and Central Asia. Comparative Education Review, 51, 159 – 180. Zajda, J. (2009). The politics of education reforms. Dordrecht: Springer.

Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur Poland

Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communitiesof Schools with Polish as the Teaching Language – a Comparative Study DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.02

Abstract The study comprises the presentation of an authorial approach to cultural identity, viewed from the perspective of the communities (consisting of children, parents and teachers) of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some selected European countries (Austria, France, the Czech Republic). In reference to the culturalistic model of identity, the characteristics of the most frequent identity behaviours of these communities were provided in the ethnic, national, integrative and mixed dimension. The author also indicates the contemporary contexts of identity shaping, which are determined by migration processes and multiculturalism. By formulating the most important conclusions resulting from the research, the need is indicated for implementing intercultural education in schools with Polish as the teaching language. Among other things, this will enhance the shaping of a multidimensional feeling of identity. Keywords: identity, feeling of identity, identity behaviours, schools with Polish as the teaching language, comparative study

Introduction In Polish pedagogy, there are not many studies of social, cultural and educational functioning of children in culturally diversified environments. The current knowledge in this field, presented mostly within comparative pedagogy, most fre-

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quently consists in presenting expert opinions on the situation of school education of majority and/or minority groups in particular countries as well as the applied solutions. Some significant works in this field (e.g., Lewowicki, Nikitorowicz, Szczurek-Boruta, 2010) concern school education and sociocultural phenomena taking place in Polish borderlands, most often described in reference to children and youth. Viewing the educational situation of Polish learners, their parents and teachers from the social, the cultural and pedagogical perspective of Australia and selected European countries provides the opportunity to capture the differences and similarities in the ways of implementing intercultural education (or its lack). Such a type of research is inevitably associated with the reflection upon the way in which contemporary humanity understands cultural dimensions, their role in human life and the extent to which they shape individual and social cultural identity. Schools educating in Polish function in Europe and in the world within educational systems of other countries. These countries have different history, experiences, conditions of life and dominating patterns of social functioning. This largely determines the perception and comprehension of various identity fields and the related behaviour patterns.

The theoretical and methodological assumptions of the research What was applied in the pedagogical analysis of children’s education in Polish schools abroad were the theoretical conceptualizations, referring to Jerzy Nikitorowicz’s (1) concept of intercultural education (2009, pp. 282 – 296), Paweł Boski’s (2) cultural model of acquiring biculturalism and his (3) concept of cultural distance (1995, pp. 143 – 162). What has become an important perspective in the search for regularities ruling the shaping of the feeling of identity in changing conditions of cultural diversity is Tadeusz Lewowicki’s (4) theory of identity behaviours. All the six fields (elements) of identity distinguished here are important determinants of identity behaviours (Lewowicki, 2018, pp. 191 – 205). Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the research procedure –ethnographic observation, individual narrative interviews with children, questionnaire studies among teachers and parents and document analysis. The studies were conducted over the period 2012–2017 in schools educating in Polish in Australia (Perth) and some selected European countries (Austria – Vienna; France – Paris; the Czech Republic – Prague, Czech Cieszyn). The research

Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities

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involved 509 learners – 318 (62.5%) from primary school (138 from lower and 180 from higher grades) and 191 (37.5%) from lower-secondary schools – grades 1 – 3. 204 parents participated in the studies – 126 (62%) parents of primary school learners and 78 (38%) of lower-secondary school learners. In many cases, the parents answered the questionnaires jointly, which provided data concerning, e.g., education and mixed marriages (from 319 participants) or the length of their stay abroad (from 345 respondents). The group of teachers was the smallest and consisted of 19 respondents. This is an effect of a small number of teachers working in schools with Polish as the teaching language and of the tendency to treat participation in studies with unwillingness, which can be noticed in the case of both teachers and school head teachers.

Identity behaviours of the communities of schools educating in Polish – research results The functioning of children, their parents and teachers from Polish schools abroad is associated with the natural feeling of belonging to a particular social group (including the national or cultural one of the country of residence) and enables self-identification, which is the basis for differentiating between Me-Us and Others-Them. Formed at many differently ordered platforms, the outer (attributing the identity) and/or inner (self-identifying) character of identification shapes the feeling of identity. What was applied in individual talks and questionnaires was a scale measuring self-assessment in the field of national identification. The scale assumes that both children and parents might experience various intensity of the feeling of identity, which involves: weak identity (Polish identity is weaker than Australian/Austrian/ Czech/French or the opposite), mixed balanced identity (no dominating identity – feeling both a Pole and an Australian/Austrian/Czech/French) and a strong feeling of identity (domination of one homogeneous Polish/Australian/Austrian/Czech/ French identity), which reflects the identification–alienation behaviour patterns.

Children The examined children from the grades (cf., Figure 1) declare different intensity levels of their feeling of identity, which is determined by the environment of the

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country of their permanent or temporary residence, their age and the length of stay abroad. 55% of the children from Australia and over a half of the learners living in Austria (59%), France (71%) and the Czech Republic in Prague (77%) manifest Polish identity, the intensity of which increases with age. The respondents’ declarations reflect the emotional character of national identification and cultural bonds with the “private” homeland as well as strong identification with the Polish minority (this aims at preserving their own identity). The ethnocentric (inherited) identity manifested by the children does not entail depreciation of the culture of the country of residence. Numerous responses of the examined children indicate making endless comparisons of both cultures – the native and the culture of the country of current residence. This takes place in the situation where both the family environment and the school with Polish as the teaching language enhance identification with the values of the native Polish culture. Therefore, the respondents’ declarations seem to suggest natural ethnocentrism, resulting from the acquisition of the so-called habitual cultural competences.

Legend: a – Polish, b – Polish and of country of residence but rather Polish; c – Polish and of country of residence equally; d – Polish and of country of residence but rather of country of residence; e – of country of residence Source: own elaboration

Figure 1. The declared feeling of identity of the surveyed learners (percentages).


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33% of the learners in Australia, 25% in Austria, 21% in France and 9% in Prague define their identity in the category “I feel equally Polish and Australian/ Austrian/French/Czech”. The mixed balanced identity declared by them may confirm the feeling of dual national identity and strong identification with two cultures (biculturalism). The data obtained, owing to the conducted ethnographic observations and interviews, additionally indicate in this subgroup of learners the shaping of two identity types –integrated and dispersed identity. The former combines the elements of the learners’ personal system of values with the values of the cultures of groups to which they belong and in the life of which they take part consciously and reflectively. This type of identity is manifested by most of the children born abroad (85%). Dispersed identity results from the confrontation of inherited identity with the new and changing cultural reality, through which the learners acquire their awareness of belonging to many groups existing “next to” each other. Such identity was declared by significantly fewer respondents (15%) among those whose stay abroad had lasted 1–5 years. The children’s communities are also explored in the dimension of homogeneous Australian (11%), Austrian (17%), French (8%) and Czech identity (learners from Prague – 14%). The learners’ identification with the national culture of the majority group indicates the occurring changes in the criterial and correlative identity attributes, which are determined by other factors than family socialization and culturation. Individual talks with the learners also confirm the incidence of the lack of identification both with their own ethnic minority and with the national culture of the country of residence (children living in Prague). Despite the feeling of specific alienation, in this case, the final declarations tend to indicate the latter. Having compared all the surveyed environments, it can be stated that in Austria the children declare Polish identity significantly more often1 than their peers from the Czech Republic – Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 18.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.26) and that they declare dual identity more frequently than the learners from Prague (χ2 = 4.4; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.15). However, they choose the identity of the country of residence significantly less often than the children from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 9.76; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.19) and Polish identity than their peers from Prague (χ2 = 4.23; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.15). In the French environment, the examined children differ significantly only from the learners from Czech Cieszyn – they more often declare Polish identity (χ2 = 36.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.38) and less often declare dual identity (χ2 = 5.32; p < 0.05; 1

All the differences between the results in which p < 0.05 are statistically significant.

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Φ = 0.14) and the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 24.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.31). Among the Czech respondents, the learners from Prague significantly more often indicate Polish identity (χ2 = 22.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.37) and dual identity (χ2 = 8.93; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.23), but they choose the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 4.62; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.17) less frequently than the children from Czech Cieszyn. Yet, the learners from the Polish-Czech borderland significantly more often declare the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 6.58; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.2) and less often – Polish identity (χ2 = 6.21; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.19) than their peers from Australia. These statistically confirmed differences indicate a distinct image of national identifications, mostly of the learners from Czech Cieszyn. Their characteristic feature is one-sidedness – local rooting and strong bonds with Zaolzie and Cieszyn Silesia. The specific historical, sociocultural, and economic determinants of the Polish-Czech borderland have been more broadly discussed in the intercultural pedagogical studies conducted in this environment for over 28 years2. Comparing these results to the earlier research in this environment (T. Lewowicki, E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, A. Szczurek-Boruta, 2009), currently – fewer children (about 15%) declare the feeling of dual national identity and they tend to choose the homogeneous Czech nationality (an increase by 12%). The reasons for this situation might be sought in various factors – yet, the observations show that the learners’ feeling of dual national identity or their declaring Czech identity is mostly shaped by the education system. They attend schools with Polish as the teaching language but the teachers implement the Czech curricula there. Simultaneous learning of Polish and Czech – and hence close cognitive and emotional contact with both cultures (occurring also in Polish and Czech non-school cultural and educational institutions) causes shrinking of the distance between them and (as regards correlative identity attributes) enables easier acculturation. This process is also occurring in the other investigated environments but does not show such intensity. The children consider themselves Poles, but they also express the feeling of dual national (Polish-Australian, Polish-Austrian, Polish-French) identity. However, more frequently than their peers from Czech

2 So far, 75 volumes have been published in the series “Edukacja Międzykulturowa /Intercultural Education/”, prepared by the Social Team for Research into Borderland Education and Culture and the Department and Chair of General Pedagogy of the Faculty of Ethnology and Education in Cieszyn (University of Silesia), supervised by Tadeusz Lewowicki.


