A case study on teaching and learning DNA

US-China Education Review Volume 7, Number 8, August 2010 (Serial Number 69)

David Publishing

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US-China Education Review Volume 7, Number 8, August 2010 (Serial Number 69)

Contents Curriculum and Teaching Multimedia integration for language e-learning: Content, context and the e-dossier Pedro Pablo Sanchez-Villalon, Manuel Ortega, Asuncion Sanchez-Villalon Blog and complex thinking: A case study Maria Altina Silva Ramos Investigation and analysis of current writing teaching mode among English majors in normal universities in China ZENG Hang-li Sexuality education: Analysis of Moroccan teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions Selmaoui Sabah, Agorram Boujemaa, Khzami Salah-Eddine, EL Abboudi Taoufik, Berger Dominique A case study on teaching and learning DNA Thasaneeya Ratanaroutai, Wasu Pathom-aree Learners’ and teachers’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics from a Middle Eastern perspective Fida Atallah, Sharon Lynne Bryant, Robin Dada

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22 28 37

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Educational Management and Policy The effects of globalization phenomena on educational concepts Barbara Theresia Schröttner Educational management in transitionalized world of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University Pornphan Verapreyagura Overcoming of the stereotypes and prejudices for Roma students and their integration in school Rozalina Popova-Koskarova

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62 73

Comparative Education A comparative study of refereed journal articles published by native and foreign born faculty in the United States LIN Zeng, GAO Yan-he Assets for children: Experiences in Asia and implications for China ZOU Li, Michael SHERRADEN

78 87

Teacher’s Education An approach to develop physics student teachers’ skills of using instructional technology Devecioglu Yasemin, Akdeniz Ali Riza Teacher development in China: A study of pedagogical training in TCFL SHI Kun

95 102

Special Education From inclusion to access: Paradigm shifts in special education Diane Schwartz, Elfreda V. Blue, Mary E. McDonald, Darra Pace A preliminary work: A psychosocial support programme for children with special needs Ayla Akbas, Gulsen Varlikli

108 115

August 2010, Volume 7, No.8 (Serial No.69)

US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613, USA

Multimedia integration for language e-learning: Content, context and the e-dossier Pedro Pablo Sanchez-Villalon1, Manuel Ortega2, Asuncion Sanchez-Villalon3 (1. Official Language School, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain; 2. Faculty of Computer Science, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain; 3. College of Agricultural Engineering, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain)

Abstract: In the education world, it is widely accepted that language learning is one of the pioneering disciplines in the application and use of the information and communication technologies, initially preceded by the widespread use of audiovisual resources which, finally integrated in the digital space, bring about the use of multimedia. Additionally, language learning has greatly contributed to standardizing lesson plans. They set the basis for learning design, one of the last advances in the pedagogical organization of education through the use of computers in learning managing systems. Most recently, language learning has also played an innovative role in the implementation of portfolios to education. These three perspectives address different issues for e-learning: the access to content through technology; the design of the learning initially with the help of tutors and then applying institutional frameworks for their own personal learning processes; and the edition of the resulting e-learning experience as evidence with the e-dossier, a part of the e-portfolio. Currently, the web is evolving towards its original function as the read/write web where the user, apart from accessing information, can create their own information and communicate more interactively, using technology-enhanced learning environments to integrate text and multimedia for real audiences both in the classroom and outside. Thus, taking language learning guided by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, the authors present here a complete e-learning system which integrates textual as well as multimedia facilities to acquire learning content, edit learning design and report learning experiences. Key words: e-learning; e-portfolio; technology-enhanced language learning; personal learning

1. Introduction Language lessons have traditionally made use of the multimedia technologies in the classroom and language labs exclusively dedicated to iterative oral activities. They gave rise to the audio-lingual approach, based on conductive methodology, where repetition of drilling exercises in isolation was to be the panacea for learning a foreign language. Learning in this way is proved to be hard to achieve. Then, the communicative approach brought the tape-recorder and the video-player to everyday classroom language activities and they were integrated

Pedro Pablo Sanchez-Villalon, Ph.D., professor, Official Language School, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha; research fields: language learning, e-learning environments design. Manuel Ortega, full professor, Faculty of Computer Science, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha; research fields: computer-human interaction and collaboration, e-learning. Asuncion Sanchez-Villalon, Ph.D., professor, College of Agricultural Engineering, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha; research fields: language learning, computational linguistics. 1

Multimedia integration for language e-learning: Content, context and the e-dossier

in the classroom environment without much distortion, providing appropriate support to practice more successful communicative skills (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). Although a broad definition of e-learning refers to new online ways of learning (Towards a Knowledge Based Europe: European Commission, 2002), the LTSN (learning and teaching support network) Generic Centre (2003) defined e-learning as learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technologies. It includes digital content, is experienced through a technology interface and is Internet-enabled (Zastroky, 2000). The authors’ vision is more specific. Until recently, e-learning has involved using electronic technologies to deliver learning content. Currently, it also implies making use of interactive learning resources through communication facilities. Clark (2003) pointed out the interaction feature and claimed that e-learning exploits interactive technologies and communication systems to improve the learning experience. Applying new emerging web technologies with pedagogical purposes for language learning, it can make use of the web to achieve the new engaging learning based on learning design (practicing and developing authentically communicative skills) rather than merely on the access to content (for practice with quizzes and comprehension questions). While face-to-face communication seems more natural for spoken interaction, online environments are becoming effective for learning mainly through reading, writing and audiovisual interaction. All these can be accessible inside and outside the educational centre, in courses where the learners’ physical presence is not required, such as in distance education, as well as in face-to-face courses with tasks assigned for homework even if the learners cannot be present in the classroom due to whatever circumstances. If the online participation is taken into account in advance, a blended learning course can be designed with some activities at distance and others in face-to-face classes under the monitoring of the tutor in the same physical environment. What is more, this opens up the possibility to let learners organize their own learning and practice on their own or in groups, forming communities of learners who share the same interests in specific disciplines or areas of knowledge. The communication facilities provided by such a system would allow the learning experience designed by the tutor in the technology-enhanced classroom to be also accessible anywhere anytime, thus creating an appropriate environment for the wide-range of perspectives of blended learning (Valiathan, 2002; Driscoll, 2003; Oliver & Trigwell, 2005). Any learning environment should integrate a set of language tools or other reference materials to help learners write naturally accessing information and reference works and collaborating, as it is usual in the real world when communicating formally. As a result, learning would be achieved by using communication devices, sharing resources and information and collaborating in authentic contexts, as a reflection of the learners’ future working life. To do this, not only textual (written) information would be appropriate, but also writing and editing tools (including easy multimedia integration) would be of great help, both for adding and accessing audiovisual content as well as contextualizing the design of the learning tasks and activities. Furthermore, this learning situation can extend into informal learning environments and practices, allowing users to become permanent learners who, after an initial stage of being guided to learning with technology, will be able to design their own learning plans and make use of the web as a social network for accessing information, publishing their achievements in e-portfolios and sharing their learning experience with others by writing about their own learning experiences and thoughts, using micro-resources known as widgets, wikis, blogs and podcasts, on what the Web 2.0 (O’Reilly, 2005) or the read/write web has been termed for their lifelong learning.

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2. Integrative technology for technology-enhanced language learning Basic interactive communication on the web with forms and forums has been improved with new technologies for writing on the web: wikis and blogs (Fichter, 2005). These can make web pages into writing surfaces to publish information. Technology facilitates an integrated learning model (Mason, 1998), full of resources, based on interaction and work in group with material adaptative to the learners’ needs and the evolution of e-learning environments. An integrating model of technology-enhanced language learning (Warschauer & Healey, 1998) embeds appropriate tools to practice and develop the various language skills using the technology in the language learning process. This seems to be the real communicative framework for language learning, which Warschauer (1997) called integrative CALL (computer-assisted language learning). It could also be referred to as integrating model of TELL (technology-enhanced language learning), since it is not the computer, but the use of the technology with ubiquitous facilities (portable devices and wireless web accessibility) that allows and adds an extra value to the learning environment. It integrates the various authentically communicative language skills (e.g., speaking, listening, reading and writing), using the technology into the language learning process. As Warschauer and Healey (1998) reported: In integrative approaches, students learn to use a variety of technological tools as an ongoing process of language learning and use, rather than visiting the computer lab on a once a week basis for isolated exercises (whether the exercises be behaviouristic or communicative).

The web is thus being transformed from what it has initially become, the so-called “read web” to the “read/write web”, which was in fact the original vision of Tim Berners-Lee (1999), the web founder. The web can be used as an e-learning system for reading and writing texts, and uploading and accessing multimedia in an online collaborative learning environment. A series of frameworks and models help to structure this kind of learning with technology (Laurillard, 1993; Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1998; Britain & Liber, 2004; Wilson, 2005; Johnson, et al., 2006). Kearsley and Shneiderman (1998) emphasized the multisensory feature of using multimedia for engaging learning, and Johnson, et al (2006) gave prominence to the role of multimedia resources in a personal learning environments model (Ortega, Sanchez-Villalon, P. & Sanchez-Villalon, A., 2008). 2.1 Developing skills and learning content The web is the largest repository of content and its original functionality was to provide access to materials located in servers: This has been the core strategy for e-learning. However, the web is becoming more versatile. All the new interactive web functionalities can be organized in services offered to web users. If it can design an interactive environment with a learning objective, it can develop an effective e-learning appliance. An appliance comprehends several aspects such as the technological infrastructure required, the organization or planning of its use and, what is becoming more important, the underlying principles for its effective use. While oral interaction is practiced in peer-to-peer language activities, and reading and listening can be practiced on the “traditional” web, a new system would facilitate web-based writing both in an independent way and in collaboration. It would allow learners to write their own texts or participate in collaborative projects, possibly tracking every learner’s actions and contributions for the tutor to monitor and finally assess the writing activity. This interactive online service can be developed initially for language learning to learn how to write by writing, and later it can be extensible to other disciplines, since writing helps to effectively internalize the 3


knowledge acquired from access to and interaction with any kind of information. The facility of writing on the web has been the basis for the development of AIOLE (an interactive online learning environment), which facilitates learning to write by writing on the web with AWLA (a writing e-learning appliance). With the features for collaborative interaction using web technologies, the learning system can be transformed into a read-write surface not only for learning but also for easily editing and designing learning with multimedia resources to report about learning on an e-portfolio with an e-dossier throughout the learners’ life. AWLA (Figure 1) offers some resources (Ortega & Sanchez-Villalon, 2005) such as language tools (a dictionary and access to online dictionaries), grammar analysis at a basic level, a WordNet search facility, a single word translator and a lexicon, accessible from the toolbar in a secondary window (as shown in Figure 1) and communication tools (a web-based simultaneous and permanent chat), text and multimedia file uploading facilities with their automatic visualization, all of which can form part of the set of widgets a PLE (personal learning environment) needs, as Johnson, Liber, Wilson, Sharples, Milligan and Beauvoir (2006) referred in the patterns for a PLE reference model. AWLA can be used as one of the resources to count on in the most recent evolution of learning environment for lifelong learning.

Figure 1

AWLA with language tools and multimedia facilities

Figure 2 Integration of AWLA in Moodle and in Google pages

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AWLA can be easily integrated through a form button or textual/image link in Moodle, so that the user can open the integrated resource for writing on the web in an embedded window. The same technique has been applied in Google pages (Figure 2). The research has extended into the development of an interactive online learning environment (AIOLE) based on this facility of writing on the web, which allows the design of the learning by the teacher or tutor and by the learners themselves, facilitating a truly learner-centered learning environment and advancing to the future lifelong learning tendency. Obviously, the integration of AWLA in AIOLE is complete since the latter is an evolution of the former (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Integration of AWLA in AIOLE

Then, derived from the AWLA facility to write on the web, the blog-like AIOLE provides access to this learning content in the way of LMS (learning management systems), with activities designed by the tutor or copied and pasted from the web. 2.2 Designing learning tasks AWLA leaves the learning design to the tutor or any user with a similar role who is capable of designing the guidelines for a writing assignment. This is possible after they getting accustomed to using the AWLA system a number of times or having the learning experience of using the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Language Learning) descriptors (Figure 4) or the ACTFL (American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages) guidelines offered by the system when creating a new writing scenario. Additionally, AIOLE also offers a set of resources and services which allow the planning of not only writing but fully skill-based learning activities designed initially by the tutor, and then, in a progressively more independent and informal way by the learners themselves on a lifelong learning basis. Centered on these Web 2.0 capabilities, the authors first developed AWLA, a wiki-like system to learn how to write by writing on the web both individually and in collaboration. It allows the tutor to design the language learning task to develop the appropriate language skills with the help of certain educational reference frameworks. Following these reference models and choosing language learning strategies for reading, writing, listening and speaking from the range of some institutionally-established pedagogical frameworks available, such as the CEFR 5


(2001), the USA ACTFL (1999) or others (the Canadian Language Benchmarking—CLB, and the Australian International Second Language Proficiency Rating—ISLPR), the authors have developed really user-centered language learning environments. Here, the tutor can design the language task or assignment and the learners can initially be guided by the tutor to design their learning plans. Later, they can continue their training by designing tasks and practicing strategies on their own just by referring to the language framework available on the system and the great number of language activities on the web (Figure 4).

Figure 4 AWLA scenario edition with access to CEFR and ACTFL guidelines

2.3 Integrating tools for personal learning Under the new modes of learning based on the new e-learning paradigm, learners are the main developers of their knowledge construction and tutors should guide them in the process. To do this, learners should have the possibility to get access to all the information that they need, and tutors should provide them with strategic resources and appropriate pathways to select and experience the knowledge by interacting with information and others, thus help them later develop creative thinking in every chunk of learning in an independent way. Although the objectives of AWLA did not include the functionality of being used for personal learning design, AIOLE was developed with that goal in mind. The authors provided the system with the set of services and resources necessary for personal learning following the PLE reference model (Johnson, et al., 2006) and could give support for that learning in a progressive way since the design is established in a scaffolding way: the design of the discipline syllabuses as determined by the educational authorities or institutions (CEFR for languages and ACTFL). Then, the staff department guidelines can help determine the topics and the notions to apply. The particular tutor can make use of these to design the learning activities and the learners can use them, too, to design their own particular activities and give a report of their learning track (which leads to the e-portfolio initiatives; see e-dossier section below). AIOLE also has a set of web-based communication tools (web-based chat channels and thematic forums), information management, exploration and creation and design facilities, all integrated in the PLE environment at different levels. And all these can be done mainly by writing in the online learning environments provided by AIOLE (Figure 5). AIOLE has some features that are characteristic of LMS: file management (offering access and uploading capacities), communication facilities (such as chat/forums), time organizers (with an agenda) and the possibility to track the users’ actions. It also provides some online learning environment and personal learning environment

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features to help learners take control and manage their own learning: using WebWriter 2.0 for editing tasks, activities and rtf/html files on the web, using AWLA integrated to practice writing and listening with multimedia management, and using the e-portfolio edition (Figure 6) and management, where the learners can design their own learning path, their curriculum vitae or language passport, and their e-dossier, with access to scanned, uploadable certificates and pictures, audio and video files.