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Cieszyn, they associate their life and educational plans with their present country of residence, where they hope for more chances for “better” life than in Poland.

Parents and teachers Contrary to the examined learners, their parents (cf., Figure 2) declare similar intensity of their feeling of identity, which does not differentiate depending on the environment of the native country or country of residence (apart from the parents from Australia and Czech Cieszyn), the age and the length of their stay abroad. All the examined parents living in Austria and the Czech Republic (Prague) and 92% of the parents in France and 67% in Australia manifest their feeling of Polish identity and strong identification with the Polish minority group. As in the case of their children, the ethnocentric identity declared by the parents does not mean depreciation of the culture of the country of residence, which is confirmed by numerous responses in the questionnaires and individual talks. The respondents also indicate making comparisons of both cultures and confirm that the regular contact with the Polish school and church (Australia, Austria and France) as well as with other organizations run by the local Polish community enhances their identification with the native Polish culture. The majority of the examined parents currently living in Australia (Perth) and in big European capital cities (Paris, Prague, Vienna) were born in Poland, where their feeling of national identity was shaped over many years of natural experience of belonging to the family, school, peer or religious community. According to the standpoints of many researchers exploring the issues of identity, this type of identification entails some imprinted permanence and unchangeability, even though it constitutes a dynamic whole. Each change in this area is hardly negotiable and is assessed in ethical and moral categories. Therefore, it should not surprise that the respondents declared the feeling of Polish identity. On the other hand, it is important that parents have a positive attitude to the culture of the country of their present residence and that they are gradually decreasing the cultural distance, which they also notice. Having compared all the environments, it can be stated that the parents in Austria declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn ( χ2 = 20.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.42) and Australia (χ2 = 12.7; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.45). However, they indicate dual identity significantly less often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn ( χ2 = 20.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.42) and Australia (χ2 = 12.7; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.45). Moreover, they indicate the identity of the country of residence

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Legend: a – Polish, b – Polish and of country of residence but rather Polish; c – Polish and of country of residence equally; d – Polish and of country of residence but rather of country of residence; e – of country of residence Source: own elaboration.

Figure 2. The declared feeling of identity of the surveyed parents (percentages)

significantly more often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 6.31; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.24). In the French environment, the parents declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 8.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.3) and they choose dual identity less often than the Australian parents as well (χ2 = 8.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.33). In the Czech environment, the parents from Prague declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 4.03; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.32) and from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 6.4; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27). Yet, they indicate less frequently the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 8.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27) and dual identity (χ2 = 4.03; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.32) than the parents from Australia. The parents from Czech Cieszyn declare significantly more often the identity of the country of residence than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 8.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27). Similarly to their children, the declarations of the parents from Czech Cieszyn concerning their feeling of identity were aggregated in three groups: 33% declared


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homogeneous Polish (Silesian, Zaolzie) identity, 26% balanced Polish and Czech identity and 17% homogeneous Czech identity. In the Australian environment, two aggregations appeared, which comprised 67% of declarations of homogeneous Polish identity and 33% of balanced Polish and Australian identity. The intensity of the parents’ national identifications is lower than in the case of these parents’ children – yet, this indicates evident changes also in the environment of the parents, who are now entering nationally and/or religiously mixed marriages with growing frequency (Sussex, Zubrzycki, 1985; Smolicz, 2001, pp. 27 – 41). As the majority of the parents, the last of the surveyed communities – the teachers working in schools with Polish as the teaching language – declare the feeling of only Polish identity in Austria and the Czech Republic (Prague), Polish identity (50%) or Polish and that of the country of residence (50%) to the same extent in Australia, and in Czech Cieszyn – Polish identity (62%) or Polish and that of the country of residence, but rather Polish (38%) (cf., Figure 3).

Legend: a – Polish, b – Polish and of country of residence but rather Polish; c – Polish and of country of residence equally; d – Polish and of country of residence but rather of country of residence; e – of country of residence Source: own elaboration

Figure 3. The declared feeling of identity of the surveyed teachers (percentages)

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Observation of the behaviours and classes conducted by the teachers from the school with Polish as the teaching language in Paris, who did not take part in the questionnaire, as well as their individual statements, might suggest a similar tendency – choosing Polish national identity. Teachers working in Polish educational institutions abroad constitute a group of professionals from whom, due to the specificity of their jobs, the implementation of many tasks specified in developmental plans of schools are required (Ogrodzka-Mazur, 2016, pp. 54 – 86). These tasks mostly entail developing learners’ feeling of national identity and cultural sensitizing to Others. This results from children’s attending majority schools and from parental expectations. Despite the difficulty which these tasks cause, undertaking them in educational practice provides opportunities for shaping authentic intercultural relations in the investigated environments.

Conclusions The outlined characteristics of identity behaviours among the communities of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some European countries makes it possible to formulate a few most important conclusions: – The surveyed learners manifest different levels of intensity in their feeling of identity and these levels differ depending on the environment of the country of permanent or temporary residence, their age and duration of their stay abroad. The differences point to the currently noticeable tendency to identify the young generation with various communities – of their native country, local, or – more broadly – European or supra-European ones. Constructing children’s identity by themselves means drifting apart from the homogeneous dimension towards discovering and conscious choice of enriched, multidimensional identity. As regards the applied culturalization strategies, what seems to be a characteristic feature of 70% of the examined learners from Austria, France and the Czech Republic (Prague) is the integrative profile, manifested in the positive attitude and willingness to preserve their own cultural heritage, as well as in the openness and active participation in the life of the receiving society. Due to different historical, economic and sociocultural determinants, their peers from Australia and the Czech Republic (Czech Cieszyn) more often feel Poles and Australians/Czechs to the same extent and they favour the ethnic character of the culturalization strategies which they


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choose. Interpreting the obtained research results in the context of the theory of identity behaviours, it should be stated that – from the angle of children’s functioning in culturally diversified environments – special significance is to be attributed to the first field, comprising their (also national) identification with a particular territory and social environment. In the sphere of language, belonging to the second field of identity, the learners show behaviours which confirm a need for good command of the native language and its dialects, as well as a need for using the majority language (English, German, French, Czech) in daily social situations. Therefore, the bilingualism/multilingualism they acquire most frequently has the “additive” character and enables high competence in both/all used languages as well as integrative communication. The surveyed children’s identity behaviours also refer to the fourth field, associated with the economic condition and living standards of the group, which specify the level of fulfilling their needs. The children’s expectations are to a large extent related to the life in the country of residence and/or in other European countries (learners from Prague). As in the case of the children from Czech Cieszyn, they are also associated with life and educational plans fulfilled in Poland. – The majority of the parents and teachers from schools with Polish as the teaching language in Europe manifest the feeling of Polish identity and strong identification with the Polish minority group. As in the case of the examined children, the ethnocentric identity declared by them does not mean depreciating the culture of the country of residence. This is confirmed by their culturalization strategies, the profile of which is integrative – involving mutually balanced levels of ethnic and national indicators concerning identity, knowledge and use of languages or social contacts. Due to different motives of migration and the longest stay abroad (16–20 years and more), the identity behaviours of the parents and teachers from Australia are characterized by their identification both with the Polish minority group and with the majority group of the country of residence. In reference to Boski’s levels of integration, the cultural identity declared by adults and their identity behaviours indicate positive valuing of biculturalism, acquisition of bilingual competences, and in some cases (parents from Australia and Austria) – language and religious syncretism.

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References Boski, P. (1995). National identity of Poles in and out of the motherland: implications for European (trans-cultural) integration. Journal for Mental Changes: Perspective of Economic, Political and Social Integration, 2, 143 – 162. Lewowicki, T. (2018). Manifestations of permanence and changeability in different spheres of spiritual life – a few generalizations with the Theory of Identity Behaviours in the background. In: T. Lewowicki, E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, B. Chojnacka-Synaszko, U. Klajmon-Lech (eds). Spheres of spiritual life – a study on permanence and changeability of identity behaviours in borderland communities. Munich: LINCOM Academic Publishers, 191 – 205. Lewowicki, T., Ogrodzka-Mazur, E., & Szczurek-Boruta, A. (eds) (2009). Poczucie tożsamości i stosunek młodzieży do wybranych kwestii społecznych – studium z pogranicza polsko-czeskiego [Youth’s feeling of identity and attitude toward selected social issues – a study from the Polish-Czech borderland] . Cieszyn – Warszawa – Toruń: Wydział Etnologii i Nauk o Edukacji Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna ZNP w Warszawie, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Lewowicki, T., Nikitorowicz, J., & Szczurek-Boruta, A. (eds) (2010). Szkolnictwo z polskim językiem nauczania w państwach europejskich – stan, problemy i perspektywy [School education with Polish as the teaching language in European countries –condition, problems and prospects]. Białystok – Cieszyn – Warszawa: Uniwersytet w Białymstoku, Wydział Etnologii i Nauk o Edukacji Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna ZNP w Warszawie, Stowarzyszenie Wspierania Edukacji Międzykulturowej. Nikitorowicz, J. (2009). Edukacja regionalna i międzykulturowa [Regional and intercultural education]. Warszawa: WAiP. Ogrodzka-Mazur, E. (2016). The specificity of educating young learners in the culturally diversified environment. In: E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, A. Szafrańska-Gajdzica, B. Grabowska, & Ł. Kwadrans. Education of children and youth in culturally diverse environments: experiences – problems – prospects. Munich: LINCOM Academic Publishers, 54 – 86. Smolicz J.J. (2001). Globalization and cultural dynamics in a multiethnic state: Australian multiculturalism from an international perspective. Dialogue and Universalism, 11 – 12, 27 – 41. Sussex, R., & Zubrzycki, J. (eds) (1985). Polish people and culture in Australia. Canberra: Department of Demography, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University.

Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy Poland

Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.03

Abstract The domination of new technologies in the lives of children and the youth leads to its consideration in the context of threats and a potential negative influence on adolescents’ functioning. Considering various threats occurring in the virtual space, first of all it is indicated that the Internet, due to apparent anonymity, is often the space of mutual aggression, mocking and attempts to discredit other net users. The presented study refers to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying. The research was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. It involved a method of diagnostic survey using the technique of a questionnaire and documents analysis. As the conducted study showed, cyberbullying is a phenomenon which often occurs among contemporary teenagers. The examined persons were most often victims or witnesses of verbal aggression in the net. Keywords: new technologies, Internet, cyberbullying, youth

Introduction Undoubtedly, new media, especially the Internet, are an important environment of young people’s lives and the virtual world often becomes for them “more real than the real one”. It is even indicated that an adolescent creates for him/her a specific culture, the determinant of which is permanent and intensive use of mobile phones, computers and the Internet (Peker, Eroglu, Ada, 2012, pp. 185 – 206). The

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Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy

domination of new technologies in the lives of children and the youth leads to its consideration in the context of threats and a potential negative influence on the adolescents’ functioning. Great freedom of the use of the Internet, the lack of clearly set borders and control of adults make a teenager to the largest extent exposed to negative behaviours in the net, such as aggression, stalking and threatening (Lazuras, Barkoukis, Ourda, Tsorbatzoudis, 2013, pp. 881 – 887). Considering various threats occurring in the virtual space, first of all it is indicated that the Internet due to apparent anonymity is often the space of mutual aggression, mocking and attempts at discrediting other net users. Such behaviours are described as cyberbullying and although this phenomenon has been known for approximately a decade, at present the scale of its occurrence is extremely high and on the world scale it ranges from 10% to 53% depending on the accepted definition of cyberbullying and the respondents’ age group (Guo , 2016, p. 432). Cyberbullying is defined as “a new dimension of bullying that includes deliberate and attitudes of an individual or a group that damage others through the use of information and communication technologies” (Langos, 2015, p. 106 – 123). The phenomenon is also defined as “the willful use of electronic technology (e.g., instant messaging, chat rooms, e-mail and text messages) as a means through which aggressive activities (e.g., threatening, harassing, disrespecting, or socially excluding another) are carried out deliberately and repeatedly toward a specific individual or group of individuals” (Hinduja, Patchin, 2007, pp. 89 – 112). Online bulling can be realized by using: emails, cell phones, pagers, instant messaging, short message services, internet chatrooms, blogs, forums, social network websites, websites and cameras (Beyazit, Şimşek, Ayhan, 2017, p. 1512). Moreover, this phenomenon is demonstrated in the following behaviours: insulting, victimisation, denigrating, spoofing, revealing secrets, exclusion, cyber-persecution, the so-called happy slapping, which is provoking or attacking a chosen person and recording this event with a mobile phone camera. The consequences of cyberviolence often exceed the internet space. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), cyberbullying has become a problem of public health, against which preventive measures should be taken (Electronic Aggression: Technology and Youth Violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Research confirms that aggression in the internet causes negative physical and psychical consequences in all persons involved in it (Isenberger, 2016). At the same time, it is emphasized that the consequences for public health are the most serious ones (Miller, 2017, p. 385). Researchers indicate that victims of cyberbullying are characterized by such features as: low self-esteem, anxiety, loneliness, disappointment, sadness, fear, anger, psychotic symptoms, hos-

Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth

43

tility and a high stress level. Such persons also demonstrate somatic symptoms and worse interpersonal relations (Donegan, 2012, pp. 33 – 42; Litwiller, Brausch, 2013, pp. 675 – 684). Also, the influence of cyberbullying on academic achievement and functioning in the school environment should be noted. Research indicates that the victims of persecution in the Internet have poorer achievements in learning, they lack motivation for learning at school, they miss classes more often and they perceive school as a place that does not provide a sense of security (Notar, Padgett, Roden, 2013, pp. 1 – 9). Moreover, the victims of net aggression are in a group of risk of: depression, self-injuries and other forms of self-damage, suicidal thoughts and attempts (Pappas, 2015; Com. Twenge, 2017). It is worth noting the most serious psychological consequence of cyberviolence, which is suicide. According to P. Hinduja and J.W. Patchin (2018), the victims of cyberattacks were almost twice more prone to suicidal attempts than those who did not experience violence in the net. What is more, the phenomenon of cyberviolence leads – indirectly or directly – to so many suicides that recently a concept of “cyberbullicide” has emerged (Hinduja, Patchin, 2010, pp. 206 – 216). Although cyberbullicide is not a standard among the cyberviolence victims, it is still such a serious problem that prophylactic and measures increasing social awareness in this scope should be taken (Miller, 2017, p. 388).

Research Methodology The results described in this article constitute a part of a broader research project, the purpose of which was to determine characteristics of behaviours undertaken in the virtual space by pupils of Polish junior secondary schools as well as determination of potential social and health consequences of such behaviours. The presented excerpt of studies refers to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying. The study was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. The quantity research was of diagnostic-verification nature, which means that the research questions had a form both of questions about variables and about relations between the variables. The study involved a method of diagnostic survey using the technique of a questionnaire and documents analysis. The author’s survey questionnaire was used to conduct the research and it consisted of 41 questions, including 28 semi-open cafeteria questions, 4 closed cafeteria questions (rank order questions), 8 questions using the Likert scale (rating scale questions) and 1 open question (Thomas, 2013, pp. 207 – 217). Before proceeding to the stage of proper research, a pilot study was conducted. Thanks to the pilot study, necessary

44


modifications of the research tool were made – some wordings were made more precise and small alterations were introduced in a few cafeterias. The obtained data were subjected to quantity and quality analysis. Program Statistica 12 was used to conduct statistical analysis. Within the frames of the quality paradigm, the technique of documents analysis was applied. Within the frames of the quality paradigm, the document analysis technique was applied. Within its frames, the contents of educational-prophylactic programmes in schools where the quantity research was conducted, in the context of issues concerning young people’s behaviour in the Internet and potential threats related to them, including cyberbullying and its consequences, were analyzed. The selection of persons for the studies was of non-probability nature (Thomas, 2013), and the selection criterion was the respondents’ age. The research sample was a sample representative of the Silesia Province. 390 junior secondary school pupils from two schools located in urbanistically diversified areas were included. 164 persons were pupils of a small town school (under 10,000 inhabitants) and 226 persons attended a school in a big city (over 100,000 inhabitants). The respondents’ age ranged from 13 to 16 and the largest group were 14-year-olds and 15-year-olds (82 and 74 pupils, respectively). Among the respondents there were 198 girls and 186 boys, and 6 respondents did not specify their sex. Over 85% of the respondents used the Internet every day, doing it in various places, but most often at home and school. On days off, a vast majority of the respondents spent over 3 hours a day in the net, whereas on working days almost 40% of the respondents did so. Various devices were used to surf the net, not only computers or laptops, but first of all mobile phones as well as TVs, game consoles, iPads, etc.

Research Results Due to the more and more spread phenomenon of cyberbullying among teenagers, this issue was one of the most important ones in the presented research. First of all it was verified if the respondents had encountered negative behaviours in the net at all. The obtained results showed that that as many as 56.7% of the participants often encountered such behaviours and 33.9% of the junior secondary school pupils encountered them but they were individual cases. Summing up the above percentages, it was discovered that 90.6% of the teenage respondents were witnesses, victims or perpetrators of cyberviolence, which proves that this phenomenon is an urgent, current and very widespread problem.