Figure 5 AIOLE sets of services for learning

2.4 E-dossier AIOLE serves the current trends of personal learning environments, where the learners control their own learning in a final stage, designing their own learning paths (following super-ordinate institutional learning objectives and e-portfolio practices), searching for learning resources and communities to share their interests to accomplish their learning needs, giving adequate relevance and structure to informal learning to include in their lifelong learning process. The EPL (European portfolio for languages) appeared in the year 2000 as a precedent for the CEFR. The three components of the EPL (linguistic biography, Europass and dossier) were mainly respectively based on the reflect, connect and collect principles, though they all share part of each principle. Soon most textbooks introduced the linguistic biography for reflective self-assessment in the final part of each lesson unit or section and it took the main name of “portfolio” maybe due to the fact that the “raison d’être” of a portfolio is reflexive learning. But the most successful was the Europass (the Europass language passport), a kind of document which the learners use for communicating their language abilities and competencies in a standard and normalized format following the language levels and descriptors established by the CEFR. Following the Europass style, the Europass CV (curriculum vitae) has extended for the standardization of the users’ experiences in all their abilities, skills and disciplines other than languages. Looking for some standard reference frameworks in those disciplines will help extend the effectiveness of this innovative resource again which are first provided by languages. The portfolio and the Europass components have been translated into a digital form (both on CD and on the web) and can be easily created and updated. However, the dossier component is harder to be seen as transferrable in an electronic way. Innovation and creativity are required for the wide use of the dossier in a digital online format. The authors have developed the e-dossier. With the development of AIOLE, the learners can select the CEFR descriptors to match their learning criteria

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and objectives, they can select content initially guided by the tutor progressively in a more independent way, which can give evidence of the learners’ language experiences and level of competence. AIOLE offers the facility to edit, access and update the European language portfolio, with the three components in an electronic online way (Europass, biolingua and the e-dossier). Multimedia in the e-dossier can be used to give evidence of the learners’ linguistic experiences. Learners can edit the e-dossier uploading audiovisual materials to the system. These materials work as evidence of the learners’ achievement, it can also be a demonstration of the product resulting from their learning experiences (art work, audiovisual presentations, etc.) or be official documents which certify their levels of knowledge and experience. They can be pictures taken with their cameras or mobile phones, scanned certificates and diplomas, or previously recorded audio and video files. In AIOLE, a competent ICT (information and communication technology) user can upload them and link to them or existing online multimedia files, easily displaying them embedded when publishing their automatically html-generated web pages. All these can be presented as an evidence of the researchers’ lifelong learning experiences. Thus, based on institutional frameworks for learning, it can integrate pedagogically-driven multimedia to enhance language learning with technology. The writing/reading capacity initially offered by AIOLE can be extended to the development of the listening skill and the viewing and understanding of video files. The initial official learning recommendations and frameworks can later evolve to informal learning environments and practices, allowing users to become permanent learners who, after an initial stage of being guided to learning with technology, will be able to design their own learning plans and demonstrate their own learning experiences.

Figure 6

E-portfolio Europass and e-dossier access and edition in AIOLE

By using official templates, AIOLE offers easy e-portfolio edition with the European language passport and a quite innovative improvement: the implementation of a really updatable e-dossier (as shown in Figure 6), with the facility to upload scanned certificates and multimedia files (pictures, audio and video), used as evidence of the learners’ language learning experiences. AIOLE, with its capacity to write on the web, tries to integrate all these services and makes the personalized edition of the above-mentioned documents possible. These documents facilitate the selection of evidence and self-assessment (with the Europass) and reflection (in the linguistic biography) from the descriptors analysis of the four communicative language skills established by the CEFR. The most important innovation of AIOLE is the production, not only of the Europass and the linguistic biography in a stable, and simultaneously flexible and adaptative form as a service, but also the edition of an e-dossier as an

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electronic dossier, where to include (creating, connecting and uploading on the web) the whole evidence that demonstrates the linguistic experiences of the users by means of multimedia facilities, such as scanned certificates, scanned or digitized photos taken with digital cameras and mobile phones, documents written on the web, sound and visual documents of all kinds. All these are easily done by the users from anywhere at any time with the use of AIOLE systems.

3. Conclusion An online learning environment offers the opportunities for authentic, communicative language activities. Under this perspective, AWLA has been developed as an e-learning skill-based environment, which integrates communication, information search, language tools and multimedia to help learners write naturally in a collaborative way, as it is usual in the real world when writing formally, and to help the users design learning plans. Learning to write with AWLA is based on scenarios, integrating the context, with a possibly authentic audience for the purpose of publishing the resulting writings. AWLA and AIOLE help learners in the evolution and evidence of their learning process. All in all, AIOLE makes the traditional learning evolve to online learning, where learners learn anywhere at any time by sharing resources and information, collaborating as a reflection of the future working life of the learners, and participating in the design of their own learning process. With AIOLE, the learners can also use their own e-portfolio in an easy and updatable way. This is done by accessing the original European portfolio for languages converted in a web-supported digital form. The latest innovation is the capability for the learners to edit and continuously update their own e-dossier, following the standards taken from the Europass initiative. The users can upload their scanned official documents or audiovisual files, and give access to them or existing links on the web, both as a reflection and an evidence of their lifelong learning process. By using the ICTs, learners can follow their learning process and show the achievements as an evidence of their language skills and abilities. That is why this paper focuses on the facilities offered by the e-portfolio in AIOLE as an innovative way for accountability of every learner’s learning outcomes through the access to institutional reference frameworks, as well as access to tools which offer multimedia facilities for demonstration of the language skills and experiences. Learners will be able to make use of the web as a social network, accessing information, publishing their achievements in e-portfolios and sharing their learning experiences with others by using micro-resources known as widgets, wikis, blogs, podcasts, on what the Web 2.0 or the read/write web has been termed for their lifelong learning. References: American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages Proficiency Guidelines. (1999). Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: ACTFL Materials Center. LinguaLinks Library, Version 3.5. Retrieved from http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/ OtherResources/ACTFLProficiencyGuidelines/contents.htm. Amsden, J. (2001). Levels of integration, ECLIPSE, object technology international Inc. Retrieved from http://www.eclipse.org/ articles/Article-Levels-Of-Integration/levels-of-integration.html. Berners-Lee, T. (1999). Weaving the web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web by its inventor. San Francisco: Harper. Britain, S. & Liber, O. (2004). A framework for the pedagogical evaluation of e-learning environments. Bolton Institute. Retrieved from http://www.cetis.ac.uk/members/pedagogy/files/4thMeet_framework/VLEfullReport. CEFR. (2001). Common European framework of reference for language learning, teaching and assessment. Council of Europe. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/documents/Framework_EN.pdf. 9

Multimedia integration for language e-learning: Content, context and the e-dossier Clark, Ch. (2003). Towards a unified e-learning strategy: Consultation document. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Retrieved from http://www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/conResults.cfm?consultationId=774. Canadian Language Benchmarks. (1998). Retrieved from http://www.language.ca/display_page.asp. Driscoll, M. (2003). Blended learning: Let’s get beyond the hype. Learning Circuits. Retrieved from http://sarahbiddlewilliamscom/ articles/driscoll_2003.pdf. EPL. (2000). European language portfolio (principles and guidelines, guides). Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/portfolio. Fichter, D. (2005). The many forms of e-collaboration: Blogs, wikis, portals, groupware, discussion boards and instant messaging. Online, 29(4), 48-50. Ingram, D. E. & Wylie, E. (1999). The international second language proficiency ratings. ISLPR. Nathan, Qld: Centre for Applied Linguistics and Languages, Griffith University. Johnson, M., Liber, O., Wilson, S., Sharples, P., Milligan, C. & Beauvoir, Ph. (2006). Mapping the future: The personal learning environment reference model and emerging technology. In: Whitelock, D. & Wheeler, S. (Eds.). The next generation. Research Proceedings of the 13th Association for Learning Technology Conference (ALT-C 2006). Edinburgh, UK: Heriot-Watt University. Kearsley, G. & Shneiderman, B. (1998). Engagement theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning. Educational Technology, 38(5), 20-23. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking university teaching—A framework for the effective use of educational technology. London: Routledge. Mason, R. D. (1998). Models of online courses. ALN Magazine, 2(2). Oliver, M. & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can “blended-learning” be redeemed? E-learning, 2(1). O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0? O’Reilly Network. Retrieved from http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/ 2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html. Ortega, M. & Sanchez-Villalon, P. (2005). AWLA: A writing e-learning appliance. In: Zogmin, Ma. (Ed.). Web-based intelligent e-learning systems: Technologies and applications. USA: Idea Group. Ortega, M., Sanchez-Villalon, P. & Sánchez-Villalón, A. (2008). Using reference frameworks as a guidance for personal learning environments. In: Richards, G. (Ed.). Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (ELEARN). USA Las Vegas. Chesapeake, VA: AACE, 3873-3878. Valiathan, P. (2002). Blended-learning models. Learning Circuits. Retrieved from http://www.astd.org/LC/2002/0802_valiathan.htm. Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 470-481. Warschauer, M. & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57-71. Wilson, S. (2005). The PLE debate begins. Retrieved from http://www.cetis.ac.uk/members/scott/blogview?entry=20051126183704. Zastroky, M. (2000). Distributed learning, e-learning and e-business: What do they mean. Retrieved from http://www.globaledcom/ articles/ZastrockyMichael2000.pdf.

(Edited by Nicole and Lily)

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Blog and complex thinking: A case study∗ Maria Altina Silva Ramos (Instituto de Educação, Universidade of Minho, Braga 4710-057, Portugal)

Abstract: The access to a vast array of resources is facilitated by the Internet, which, in its turn, does not promote learning by itself as children and young people often use it passively. As a consequence, the teachers’ role is regarded essential so that they are helped to interpret and analyze available information critically. Nowadays, when referring to the web and its importance in the teaching and learning process, people no longer think of read-only contents, but in the supporting infrastructure which allows to create and share contents and a space for collaboration, discussion and ideas associated to the concept Web 2.0. The blog, as a means to deploy the concept “on-line interaction” is, according to Granieri, “The most accessible and natural tool for sharing and publishing, in addition to text, images movies and also sound, will be increasingly disseminated, because of increasing speed of data transmission” (2006, p. 31). It is therefore natural that the use of the blog is more and more frequent as a resource, pedagogical strategy or other capacities at all levels of teaching (Gomes, 2005). Taking advantage of the blog educationally is a recurrent approach in Portugal in recent years. Some work in this area is being closely supervised. The method takes into account the complex thinking model (Jonassen, 1996), more or less explicitly, and is carried out by children and young people in elementary schools. In this paper, a case study is presented based on some blogs, focusing on: the methodology for collection of text and multimedia materials; treatment and analysis of data with the NVivo software; findings and further evolution perspectives. Key words: blog; complex thinking; NVivo

1. Introduction The new technologies have an active and co-structuring role in the models of learning and of knowledge. (Assmann, 2005)

Nowadays, children and the youth live in a perfectly natural way along with the multiple technologies, using them to communicate, research, share, create and, of course, to learn. Today, digital games, virtual worlds, social software Web 2.0 such as blogs, as well as a myriad of software and educational sites are the realities with which this generation of digital natives (Prensky, 2001) interact in a more informal learning context rather than in school. This intense interaction of children and young people with technologies reflects itself in the way they think and learn, making the teachers’ task that helps them use these resources critically, since their spontaneous tendency is to receive both information and contents passively. This reality accentuates the need of a child, from an early stage, to develop reflexive and critical skills in order to learn how to build knowledge. The integrated model of thinking, proposed by Jonassen (1996) presents a model of complex thinking which integrates basic, critical and creative thinking. This model, explicitly or not, underlies some of the educational ∗

The author thanks Filomena Louro from the Programme of Support to the Edition of Scientific Papers at the University of Minho for the translation from the Portuguese version. Maria Altina Silva Ramos, Ph.D., Instituto de Educação, Universidade of Minho; research field: educational technology. 11

Blog and complex thinking: A case study

blogs intended for children and young people in basic education, which the author is currently following, namely in the contexts of teaching and supervision of initial and post-graduate student teaching. In this paper, the author presents an exploratory study based on a number of these blogs. It is an investigative work focussing on a new educational blog analysis angle. Subsequently, due to the easy access to blogs, its public nature and the importance of this matter, the author will continue the study expanding the sample to a broader cluster of blogs and deepening the analysis pertaining both to the quantity of categories and to the inter-relations among them.

2. Study object Exploratory analysis of blogs is in the light of the integrated model of thinking, presented by Jonassen (1996). The goal is getting acquainted with the phenomenon, assessing its relevance and finding a focus for further research (YIN, 2003).

3. Theoretical guidelines 3.1 ICT (information and communication technologies) in education: The case of the blog According to Assmann (2005, p. 19), “The information and communication technologies have become a constituent element of our ways of seeing and organizing the world”. Frequently, technologies are perceived as a simple means of accessing information and rendering the subject inactive in its reception. Now, if we need information to acquire knowledge and the latter to achieve wisdom (Goldsborough, 2000), technologies must be employed “as the instrument to learning and the collaborative construction of knowledge” (Dias, 2003). The technologies “facilitate the entrance to an enormous and diverse set of resources, but do not directly encourage learning” (Hill & Hannafin, 1997, p. 37) that demands an effort of personal creation. The author shares the opinion of Carioca, et al., when pertaining to the use of information and communication technologies at school, they claimed that the students “need to develop an approach and a critical conscience concerning the information and communication technologies, seeing as the technology can be used and overused in several aspects” (Carioca, et al., 2005, p. 12). In this context, the role of the teachers and childcare workers is foregrounded so as to help students use these resources critically, since their spontaneous tendency is to receive both information and contents passively. The blog, as a means of deploying the concept of “on-line interaction” is, according to Granieri (2006, p. 31), “The most accessible and natural of the tools meant to the sharing and publication aside from text, images, films and sounds, that progressively, with the increase in the speed of data transmission, will spread growingly”. This means, complimentarily amongst the diverse communication formats, based on the Web 2.0 applications, allows a greater effectiveness in the creation and diffusion of the message. It is therefore natural that the use of the blog is a more frequent resource, as a pedagogical strategy or in other competences in all levels of teaching (Gomes, 2005). Pombo (2007), considering the viewpoints of several authors, found that the use of the blog allows “the development of innovative and transforming activities ... (and develops) in the students the ability of making decisions and defining personal and group objectives, the sense of belonging and responsibility, originality, creativity, communication and socialization, construction of knowledge and their own identity” (p. 3). Efimova and Fiedler (2004, p. 493) called attention to the fact that one of the most interesting characteristics of learning in a blog is the “support for the development of meta-learning skills. The externalization of inner 12


conversations and reflective thinking makes this content available for review and development, thus encouraging and amplifying the acquisition of better skills for self-observation and intentional change”. Consequently, the public exposure is inherent to the fact that we are dealing with an on-line resource, which increases the responsibility and the effort to improve students’ productions in terms of expansion, deepening, reformulation and even creation of new topics. The comments and the answers to many proposed challenges allow the development of different forms of cognitive skills. Since the ultimate goal of education is preparing students to be lifelong learners and competent citizens, able to control technology and survive in a technological world, it is up to the school to create learning environments that encourage the development of high-level thinking skills, amid the reflexive, critical and creative thinking. 3.2 From basic to critical and creative thinking: The integrated model of thinking The integrated model of thinking defines complex thinking as an “interactive system, not a collection of separate skills” (Jonassen, 1996, p. 27). It is, accordingly, a continuous process of articulation and inter-dependence of three basic components: content/basic thinking, critical thinking and creative thinking skills. Content/basic thinking refers to the fundamental knowledge, “skills, attitudes and dispositions required to learn accepted information such as basic academic content, general knowledge and common sense, and to recall this information after it has been learned” (Jonassen, 1996, pp. 28-29). It includes, therefore, the process of learning and of retrieving what has been learned. Critical thinking, associated to the capacity of reorganizing ideas and knowledge “involves the dynamic reorganization of knowledge in meaningful and usable ways … it involves three general skills: evaluating, analysing and connecting” (Jonassen, 1996, p. 29). Creative thinking, linked to the ability of generating new knowledge, “requires going beyond accepted knowledge to generate new knowledge. The major components of creative thinking are the ability to synthesize, imagine and elaborate” (Jonassen, 1996, p. 30). During the fulfilment of activities, the students engage in a continuous process of complex thinking in which they combine the three types of thinking mentioned before. In the case of blogs, the presented activities do not always reveal those three types of thinking, which does not mean that they did not occur during the work performed in class.

4. Methodology 4.1 Data collection In line with Strauss and Corbin (1997), a researcher has to choose a group where he/she can find evidence of the phenomena he/she intends to study. Thus, as this is an exploratory study, the author has selected seven educational blogs, integrated in the curricular work of the class, which were intended for children and young people in pre-school and elementary education, who the author is currently following in the contexts of teaching and supervision of initial and post-graduate student teaching. It was, therefore, a theoretical sampling which sought not the representation of the sample, but the representation of concepts (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). The author chose blogs in operation for more than a school year and relative to different teaching levels. The first blog to be indicated is for pre-school/kindergarten (3-5 years), the last is for junior high school (12-15 years) and all the others for elementary school (6-9 years). After the URL (uniform resource locator) of each blog, the name of the teacher/administrator is given: (1) Ádila Faria: http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com;

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(2) Escola de Ferreiros: http://www.osferreiritas.blogspot.com; (3) José Dias: http://eirinha-turmae.blogspot.com; (4) Helena Vilas-Boas: http://magnificos06.wordpress.com; (5) Helena Daniela Freitas: http://novaeralusitana.blogs.sapo.pt; (6) Escola do Fujacal: http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com; (7) Paulo Faria: http://paulofaria.wordpress.com. All blogs present other communication formats aside from writing: text and image; text and sound; text, sound and image; slideshow and video. They are, hence, multimedia data that can be cropped in NVivo, some as documents, others as externals. 4.2 Data analysis Following these blogs allowed the author to obtain a holistic vision of the data and to be aware of the large number of categories and the possible connections between them. It was due to this vicinity and familiarity with the data, that the author started to relate them to the integrated model of thinking by Jonassen (1996). Jonassen identified a set of descriptors that allow accomplishing the function of the basic, critical and creative thinking. Initially, the previous structuring of the categories of analysis based upon those descriptors appeared to be a benefit for the analysis and therefore, the author created such a structure. However, in the early steps of the process, the author deemed this structure an impediment, almost mechanizing the analysis procedures, when what interested the author most was exploring the issues and understanding the phenomena. As a result, the author decided to alter the strategy of the analysis. The author acknowledged that Jonassen’s model was ultimately a strong influence, mainly in the final stage of the analysis process, as noticeable in the findings of this study. The author opted for the typical grounded theory techniques that the author normally used in the analysis of qualitative data. Glaser and Strauss (1967), creators of the grounded theory, and later, Strauss and Corbin (1997, pp. 57-58), considered that, “The analysis is composed by three types of codes: open coding, axial coding and selective coding ... the separation between each type of coding is artificial ... (it) doesn’t necessarily happen in stages. In one session of coding the researcher may need to move from one to the other”. In fact, this happened in the author’s analysis. According to the above-mentioned researches, the first and most important moment when performing an analysis is the developing of an open coding as extensive and wide as possible. It involves segmenting, examining, comparing and conceptualizing data through a constant comparative method (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). Concepts “are the basic units the researcher works with” (Strauss & Corbin, 1997, p. 63). Conceptualization of data means no more raw and descriptive data: Concepts are identified and attributed a conceptual label, the code. That code will be used to label similar incidents so that it is also the first step into data reduction. The intention of giving precision and specificity to the concepts creates an increasing number of codes at an initial phase. Concepts are then grouped into conceptual categories, a process called categorizing, which is one more step in data reduction. It is a process of de-contextualization of data: Fragments of text are taken from their natural context and transferred to a conceptual context, the categories. The original data were not changed and with NVivo that it is possible to have an easy and fast access to the original context of a segment coded under any category. In this stage, many emerging categories were identified. The axial coding consists of a set of proceedings that aim at restructuring the data coded through the open coding. The categories are “analyzed by their specific characteristics and then reorganized according to the connections between them” (Strauss & Corbin, 1997, p. 97). 14


This examining of the specific characteristics of a category, now under the perspective of an axe, as well as the construction of a network of conceptual connections with other categories, has led the author to the identification of some of the main categories and the subcategories around them. Strauss and Corbin (1997, p. 98) stressed that, “Even though open and axial coding are distinct analyses procedures, during the analyses the investigator alternates between them”. Axial coding function is used to develop the categories and the articulation among them. While open coding is above all intuitive and emerging, axial coding is intentional and more complex. The technique of constant comparison is still used, but in a more focused way, examining one category at a time and trying to find out how other categories and subcategories related to one another. At this stage of the analysis, the author frequently used Jonassen’s (1996) descriptors for the basic, critical and creative thinking departing from them, and also from Bloom’s revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) in order to name concepts/categories of analysis for the various activities presented in each blog. The most abstract, integrated and complex stage of the analysis is the last one: selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). Selective coding happens when the analysis circumscribes coding only to central categories. In this final stage, a “story line” is constructed, supported by a central category, which must be easy to find as it reflects what is more important to the participants, and by the connections between it and the other more relevant categories of the study. The implementation of these conceptual procedures was through NVivo, a “software designed to assist management and analysis of qualitative data .… It can be used to explore trends, build and test theories, and manage, code, interpret, and analyze qualitative data by eliminating the need for many of the manual tasks traditionally associated with qualitative analysis” (Sorensen, 2008, p. 106 ). In NVivo, firstly, the author categorised the entire corpus through the open coding process; afterwards, via the queries and using special Boolean and contextual operators, the author proceeded to the axial and selective coding. The findings presented next are the outcome of this analysis process.

5. Findings Jonassen’s (1996) integrated model of thinking explains the mental processes which occur in a continuum and articulated way in the construction of knowledge. In this context, to think in a complex form consists in relating and activating in an interdependent way and basic, critic and creative skills. It is therefore an interactive system, not a collection of separate skills. There are presented separately for the sake of analysis, but the author assumes that underlying critical and creative thinking are always basic skills, the first moment in the process of development of a higher order level of skills. Even if this study is centred in cognitive competence, the author shall refer briefly the socio-affective competences and the role of the teacher/administrator of the blog. Considering: (1) the required size of the paper format; (2) the fact that often short extracts do not illustrate adequately the respective category, requiring access to its context; and (3) much of the information in the blogs is in multimedia format, the author shall present the links connecting to the examples which is another advantage of the digital.

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5.1 Basic thinking Basic thinking is thought process which students use to acquire or retrieve from memory previously acquired knowledge. This elementary content thought process represents the competences, attitudes and conditions required for the reception of basic information of contents using this information after it was comprehended. Identifying and describing links are: (1) http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2009/01/maior-flor-do-mundo-de-jos-saramago.html; (2) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2008/05/; (3) http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com/2008_06_01_archive.html; (4) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1690539/#cmts. Sometimes it is the teacher himself/herself who asks explicitly for this type of task. Remembering, recognising, recalling and reproducing information links are: (1) http://novaeralusitana.blogs.sapo.pt/tag/distritos; (2) http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2008/11/o-infante-d-henrique_10.html; (3) http://eirinha-turmae.blogspot.com/ (O Passeio escolar). Understanding, exemplifying and summarising links are: (1) http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com/2008/06/os-direitos-das-crianas.html; (2) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2008/02/; (3) http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com/2008/06/entrevistas-para-conhecer-melhor-o.html. Applying links are: (1) http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2008/03/o-nosso-p-de-feijo.html; (2) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2006/09/27/; (3) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1785066/; (4) http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html. As it can be seen in these examples, almost all the posts blogs of a class refer to the acquisition and application of information, often fragmented, relating to contents from various curricular areas. This work has an educational value because writing about the contents is one more opportunity for students to practice writing, which, in turn, favours comprehension and cognitive development, since writing reaches a more general level of the mental processes (Sablé & Bouyssou, 1995). Even if writing is predominant, except in the kindergarten blog, the information and/or representation of ideas is often presented in multimedia format (image, sound, slideshow and video), developing digital literacy which is more necessary each day. This articulation of different means and strategies to apprehend contents which the blog provides very easily is an interesting form not only of helping pupils to understand better the contents studied but also of developing higher order thinking skills. In fact, the complementary quality of text, sound and image in the creation of a non-linear work requires a variety of skills: analysis and definition of criteria for the use of each of the means and their interconnection. Therefore, what may appear as traditional learning, after all, in constant interaction with critical and creative thinking, depending only on the pedagogical intentionality of teachers. 5.2 Critical thinking Critical thinking is a higher order rational and reflexive thinking. It is manifest when pupils become involved in the dynamic reorganisation of knowledge, giving its meaning. This reorganisation is carried out based on the analysis, evaluation and in the connection between acquired knowledge and other pupils already possessed. 16


Many creative thinking skills are closely tied to critical thinking skills, so under this topic we can also find elaborating e-synthesizing for instance, which Jonassen (1996) included in creative skills. Analyzing links are: (1) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2007/05/24/leitura-e-livros/; (2) http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2008/02/todos-crescemos.html. Monitoring link is: http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/category/teste/ (preparação para o teste). All the interventions of the teacher/administrator of the blog http://paulofaria.wordpress.com in individual blogs of students. Expanding and elaborating links are: (1) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/category/teste/ (preparação para o teste); (2) http://ritaduarte.blog.pt/4514625/#cmts; (3) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2009/01/07/batalha-de-aljubarrota/#comments. Connecting link is: http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2009_01_01_archive.html. Semantic map, less cognitively demanding the cognitive map, helps students to remember and activate prior knowledge by establishing relationships between them and between words: (1) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1694799/#cmts; (2) http://www.vuvox.com/presentations/0c62aedb9; (3) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2008/12/07/o-velho-e-o-mar-ernest-hemingway/#comments. Synthesizing links are: (1) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2008/05/21/laboratorios-ciencia-e-tecnologia/; (2) http://osferreiritas.blogspot.com/2008/11/palestra-com-o-sr-lopes-bancrio.html; (3) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2008/11/02/entrevista-a-valter-hugo-mae/. Evaluating links are: (1) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2007/06/14/avaliacao-final/; (2) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2007/06/15/o-blogue-que-nos-faz-pensar/; (3) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2007/11/26/esta-ai-o-natal/; (4) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2008/12/16/votacao-no-melhor-blogue/#comments; (5) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2008/03/06/o-reconhecimento-do-vosso-trabalho/#comments. 5.3 Creative thinking Creative thinking occurs when tasks stimulate the imagination, generating new knowledge. As the author mentioned before, creative skills are complementary aspects of critical thinking, so they are interrelated. The links of thinking analogically are: (1) http://novaeralusitana.blogs.sapo.pt/8861.html; (2) http://novaeralusitana.blogs.sapo.pt/tag/imagina%C3%A7%C3%A3o; (3) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/page/17/ Eu sou. The links of producing original ideas or new products are: (1) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1757660/#cmts; (2) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1785066/#cmts; (3) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2007/02/ O Monstro; (4) http://novaeralusitana.blogs.sapo.pt/2007/11/; (5) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/Histórias/; 17


(6) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/Escrita%20Criativa/; (7) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2007/03/21/proposta/; (8) http://eirinha-turmae.blogspot.com/2008/05/nossa-amiga-professora.html; (9) http://magnificos06.wordpress.com/2008/02/14/cartas-de-amor-ilustradas/; (10) http://luisacmfreixo.blog.pt/4075156/#cmts. 5.4 From basic to critical and creative thinking Elementary knowledge contents are in constant interaction with critical thinking as they constitute the basis from which they operate. In blogs, both the comments, intentional or not, and the explicit action of the teacher/blog administrator promote these processes. In these examples, comments could lead pupils in the first case to expand, elaborate and relate knowledge, reflect and argue and propose original and reasoned alternatives. It has been agreed that teachers do not always have the opportunity to answer these challenges or even have the time to load all the information on the blog, which does not mean that the issues were not explored in the classroom context, as the author is aware that it often is the case: (1) http://oaprendizfujacal.blogspot.com/2008_04_01_archive.html; (2) https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=6179797685888543441&postID=4623706217699800548; (3) http://eirinha-turmae.blogspot.com/2008/05/arca-das-trapalhadas.html; (4) http://historiasdojoao.blog.com/4081250/#cmts. There are some cases, as the author shall explain next, where the reactions to the stimuli are presented in comments, making in this way visible that from basic thinking, how pupils evolved to critical and creative thinking: (1) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1597311/#cmts; (2) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1531847/#cmts; (3) http://joaofernandes.blog.pt/4308058/#cmts; (4) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2009/01/07/batalha-de-aljubarrota/#comments. 5.5 Complex thinking: An example A case will be presented by the author to illustrates the development of the skills that integrated complex thinking, even if the predominant remains critical thinking as an antidote to reproductive, lower-order learning: “Reproductive learning leaves students with fragments of information that are not well connected or integrated” (Jonassen, 1996, p. 24). The author refers to the maps of concepts and graphical representations of knowledge through the concepts and the relations between them. This work shows not only the knowledge of the pupils but also the ways in which each one organises such knowledge. Each pupil’s map reflects their individual conceptual understanding of the same subject, therefore, all will be different and none can be seen as “wrong”: (1) http://pedrodfr.wordpress.com/2008/11/25/136/; (2) http://andreiasofias7.blogs.sapo.pt/13806.html; (3) http://andreiasofias7.blogs.sapo.pt/13806.html?thread=7406; (4) http://saracrisf.blogs.sapo.pt/27897.html; (5) http://www.scribd.com/doc/8416227/Consilio-dos-Deuses. The creation of a conceptual map is hard work: When doing this work, the pupil is working on his/her own cognitive structure, learning to learn, so he/she has to know the contents, organize and articulate ideas and express them visually. To produce these conceptual maps, pupils have to know and explain similarities, differences, 18


relations between relative concepts, in this case the epic poem The Lusiads. They also had to learn how to use the technology to create maps of concepts. In this work, pupils were involved in a continuous process of complex thinking, which starting from basic thinking required critical thinking and simultaneously stimulated creative thinking, providing a truly integrative learning situation (Ausubel, 2003). Pupils need to develop critical and creative thinking since these thinking abilities are necessary to move their learning “beyond memorization or passive acceptance, to understanding and the commitment to persevere until clarity and insight are achieved” (n. a., n. d.). The role of the teachers in helping improve students’ critical and creative thinking abilities is essential. 5.6 The role of the teacher/administrator Discussion of the teachers’ role in fostering critical and creative thinking must begin with a recognition of the teacher as a person whose unique character, interests and desires can not be separated out from the idea of the teachers’ role. Good teachers are doing more when they teach than acting according to prescribed roles. Their desire to nurture a love for learning, help students recognize and act upon their capabilities, and establish a classroom climate which is based upon mutual regard and respect that makes their teaching purpose and meaning beyond any technical description of the teachers’ role. What is required is that teachers should be authentic individuals who are striving to improve their practice through the use of critical and creative thinking. Acting upon their believes in the importance of critical and creative reflection, teachers would attempt to. In this point, the author shall select two blogs where the proposals and challenges of teachers/administrators lead towards the development of high order level skills. In the first blog, this intention is visible in the explanation of the educational interest of the activities the children develop as part of the curricular guidelines for kindergarten, both in the posts as in the replies to the comments: (1) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/Escrita%20Criativa/; (2) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/Experiências/; (3) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/1638410/#cmts; (4) http://jicheleiros1.no.sapo.pt/videoconf.html; (5) http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com/Pais/; (6) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/. The second blog is intentionally oriented towards the development of critical thinking as the author explicitly refers when talking about the activities (http://recursoseb1.com/milp/?p=135). This is a blog by a Portuguese language teacher where there are links to the individual pupils’ blogs. The teacher, in articulation with the work performed in the classroom, loads on his blog the proposed activities. Pupils’ replies are mainly presented in their own blogs. The teacher comments these works by the pupils, evaluates them, proposes and follows the alterations requested. The pupils comment and help each other. The intellectual, social and affective involvement of all those intervening in these interactions is quite visible, both in pupils and the teacher. 5.7 Socio-emotional skills The interaction and sharing attitude is established between pupils, teacher, family and the community suggests that the socio-emotional dimension is important for the learning process. It is realized, mainly in the blog http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/, that pupils, when sharing doubts and knowledge, assume the responsibility of their learning and that of their peers as they answer to their doubts, suggest other study resources, look for 19


information that they will share later. It can witness, therefore, a great investment in collective work. (1) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2009/01/30/preparacao-para-o-teste/; (2) http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/2008/11/29/teste-de-lingua-portuguesa-ii/. Public exhibition of work may include errors which indicate that pupils feel confident when having done their best; they will share it and be prepared to receive criticism and suggestions. Often they ask for help in specific aspects. They agree to correct their work several times, after suggestions from the teacher, peers and other commentators, revealing persistence and a determination to improve. This collaborative and comfortable environment and the constant support by the teacher/administrator interfere in a positive way in the learning process. However, important the technologies may be, it is the author’s conviction that “at the core of pedagogical quality lie the human interactions, among which it grows and develops. In the context of ICT as in any other, it will be found in the teacher-pupils interaction … supporting, stimulating and challenging them to learn using ICT” (Efimova & Fiedler, 2004, p. 12).

6. Conclusions and further evolution perspectives These findings can be concluded that: (1) The users’ spontaneous interventions show characteristics of basic thinking; (2) Evidence of critical thinking can be found in two contexts: as reaction to a direct challenge, proposed as a comment by a visitor; or as an answer to the tasks oriented to this type of thinking proposed by the teacher; (3) Creative thinking is rare and appears almost always as a reply to the moderator’s incentive or that of an attentive specialised user; (4) The role of the blog administrator/teacher is paramount in the development of critical and creative thinking in the context of blog on-line interaction. Therefore as this is an exploratory study, the author will present the following guidelines for further research: (1) Analysing other educational blogs in the light of Jonassen’s model; (2) Studying strategies by using the comment model in order to propose activities oriented towards the development of critical thinking; (3) Analysing the two blogs (http://dajaneladomeujardim.blog.com and its sequel in http://janelajardim. ning.com and http://paulofaria.wordpress.com/) where the presence of both critical and creative thinking is evident in the light of the conceptual model for on-line learning (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000) whose core elements are cognitive presence, social presence and teaching presence. The socio-emotional skills as the role of the teacher/administrator may be fundamental to the development of the high order level thinking which characterizes complex thinking; (4) Studying the adaptation of the Garrison, Anderson and Archer’s model to the wider field of on-line evaluation. According to Pessoa (2009), “The concept of evaluation requires valuating the methods and the activities which allow the learner to rescue his learning capacity, improve it and integrate it in the contemporary digital society and/or social web”. References: Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley. Assmann, H. (2005). Digital networks and metamorphoses of learning. Petrópolis: Vozes Editora. Ausubel, D. P. (2003). Acquisition and knowledge retention: A cognitive perspective. Lisboa: Plátano Edições Técnicas. Carioca, et al. (2005). ICT in early childhood: Handbook for trainers. Badajoz: Kinderet Publication.