45

The next issue in the analyzed context was to check precisely what negative behaviours in the net were most often encountered by the examined youth. Similar results (over 70%) were obtained in the case of three kinds of behaviours: using vulgar words (77.2%), insulting other people (72.1%), and making fun of them (70.3%). An important issue were also negative, offensive comments under photos of Internet users, since this problem was mentioned by 53.0% of the respondents. It is also worth noting that as many as 35.6% of the pupils pointed out, among negative behaviours in the net, publishing discrediting photos of other people without their consent and knowledge, which undoubtedly demonstrates the seriousness and significant spread of such behaviours. The study also aimed at establishing whether there were statistically significant differences regarding the respondents’ sex with reference to negative behaviours which they encounter in the Internet. Generally, it was found that the girls and boys equally often encountered negative behaviours in the net, but the type of such behaviours was different, which was verified with test χ². Such behaviours as: insulting others, making fun of and negative and offensive comments under other people’s photos. While conducting the research, an attempt was also made to determine if the respondents had ever been cyberviolence perpetrators. Based on the obtained data, it can be stated that over three quarters (76.3%) of the respondents claimed that they had never put other people in bad light. Only 14.2% admitted that they had written something negative about another person on the Internet (e.g., criticizing looks or behaviour). A small percentage of the examined pupils also admitted that they had made fun of other users of the net and written vulgar things about them (10% and 9.8% respectively). Among other answers, such ones were found that confirmed that they had written negative things about other people on the net, such as “yes, unfortunately, I did it once”, “I was writing but with consent of the other person and for fun”, “once I placed an ugly photo of another person but I removed it”. However, the majority of the answers in the category “other” prove that the respondents rather try to avoid such situations. Based on the conducted analysis of the obtained results, it can be stated that 32.3% of the pupils have never been a victim of aggression in cyberspace and 26.9% do not recall such a situation. At the same time, summing up the answers confirming such negative experiences it turns out that the majority of the respondents have become a victim of some oppressive situation on the Internet (in total, 83% of indications to negative behaviours towards the respondents). In this context, the most commonly indicated behaviour was mocking (23.5%) and vulgar words (22.7%). Less often, in the case of 13.0% of the respondents, the person was negatively assessed based on a photo placed on the Internet and almost the same

46


number of persons (12.9%) admitted that their photo had been placed in the net without their consent. The respondents’ answers in the “other” category also prove that there is a problem with the so-called hating. Among them there were: “they impersonated me”; “hates on ask”; “yes, somebody impersonated me”; “someone wrote to me that he/she saw my naked pictures on the Internet”. One subject of the analysis in the presented research were the feelings of the respondents facing situations hurting them in the net. However, the results obtained in this field show that 45.2% of the respondents did not worry about such situations at all. One may wonder whether the obtained result is a consequence of common occurrence of unpleasant situations in the net (e.g., negative comments, mocking, insulting other people, etc.) and treating them as a standard, or perhaps the relations and bonds on the Internet are so weak, impermanent and insignificant that young people do not care about unpleasant situations which take place in the virtual space. At the same time, 34.7% of the pupils declare that they feel sadness in such situations and 23.8% – anger. There were also many answers in the “other”. category Among them, a lot of people wrote that they had never encountered such situations, whereas the persons who had had such experiences claimed: “I felt like demolishing inanimate objects”; “being superior to someone who offended me”; “compassion regarding the mental level of the person who insulted me”; “I laugh at stupidity of such people”; “it is for fun”; “laughter; “joy”; “indifference”; “it was not important to me”. The authors of the research tried to find out how young people dealt with unpleasant situations which they encountered in the net. In answer to the above issue, 39.0% of the junior secondary schools pupils declared that they did nothing whereas a little fewer persons (33.8%) tried not to worry about such situations and not to think about them though it may be very hard. Almost a quarter of the respondents (24.3%) try to find some activity to do (e.g., they relax, go for a walk, do sports), 21.0% of the respondents in similar situations confided in their friends, 15.8% presented the existing situation to their parents and only 4.1% of the pupils asked their tutors or teachers for help. In the case of this question, a number of different answers appeared. Many respondents declared that in such a situation they did not care about it at all (“I do not worry about it”; “It doesn’t bother me”; “I don’t give a damn”; “I do not care”; “I do not care about it so I do nothing in such a situation”; “I don’t give a toss”) or got involved in interactive games (“I play CS:GO”; “XBOX”; “I play computer games”; “I play CSA”). Some of them declared that they attempted to get back at the person who caused cyberviolence, e.g.: “I call a group of a few people and then either we meet this person in the real world or we press him/her on the Internet. No one pushes me around”; “I give a ban”;


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“they get a ban”. Moreover, the respondents coped with unpleasant situations and emotions looking for other people’s support (e.g., “I try writing with my friends about positive things”; “I ask my friend to comfort me”; “I say it to my sister”) or taking up favourite activities (e.g., “I dance:; “I read, listen to music, fulfill my passions, write stories”). Within the frames of the research, also prophylactic-educational programmes of the school where the research was conducted were analyzed. In the school in Bytom, among the areas of prophylactic impacts there were issues, among others, connected with “Prophylactics of phonoholism and threats in the net”. The basis for conducting psycho-educational classes was the diagnosis of the phenomenon made on the basis of a survey test. Next, a class was held on: cyberviolence, stalking, addiction to the Internet and computer games and sexting, using the film of Fundacja Dajemy Dzieciom Siłę (We Give Children Strength Foundation), titled “Forever”. The implementers of the impacts were form teachers and a school pedagogue. Additionally, the pupils participated in a presentation on criminal liability of pupils, a psycho-educational class was organized for parents and an action procedure in the case of cyberviolence was prepared. In turn, in the school in Ożarowice, within the frames of Educational-Prophylactic Programme, a prophylactic class was held, which concerned, among other things: threats connected with new media overuse, safety in the net, dealing with the Internet “hate”, legal aspects of using the Internet (regulations of using blogs, forums and other Internet tools) and consequences of negative behaviours in cyberspace. The school also participated in the “Safe in the Net” programme (sieciaki.pl). Moreover, the conducted educational-prophylactic classes aimed at strengthening pupils’ self-esteem and emphasizing the significance of positive life experiences in offline reality, as well as teaching to express one’s own emotions and dealing with stress in a constructive manner. The above contents were implemented within form periods and IT classes and their implementers were form teachers, IT teachers and a school pedagogue.

Discussion and Conclusions As the conducted study showed, cyberbullying is a phenomenon which often occurs among contemporary teenagers. The examined persons were most often victims or witnesses of word aggression in the net. Unfortunately, taking into consideration the constantly growing availability of the Internet and new information-communication technologies, simultaneous spread of cyberbullying should be expected (Raskauskas, Stoltz, 2007, pp. 564 – 575). It is worth noting that the

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young people being in a situation of a cyberbullying victim tried to underestimate the existing situation or felt negative emotions (sadness, anger), but at the same time they did not take any preventive measures. Therefore, it seems that the teenagers treat the Internet aggression as a standard and their sensitivity to harming communication decreases, which leads to the situation when probably the analyzed phenomenon will spread. Taking into account the respondents’ lack of reaction to violence on the Internet, it is necessary to take actions aimed at, first of all, minimizing incidents and acts of hatred, to which any Internet user can be exposed. At the same time, due to the fact that the group most often involved in cyberbullying are teenagers, considering the critical moment of their development, the preventive measures should focus on them (Miller, 2017, pp. 385 – 386). Thus, first of all, it is important that young people should react to occurring incidents of cyberbullying (cf., https://www.stopbullying.gov/kids/what-you-can-do/index.html) and report them to adults – parents, tutors, teachers, the police. The role of adults in this context cannot be overestimated. Parental control is very important and lack of it makes teenagers more prone to cyberbullying (Fanti, Demetriou, Hawa, 2012, pp. 168 – 181; cf., Sengupta, Chaudhuri, 2011, pp. 284 – 290). At the same time, it is worth noting that the parents who cannot use information-communication technologies are usually unaware of both advantages and the risk connected with using the Internet by their children. It is also difficult for them to provide support when their child becomes a victim of cyberbullying (Monks, Mahdavi, Rix, 2016, pp. 39 – 48). Moreover, the research shows that the parents’ lack of knowledge and awareness of potential threats to which their children can be exposed on the Internet makes them underestimate them (Kasikci, Cagiltay, Karakus, Kursun, Ogan, 2014, pp. 230 – 243). Therefore, it is necessary to teach parents in order to pass the knowledge and make them aware of the threats connected with the net. Thus, schools should not only undertake educational activities directed to parents but also implement prophylactic programmes concerning cyberbullying (its matter, symptoms), emphasizing the consequences of the phenomenon both for its victims and perpetrators. Teachers and tutors should pay special attention to aggressive pupils and those demonstrating behaviour disorders in the offline world, as the research confirms that such persons will more often present similar behaviours in the net. People who behave aggressively outside the Internet, demonstrating behaviour disorders and having a positive attitude to aggression and violence should be quickly identified in order to take actions aimed at their moral development and introduction to pro-social standards and values. At the same time, due to the multiple conditioning of the discussed phenomenon, in


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order to prevent it or decrease its spread, universal solutions and strategies based on multi-system therapy, parental skills training, peers support programmes and intervention forms based on positive school atmosphere and family background (Guo, 2016, pp. 441 – 444) should be used. Finally, it is worth emphasizing that in the context of cyberbullying prophylactics, probably the most efficient prophylactic programmes will be those taking into account an individual, his/her personality features and perpetuated behaviour patterns, as well as the family environment, school atmosphere, peer pressure and a broader social context. Therefore, in the prevention of the phenomena, it is postulated to, first of all, use universal strategies and then take actions directed at a concrete individual and the features of the particular person which contribute to his/her becoming a victim or perpetrator of internet aggression (Guo, 2016, p. 444).