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Blog and complex thinking: A case study Dias, P. (2003). Networks and distributed learning communities. Retrieved September, 2007, from http://www.cceseb.ipbeja.pt /evolutic2003/cp_1.htm. Efimova, L. & Fiedler, S. (2004). Learning webs: Learning in weblog networks. In: Kommers, P., Isaias, P. & Nunes, M. B. (Eds.). Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference Web Based Communities. Lisboa, Portugal: IADIS Press, 490-494. Garrison, R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105. Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing. Goldsborough, R. (2000). You have got e-mail. Reading Today, 17(5), 11. Gomes, M. J. (2005). Blogs: A pedagogical tool and a teaching strategy. In: International Educational Technology Symposium Proceedings. Portugal: Leiria, 311-315. Granieri, G. (2006). Blog generation. Lisboa: Presença. Hill, J. R. & Hannafin, M. J. (1997). Cognitive strategies and learning from the World Wide Web. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(4), 37-64. Jonassen, D. H. (1996). Computers in the classroom-mind tools for critical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Prentice Hall. Pessoa, T. (2009). Presentation of the panel “on-line evaluation”. Retrieved January, 2009, from http://challenges.nonio.uminho.pt/ pages/temas.html#. Pombo, T. S. (2007). Weblogs in education: An experience in the teaching and learning of Portuguese and ICT. In: Brito, C., Torres, J. & Duarte, J. (Eds.). Proceedings of Weblogs in education: Three experiments, tree testimonials. Setúbal, 55-74. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. Retrieved September, 2008, from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/ Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf. Sablé, P. A. & Bouyssou, G. (1995). Learning thanks to word processor. Toulouse: Albin Michel. Sorensen, A. (2008). Use of QSR NVivo 7 qualitative analysis software for mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 2(1), 106-110. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1997). Grounded theory in practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. YIN, R. K. (2003). Case study research, design and methods. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.


21



Investigation and analysis of current writing teaching mode among English majors in normal universities in China ZENG Hang-li (College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China)

Abstract: This paper has made an investigation on the current writing teaching mode among English majors in normal universities in China, by means of questionnaire, interview and class observation. The study finds out that the current writing teaching mode is not purely product approach or process approach. In fact, the two approaches to writing co-exist in today’s English writing teaching, with product approach to writing enjoying a relatively dominant place. Problems are discovered of this writing teaching mode, such as students’ inactive involvement in the class. Then, this paper focuses on the teachers and students to find out the reasons. At last, the author proposes MAP-CORE framework for English writing class. Key words: product approach; process approach; college English writing teaching

1. Introduction In the past decades, some Western linguists and teaching researchers made a great effort to do a lot of researches and practices on how to teach English writing effectively, among which the process approach and the product approach were mostly disputed. Meanwhile, English writing reform in Chinese universities experienced a shift from a product-oriented approach to a process-oriented approach. The two approaches had their dominant positions. Before the late 1970s, the product approach was the mainstream of writing research; while after that time, the process approach gradually substituted the former. This paper has made an investigation on the status quo of English writing teaching mode among English majors of normal universities in China. Then it mainly discusses the result of the investigation and provides readers with some pedagogical implications on the teaching mode of English writing.

2. Literature review In recent years, with the development of English teaching and educational reform, more and more attention has been paid to the study of English writing in China. In Chinese universities, especially in normal universities, many scholars and professors had rounds of heated discussion on the product-oriented approach and the process-oriented approach in English writing classes. Yet no definite conclusion has been made. Both of the approaches have their strong and weak points. 2.1 Product approach to English writing In the product approach, compositions are judged as final products and the evaluation of writing skills is

ZENG Hang-li, postgraduate, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University; research field: translation and English teaching. 22

Investigation and analysis of current writing teaching mode among English majors in normal universities in China

done on the basis of timed production of grammatically and lexically accurate texts (Porto, 2001). The tasks are those in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms models provided by the teacher and/or the textbook (Nunan, 1991). Teachers give a general explanation of certain writing skills and assign a topic to students, and then students finish the task individually and hand in their work (the product) to receive comments from the teachers. Learning to write generally has four stages: familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing (Badger & White, 2000). 2.2 Process approach to English writing In process approach to writing, teaching focuses on the writing process rather than the final product. The most important principle of process approach is that writing is a self-discovery process and the result is very complex, highly individualized process, it is a form of self-expression, an idea-making activity and ideas develop as one writes. Raimes (1991) commented that the process is not liner at all but recursive. Writing is itself an idea-formation process which involves communicating with readers. The approach stresses quantity rather than quality, and it also encourages group work or peer work which would involve a lot of collaboration and cooperation between learners (Nunan, 1991). 2.3 The main remarks from Chinese scholars In China, essays and papers which focus on the English writing have frequently been discovered in journals. Scholars like LI (2000), LUO (2002), ZHANG (2005) and CHEN (2005) have already done researches on product and process approaches to writing. In LUO’s (2002) research, she held that both product approach and process approach to writing instruction contribute to the gains of writing proficiency for English students at Chinese EFL (English as a foreign language) colleges, and that product approach to writing instruction is more effective than process approach for college English students in the very distinctive EFL context in China. Process approach has demonstrated some strength in helping college English students change their attitudes positively towards writing in English. ZHANG (2005) considered a new English writing model with process-writing as the classroom organization accompanied by product approach as an assistant. His research found out that the process-centered new model was more effective than traditional model of product approach in EFL college English context in China. It has been found out that the process teaching, as revealed in the present study, has exerted positive influence on students.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research questions Q1: What are the characteristics of the English writing teaching mode for English majors in normal university? Q2: What are students’ attitudes towards the English writing? Q3: What are the major problems of this teaching mode? 3.2 Subjects The 225 subjects are from Zhejiang Normal University (ZJNU) in China, for they are at the medium level of the nation’s English teaching environment. Thus, they can be representative. 3.3 Instruments (1) The questionnaire is the main approach for this study, which contains ten questions. All the ten questions

23


are designed on the basis of the features of the product approach and process approach to writhing; (2) Class observation: Two months are spent on class observation; (3) The interview: Fifty students are inspired to talk freely on their English writing.

4. Results and discussion The process of survey, data collection and analysis covers a period of more than two months from October to December in 2009. All the questionnaires were collected immediately after the survey and corrected for data collection. The return rate is 98.7% with three invalid questionnaires written with some blank answers. The results for each item were collected afterwards. The following tables would illustrate the general results of this research, based on which some important issues would be discussed according to the research questions. 4.1 The current situation of English writing teaching mode From Table 1, it is easy to find out that English writing teaching is still taught with a traditional teacher-centered method. The teacher speaking time takes up seventy-five percent of the total class, while students speaking time is only thirty-three percent. There is little pair work and group work, let alone the game. However, it does not mean that teachers want to dominate the class. During the class, the teacher encourages students to speak out their ideas. Although quite a few students are actively involved in class, there are still many students just sitting there quietly, listening to the teachers and other students. During the group work, many students cannot cooperate well with each other. Table 1 Items

Observation of the classes Time (minute)

Rate (%)

Teacher speaking time

30

75

Students speaking time

13

33

Individual work

6

15

Group work time

3

1

Game time

0

0

Silent (look at the PPT)

8

2

In the oral interview, most Chinese students said that they are quite used to the traditional teacher-centered class. In today’s college English writing teaching, teachers are still under the pressure of exams, taking TEM (Test for English Majors) and CET (College English Test) for example. Due to all these factors, today’s English writing teaching mode is still teacher-oriented. 4.2 Students’ attitudes towards current English writing teaching (1) Students’ attitudes towards English writing From Table 2, item 1, it can be found that more than half of the students do not like English writing, while only twenty-two percent students show their interests in it. Item 2 clearly points out that only three students think that English writing is not difficult, while one hundred and twenty-six students regard English writing as a difficult job. Accordingly, more than eighty percent students are not confident of English writing with regard to item 3. This is the main reason why students do not like English writing. (2) Students’ attitudes towards the writing topics Most students are not in favor of the writing topics given by teachers. According to item 4, only thirty-one percent students are interested in the writing topics given by the teacher. This is another reason why students have 24


little interest in writing. However, in language learning, motivation is rather important. According to Krashen (2003), motivation to learn appears to be one of the most important determinants in successful language acquisition. (3) Students’ attitudes toward the way teachers assess their writings On the whole, students accept the way that teachers check their writing. The comments given by the teachers on the writing do not seem to help students improve their writings. Item 5 tells that more than sixty percent students are content with the way that the teachers check their compositions. From item 6, it is not difficult to find out that although more than half of the students are satisfied with their teachers’ way of correcting their compositions, the comment by the teachers does not seem to help students improve their future English writing. From item 7, it is obvious that only thirty-six of the two hundred and twenty-five students believe that the comment does help improve their English writing. In that case, there emerges a problem: On one hand, students are agreeable to the way their teachers check their compositions; on the other hand, teachers’ comment seemingly exerts little effect on students’ English writing. Table 2

Students’ attitude toward present way of writing

Items Item 1: I like English writing Item 2: I find it difficult to write English composition Item 3: I’m confident of English writing Item 4: I’m interested in the writing themes provided by teacher Item 5: I’m content with the way in which the teachers check our compositions Item 6: I think the comment given by the teacher for the composition helps me a lot Item 7: My writing has improved a lot from the English writing class

A Strongly agree 6 (2%)

B Agree 45 (20%)

C Neither agree nor disagree 87 (39%)

D Disagree 87 (39%)

E Strongly disagree 0 (0%)

6 (3%)

120 (53%)

96 (43%)

3 (1%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

30 (13%)

183 (81%)

12(6%)

0 (0%)

69 (31%)

147 (65%)

6 (3%)

3 (1%)

9 (4%)

138 (61%)

69 (31%)

6 (3%)

3 (1%)

0 (0%)

36 (16%)

96 (43%)

90 (40%)

3 (1%)

0 (0%)

36 (16%)

75 (34%)

111 (49%)

3 (1%)

4.3 Major problems in English writing (1) Students’ difficulties in writing a composition As Table 3 displays, vocabulary, collocation and the influence of Chinese account for a considerable proportion. Difficulty in vocabulary is the most prominent, followed by collocation. Among all the factors, these three occupy sixty-five percent, sixty-one percent and fifty-one respectively. Without a good mastery of vocabulary and collocation, the influence of Chinese is inevitable. In oral interview, “When I write an English composition, first I think in Chinese, then I translate it into English” is the statement given by the majority of the interviewees. That is why students make Chinglish or English expressions with Chinese characters in their compositions. Although these three factors are the main problems in students’ writing, other problems like expression and sentence organization cannot be neglected. (2) Teachers’ ineffective measures toward students’ difficulties in writing Teachers do not take pointed measures to deal with students’ difficulties in writing. From Table 3, it is obvious that the main difficulties of students in English writing are vocabulary, collocation and the influence of Chinese. Other difficulties are writing skills, writing content and grammar. From Table 4, it is easy to find out that

25


teachers’ help in English writing is rather unobvious. Teachers seem to overlook the major difficulties of their students in English writing. As for students, they also do not take particular measures to overcome difficulties in writing, according to the information from the interview. Table 3

Students’ difficulties in English writing

A

B

C

D

E

Vocabulary

Nothing to write

Writing skills

Collocation

Grammar

147 (65%)

69 (31%)

78 (35%)

138 (61%)

42 (19%)

Table 4

F Influence of Chinese 114 (51%)

Teachers’ assistance when assign a writing task

A

B

C

D

E

F

Vocabulary

Discussion

Writing skills

Collocation

Some models

Nothing

75 (33%)

48 (21%)

135 (60%)

18 (8%)

18 (8%)

75 (33%)

5. Conclusion 5.1 Major findings Firstly, college English writing teaching mode is not simply product approach or process approach. In fact, both product approach and process approach are applied in writing class. But product approach takes the relatively dominant place in class. Secondly, students are not content with the present way of English writing teaching. Students’ dissatisfaction ranges from the class atmosphere, writing topics to teachers’ negligence over their writing problems. Thirdly, as to the main difficulties of students in English writing, both teachers and students do not take effective measures to deal with such problems. For teachers, their assistance for students’ major difficulties in English writing is rather unobvious. For students, they know their own weak points in writing English composition, however, they also do not take measures to improve their writing skills. 5.2 Pedagogical implications Firstly, it is necessary for teachers to arouse students’ motivation and confidence of English writing. Teachers should not only foster language acquisition, but more importantly, they should act as a mediator and help create the right climate for writing to take place, thus making the lesson interesting and meaningful. Secondly, Teachers should try their best to encourage students to be actively involved in the class. Group works, discussion, debate and other kinds of activities are favored by students. If a group of students work together for brainstorm topics and ideas, it will be more productive, because their thoughts can be inspired by each other. Thirdly, different approaches to writing are complementary rather than incompatible. Both product approach and process approach to writing have their own advantages and disadvantages. Based on the research findings and the theory of product and process, the author put forward MAP-CORE framework for English writing class. “MAP-CORE” is the abbreviation of the first letter of each word: (1) “M” stands for motivation: Students’ enthusiasm in writing should be motivated in the first place; (2) “A” stands for argue: Groups of students should be arranged to brainstorm topics and ideas; (3) “P” stands for presentation: The leaders of each group are required to present the results of their discussion, thus students can be inspired by each other. More information can be shared; (4) “C” stands for complement: If new ideas are generated, students are encouraged to speak out their ideas and develop them publicly; (5) “O” stands for operation: It means that students begin to write; (6) “R” stands for revision: Compositions are interchanged and the evaluation is done by

26


other students; (7) “E” stands for enrichment: After peer editing, compositions are returned for further improvement; (8) “Map” is the activities before students setting out to write, mainly the cooperation between each other. These activities are designed to guide students to write, just like the function of a map; (9) “Core” is the procedures when students began to write. Writing is the main purpose of the whole writing procedures and it is the core of the course. After the author proposed this writing procedure, it has been tested in Zhejiang Normal University for about two months, which proved is to be useful and effective. Both the students and teachers were in favor of this writing procedure. It is hoped that this paper can shed some light on English writing teaching both at home and abroad. References: Badger, R. & Goodith, Wh. (2000). A process genre approach to teaching writing. ELT Journal, 2, 153-160. CHEN, M. (2005). The interaction between the teaching mode and writing skills. Journal of Foreign language teaching and research, 4, 460-463. (in Chinese) HUANG, L. H. (2006). Scaffolding theory-based writing teaching in TEFL. (Master’s thesis, Fujian Normal University) (in Chinese) Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use. Portsmouth: Heimemann. LI, S. (2000). Main measures to improve English writing teaching: Process approach. Journal of Foreign Languages, 1, 19-22. (in Chinese) LUO, Y. (2002). A comparative study of the process approach and the product approach in English writing teaching. (Mater’s thesis, Chongqing University) (in Chinese) Nunan, D. (1991). Language teaching methodology. London: Prentice Hall. Parker, R. (1996). Process versus product writing with limited English proficient students. Bilingual Research Journal, 4, 209-233. Porto, M. (2001). Cooperative writing response groups and self-evaluation. ELT Journal, 1, 38-46. Raimes, A. (1991). Out of woods: Emerging traditions in the teaching of writing. TESOL Quarterly, 3, 25-38. ZHANG, L. (2005). A study on the English writing teaching mode in Colleges. (Master’s thesis, North China Electric Power University) (in Chinese)


(continued from Page 42) Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. Annual Reviews Psychology, 49, 345-375. Ratanaroutai, T. (2006). Social constructivist teaching and learning genetics for disadvantaged high school students in welfare schools of Thailand. (Doctoral dissertation, Kasetsart University) Schwartz, W. (1987). Teaching science and mathematics to at risk students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 289 948). Retrieved February 2, 2006, from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-927/math.htm. Tsui, C. Y. & Treagust, D. F. (2004). Conceptual change in learning genetics: An ontological perspective. Research in Science & Technological Education, 22(2), 185-202. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Welfare Education Division. (2001). Research report of the situation and need of teaching and learning centered approach of welfare schools. Bangkok: Welfare Education Department. Windschitl, M. (1999). A Visio educators can put into practice: Portraying the constructivist classroom as a cultural system. School Science and Mathematics, 99(4), 189-196.


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Sexuality education: Analysis of Moroccan teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions Selmaoui Sabah1, Agorram Boujemaa1, Khzami Salah-Eddine1, 2, EL Abboudi Taoufik3, Berger Dominique4 (1. Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech 40000, Marocco; 2. Composante Didactique et Socialisation, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier 2, 34095, France; 3. Centre de Formation des Inspecteurs de l’Enseignement, Rabat 10 000, Maroc; 4. UCBL-IUFM, Université de Lyon 1, PAED EA 4281, France)

Abstract: Conceptions are analyzed as being the emergences from interactions between three poles: scientific knowledge (K), values (V) and social practices (P). The teachers’ beliefs and values have a direct influence on the way of understanding and teaching a topic. These beliefs must be taken into account in the content and strategies of the teacher’s formation. In this paper, the authors discuss the importance of studying and analyzing these conceptions and present the results of the research on teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions about sexual health education. In this topic, the conceptions could be deeply rooted not only in scientific knowledge but also in value systems and social practices, because teachers often refuse to teach the ethical, psychological, economic and social issues not strictly reducible to biology, such as sexuality health. The authors used a questionnaire prepared jointly within the European project Biohead-Citizen. Key words: conception; sexuality education; teachers

1. Introduction Research in didactics of sciences was very interesting in the pupils’ conceptions from the point of constructivist standpoint (Tiberghien & Delacote, 1976; Astolfi, 1978; Giordan & Vecchi, 1987; Clement, 2006). Many researchers (Astolfi, 1985; Giordan & Vecchi, 1987; Clement, 1998) showed the importance of taking into account of the individual conceptions about a subject in the individual’s training. The authors are mainly working on the conceptions of teachers, as well as authors and publishers of school textbooks. Taking into account of teachers’ conceptions makes it possible to better adapt the formation which is intended to them. As Giordan (1998) recommended, taking into account of the conceptions must imperatively become the starting point of any educational projects as this reveals of certain foreseeable obstacles to by-pass. Understanding these conceptions, origins and analysis as social representations is an essential stage to be able to consider teachers’ training, like defining curricula. Scientific education must take into account the deep roots of teachers’ conceptions on scientific topics with Selmaoui Sabah, Dr., assistant professor, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université Cadi Ayyad; research field: didactic of biology. Agorram Boujemaa, Dr., assistant professor, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université Cadi Ayyad; research field: didactic of biology. Khzami Salah-Eddine, Ph.D., senior lecturer, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université Cadi Ayyad; Composante Didactique et Socialisation, Université de Montpellier; research field: didactic of biology. EL Abboudi Taoufik, Ph.D., assistant professor, Centre de Formation des Inspecteurs de l’Enseignement; research field: didactic of biology. Berger Dominique, Ph.D., senior lecturer, UCBL-IUFM, Université de Lyon 1; research field: psychosociology. 28

Sexuality education: Analysis of Moroccan teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions

strong educational range like health education, sexuality education (SE) or environment education. In these scientific topics, the conceptions could be strongly anchored not only in scientific knowledge but also in systems of values and social practices (which often prevent them to assume lessons on these topics) (Clement, 2008). 1.1 Analysis of conceptions: The KVP model In this paper, the conceptions of some actors of the educational system are analyzed as being the emergences from interactions between the 3 poles: K, V and P, as proposed by the KVP model (Clement, 1998; 2004; 2006). The 3 poles are scientific knowledge (K), values (V) (The values are defined in a large sense, including opinions, beliefs and ideologies) and social practices (P). Nevertheless, the KVP model (as shown in Figure 1) is useful to analyse important features of the taught knowledge—the epistemological one, to try to understand what is related to science, values in a scientific presentation and its interaction with social practices.

Figure 1

The KVP model

Teachers’ beliefs and values have a direct influence on the way of understanding and teaching a topic: the teaching practice. They frequently constitute true obstacles with teachers’ professional development and the improvement of the processes of teaching-training. These beliefs must be taken into account in the contents and strategies of the teachers’ training and their conceptions related to students’ present and future social practices (their future professional jobs and their present and future responsibility as citizens). In this paper, the authors are interested in teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions about sexual education. The authors’ work falls under didactic sciences, but is also related to social psychology with the concept of the social representations. 1.2 Sexuality education Sexuality education or sex education is the process of acquiring information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sexuality. It is also about developing young people’s skills so that they make informed choices about their behaviours and feel confident and competent about acting on these choices. It is widely accepted that young people have a right to receive sex education, partly because it is a means by which they are helped to protect themselves against abuse, exploitation, unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Sexuality education seeks both to reduce the risks of potentially negative outcomes from sexual behaviours like unwanted or unplanned pregnancies and infection with sexually transmitted diseases, and to enhance the quality of relationships. It is also about developing young people’s ability to make decisions over their entire lifetime. The WHO (World Health Organization) texts insist on the necessity for implementing early sexuality education, particularly in primary schools (WHO, 1999; 2004). School, socialization spaces and citizenship practices have a share of responsibility with regard to pupils’ health and their preparation of adulthood by helping them to adopt behaviours which preserve their health in the respect of themselves, others and their environment. Sexuality education contributes in a specific way to this 29


formation in its individual dimension as in its social inscription. The young people are often exposed to situations with vulnerability for sexual health. Childhood and adolescence are periods when situations of risk emerge. It is the most convenient moment to initiate them with actions, making it possible to preserve or improve their health conditions. The school remains, for the young people, the principal source of information on sexual health. It is the only place where the children and the teenagers can reach objective information. The school thus has a role to play for educating the young people by the knowledge. The authors’ objective in this work is to identify social conceptions and the personal opinions of the teachers and future teachers about a topic of strong educational range: sexual health education. The hypothesis is that the teacher’s personal values influence their conceptions on sexuality health Education. These conceptions can be linked to: the school disciplinary (biology or national language Arabic), the teaching level (primary or secondary level), the training (in service or pre service).

2. Methodology 2.1 Simple This study is included in the Biohead-Citizen research project. The authors used a questionnaire elaborated in a common work with all the research teams (Clément, et al., 2007). Six samples were collected as shown in Table 1. Table 1

Samples within the framework of Biohead-Citizen research, by teaching 6 balanced data groups Groups

InB

in-service biology teachers in secondary school

Effectifs 66

PreB

pre-service biology teachers in secondary school

42

InL

in-service teachers in secondary national language

49

PreL

pre-service teachers in secondary national language

62

InP

in-service teachers in primary school

50

PreP

pre-service teachers in primary school

61

Total

330 (57.9% women; 42.1% men)

2.2 Questionnaire and coding The research concerns only 24 questions (A41, A57 to A59, A60, A65, A85 to A90, B3, B13, B17 to B18, B19, B24, and B37 to B41) on sexuality education (cf. annex). Responses are coding with a number scale. Questions A41, B3, B13, and B17 to B19 are coding from 1 to 4 from “agree” to “totally disagree” (Likert scale). Some questions are on biological knowledge (e.g., B17: “After ovulation, the follicle changes into corpus luteum which produces high levels of progesterone and estrogens”). More are on teaching practices, values and knowledge (e.g., B19: “Psychological and social aspects of sex education should be taught primarily by biology teachers”). Questions A57 to A59 and A65 are about abortion. Responses are coding from 1: “In this case, abortion is morally acceptable” to 4: “In this case, abortion is morally unacceptable”, and in A 65: “Abortion is acceptable”, from 1: “Never” to 5: “At any moment”. Question A 60: “There are several behaviours that can help to decrease the spreading of AIDS world-wide. In your view, what is the behaviour you find most relevant to be considered in school sexual education?” is coded 30


from 1: “To have sex only within a stable relationship (not have several sexual partners)” to 4: “To have safer sex, for instance, by using a condom in sexual intercourse”. The questions A85 to A90 and B37 to B41 are for students at the age which teachers think the following topics should be first introduced at school by teachers and/or external specialists. Responses are coded from 1: “Less than 6 years old” to 5: “Never in school”.

3. Results and analysis 3.1. Global approach Multivariate analysis allows representing more structuring components of individuals. These components state better individual’s variance. Statistical multivariate analysis has become a standard to investigate complex data featuring the behaviours of many individuals, according to many variables (Lebart, Morineau & Piron, 1995). Here, variables are questions in a questionnaire for which the authors gathered answers. To analyse the SE and teaching practices data, the authors use principal component analysis (PCA) (Lebart, Morineau & Piron, 1995). Variables are coding as numbers. cercle des corrélations plan 1-2 ; ACP HRSE P18

15

histogrammes valeurs propres, ACP HRSE

C2 A58

10

A59

B41 A89 B40

A57

C1 A60

B17 B13

5

B3 B18 A65 A41 B19

A90 B39

B38

A88 A86 A85 A87 B37

0

B5 B24

Figure 2

Histogram of eigenvalues, percentage of variance for successive components

Figure 3

Principal component analysis (PCA), global correlation circle

The first two components (C1 and C2) are the most significant, making it possible to explain 24% of the answers variance of the 330 individuals (Figure 2). They are represented graphically in relation to the variables (Figure 3), and express two independent tendencies in the way of individuals answering. The graduated responses are represented by means of vectors, whose point represents agreement with the multiple choice questions. A vector-variable whose projection on an axis has more raised value is more strongly dependent on this axis than the others. The coordinates of the variables on the axes make it possible to identify the conception which characterizes them: In the plan (C1-C2) of the PCA State (Figure 3) on the whole of the variables, the structuring of the variables thus makes it possible to characterize two principal components: (1) A component “values” (C1): They are indeed the questions carrying about values (morals) which have a value raised in projection on the x-axis. The variables which express the most differentiation between individuals

31


relate to the values associated with the age when certain topics relating to sexuality should be taught by the teachers or outside contributors (A85 to A90 and B37 to B41). The teachers questioned tend to deny having taught certain topics relating to sexuality education (“Never within the school framework”) or to teach them only tardily (“More than 15 years”). (2) A component “practices” (C2): They are indeed the questions carrying about practices which have a value raised in projection on the y-axis. The variables which express the most differentiation between individuals relate to teaching practices. The people questioned have different positions concerning the biology teachers’ role in the assumption of responsibility within the school framework of sexuality education: Who has to approach the psychological and social aspects at sexuality education? Who has to approach certain topics like STD (sexual transmitted disease)? Biology teachers or health professionals (doctors, nurses)? The variables which contribute more are B24, B5, B3 and B19 (teaching of the psychological and social aspects of sexuality education and the STDs by the teachers of biology or the health professionals). 3.2. Answers analysis to the most discriminating questions: Questions carrying about the values and practices Age at which certain topics of sexual education should be taught for the first time at school: (A85) organs of pleasure, (A86) contraception, (A87) sexually transmitted diseases, (A88) abortion, (A90) paedophilia, (B37) pregnancy and childbirth, (B38) sexual intercourse, (B39) incest and sexual abuse, (B40) orgasm and sexual pleasure, (B41) erotism and pornography. P18 Morocco 0 20 B37 B38

1 40

60

2

3 80

4

5 100

P18 Morocco 0 20

1 40

60

2

3 80

4

5 100

A85 A86 A87

B39 A88

B40 B41

A89 A90

(a) (b) Figure 4 Distribution of the answers to the questions (a) B37 to B41 and (b) A85 to A90 which relate to the contents of sexual education to be taught and at what age these topics must be taught for the first time in school by the teachers and/or outside contributors Note: 1: Less than 6 years old; 2: Between 6 and 11 years old; 3: Between 12 and 15 years old; 4: More than 15 years old; 5: Never in school.

The Figure 4(a) and Figure 4(b) show that the teachers think that it not possible to teach these social components of sexuality education to young pupils. Moreover, they do not agree to teach pupils before 12 years old in school and for certain topics not before the age of 15 or never. The teachers and future teachers think that the majority of these topics could not be taught in primary level and in the first years of secondary level except the paedophilia (A90), they think that it must be taught early before the age of 12 (63%) and the incest and sexual abuse (B39) before 15 years (66%) in primary level and in the first years of the secondary level. They are especially InP (40%) and InB (35%) (Figure 4) (The mean age of these two groups is respectively InB=43.7 years old and InP=44.2 years old). They are older teachers and oldest in the profession. Age has impact on the teachers’ conceptions views.

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Concerning the behaviours which can help to reduce the spread of the AIDS throughout the world (A60). The majority of the teachers (67%) think that the most relevant behaviour to privilege within sex education in school is to have sexual intercourse only within a stable relation not to have several sexual partners against 20% only which are for sexual practices without danger by always using an in sexual intercourse. Questions carrying about the practices of teaching: “Who must teach about the sexually transmitted diseases?” (B3, B5, B19, B24); “Why the teachers avoid teaching education with sexual knowledge?” (B18) (as shown in Table 2). Table 2

Percentage of responses to questions B3, B5, B19, B18 and B24 with 1 (agree) to 4 (disagree) Repossesses (%)

Items (B3) Sexually transmitted diseases should be taught primarily by biology teachers. (B5) Sexually transmitted diseases should be taught primarily by health professionals (doctor, nurse). (B18)Teachers avoid teaching sex education because these topics are private. (B19) Psychological and social aspects of sex education should be taught primarily by biology teachers. (B24) Psychological and social aspects of sex education should be taught primarily by health professionals (doctor, nurse).

1

2

3

4

62.7

22.1

7

8.2

32.7

24.8

21.2

21.2

20.3

18.2

14.5

47

29.4

28.8

17.6

24.2

32.1

24.8

19.1

23.9

Concerning the teaching of STD (B3), a large majority of the questioned people (85%) prefer that the STD should be taught primarily by biology teachers, not by health professionals (doctors, nurses) (see Figure 5); these are mainly the in-service teachers and the biology teachers. B39

1

2

3

4

5

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 PreL

InL

PreP

InP

PreB

InB

Figure 5 Distribution of the answers by groups of the question B39 (incest and abuse sexual)

In addition, 61% individuals do not agree that the teachers should avoid teaching sex education because these topics are private (B18). They are especially the biology teachers in-service InB followed by InP. They are older teachers and oldest in the profession (Figure 6). Their views are affected by their old age. For the majority of the individuals (57%), the psychological and social aspects of sexuality education should be taught primarily by biology teachers (B19) and 56% prefer that the health professionals (doctors, nurses) should teach primarily these aspects (B24).