References Beyazit U., Şimşek Ş., Ayhan A.B.: An examination of the predictive factors of cyberbullying in adolescents. „Social Behavior and Personality” 2017, 45(9). Donegan R.: Bullying and cyberbullying: History, statistics, law, prevention and analysis. “The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications” 2012, 3. Electronic Aggression: Technology and Youth Violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [http://www.cdc.gov./violenceprevention/youthviolence/electronicaggression/; accessed on 22.09.2016]. Fanti K.A., Demetriou A.G., Hawa V.V.: A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. “European Journal of Developmental Psychology” 2012, 9. Guo S.: A meta-analysis of the predictors of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. “Psychology in the Schools” 2016, vol. 53 (4). Hinduja S., Patchin J.: Offline consequences of online victimization. “Journal of School Violence” 2007, 6. Hinduja S., Patchin J.W.: Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide. “Archives of Suicide Research” 2010, 14 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45289246_Bullying_Cyberbullying_and_Suicide; 22.03.2016] Hinduja S., Patchin J.W.: Cyberbullying Research Summary: Cyberbullying and Suicide. Cyberbullying Research Center [https://cyberbullying.org/cyberbullying_and_suicide; 22.03.2018] https://www.stopbullying.gov/kids/what-you-can-do/index.html (accessed on 22.03.2018). Isenberger E.: Causes For Counseling: The Degree to Which Cyber Bullying Affects Mental Health. SocialPolicy.org [http://socialpolicy.org/spring-2013/534-causes-for-counseling-the-degree-to-which-cyber-bullying-affects-mental-health-; 14.10.2016].

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Kasikci D.N., Cagiltay K., Karakus T., Kursun E., Ogan C.: The internet using habits and use of safe internet by children in Turkey and in Europe. “Education and Science” 2014, 39. Langos C.: Cyberbullying: The shades of harm. ”Psychiatry, Psychology and Law” 2015, 22 [accessed: https://doi.org/bshs]. Lazuras L., Barkoukis V, Ourda D., Tsorbatzoudis H.: A process model of cyberbullying in adolescence. “Computers in Human Behavior” 2013, 29 [accessed: https://doi.org/bsh4]. Litwiller B.J., Brausch A.M.: Cyber bullying and physical bullying in adolescent suicide: The role of violent behavior and substance use. “Journal of Youth and Adolescence” 2013, 42 [https://doi.org/bsh5]. Miller K.: Cyberbullying and its consequences: how cyberbullying is contorting the minds of victims and bullies alike, and the law’s limited available redress. “Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal” 2017, vol. 26 Issue 2. Monks C.P., Mahdavi J., Rix K.: The emergence of cyberbullying in childhood: Parent and teacher perspectives. “Psicologia Educativa” 2016, 22 [accessed: https://doi.org/bsh7]. Notar C.E., Padgett S.P., Roden J.R.: Cyberbullying: A review of the literature. „Universal Journal of Educational Research”. 2013, 1. Pappas S.: Cyberbullying on Social Media Linked to Teen Depression. LiveScience [http:// livescience.com/51294-cyberbullying-social-media-teen-depression.html; 22.06.2015]. 19. Peker A., Eroglu Y., Ada S.: The investigation of predictors of cyberbullying and cybervictimization in adolescents (In Turkish). “Abant Izzet Baysal University Journal of Education” 2012, 12. Raskauskas J., Stoltz A.D.: Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. “Developmental Psychology” 2007, 43. Sengupta A., Chaudhuri A.: Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? Evidence from survey data. “Children and Youth Services Review” 2011, 33 [dostęp: https://doi.org/b55km2]. Thomas G.: How to do your research project. London 2013. Twenge J.M.: iGen. New York 2017.

Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam South Korea

Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas on Korean Youth Education and Culture and Teaching Method – Based on the Data of University Students* DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.04

Abstract This study aims to examine the current status of Chinese Confucian ideas that have affected Korean youth culture and to draw up more effective education methods. A survey was conducted after teaching three different groups with the use of three teaching methods over two weeks. Before the experiment, Korean teenagers had preferred different teaching methods depending on their origins. However, after learning from the three teaching methods (cramming, mixed, and discussion teaching methods) for two weeks, the participants preferred the discussion method. Thus, the survey found that while Chinese Confucian ideas have a great influence on Korean youth, there is a possibility for change in preferred teaching methods. Keywords: Chinese Confucian ideas, cramming teaching method, mixed teaching method, discussion teaching method

Introduction The purpose of this study is to determine the most effective method for education after examining the influence of Chinese Confucian thought on Korean youth culture. In the section regarding the influence of Confucian thought, I analyze the * This study was supported by the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Research Fund of 2018.

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Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam

junior high school textbook on morals and the high school textbook on ethics to reveal the degree of its influence in Korean education. I then analyze the data collected from administering quantitative and qualitative surveys to 90 students (30 students from each region) from three different universities (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Andong University, and Chonbuk National University) from Seoul, Gyeongsang Province, and Jeolla Province, respectively. Chinese Confucian thought was introduced in Korea after it had been created by Confucius, and has had a great influence on Korean mindsets and behaviors (Nam, Kim, & Kim, 2016). Traditionally, the Koreans accepted Confucian ideas as they were, without objection, because they admired Confucius’ philosophy. Thus, educational customs involved teachers giving lectures and students reciting the lessons of the teachers (Moon, 2011; 2013). Questions and discussions were not required for learning. If Confucius’ thought was interpreted differently, the students were punished (Lee, 1988). During the Chosun Dynasty, teachers were considered to be in the same class as parents, and greatly respected. As a result, what the teacher said was absolutely right. When studying at Seodang in the Chosun Dynasty, the teacher taught in front of the students and the students followed along, memorizing the lesson. The learning atmosphere was very rigid and it was difficult to satisfy students’ curiosity (Oh, 2003). This educational climate has been inherited and can still be seen. As a result, the educational climate in Korea continues to be one of teaching by rote, where teachers teach in front of students and the students accept the information as is. The presented paper aims to determine how this Confucian educational climate influenced Korean youth education culture and what kind of educational methods students prefer. In addition, I analyze junior high school and high school textbooks to see how Confucian thoughts are described. I also analyze how much emphasis is placed on the notion of absolute filial piety, the authority of fathers and teachers, as well as gender discrimination. I then explain teachers’ teaching methods. In addition, in order to increase the accuracy of the survey, I examine regional variations according to the degree of influence of Confucian thoughts after conducting three different educational methods (cramming teaching method (CTM), mixed teaching method of cramming and discussion (MTM), and discussion teaching method (DTM)). I also present the trends of the educational methods that the participants find most effective.

Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas

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Research Methodology The survey was conducted twice. First, questionnaires and qualitative surveys were conducted from July 10, 2018, to August 10, 2018. A lecture was conducted in three different ways over two weeks; I then examined the changes through research. The participants in the survey were 90 university students (30 students from each region) from Seoul (the capital of Korea), the Gyeongsang Province (the southeastern part), and the Jeolla Province (the southwestern part). As the paper examines the influence of Confucian ideas on youth culture and their relevance to educational methods in Korea, I divided the target area into the region where Confucianism elements remain the strongest (Gyeongsang Province), the region in which Western methods of education were quickly adopted (Seoul), and the middle area (Jeolla Province). The research method combines an analysis of the junior high school textbook on morals and high school textbook on ethics with surveys for students. I analyzed these textbooks to determine the degree of influence of Confucian thoughts, and investigated teachers’ educational methods to examine the degree of implementation of those Confucian methods. To examine the most effective educational methods, CTM, DTM, and MTM were used in lectures with the students being surveyed. The survey then asked university students from the three regions to select the most effective teaching method among the three (Moon, Nam, & Kim, 2014). CTM is a teaching method that is considered to be the closest to the Confucian educational method, since the teacher teaches in front of students and the students accept the lessons. DTM is considered to be the most open, in that it gives the students the most autonomy, and MTM is a mixture of cramming and debate. In the paper, I investigate the educational methods that are most preferred by the university students from the three regions and examine the relationship between education methods and Confucian thoughts.

The influence of Confucian ideas Confucian ideas in the textbook In the textbook analysis, the high school ethics textbooks were used as a basis, and the junior high morals textbooks were also analyzed. The ethics and morals textbooks were analyzed because most Confucian ideas are described in them.