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B3

1

2

3

4

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

5

B18

1

2

3

4

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 PreL

PreP

PreB

InP

(a) Figure 6

InL

InB

InB

PreB

PreP

InP

InL

PreL

(b)

Distribution of the answers by groups of the question B3 (a) and B18 (b)

4. Discussion and conclusions The results presented in this research relate to the views of 330 Moroccans teachers and future teachers about sexuality education. The authors have found that individuals’ conceptions have a great incidence on teachers’ social representations and their teaching practices. These conceptions are related to the discipline (biology or letters), the level of teaching (primary or secondary level) and the training (in-service or pre-service). Concerning the values, teachers and future teachers do not accept to teach certain biological and social aspects of sexuality in primary level or in first years of secondary level below the age of 15. It becomes a tendency of never approaching dimension intimates in sexuality education (sexual pleasure, orgasm and sexual intercourse …) except the paedophilia, the incest and the sexual abuse. They think that it must be taught early before 12 years old or before 15 years old in primary level and in the first years of the secondary level (especially the in-service teachers). For pupils below the age of 12 is due to the fact that this category of children are more vulnerable, thus they should be sensitized on the matter so that they would be prevented from being sexually abuse. For these opponents, it is advisable to include these contents early in the curriculum. In Morocco, the scientific activity courses in the primary level do not approach any more general aspects of the human reproduction since the charter of 1999. With the technological change and globalisation, it is becoming impossible to control information which young people have access to on these topics, especially in the absence of the school and the family’s supervision. Therefore, pupils are informed on all these topics in their daily life with their peers, in the streets or in the mass media (Internet and TV…) (Selmaoui, Khzami & Agorram, 2008). Teachers and future teachers have preserving conceptions about the sexual behaviours adopted to protect oneself from STD/AIDS. The majority think that the most relevant behaviour to privilege within the framework of sexuality education is to have sex only within a stable relationship (to have sex only within a legitimate relation, not to have several sexual partners, especially in-service teachers in primary school (InP) and the letters (InL). The total analysis of all the countries participating in this project showed a strong correlation between the religion and teachers’ conceptions (Sandie, et al., 2007; Berger, Bernard, Carvalho, Munoz & Clement, 2008). Contrary to the Moslems (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Senegal) who are more conservative, agnostics and atheists in European 34


countries agree with the idea of having several sexual partners for them, safer sex is the behaviour they find most relevant to be considered in school sexuality education. Concerning teaching practices, a majority of the questioned people prefer that STD are taught by biology teachers, not by health professionals (doctors, nurses) (most of which are in-service and mainly the biology teachers). It is supposed sufficiently that the biology teachers are able to teach this aspect and do not need the intervention by health professionals, who do not have pedagogy necessary to teach. The school textbooks treated the primarily biomedical conceptions (STD are treated in terms of symptoms, causes and curative treatment) (Bernard, et al., 2008; Selmaoui, Agorram, Khzami, Elabboudi, Bernard & Clement, 2007). The majority of the questioned people do not agree that teachers avoid teaching sexuality education because they think that subject concerns the private life and should not be approached at school. There are especially biology in-service teachers followed by primary in-service teachers who have already track records. Future teachers are against sexuality education, which they consider as a taboo matter for cultural reason and should not be talked about by decency with young people at the school. For certain questioned people, the psychological and social aspects of sexuality education should be taught by biology teachers. However, knowing that it is not a question to transmit knowledge but to develop psychosocial competences which could be done only by specialists, others prefer that health professionals (doctors, nurses) should also interfere in this education. These answers could be interpreted that, generally, the topics related to sexuality are social taboos that people avoid approaching by decency, especially with young people. If it is necessary to speak about it, owing to the fact that after all, the children will have a sexual activity later; it should be done with children beyond the age of 12 because it is generally the age of sexual maturity and consequently, children are able to grasps these various matters. Obverse the sexuality, teachers adopt attitudes which are engrained in traditional values of decency and dignity which characterize their religious faith. To understand these conceptions and their origins is an essential stage to consider teachers’ training and improve their conceptions: improving the interactions between their knowledge (those are to be said that they control and those they accept to teach) and their social values and practices (which often prevent them to assume this lesson in topics with strong educational range). It could be advanced that there is effect of age and the training (in-service or pre-service) on the teachers’ conceptions. The teachers’ conceptions are thus related to the discipline of teaching. It has been found that individuals’ conceptions have a great incidence on teachers’ social representations and their teaching practices. These entire hypotheses on the interpretation of sexuality conceptions could help the teachers and the curricula makers as well as programs and school textbooks, to implement teaching situations which combine contribution of knowledge to taking into account of social and psychological dimensions, in the respect of the religious and cultural convictions. To be effective, sexuality education needs to include opportunities for young people to develop skills, because only having information is not sufficient. School-based sexuality education is an important and effective way of enhancing young people’s knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (Kirby, 1994; 2001). School-based education programmes are particularly good at providing information and opportunities for skill development and attitude. References: Astolfi, J. P. (1978). The children’s representations. French Review of Education, 45.

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Sexuality education: Analysis of Moroccan teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions Astolfi, J. P. (1985). Procedures learning in experimental sciences. Paris: INRP. Bernard, S., et al. (2008). Sexual transmitted diseases and control of reproduction in biology textbook: A comparative analysis in 15 countries. Science Education International, 19(2), 163-184. Bernard, S., Munoz, F., Carvalho, G., Clément, P. & Berger, D. (September 3-7, 2007). The health and sexuality education: Teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions from twelve countries. In: XIII World Congress WCCES-Comparative Education Societies, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. [CD] Berger, D., Bernard, B., Carvalho, G., Munoz, F. & Clement, F. (September 3-7, 2007). The sexuality education: Teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions from twelve countries. In: XIII World Congress WCCES-Comparative Education Societies, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. [CD] Carvalho, G., Clément, P. & Bogner, F. (2004). Biology, health and environmental education for better citizenship. STREP CIT2-CT-2004-506015, E.C., Brussels, FP6, Priority 7. Retrieved from http://www.biohead-citizen.net. Carvalho, G. & Clément, P. (2007). Construction and validation of the instruments to compare teachers’ conceptions and school textbooks of 19 countries. The European Biohead-Citizen project. AREF 2007, Strasbourg, 12. Carvalho, G., Berger, D., Bernard, S., Munoz, F. & Clément, P. (2007, September 3-7). Health education: Analysis of teachers’ and future teachers’ conceptions from 16 countries (Europe, Africa and Middle East). In: XIII World Congress WCCES-Comparative Education Societies, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. [CD] Clement, P. (1994). Representations, conceptions and knowledge. In: Giordan, A., Girault, Y., Clement, P. (Eds.). Conceptions and knowledges. Bern: Peter Lang, 15-45. Clement, P. (1998). Biology and didactics: Ten years of research. Aster, 27, 57-93. Clement, P. (2004). Science and ideology: Examples in biology and epistemology teaching. Proceedings of the Symposium Science, Media and Society, ENS-LSH, 53-69. Clement, P. (2006). Didactic transposition and the KVP model: Conceptions as interactions between scientific knowledge, values and social practices. In: ESERA Summer School, Universidade do Minho, IEC, Braga, Portugal, 9-18. Clement, P., Laurent, C. & Carvalho, G. (August, 2007). Methodology for constructing and validating a questionnaire for an international comparative analysis of teachers’ conceptions of biology, health and environment: The European project of research biohead-citizen. Meeting ESERA, Malmö, Sweden. Giordan, A. & Vecchi, G. (1987). The knowledge’s origins: The learners’ conceptions to scientific concepts. Paris: Delachaux Niestlé. Giordan, A. (1998). Learn. Paris: Coll. Debates, Ed Belin. Kirby, D., et al. (1994). School-based programmes to decrease sexual risk behaviours: A review of effectiveness. Public Health Report, 109, 336-360. Kirby, D. (2001). Emerging answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. Lebart, L., Morineau, A. & Piron, M. (1995). Exploratory multivariate statistical. Paris: Dunod. Selmaoui, S., Agorram, B., Khzami, S., Elabboudi, T., Bernard, S. & Clement, P. (2007). Sexual transmitted diseases in the Moroccan’s curricula and textbooks: Historical approach. IOSTE, International Meeting on Critical Analysis of School Science Textbooks, Hammamet (Tunisia), February 7-10, 2007. Selmaoui, S., Agorram, B., Khzami, S., Elabboudi, T. & Clement, P. (2007). Educational style used in the new programs of live and earth sciences. International Symposium: The Training Practices and the Skills Approach, Marrakesh, April 27-28, 2007. Selmaoui, S., Khzami, S. & Agorram, B. (2008). The expectations of Moroccans young about human reproduction and sexuality. In: Health Education Symposium: The 15th Congress of the World Association of Science Education (AMSE). University Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, June 2-6, 2008. Tiberghien, A. & Delacote, G. (1976). Handling and representations of simple electrical circuit by children aged 7 to 12. French Review of Education, 34. WHO. (1997). Promoting health trough school. Geneva. WHO. (1999). Preventing HIV/AIDS/STI and related discrimination: An important responsibility of health promoting schools. WHO information series on school health. WHO Editor Geneva.


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A case study on teaching and learning DNA∗ Thasaneeya Ratanaroutai1, Wasu Pathom-aree2 (1. Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand 2. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand)

Abstract: The purpose of this paper was to study the learning of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) by disadvantaged high school students in a Thai welfare school. Three DNA units of the genetics instructional units (GIUs) based on a social constructivist approach were implemented to 14 disadvantaged school students at Grade 12 in Bangkok. The data were collected from classroom observation, interviews, students’ works, basic genetics concepts survey and advanced genetics concepts survey. It was found that before the implementation of the GIUs, the majority of students had “no conceptions” about gene, chromosome and DNA including their relationships. During the implementation of the GIUs, the teacher induced students into the lessons, checked students’ prior knowledge, used practical-inexpensive-durable instructional materials, promoted social interactions through a variety of teaching strategies, periodically used dynamic assessments and assigned students into groups where they were able to communicate with others. After the implementation, the majority of students showed having “scientific conceptions” in the chemical components of DNA and “partial understanding” of the DNA structure and relationships among cell-nucleus-chromosome-DNA-gene concepts. Key words: DNA; disadvantaged students; social constructivist approach

1. Introduction 1.1 Significance of the study All students should have an equal opportunity to learn science as a part of the science classroom and environment. The 1997 Constitution of Thailand (B.E. 2540) stated in sections 30, 55 and 80 that disadvantaged students are part of the Thai society and have the right to receive education as the average students. In addition, the National Education Act (B.E. 2542) addressed the importance of equality in education in section 10 and section 22 (ONEC: Office of the National Education Commission, 2002). Disadvantaged students are defined here as children from particularly difficult circumstances: (1) who have had their rights violated; (2) who live on the streets; (3) who are prostitutes, orphans or abandoned children; (4) who have been attacked; (5) who are detained in a house of correction; (6) who are drug addicts; (7) who have severe diseases or whose parents having serious diseases; (8) who are poor; (9) who are from minority groups; or (10) who are gifted children (ONEC, 2000; Welfare Education Division, 2001). Even though these groups of children are known for their own limitations in education, teachers still have to help them accomplish the science content standards to develop their full potential. ∗ The first author would like to thank Mahidol University for financial support for the presentation of this research work at the APERA 2008 Conference and proceedings. The authors are grateful to associate professor Bhinyo Panijpan (Director of Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University) for editing this manuscript. Thasaneeya Ratanaroutai, Ph.D., Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University; research fields: science and technology education, inclusive education. Wasu Pathom-aree, Ph.D., Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University; research fields: microbiology, molecular biology.

37

A case study on teaching and learning DNA

Schools with direct responsibility for the disadvantaged students are called the “welfare schools”. According to the Basic Education Curriculum in 2002, genetics is under content 1: “Living organisms with living processes” of the science section (IPST: Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, 2002). The most important thing in genetics learning is that students should understand the DNA concepts before moving to another concept in molecular genetics. However, Welfare Education Division reported in 2001 that the average grade point of students in science including biology is approximately 2 out of the maximum score of 4 (Welfare Education Division, 2001). Moreover, a number of research studies have examined difficulties encountered in genetics education and alternative conceptions in genetics held by students. Tsui and Treagust (2004) reported that four to ten percent of Year 10 Australian students confused gene with DNA. Alternative conceptions on the function of DNA were reported in several studies. In Thailand, Mungsing (1993) and Ratanaroutai (2006) found alternative conceptions of genetics among Thai students. Mungsing identified students’ alternative conceptions on molecular genetics in Khonkaen Province. Ratanaroutai found some alternative conceptions among disadvantaged students from two welfare schools such as: Genes are inside the bases of DNA; DNA is a component of genes; DNA is strictly a left turn helix; Bases of the codes are A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine), which can be separated into 64 bases or 20 bases; Organisms of same species received DNA from the same sources, such as half from male and half from female; same species have the same DNA. The significance of communication is stated in the aims of the principles of science teaching and learning and in the policy of the Department of General Education. Part of the aims for the learners of the principles of science teaching and learning in schools related to communication is “to develop … communication skills and ability to make decisions” (IPST, 2002). A strategy in the policy of the Department of General Education is the emphasis on communication, so communication skills are an important variable in this research. Social constructivism is a learning theory which acknowledges students’ prior learning and focuses on students constructing their own knowledge through social interactions with more capable peers and/or the teachers (Driver & Oldham, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978; Howe, 1996; Palincsar, 1998; Kiraly, 2000; Bauer, Keefe & Shea, 2001). Because students use their existing knowledge as the starting point for change towards scientifically acceptable concepts (Hand, Treagust & Vance, 1997). From Vygotsky’s (1978) view, knowledge develops through the appropriation of culture and social interaction between children and other experts. He argued that concepts cannot grow without social interaction and the discrepancy between a child’s actual mental age and the level he/she reaches in solving problems with the assistance of others indicates the zone of his/her proximal development. He introduced the construction of the zone of proximal development (ZPD, Vygotsky, 1978) as a fundamentally new approach to the problem that learning should be matched in some manner with the child’s level of development (Palincsar, 1998). Hodson, D. and Hodson, J. (1998) have argued for the Vygotskian theory which gives teachers a central role in leading children and students to new levels of conceptual understanding by interacting and talking with them. Any teaching activities should also prompt a student to participate effectively in activities with a more capable peer. Moreover, teaching and learning should also involve guided and modeled participation. An important factor which was argued in the science education area of social constructivist teaching is activity. Windschitl (1999) supported the use of questions and activities. Jenkins (2001), Colburn (2000) and Donald, Lazarus and Lolwana (2002) argued that practical activity, which was composed of using questions and demonstrations, and working with models, suited for teaching. Driver and Oldham (1986), Osborne (1996) and 38


Colburn (2000) favored the use of group work in constructivist teaching. Hand, Lovejoy and Balaam (1991) suggested the use of small group work followed by whole class group work. Ratanaroutai (2006) developed GIUs based on four guiding principles: (1) teaching and learning genetics in Thai welfare schools; (2) basic genetics concepts of disadvantaged students in Thai welfare schools; (3) social constructivist approach; and (4) promoting student communication skills. The DNA units are parts of the GIUs implemented in an inclusive classroom and a multicultural classroom, in which prostitutes at-risk and three hill-tribe student groups were mixed. The results showed that GIUs could help improve students in a number of genetics concepts and their communication skills. To summarize, encouraging disadvantaged students to learn genetics through social constructivism is related to the aims formulated for science teaching and learning in Thailand (IPST, 2002). The 1999 National Education Act of Thailand emphasized equity in education. Disadvantaged students in Thailand need to accomplish the same science content standards and benchmarks as all other students. Genetics is an important part of the Thai science content standard, in which, according to literature, students are likely to have a number of the alternative conceptions. Research studies concerning about how to promote disadvantaged students’ learning in genetics concepts show the need for more substantive research in the area of teaching and learning genetics for disadvantaged students. From a social constructivist perspective, it was important for the researcher to survey the disadvantaged students’ prior knowledge before developing the GIUs. The literature suggests that instruction units based on social constructivism would need to include an “orientation stage”, “focus stage” and a “conclusion stage” to invite students’ involvement, check students’ prior knowledge promote inquiry, investigation and small group and the whole class discussion. This view emphasizes the teachers’ working in students’ ZPD with students as active learners, who participate with capable peers and teachers to construct their knowledge through social interaction. 1.2 Research objective The objective of this research is to study the impacts of the DNA units in the GIUs, based on a social constructivist approach, on genetics concepts of disadvantaged high school science students in a welfare school of Thailand.

2. Methodology The methodology of this research is a case study. 2.1 Subjects The subjects of this study were 14 Grade 12 female science students constituting an entire classroom of a welfare school in Bangkok. 2.2 Instruments The instruments for collecting students’ genetics concepts were BGCS (basic genetics concepts survey) with unstructured interviews of students’ responses, AGCS (advanced genetics concepts survey) with unstructured interviews of students’ responses, observation forms, teachers’ journals and students’ journals. The concepts of gene, chromosome, DNA and their relationships are parts of the BGCS which was validated by eight experts, including two science curriculum developers of IPST, two science educators and four university-level genetics experts, for content validation. It is composed of two-tier multiple choice questions, 2 diagnostic instrument items and 13 open-ended items, including inheritance traits, gene, chromosome, dominant

39


and recessive alleles, genetic diseases, sex chromosome and genetic engineering concepts. The concepts of DNA were collected by semi-structure interviews, three questions on the nucleotide, chemical components of DNA and DNA structure in the AGCS, which was validated by eight experts as in the BGCS. The AGCS consisted of two-tier multiple choice diagnostic questions and open-ended questions. There are 12 questions for the 11 concepts. Both of the surveys were trialed with five disadvantaged high school students in welfare schools. The DNA units are composed of “DNA chemical components and structure” (2 periods), “invention of DNA models” (1 periods), and “presentation of DNA model” (2 periods). Each unit consists of learning outcome(s), genetics concept(s), teaching and learning processes, instructional materials and assessment and evaluation procedures. 2.3 Data collections The BGCS was used to examine basic genetics concepts of 14 female disadvantaged students. The response of the survey was 14 from 14 (100 percent). Each student was interviewed to clarify his/her answers in each concept. The first author as a teacher in the school used an instructional units in Grade 12 high school science classroom. The contents and teaching-learning methods of each unit were adapted by another teacher who had 6 years of teaching experience in a high school, along with another expert who taught biology in high school. In each unit, data were collected by using students’ journals, observers’ recorded papers and teachers’ journals. The first author recorded data in the teachers’ journals and interviewed students. One of the science teachers in the school acting as an expert observed and recorded the classroom when the GIUs were implemented in the class. An advanced genetics concepts survey and individual student interviews about their answers were used after implementation. However, this paper emphasizes only the units 3-5 of the GIUs where reflective learning showed its capability to help students enhance understanding in DNA concepts. 2.4 Data analysis To obtain results from BGCS, the researchers read all of the students’ responses to each item and classified the students’ responses into four categories namely, “scientific understanding”, “partial understanding”, “alternative conceptions” and “no response or no understanding or no conception” (Marek, Eubanks & Gallaher, 1990; Haidar & Abraham, 1991; Brickhouse, Dagher & Letts, 2000). The criterion for categorizing students in each group of AGCS was the same as in the BGCS categorization. The categories of the responses were checked for reliability by the second researcher who was a content specialist in a university. The researchers read, coded, categorized and interpreted students’ journals, teachers’ journals and observation forms.