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First of all, in terms of filial duty, people usually cite the original text from Confucian scriptures. Although there are cases where people cite Buddhist scriptures known as “Parents’ Immense Grace,”1 most of the citations are from the key books that represent Confucianism, such as “Analects of Confucius,” “Mencius,” “Classic of Rites,” “Sohak,”2 “Myongshimbogam,”3 and “Book of Filial Duty.” Table 1. The contents of filial piety in morals and ethics textbooks of junior high schools and high schools (Choi, 2018). Classification

Original Text

Confucianism

Analects of Confucius

Contents

Textbook

A Sin of Impiety Toward One’s Parents

Morals in the First Year of Junior High School

Specific Contents of Traditional Morality

Morals in the Second Year of Junior High School

Mencius

Five Kinds of Impieties Toward One’s Parents


Classic of Rites

Thinking of Parents, Practicing Good Deeds


Body Given by Parents


Supporting Parents

Traditional Ethics in High School

Manners Toward One’s Parents


Five Kinds of Impieties Toward One’s Parents


Sohak

The Specific Practice of Filial Duty Traditional Ethics in High School Book of Filial Duty Keokmongyokeol by Yi I*

Family Ethics


The Principle of Filial Duty


How to Practice Filial Duty


Serving Dead Ancestors


Myongshim- The Importance of Home bogam The Family Life of Ancestors

1

Morals in the Second Year of Junior High School Morals in the Third Year of Junior High School

A Buddhist scripture emphasizing the depth of parental grace A book created to teach Confucianism for children at the age of about 8 3 A book compiled with a fine collection of Confucian scholars’ writings to educate children 2


Buddhism

Classification

Original Text Parents’ Immense Grace

Contents

55 Textbook

Ten Kinds of Graces of Parents


Ten Kinds of Graces of Parents That Should Be Rewarded


Serving Dead Ancestors


* A book written by Yulgok Yi I (1536 – 1584), a Confucian scholar of the Joseon Dynasty, to teach Neo-Confucianism (1577).

Table 1 refers to filial piety, which is often mentioned in junior high school morals textbooks as well as high school ethics textbooks. This trend is also reflected in elementary school morals textbooks. In other words, Korean teens’ thoughts and behaviors are deeply influenced by acquiring Confucianism for a total of 10 years, with similar content from the third grade through the third year in junior high school to the third year in high school. In the textbooks, filial piety is defined as “the right things for a child to do for his/her parents.” Indicative of a good heart and human nature, it is stressed that filial piety should be expanded from the level of neighbors and society to the level of the nation. In other words, the textbook states that children should expand the filial duty toward their parents to respecting their neighbors; they should form a cooperative community in society, have a sense of belonging to the nation, and develop a universal love for mankind. According to the junior high school morals textbook, “People should be devoted to their parents, and brothers should be friendly” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008a; 2008b) and if filial piety conflicts with loyalty, filial piety should be prioritized, since a lack of filial piety is disloyalty (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008c). Filial piety and loyalty are identified, considering that “If you are not loyal to the king, it is a lack of filial piety; if you go to war and do not win fame, you are not filled with filial piety” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008a). These textbooks reflect the notion of the core idea of Confucianism, i.e., “Home and country are one.” It also defines the father and the king in the same position and rationalizes patriarchy. High school ethics textbooks also emphasize the importance of filial piety. “Having a peaceful family and having friendship in brotherhood,” “respecting the elderly and keeping order in society,” and “being proud as the nation’s people and loving mankind” are also defined as filial piety in the textbooks (Namkung, 2014).

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Such descriptions encourage students to put more emphasis on parents than on themselves, and on groups rather than on individuals. Consequently, they emphasize obedience over personality. In Korea, these textbooks have educated students to practice Confucian thinking by teaching Confucian ethics over a decade of self-formation (Choi, 2014). In the “High School ethics” textbook, conjugal relations are explained by the principle of Yin-Yang (Namkung et al., 2014; Byun et al., 2014; Cho et al., 2014; Jung et al., 2014). It states that men and women should be defined as yang and yin respectively, and that they should be mutually harmonized (Kim, 2018; Kim, 2017). This view, however, reveals the limitation of viewing gender relations as a vertical relationship rather than an equality relationship, as it contains the ideology of Dong, Jung-Seo, in which yin and yang are seen as the relationship between master and servant (the principal and the subordinate) and yang governs yin (Fung, 1992). Meanwhile, the meaning of marriage is described as “the beginning of the marriage of the descendants,” referring to the Confucian book, “Classic of Rites.” The book emphasizes the importance of chastity among married couples by stating that the customs of discrimination against women have existed for a long time and that women were not allowed to remarry in the Chosun Dynasty (Jung et al., 2014). This idea inculcates the traditional patriarchal concept to students by defining marital fidelity as the woman’s duty, along with loyalty to the king and filial piety to parents (Lee, 2014). The idea of equating filial piety with loyalty develops into the concept of equating the teacher with the father and the king (Kim, 2015). The notion that one should honor one’s teacher as if he were filial to one’s parents was absolute to the authority of the teacher. As can be seen in the proverb, “Do not step on the shadows of the teacher,” the teacher’s authority was sacrosanct. In general education in the Chosun Dynasty, the teacher read first and students followed. Questions and discussions were not necessary because students were required to memorize the scriptures mentioned by Confucius. There was a high chance that students would pass when they recited the Confucian scriptures in the civil service exams. In the Chosun Dynasty, they adopted memorization as a very effective educational method. These teaching methods have been passed on to modern times, eventually becoming CTM, wherein teachers teach in front of students and students take notes. Teachers were accustomed to using this teaching method because that was how they learned. Students are comfortable using this method, since they are accustomed to it. CTM is a prime example of how Confucian ideas have influenced Korean teaching methods.


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Most preferred teaching method I asked 90 students who participated in the survey what their favorite teaching method was. Results show that the students of the Gyeongsang Province preferred CTM, those from the Jeolla Province preferred MTM, and those from the Seoul area preferred DTM. Table 2. Which teaching method was most effective for you? (n=90) CTM

DTM

MTM

Seoul

Category

21%

48%

31%

Gyeongsang Province

43%

28%

29%

Jeolla Province

14%

40%

46%

For the students from the Gyeongsang Province, the reason why they preferred the CTM was that they had learned Chinese characters since an early age, so the method of memorization was easy and familiar. Since they studied in both junior high and high school in this way, they preferred memorization, even after entering college. The Andong area is the part of Korea where Confucian customs still have the strongest hold and where Sadoang Chinese character education is still being implemented. On the other hand, the students from the Jeolla Province preferred MTM (46%). The qualitative survey showed that the students relied on the teacher’s explanation, preferring the MTM because they do not have many academies in rural areas. The Jeolla Province is a region which is rich in grain and has a history of being robbed by officials, which has developed a sense of criticism in the population. The students from Seoul preferred the DTM. It is believed that Seoul, the nation’s capital city, has quickly embraced Western methods of education and the students were exposed to educational methods that have allowed them to freely engage in discussions in schools and private academies since childhood.

Research Results Three teaching methods were implemented over two weeks from August 13 to August 27, 2018, to examine the changing process of the most preferred and most effective teaching method. Three lectures were given to the students from three universities in three different regions using three teaching methods. Each teaching method was conducted for two hours on three subjects.


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For example, in CTM, Korean history was divided into the Three Kingdoms Period (57BCE-676CE), Unified Silla (676 – 935CE), Goryeo Dynasty (918 – 1392), the Joseon Dynasty (1392 – 1910), and the Japanese occupation (1910 – 1945); the students were to memorize the important events after the explanations. They were asked to memorize the years of the major events in history and were not allowed any questions or discussions. In MTM, after the Korean culture was explained (Moon, 2012), the students were allowed to ask questions and to engage in discussions. After explaining the three topics, such as with the questions, “What are the meanings of traditional wedding dresses?”, “Why did the Koreans enjoy white clothes?”, and “Why did the Koreans use Ondol (a traditional heating system)?”, they could freely ask questions. Finally, in DTM, I asked them to discuss three topics: “What is the staple food for the Koreans?”, “Why do the Koreans cry out loud when people die?”, and “Why do the Koreans like to do things quickly?” After teaching Korean history and culture through the three teaching methods for a total of 16 hours over a period of two weeks, I asked the students to determine the most effective method and broke down the data according to the place of origin, noting the extent to which the Confucian teaching method remains. Table 3. What is the most effective teaching method for you? (n=90) CTM

DTM

Seoul

Category

11%

58%

MTM 31%

Gyeongsang Province

28%

30%

42%

Jeolla Province

12%

52%

36%

What is noteworthy is that the preferred teaching method for the students changed compared to their preferences before conducting the three experimental teaching methods. After the experiment, the students in the Gyeongsang Province (42%) liked MTM the most, while those in Seoul (58%) and the Jeolla Province (52%) preferred DTM. Table 4. Changing trends in the most effective teaching method (n=90) Category

CTM

DTM

MTM

b

a

b

a

b

Seoul

21%

11%

48%

58%

31%

31%

Gyeongsang Province

43%

28%

28%

30%

29%

42%

Jeolla Province

14%

12%

40%

52%

46%

36%

Note: Before survey = b, After survey = a

a


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These changes appeared to vary from region to region. In the case of the Gyeongsang Province, the most preferred method was CTM (43%) before the experiment. However, that changed to MTM (42%) after it. CTM decreased dramatically, from 43% to 28%, while MTM increased from 29% to 42%. In the Jeolla Province, the most preferred method (46%) was MTM before the experiment, but DTM was the most preferred (52%) after the experiment. MTM decreased by 10% and DTM increased by 9%. In the Seoul area, in the both pre-experiment (48%) and post-experiment (58%) results, the students preferred DTM. Although they preferred DTM both before and after the experiment, the preference increased by 10%. Analysis of the results of this survey shows that preferences in the Gyeongsang Province changed from CTM to MTM, while those in the Jeolla Province changed from MTM to DTM. In other words, the Gyeongsang Province students, who had long been exposed to the Confucian education system, were transformed into students who preferred MTM, who can solve questions and pique curiosity. It can be seen that those from the Jeolla Province were easily converted into those who preferred a discussion culture because they reported a combination of CTM and DTM preferences. In sum, Confucian ideas are affecting not only the educational environment but also the way Korean youth learn. The results showed that the students prefer CTM, and even after being exposed to an environment with free questions and debates, they switched to preferring DTM through a change in preference to MTM, rather than undergoing a drastic change.