3. Results In this study, the authors explored DNA concepts of 14 female disadvantaged Thai high school students in the academic year of 2007. From BGCS, students had “no response or no understanding or no conception” of DNA-gene-chromosome relationships. The DNA study units were implemented by the first author, a biology teacher in the school during the time of research implementation. The first author graduated from the Faculty of Science (B.Sc.) with a diploma in professional science teaching and doctoral degree in science education. She had two years of experience in teaching biology with financially poor students in a provincial middle school near Bangkok and six years of teaching experience in the participating school. The Grade 12 science program classroom had a total of 14 female students. This classroom was the first

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science program classroom without any special needs students since the academic year of 2004. The only boy in the class quitted school in 2006. Most students were poor or from broken homes. The mode of the students showed that most students did not have concepts in gene, chromosome and DNA including the relationship between them. The results from the AGCS were in good congruence with observation forms, teachers’ journals and students’ journals. Data showed “scientific understanding” and “partial understanding” for most students. DNA conceptions of the students in each of the advanced genetics concepts are as follows: (1) The chemical components of DNA Most students had some degree “scientific understanding” of the nucleotides and some of them showed “partial understanding”. Moreover, three groups of students could develop the nucleotide models by themselves. Even though alternative conceptions of the nucleotides were limited, the results showed alternative conceptions of students in school which were things which are composed of base, sugar and phosphate groups are chromosomes, genes or DNA; and the nucleotide is also called DNA. (2) Relationships among cell-nucleus-chromosome-DNA-gene concepts Most students had “partial understanding” of the relationships. Alternative conceptions such as: “DNA is a genome” and “Every type of DNA is not composed of two strands of polynucleotide” were found. The students’ alternative conceptions were different from previous finding of Ratanaroutai (2006) in disadvantaged students from two welfare schools such as “Genes are inside the base of DNA” and “DNA is a component of genes”. (3) DNA structure Most students, who could not grasp any scientific concept, could identify DNA only as a kind of strand which is composed of bases. Most of them had a “partial understanding” of the DNA structure. However, they could reflect on their knowledge by constructing their own DNA models using a variety of materials in classroom and in their free time. However, most of the students had limited attention time spans. They needed a variety of learning activities. Communication skills were developed through the study. Participants could show their ideas in inventions and presentations, especially, when they were in the groups where they felt comfortable working with other students.

4. Conclusions and discussion The results from using BGCS showed that the majority of students had “no response or no understanding or no conception” in the relationships between DNA-gene-chromosome. These findings indicated the need to find some ways to develop students’ understanding the DNA concepts. The DNA units implemented based on the social constructivist approach could help these students enhance understanding of the DNA concepts. However, different alternative concepts of DNA from other research reports were found. First, in order to teach disadvantaged students how to promote their understanding of the DNA concepts, teachers should: (1) check students’ prior knowledge as recommended by Gray (2005); (2) scaffold students’ learning by creating flexible meaningful relevant activities with practical instructional materials, using dynamic assessment, as reported by Palincsar (1998), Kiraly (2000) and Bauer, et al. (2001); (3) believe that every student can develop their understanding; (4) connect concepts in each unit or follow the path in the unit from easy to difficult concepts; (5) put students in small mixed ability cooperative groupings and mixed ability pairings, related to Schwartz’s work (1987); (6) use cheap, durable and easily available instructional materials that are also easy to

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use and understand in various activities according to the policy of teaching for disadvantaged students (Division of Disability People, 2000). An alternative use of practical instructional materials was another scaffolding to help students learn genetics (Palincsar, 1998; Kiraly, 2000; Bauer, Keefe & Shea, 2001). Second, in order to promote students’ communication skills, teachers should use a combination of the following: (1) understandable activities which move from easy to difficult; (2) practical instructional materials; (3) grouping techniques; (4) periodic dynamic assessment; and (5) study on the limitations of students’ communication skills individually. Data from this case study indicated that the use of various activities involving social interaction, such as inquiries, hands-on activities, investigation, small group discussion and whole class discussion was helpful in motivating disadvantaged students to learn DNA concepts and promoting their communication skills. References: Bauer, A. M., Keefe, C. H. & Shea, T. M. (2001). Students with learning disabilities or emotional/behavioral disorders. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. Brickhouse, N. W., Dagher, Z. R. & Letts, W. J. (2000). Diversity of students’ views about evidence, theory, and the interface between science and religion in an astronomy course. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(4), 340-362. Colburn, A. (2000). Constructivism: Science education’s “grand unifying theory”. The Clearing House, 74(1), 9-12. Division of Disability People. (2000). Handbook of inclusion in junior high school to high school level. Bangkok: Ministry of Education. Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. (2002). Educational psychology in social context. South Africa: Oxford University Press. Driver, R. & Oldham, V. (1986). A constructivist approach to curriculum development in science. Studies in Science Education, 13, 105-122. Gray, A. (2005). Constructivist teaching and learning. Retrieved January 20, 2006, from http://www.ssta.sk.ca/research/ instruction/97-07.htm. Haidar, A. H. & Abraham, M. R. (1991). A comparison of applied and theoretical knowledge of concepts based on the particulate nature of matter. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(10), 919-938. Hand, B., Lovejoy, C. & Balaam, G. (1991). Teachers’ reaction to a change to a constructivist teaching/learning strategy. The Australian Science Teachers Journal, 37(1), 20-24. Hand, B., Treagust, D. F. & Vance, K. (1997). Student perceptions of the social constructivist classroom. Science Education, 81(5), 561-575. Hodson, D. & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A Vygotskian perspective on teaching and learning science. School Science Review, 79, 33-41. Howe, A. C. (1996). Development of science concepts within a Vygotskian framework. Science Education, 80(1), 35-51. Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). (2002). Handbook for learning management in the section of science. Bangkok: Krurusapha Ladprao. Jenkins, E. W. (2001). Constructivism in school science education: Powerful model or the most dangerous intellectual tendency? Science and Education, 9(6), 599-610. Kiraly, D. (2000). A social constructivist approach to translator education: Empowerment from theory to practice. United Kingdom: St. Jerome Publishing. Marek, E. A., Eubanks, C. & Gallaher, T. H. (1990). Teachers’ understanding and the use of the learning cycle. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(9), 821-834. Mungsing, W. (1993). Students’ alternative conceptions about genetics and the use of teaching strategies for conceptual change. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Alberta) Office of the National Education Commission (ONEC). (2000). Learning reform: A learner-centered approach. Bangkok: Watana Panit Printing & Publishing. Office of the National Education Commission (ONEC). (2002). National education act: B.E. 2542 (1999) and editing (2nd ed.). Bangkok: Prig Wan Graphic. Osborne, J. F. (1996). Beyond constructivism. Science Education, 80(1), 53-82. (to be continued on Page 27)

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Learners’ and teachers’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics from a Middle Eastern perspective Fida Atallah, Sharon Lynne Bryant, Robin Dada (College of Education, Zayed University, United Arab Emirates)

Abstract: The paper discusses an on-going research project that studies students’ and teachers’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics. Conceptions are the views that students hold on a subject, and what they believe is required in learning and doing the subject. Dispositions are the beliefs or tendencies to exhibit a frequent, conscious and voluntary behavior directed towards learning a subject. The participants are high school students, higher education students and mathematics teachers. The study utilizes self-reporting tools as well as focus groups and interviews in a three-stage research model. This is a work on progress. Results to date are briefly discussed. Key words: conceptions of mathematics; dispositions towards mathematics; mathematics education; higher education students; high school students; mathematics teachers For over two thousand years, mathematics has been dominated by an absolutist paradigm, which views it as a body of infallible and objective truth, far removed from the values of humanity. Currently, this is being challenged … affirming that mathematics is fallible, changing and like any other body of knowledge, the product of human inventiveness. (Ernest, 1993)

1. Introduction The National Research Council (1989) viewed mathematics as a key to career opportunities. A sound knowledge of mathematics provides citizens with enhanced abilities. It improves job prospects, enables informed citizenship and provides countries with a competitive edge in the emerging technological economy. The mathematics education literature offers insights into the important contributions of mathematics and its role in everyday life. This literature also documents students’ difficulties and negative attitudes to mathematics. Affective variables such as emotions, attitudes and beliefs are important for understanding students’ behavior in mathematics (Gomez-Chacon, 2000). Gomez-Chacon viewed the interest in affective variables as stemming from their impact on how students learn and use mathematics, as well as their potential to hinder effective learning. Oaks (1994) viewed students’ conceptions of mathematics as affecting their perception of classroom activities. Frid and White (1995) suggested that students’ conceptions of mathematics affect the quality of their learning. They emphasized the importance of understanding students’ views of mathematics, i.e., mathematics in the “eyes” of the learners. This research study builds on an exploratory study on students’ conceptions of mathematics conducted in a Middle Eastern country in the Arabian Gulf (Atallah, 2003; 2004). The current study examines students’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics, and its real-life applications. The researchers view that conceptions Fida Atallah, Ph.D., assistant professor, College of Education, Zayed University; research field: mathematics and science education. Sharon Lynne Bryant, Ph.D., assistant professor, College of Education, Zayed University; research field: mathematics and science education. Robin Dada, Ph.D., professor, College of Education, Zayed University; research field: mathematics and science education. 43

Learners’ and teachers’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics from a Middle Eastern perspective

and dispositions of mathematics influence the approach that students utilize in learning the subject. The lack of perception of the link between mathematics and its applications in real-life settings seems to be partly responsible for the negative feelings towards mathematics as well as the difficulties encountered by students in understanding mathematical concepts and applications. The study also examines teachers’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics, as there is research evidence to suggest that teachers’ views and beliefs about mathematics influence their instructional practices (Thompson, 1984; Alsalouli, 2004). Consequently, these instructional practices have an impact on student conceptions and dispositions.

2. Literature review 2.1 Conceptions Steele (1994) proposed that conceptions have two components: knowledge and beliefs. Beliefs have cognitive and affective components (Steele, 1994; Pehkonen, 2001). Beliefs are seen as personal views, values and assumptions (Steele, 1994). Thompson (1992) saw conceptions as general mental structures that encompass beliefs. Osborne and Wittrock (Mevarech & Kramarsky, 1997) described students’ conceptions as categories of beliefs, theories, meaning and explanations. Oaks (1994, p. 43) characterized conceptions of mathematics as “the view that students hold of mathematics, how they would describe mathematics, and what they believe is required in learning and doing mathematics”. In this research study, the researchers adopted Oak’s definition. A conception of mathematics is defined as the view that students hold of mathematics, how they describe it as a subject, and what they believe is required in learning and doing mathematics. Pehkonen (2001) presented four components of individual mathematics related beliefs: (1) beliefs about mathematics; (2) beliefs about one’s self as a mathematics user and learner; (3) beliefs about teaching mathematics; and (4) beliefs about learning mathematics. Van Oers (2001) proposed several views on what constitutes real mathematics in classroom, such as: (1) mathematics as a subject is about arithmetic operations; (2) mathematics as a subject is about structures; and (3) mathematics as a subject is a problem-solving activity using symbolic tools. Thompson (1992) provided a summary of the history on beliefs and conceptions. She traced interest in the nature of beliefs and their influence on actions as started in the early twentieth century in the field of social psychology. In education, Thompson attributed the interest in teachers’ beliefs and conceptions to paradigm shifts that occurred in the field. Thompson classified the research on conceptions as mostly interpretive in nature and focusing on one of two areas: describing and documenting beliefs and conceptions, or the relation between conceptions and practices. Thompson (1992) summarized research initiatives on teachers’ conceptions. Ernest (Thompson, 1992) suggested three conceptions of mathematics (Pehkonen, 2001; Benken & Wilson, 1996). The problem-solving view suggests that mathematics is a driven and dynamic problem, an expanding field of human invention. The Platonist view suggests that mathematics is a static product, a discovered body of knowledge. The instrumental view suggests that mathematics is a tool box with facts, rules and skills. Lerman (Thompson, 1992) suggested that there are two conceptions. The absolutist view presents mathematics as based on universal and absolute foundations. The fallibilist view presents mathematics as developing through proofs, conjectures and refutations that involve an element of uncertainty. Thompson (1984) discussed three emerging teacher conceptions based on the results of her own study: (1) mathematics as consisting of logically interrelated topics and emphasizing conceptual understanding; (2) mathematics as a challenging subject that uses discovery; and (3) mathematics as a

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prescriptive and predetermined subject. Thompson noted the differences in approaches to teaching and related them to the different conceptions the teachers held (Golafshani, n.d.). The literature on students’ conceptions is less extensive as the one on teachers’ conceptions (Atallah, 2003). Frid and White (1995) noted that students’ motivation to study mathematics, conceptions of mathematics and approaches to studying have received little attention. Grouws, Howald and Colangelo (1996) shared the view that students’ conceptions of mathematics have been neglected. Students’ conceptions of mathematics affect the quality of related cognitive activities and learning outcomes, thus affecting their mathematics performance. This view, according to Frid and White (1995), was shared by several educators. In a study exploring conceptions of mathematics, Frid and White suggested four factors that relate to students’ and teachers’ conceptions of mathematics: social status of mathematics, utility of mathematics, career aspirations and interest in mathematics. Reporting on the results of their study, the responses to the question about the nature of mathematics were found to be aligned with previous findings. One conception depicted mathematics as numbers, rules and formulae. The second conception depicted mathematics as a logical process or a way of thinking. The third conception depicted mathematics as a connected hierarchy that studies patterns and relations. Students were somewhat undecided about whether mathematics was discovered or created. The researchers attributed the indecision to the following: Students see mathematics as created in the sense that it is something that mathematicians made up, and that they (the students) do not see much use for or understand about mathematics. Grouws, Howald and Colangelo (1996) suggested the need for a deeper understanding of individual’s perceptions of mathematics as a discipline and the need to address questions such as: What does it mean to do or know mathematics? How do conceptions affect students’ use of knowledge and experiences, or their interpretation of learning situations? Grouws, Howald and Colangelo (1996) conducted a study with the purpose of conceptualizing a framework for analyzing students’ conceptions of mathematics. The framework they came up with, after reviewing the existing literature, developed from three major themes: (1) students’ views of the nature of mathematical knowledge; (2) the character of mathematics activity; and (3) the essence of learning mathematics. Using these themes, they identified four conceptions of mathematics: nature of mathematical knowledge, nature of mathematical activity, learning mathematics and usefulness of mathematics. The results of their study indicated that students view mathematics as a dynamic system. While mathematically talented ones saw it as a coherent system of interrelated concepts, typical students saw it as a discrete system of facts and procedures that require memorization. Both groups found mathematics to be useful in their personal lives and for the future. Oaks (1994) conducted a research project to help determine factors that influence students’ behavior towards mathematics. Oaks’s study indicated that the conceptions students hold of mathematics affect their perception of class activities, thus affecting their ability to understand the logic and reasoning behind mathematics. Gibson (1994) suggested using metaphors that compare mathematics with specific objects helps students express their views of the subject and views of themselves as learners. These mathematics metaphors allow teachers to understand their students’ conceptions of mathematics. Gibson used a writing activity including four exercises to examine views of mathematics. One exercise related to describing mathematics using a student’s own words or phrases. The second exercise related to listing all the feelings that came to mind while doing or using mathematics in or out of school. The third exercise related to listing the objects that the student thinks mathematics is. The fourth exercise related to selecting the best word from the list in exercise 3, and using it to complete the metaphor: “For me, math is most like a(n) ______”. Gibson found that some students expressed intense feelings such as anger, despair and frustration. Others expressed positive feelings such as challenge and excitement. 45