Conclusion I examined Chinese Confucian thoughts and the most effective teaching method for Korean youth culture. First, I analyzed Confucian thoughts in junior high school morals and high school ethics textbooks. Confucianism, including such concepts as filial piety, loyalty, patriarchy, and gender discrimination, was widely described in them. Korean teenagers naturally acquire Confucian core ideas by studying Confucianism for about 10 years from elementary school to high school. In this study, the preference of CTM is the most powerful influence of Confucian thoughts on Korean education culture. If one looks at filial piety in the textbooks, Confucian ideas account for as much as 80%, with the exception of “Parents’ Immense Grace,” a Buddhist ideology. These Confucian ideas had the students accept the teacher’s teachings as they were and

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made it difficult to ask questions or point out problems. The results showed that CTM was the most preferred choice in the Gyeongsang Province, where traditional Confucian ideas remained, while free DTM was preferred in Seoul, the most open area, and MTM in the Jeolla Province, the intermediate area. However, after conducting lessons using three teaching methods over two weeks, changes were evident in the Gyeongsang and Jeolla Provinces. In the Gyeongsang area, the preference was changed from CTM to MTM, and in the Jeolla area, it shifted from MTM to DTM. In Seoul, it was found that the students preferred the discussion culture, as they had before. The most preferred teaching method for the Korean youth in this survey was DTM, which allows them to freely express their opinions. However, when we look at the trends of change, we can see that the students do not come to prefer DTM directly, but prefer DTM after changing from CTM to MTM. In conclusion, it can be seen that the influence of Chinese Confucian thoughts on the Korean educational culture influenced CTM (accepting the teacher’s teaching as is), but after the introduction of Western culture, the culture has been transformed into a discussion culture.

References Byun, Sunyong et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Genius Education, 72 – 73. Cho, Sungmin et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Bisang Education, 85. Choi, Moon-Ki (2014). Hyo education through moral and ethical education in Korean secondary schools, The Korean Studies Association. Journal of Korean Ethics Studies, 96, 36 – 41. Choi, Moon-Ki (2018). Critical analysis on contents related to “Hyo”: By moral and ethics text books, The Korean Studies Association. Journal of Korean Hyo Studies, 11, 72 – 73. Fung, Yu lan (1992). A short history of Chinese philosophy. Beijing: Ichinabook. Jung, Changwoo et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Miraeen, 81 – 82. Kim, Dae-Yong (2015). The reargument of traditional ethics in Korean moral textbooks. The Korean Journal of History of Education, 37 (4), 14 – 18. Kim, Dae-Yong (2017). The recognition of gender equality and its undemocratic aspect in the Korean moral textbooks. The Korean Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39 (1), 11 – 17. Kim, Minjae (2018). Study on the re-illumination of “Confucian Marital Relationship” and its methods for moral educational utilization: Focus on the life and ethics subject. The Journal of Educational Research, 71, 77 – 79. Lee, Eun-Soon (1988). A study on the party strifes in late Joseon period. Seoul: Ilchokak, 150 – 165.


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Lee, Sookin (2014). History of fidelity. Seoul: Blue History, 14. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 1st year. (2008a). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 152 – 185; 166 – 173. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 2nd year. (2008b). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 113 – 120. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 3rd year. (2008c). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 134 – 163. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2011). Exploration of various educational measures for Chinese students in teaching modern and contemporary Korean history. Chinese Research, 51, 25 – 45. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2012). The necessity and effectiveness of teaching the history of Joseon Dynasty to Chinese students studying in Korea. Chinese Research, 54, 59 – 81. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2013). An investigation of diverse educational measures for the teaching of Korean history to Chinese students studying in Korea. History and Culture Research, 45, 300 – 301. Moon, Hyoung-jin, Nam, Jong-ho, & Kim, Yongdeog (2014). New measures for the improvement of history education for Chinese students in South Korea. The New Educational Review, 37 (3), 54 – 55. Nam, Jong-ho, Kim, Insik & Kim, Yongdeog (2016). Social science education offered by Chinese departments in Korean universities. The New Educational Review, 44 (2), 17 – 18. Namkung, Dalhwa et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Kyohaksa, 88, 92 – 107. Oh, Ju-Seok (2003). Special lecture in Korea. Seoul: Prunyoksa Publishers, 18 – 40. Park, Sung-Kyu (1999). Chinese philosophy. Seoul: Kachi, 39.

Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska Poland

Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland: A Case Study DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.05

Abstract Effectiveness in publishing is currently the most important criterion in the process of the evaluation of scientific and research units in Poland. In the national evaluations system for such units, this criterion has the largest relative impact on their final assessment and rating, on the basis of which, in turn, financial resources are allocated. The key question in this context was what factors are correlated with publication effectiveness of employees in the domain of science? The aim of the analysis was to determine correlations between selected factors such as an employee’s academic title and position in a scientific unit’s hierarchy or their teaching load and their scientific effectiveness as measured by publications. The study was conducted on the entire staff population of the Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń. As a result, it was found that the selected factors only to a marginal degree were correlated with publication effectiveness in the group studied. Keywords: evaluation of scientific research, publication impact, social sciences and the humanities

Introduction Evaluation of scientific research is one of the most frequently discussed problems in both scientometrics and studies in higher education. The topics covered as part of this broad discussion range from the discussion of existing evaluation systems and implementations of various models in different countries (Bloch & Schneider, 2016;

Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland

63

Hicks, 2012) to research on identifying the most effective and impactful publication models. Scholars’ attitudes toward the evaluation process and its impact on their later careers are also subject to analysis (Rousseau & Rousseau, 2017; Jeran, Kącka & Piechowiak-Lamparska, 2017; Kącka, Michalak & Piechowiak-Lamparska, 2018). Researchers also quite keenly turn to the topic of (broadly understood) scientific performance indicators in attempts to define their role in the process of the evaluation of scientific research in selected countries (Fukuzawa, 2017; Prathap, 2017). In our study, the key issue was the impact of the scholarship work of individual researchers and the factors that might be correlated with it. The purpose of this study was to determine the existence and, if it is confirmed, the nature of the correlation between the impact of researchers’ publications and selected factors such as professional degree or title, and teaching load. The last step in the research was analysis of the results according to the principles and requirements of the Polish model of evaluation of scientific units (Comprehensive Evaluation of Scientific Units), which determines the overall ranking of scientific publications submitted for evaluation by an institution based on journal or channel prestige and parametric impact. The study is based on a detailed analysis of the structure of scholarship work and the variables of the complete population of employees of the Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies (FPSIS), Nicolaus Copernicus University (NCU) in Toruń (Poland). Due to a relatively small sample, the results of the analysis cannot be extrapolated onto the entire scientific community in Poland. Nevertheless, the sample size allows for the research to be considered as a case study, which may be an interesting contribution to any research focused on scholars and research units at a national level, as well as to studies analyzing particular domains of science or disciplines. The basic research question put forward in this paper is: Are selected factors, such as professional degree or title, and teaching load correlated with the impact of scholarship work of individual researchers? The answer is particularly interesting since the presented study is a pioneering one – so far, no results of multi-variate analyses focused on links between a scholar’s publications’ impact and selected variables have been published.

Research Methodology Materials and variables The following data sets were used to perform the presented analysis: 1. Scientific publications of the staff of FPSIS (2013 – 2016, parametric evaluation period).

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Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska

2. Information on key traits of researchers employed by FPSIS: position of an employee in the academic hierarchy as defined by their academic degree or title as recognized in Poland [Master’s, PhD, PhD Hab. (a post-doctoral title), Full Professor], and teaching load (an employee’s number of teaching hours in an academic year). 3. Specific point scores obtained by individual employees were calculated on the basis of publication data from the Expertus system (Bibliography of publications of employees and doctoral students at NCU). The publications were catalogued and aggregated according to the division provided for in the Ministry of Science and Higher Education Regulation (2016). Next, they were assigned parametric points in accordance with the same Regulation and the Catalog of Scientific Periodicals with a full history of their position in the published catalogs of scientific periodicals in the years 2013 – 2016 and corresponding points to be awarded (2017). Objectives of the study The purpose of the study was to determine the existence of (and if existing, the nature of) a correlation between selected socio-demographic variables (independent variables) and the publication impact of researchers employed at the FPSIS as measured by relevant points awarded by MSHE for scientific publications of the unit’s employees depending on their ranking as part of the process of parametric evaluation of scientific and research units in Poland (dependent variable). The following specific research questions were posed: Q1. Is there a statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the scientific hierarchy and the impact achieved by their publications in terms of impactful points obtained during the evaluation, and if so, is it positively or negatively correlated? Q2. Is there a statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the impact achieved by their publications in terms of relevant points awarded in the evaluation process, and if so, is it positively or negatively correlated? These questions led us to the below suggested interlinked answers (research hypotheses): H1. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the unit’s scientific hierarchy and his/her total relevant (impactful) points scored for their publications. Research on the relationship between the scientific title held (or position occupied in the academic hierarchy) by a scholar and their productivity and impact


65

of their publications has been ongoing for many years (Puuska, 2010; Sabharwal, 2013). Results of a study carried out in Italy on a population of nearly 12,000 full professors (Abramo, D’Angelo & Murgia, 2015) clearly show that the position (title) held by an academic significantly differentiates productivity of researchers in terms of publications and resulting impactfulness of their scholarly work. A similar correlation was determined by Jung (2014) in his research focusing on the Korean scientific community. Jung indicates that scientific productivity is variable to a significant degree and dependent on the career stage where the scholars in question find themselves. He also notes discernible differences between various scientific disciplines. Evaluation of one’s scientific performance – specifically, of the impact and quality of one’s scientific publications – is the basis for gaining more advanced degrees and titles. Here, our hypothesis is that the lower the position of an employee in the scientific hierarchy, the more points they would strive to obtain. Several factors would be conducive to such starting-level researchers obtaining a larger number of points for publications. The first is the desire for rapid professional advancement, gaining prestige and recognition in the research community. The second factor is having a good understanding of the evaluation system for scientific publications, which should foster the development of an individual’s publication strategies (e.g., submitting papers exclusively to high-impact journals with a global reach) and their effective implementation. H2. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the number of impactful (relevant) points scored. Similarly as in the case of family obligations, no attempt has been made thus far to investigate the correlation between productivity of academic staff in terms of publications and their teaching load. As mentioned, Cronin & Meho (2007) point out the fact that the model of scientific activity changes with age, and well-established researchers place more emphasis on didactics – especially teaching a new generation of young academics. No one, however, has thus far undertaken a detailed and comprehensive analysis of how the number of teaching hours impacts on employees’ productivity in the academia. In our study, we hypothesized that among FPSIS employees the teaching load is indeed a differentiating factor as concerns productivity expressed in the number of publications. We do understand that in practice, an employee burdened with overtime teaching hours will be less productive and publish less frequently. Success in the academic world, as measured by the publications impact and influence, is, however, conditioned by many more factors than just the number of teaching


66

hours and other didactical obligations. It may depend on, e.g., personality traits (diligence, industry), other contributions to the academic world (involvement in management of a given unit, serving as editor for scientific journals, conference organization), etc. More diligent employees can perform at equally high levels both in terms of scholarship and their didactical work. Characteristics of the data set The collected data set consists of 61 units of enquiry (61 academic employees of the FPSIS), and the analyzed data are mostly quantitative variables. All dependent variables referring to employee publication impact (as expressed by the number of relevant points obtained during the unit evaluation process) are ratio variables. The “degree or academic title” variable, describing the position of an employee in the scientific hierarchy, is an ordinal variable. This gave us an opportunity to analyze and test the statistical significance of the collected data using tools such as regression analysis and correlation coefficients (R-Pearson and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient). The analyzed data set is not a representative sample, but can be treated as an independent and discrete population, thus giving the authors an opportunity to treat their research as a case study. Table 1. Characteristics of the analyzed population N

%

Degree or academic title: Master’s PhD PhD Hab. Full professor

Variables

0 29 22 10

0 47.54 36.07 16.39

Total

61

100

Source: Own analysis.

Research Results General characteristics of FPSIS employees’ scholarly output Statistical analysis of the studied data set shows its wide variability, both regarding the total point scores per employee, as well as in the case of relevant (impactful) points only (Table 2).


67

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of total point scores obtained by employees for publication activity Descriptives Statistic Points by the MSHE

Mean 95% Confidence Interval for Mean

110.481 Lower Bound

90.620

Upper Bound

130.342

5% Trimmed Mean

98.667

Variance

6013.511

Std. Deviation

77.5468

Minimum

13.0

Maximum

454.5

Range

441.5

Interquartile Range

87.0

Skewness

2.110

Kurtosis Mean 95% Confidence Interval for Mean 5% Trimmed Mean Median Variance Std. Deviation

.306

6.782

.604

41.852

4.9233

Lower Bound

32.004

Upper Bound

51.701 37.528 36.333 1478.570 38.4522

Minimum

.0

Maximum

178.5

Range

178.5

Interquartile Range

9.9289

102.136

Median

Relevant (impactful) points

Std. Error

31.0

Skewness

1.804

.306

Kurtosis

3.964

.604


The range between the lowest and the highest point score awarded to an employee was 441.5, and in the case of parametrically relevant (impactful) points, the range was 178.5. The box plot graph (Figure 1) shows two outlier observations in the former and six in the latter case. The classical variation coefficients for the

68



Figure 1. Analysis of the number of total points obtained by an employee versus the number of relevant (impactful) points

analyzed data were 69.6% and 91.9%, which means that with such variability, the arithmetic mean cannot be used as a good measure of the central tendency for this set. For this reason, the median was used as such measure in all further analyses. Analysis of the employees’ points scores from the point of view of the scientific evaluation process of FPSIS showed that the Faculty reported 1200 publications with a total value of more than 7800 points (1077 publications merited points scores according to the MSHE regulation). From this total, 177 of the highest-rated publications were taken into account in the final parametric questionnaire. The cut-off point for publications taken into consideration in the evaluation process was 12 points. The average number of points per publication submitted by FPSIS was 6.6. Finally, the ratio of the number of relevant (impactful) points (i.e., points for publications that were taken into account in the unit’s final evaluation questionnaire) to irrelevant (lost) points was 2010 to 3802. Analysis of the employee


69

publications impact against the structure of scholarly output of FPSIS as a whole (Table 2) allows for drawing the following conclusions: •• 10 employees had zero fully parametrically relevant (impactful) publications, •• 34 employees had 1 – 2 such publications, •• 7 employees had 3 relevant (impactful) publications, •• 10 employees had over 3 publications in that category. Taking into account only the relevant (impactful) point scores earned by the FPSIS employees, it was determined that: •• 8 employees contributed 0 points to the total final score of the unit, •• 7 scholars earned 8 – 15 points, •• 31 researchers brought 25 – 50 points for the unit, •• 15 employees contributed over 50 points to the score, out of whom 5 were responsible for more than 100 points each. Table 3. Structure of overall scholarly output of FPSIS employees Number of publications

Total points

Articles in journals (List A)

4

70

Articles in journals ( List B)

252

2367

Articles in journals (List C)

26

293

Scientific monographs

64

1551

107

510

Type of publication

Editing of multi-author monographic publications Chapters in multi-author monographs

399

1715

Total

852

6506


Verification of research hypotheses The main purpose of the study was to verify the hypotheses posited as possible answers to the research questions formulated. H1. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the unit’s scientific hierarchy and the total relevant (impactful) points scored for their publications. Analysis of the correlation between the position of an employee in the Faculty structure (Table 4) as manifested by the hierarchy of degrees and academic titles held by the employee (independent ordinal variable) and the number of relevant (impactful) points scored (dependent ratio variable) carried out using the Spear-


70

man rank correlation coefficient (rs) showed no statistical significance (p>0.05). This does not allow for a full verification of H4. However, the comparison of median values sheds more light on the matter. Table 4. Analysis of correlation between the position of an FPSIS employee in the academic hierarchy and the number of relevant (impactful) points scored for publications Report Degree or academic title PhD

Sum Median Mean

PhD Hab.

Total

3223.6

Relevant (impactful) points 1320.5

Irrelevant (lost) points 1639.1

94.500

39.000

40.000

111.159

45.534

56.521

Std. Deviation

71.5579

39.0398

43.3127

N

29

29

29

2229.3

755.2

1414.1

Sum Median Mean

Full professor

Points by the MSHE

82.833

25.500

50.167

101.331

34.326

64.278

Std. Deviation

91.1180

38.7090

56.9637

N

22

22

22

1286.4

477.3

749.1

Sum Median

142.667

32.500

65.500

Mean

128.643

47.733

74.910

Std. Deviation

64.9185

37.3984

42.9733

N

10

10

10

6739.3

2553.0

3802.3

Sum Median Mean

98.667

36.333

49.237

110.481

41.852

62.333

Std. Deviation

77.5468

38.4522

48.2933

N

61

61

61

Source: Own analysis. Employees with a doctoral (PhD) degree obtained the most points, both total and as relevant (impactful) points, compared to those holding a post-doctoral degree (PhD Hab.) and the title of full professor. Holders of a PhD Hab. degree obtained the lowest results.


71

It seems, therefore, that the hypothesis that the lower an employee’s position is in the scientific hierarchy, the more points they obtain for their publication is only partially true, specifically, it holds only as regarding the variable of impactful (relevant) points scored. Full professors show a significantly higher number of total points scored, but overall, their publications are much less impactful parametrically (as measured by relevant points). The group of PhD Hab. employees recorded the lowest scores. This conclusion is somewhat surprising and raises the need for more thorough research into the matter. H2. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the number of impactful (relevant) points scored. The use of regression analysis (for the independent variable of teaching load and the dependent variable of total points scored for publications) to test the above hypothesis has led to surprising conclusions. First and foremost, a large teaching load did not negatively impact on the employee’s performance in terms of points earned for publications. We have in fact observed the opposite effect (Figures 2a, b, c, d). Among all the regression models tested using the curve estimation function in the SPSS software, the best-fit and most statistically significant (p