Frank and Carey (1997), in their study on young learners’ perceptions of mathematics, reported that students viewed mathematics as a static body of knowledge that was replicated rather than created. Koch and Smith (1993), in their study examining students’ beliefs, reported that they viewed mathematics as memorized rules, as an irritating subject, as useful in the future, as needing insight and as challenging. Frank (Pehkonen, 2001) derived five students’ beliefs from her research study: mathematics is computation; mathematics problems should be solved quickly in a few steps; the goal of doing mathematics is getting the “right answers”; the role of the mathematics students is to receive mathematical knowledge and to apply it; and the role of the mathematics teachers is to transmit mathematical knowledge and make sure that students have received it. In a study focusing on adults with college or university level of education, Karsenty (2000) described patterns of general opinions towards mathematics, two of which are relevant to the discussion on students’ conceptions. Some found mathematics to be an essential part of life that should be compulsory for all students. It is an important language of communication. It is needed for functioning in society. Some found it to be a powerful discipline, and it is a tool for developing a rational personality. 2.2 Dispositions The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989) described mathematics dispositions as tendencies to think and act positively. These dispositions are reflected in students’ interest and confidence in doing mathematics. According to Anku (1996), students’ dispositions towards mathematics affect their learning. Summarizing some research findings related to students’ dispositions of mathematics, Anku reported that developing mathematical concepts from real-life experiences or through problem-solving promotes students’ interest and confidence in doing mathematics. Anku believed in fostering students’ disposition towards mathematics learning through connecting the mathematical concepts with real-life situations and through encouraging students’ discourse in class. Knowledge, skills, beliefs, attitudes, behaviors and dispositions impact teachers’ conceptions of the subjects that they teach (Damon, 2005). Damon described a disposition as “a deep-seated component of personality, with roots going back to the origins of our temperaments and tentacles that bear major import for who we are and who we become” (p. 3). Research on attribution theories demonstrates that the attributions that teachers make to their pupils who are doing poorly may reflect their beliefs, but hinder their effective interventions with pupils. Raths (2001) pointed out that Lilian Katz set a framework for the notion of “dispositions” or beliefs teachers hold towards learning. She called them “pre-disposition” and used the term “dispositions” as a summary of actions observed in teachers and teacher candidates. The research went on to define areas and dispositions that a successful teacher needs to manifest. Dispositions are closely related to skills and practices (Raths, 2001). Perkins and Tishman (1998) suggested that while dispositions are related to emotional intelligence, they go beyond to include motivational and cognitive roles that emotions play when thinking was triggered by curiosity or passion. Dispositions also reflect habits or policies. In this study, dispositions towards mathematics were defined as beliefs or tendencies to exhibit a frequent, conscious and voluntary behavior directed towards learning the subject. In conclusion, students’ conceptions of mathematics, and their dispositions towards it are derived from a number of factors that speak strongly about the nature of mathematics education for students of today.

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3. Methodology 3.1 Research questions This study starts with the following research questions related to mathematics education: (1) What are students’/teachers’ conceptions of mathematics as a discipline? For example, do students/teachers see mathematics as a set of rules to be remembered, a form of art studied for its aesthetic nature …? (2) What are students’/teachers’ conceptions of the application of mathematics in everyday life? For example, do students/teachers see mathematics as a tool for solving real-world problems? (3) What are students’/teachers’ conceptions of the links between mathematical knowledge and its applications in the work environment? For example, in mathematics, can students/teachers identify the applications of mathematical knowledge and skills in a variety of job contexts? (4) How do students’/teachers’ dispositions towards mathematics influence their conceptions of how to learn/teach the subject? For example, if students are faced with doing a portfolio, how would they discuss the topic of “Why do I need to study mathematics”? 3.2 Research stages The researchers proposed a three-stage model to address the research questions (see Table 1). Stage one involves students and teachers at one public university. Stage two involves other institutes of higher education. Stage three involves preparatory and secondary schools. Table 1

The research model

Stage one: The university perspective Literature review, interviews and focus groups Developing instruments, piloting & modifying instruments Conducting the survey Data processing & analysis Follow up interviews & focus groups Stage two: The higher education perspective Conducting the survey Data processing & analysis Stage three: The preparatory & secondary school perspective Piloting & modifying instruments, translating to Arabic when needed Conducting the survey Data processing & analysis Final report

3.3 Participants The research takes place in a Middle Eastern country in the Arabian Gulf. The participants are high school students, college and university students as well as mathematics teachers. The participants’ native language is Arabic. For the current stage of the study (stage one), the participants are female undergraduate students enrolled in different colleges and at different levels. English is their second language and the language of instruction at the university. 3.4 Procedures The study utilizes qualitative and quantitative procedures, with triangulation of data through using surveys, interviews and focus groups. While it seeks to explore, investigate and describe students’ conceptions and dispositions of mathematics as well as teachers’ conceptions and dispositions, it emphasizes the design and development of reliable and valid instruments to measure these conceptions or dispositions. Based on the definitions of conceptions and dispositions as they are related to this study, and the existing

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literature as well as the researchers’ own personal experiences in teaching mathematics, the researchers proposed six indicators for each of conceptions and dispositions (see Table 2). Table 2

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6

Indicators of conceptions and dispositions

Conceptions Describing what they think the subject is—their ideas or thoughts about the nature and origin of the subject (e.g., invented or created, absolute or relative, static or dynamic, universal or culture bound, numbers and rules, patterns, logical process, …) Drawing what the subject is—their mental image of the subject Describing what they believe is required to learn the subject (to study it) Describing what they believe is required to do the subject (to do the class activities and problems) Describing what they think is the purpose of studying math (why is it included in the school curriculum, its usefulness in everyday life, … ) Describing what they believe indicates that they have learned math/science (how do they know that they have learned) Dispositions Describing their ability in the subject (themselves as learners) Describing their attitudes towards the subject Describing the expectations about the subject (what will it help them achieve) Describing the learning approaches used to study the subject (for example, deep/surface learning) Describing the perceived value of the subject Describing the evidence that they would provide to others as a “proof” that they have learned the subject

Using these indicators, the researchers developed an exploratory questionnaire with 15 items. Due to time constraints and the nature of the open-ended questionnaire, it was divided into four parts with each part except one including 4 items. After piloting, the questionnaire was administered to students from different levels and the specializations were each student received one part. The responses were analyzed by the research team and tentative categories of responses were generated.

4. Results to date Using text analysis, the researchers came up with tentative categories for 12 of the 15 items. The answers to the three remaining items will require focus groups and interviews due to the unique nature of the responses and the difficulty in describing these responses. Some of the preliminary results to date will be discussed in the next three paragraphs. In response to an item asking students to provide a metaphor form mathematics, the most frequent responses were related to patterns and relations, arithmetic and themes labeled as “gate keeper” such as key and door. Responding to an item on drawing images of mathematics, the most frequent themes appearing in drawings were related to symbols and shapes, mathematical tools or depictions of people’s likes and dislikes. When asked to write the thoughts that come to mind when hearing the word “mathematics”, the most frequent ones were related to mathematical topics, thinking skills, emotions and careers. When asked what mathematics was useful for, students mentioned everyday life use, academic use and a few mentioned arts. When asked what useful things they learned in mathematics, students listed arithmetic, thinking skills, algebra and probability, and statistics. When asked to name professions that used mathematics, students listed a wide range including banking and finance, business, engineering and architecture, medical sciences, research, technology, arts and education. Responding to a question about the importance of mathematics to them personally, students mentioned everyday use, thinking skills and academic use. 48


When asked how they feel about studying for a math exam in comparison with others, some of the students who mentioned that they feel differently attributed this to the fact that math involved different mental processes. To demonstrate that they have learned something in mathematics, students responded that they would discuss and demonstrate, apply to real life, or participate in class and perform well on exams. When asked if they enjoyed working on a challenging problem in math, those who agreed said that they did because it involved thinking, feelings of challenge, enjoyment, etc. Currently, the researchers are working on verifying the indicators and categories as a prerequisite to developing the study questionnaire. The researchers will be conducting this stage at the same university. At a later stage, the scope will expand to other universities. The final stage involves modifying the questionnaire to conduct in secondary schools.

5. Conclusion So far, the researchers have identified tentative indicators and categories for conceptions and dispositions for learning mathematics. It is expected that these categories will enable the development of a conceptual framework for conceptions and dispositions that facilitate the teaching and learning of mathematics. References: Alsalouli, M. (2004). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs and conceptions about mathematics teaching and learning. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Anku, S. F. (1996). Fostering student dispositions towards mathematics: A case from a Canadian university. Education, Summer. Atallah, F. (2004). Mathematics through their eyes. Teachers, Learners and Curriculum, 2, 15-20. Atallah, F. (2003). Mathematics through their eyes: Student conceptions of mathematics in everyday life. (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Concordia University) Benken, B. & Wilson, M. (1996). Developing problem solving conceptions of mathematics: A pre-service teacher’s experiences. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 401 133). Damon, W. (2005). Personality test: The dispositional dispute in teacher preparation today, and what to do about it. Journal of Teacher Education Issues on Dispositions, 2, 1-6. Ernest, P. (1993). The philosophy of mathematics education, studies in mathematics education series: 1. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 381 351). Frank, M. L. & Carey, D. A. (1997). Young children’s perceptions of mathematics in problem solving environments. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28(1), 8-25. Frid, S. & White, L. (1995). Secondary school mathematics in perspective: Conceptions of its nature and relevance. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 387 343). Gibson, H. (1994). “Mathematics is like a used car”: Metaphors reveal attitudes towards mathematics. In: Buerk, D. (Ed.). Empowering students by promotion active learning in mathematics: Teachers speak to teachers (Chapter 2) (Report No. ISBN-O-87353-415-8). Reston, Va: National Council for Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 378 045). Gomez-Chacon, I. (2000). Affective influences in the knowledge of mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 43, 149-168. Golafshani, N. (n.d.). Teacher conceptions of mathematics and their instructional practices. Ontario Institute of Studies in Education /University of Toronto. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from http://people.exeter.ac.uk/PErnest/pome18/teachers_conception_nahid_ golafshani.htm. Grouws, D., Howald, C. & Colangelo, N. (1996). Student conceptions of mathematics: A comparison of mathematically talented students and typical high school algebra students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 395 783). Karsenty, R. (2000). What do we remember when it is over? Adults’ recollections of their mathematical experience. In: Nakahara, T. & Koyama, M. (Eds.). Proceedings of the Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 452 033). Koch, L. C. & Smith, L. L. (1993). Minority students’ beliefs about mathematics. In: Becker, J. R. & Pence, B. J. (Eds.). Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 2), 94-100. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 372 917). Mevarech, Z. R. & Kramarsky, B. (1997). From verbal descriptions to graphical representation: Stability and change in students’ alternative conceptions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 32, 229-263. (to be continued on Page 72) 49



The effects of globalization phenomena on educational concepts Barbara Theresia Schröttner (Department of Education, Institute of Continuing and Adult Education, University of Graz, Graz 8010, Austria)

Abstract: It is becoming more and more apparent that globalization processes represent, theoretically as well as practically, a challenge for educational sciences and therefore, it must be addressed within the sphere of education. Accordingly, educational conceptions have to adapt to globalization phenomena and focus more on alternative and innovative educational concepts. The observable phenomena that appear as part of globalization then lead to the following question: Is there still space for educational concepts like emancipation, self-determination, equal opportunities and fairness in distribution, democracy and common sense? The most indispensable tools for the development of equitable and peaceful contemporary education perspectives are a differentiated reflection on globalization phenomena and consequences, an intensive analysis and disclosure to address (global) conflict lines, the questioning of well-established concepts, the formation and embodiment of visions of the global future and the articulation of innovative education concepts. Modern social and political structures and practices have to be reoriented to combat the negative effects of globalization processes through the incorporation of more humane, socially fair and ecological principles. Educational science is sure to make an important contribution in making this a reality. Key words: globalization; educational concepts; crisis response; cultural exchange; dialogical competence; critical dialogue; adult education; global thinking

1. Introduction Globalization can be understood as part of a modernization and westernization process via which a tendentious global transition from traditional to modern societies takes place. The level of impact of globalization varies depending on the region and criteria which do not automatically lead, as one might expect, to global homogeneity (Varwick, 2004, p. 159). In the current context of globalization, virtually, everyone is affected by the outcomes of globalization processes, and the biographies of the actors on the globalized stage have also become global, often without intent or knowledge (Kemper, 2003, p. 17). A consequence of these occurrences is that through transoceanic relationships, people often live in parallel time frames and are organized in virtual global networks. They are confronted with heterogeneous, multi-dimensional and multi-regional dynamics, and they simultaneously face related inequalities. All of the previously mentioned factors produce unintentional side effects as well as contradictory results (Wulf & Merkel, 2002, p. 14). Current globalization processes can be characterized by sets of tensions: the global and the local, the universal and the individual, the traditional and the modern, and the spiritual and the rational. Other tensions lie in the expansion of knowledge, economic competition and the issue of equal opportunities (Wulf & Merkel, 2002, p. 15). Globalization refers simultaneously to differentiated social phenomena and its shaping of new systems, such as changed realities and Barbara Theresia Schröttner, Ph.D., Department of Education, Institute of Continuing and Adult Education, University of Graz; research fields: adult education, globalization and development studies. 50

The effects of globalization phenomena on educational concepts

actors characterized by globalized interaction. In addition to processes of extension and expansion, and reorientation and major shifts in perspective, globalization entails the structuring and restructuring of power relationships. As a result of globalization phenomena, the centers of power are gradually becoming more distanced from the local level participants, thus the elites within the major metropolitan areas of the world have increasingly more control-over as well as the ability to manage global networks (Munoz, 2006, pp. 275-276). To summarize briefly, it is understandable that finding consensus regarding the complexity and non-linearity of globalization processes is not at easy all and tends toward contradiction (Plate, 2003, p. 6).

2. New dimensions of globalization What are the precise differences between the global movements in the last decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century when compared to earlier global movements? World history is rich in cultural interaction, relationship building, knowledge exchange, trade, travel and migration, and contemporary globalization trends are largely an extension of what has been going on for thousands of years. Over recent decades, the influence of globalization processes has certainly progressed in different directions, while in the last few hundred years, the direction has been mainly from the West (Sen, 2007, p. 117). Currently, the power among the world’s countries and regions is shifting largely because the global economy has grown more dynamically in the past five to ten years than in prior decades. The recent shift in power is perhaps only comparable to the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. This reallocation is certainly important (Janning, 2006, p. 60). However, much of the form, volume, values, complexity, intensity and the widespread nature of today’s globalization differ from previous human experiences. The density of globalization forces brings together multiple issues, introduces an avalanche of concepts and practices, and exposes the powerful intersections of economics, politics, culture and technology which simultaneously affect values, institutions and expectations (Stromquist, 2002, pp. 87, 93). Additionally, today’s globalization is characterized by the high speed of global interactions and processes. The worldwide systems of transportation and communication increase the potential speed of the global transmission of ideas, goods, technology, capital and people. Moreover, the vastness of the global movement is tremendous. Both the volume and the speed of global flow have intensified the entanglement of the local and the global, thus many local developments have enormous global consequences and vice versa. Due to the great number of global interconnections made in recent decades, one can observe an obvious increase in transnational cultural flows. The discussion of the globalization of “ethnoscapes”, “mediascapes”, “technoscapes”, “financescapes” and “ideoscapes” (Arjun, 1996) provides a useful means for identifying global movements and connections. The terms “financescapes” and “technoscapes” refer to aspects of economic globalization, including production and financing, which flow more and more readily around the world. The term “ethnoscape” describes the landscape of persons such as immigrants, refugees, guest workers, tourists and other individuals and groups moving from place to place who constitute this shifting world (Derné, 2008, p. 19). The well-respected Indian psychoanalyst and writer Kakar (2006, p. 122) explained that the phenomenon of globalization is often seen as a homogenizing process, i.e., as a project which has no respect for cultural pluralities and diversities. Nonetheless, globalization has not yet produced homogenization because the images and effects of globalization are mostly mediated and interpreted by local interests and actors. Local consumers indigenize products to serve their own cultural interests. They often cannot identify themselves with the global images offered, thus they respond to globalization phenomena by highlighting their local identities (Derné, 2008, p. 27).

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Rather than simply harming local cultures, globalization can actually assist in inspiring local cultures. In the cultural field, globalization adds to cultural diversity and pluralism rather than replacing the local culture (Nayar, 2007, p. 22). However, local cultures often contrast strongly with the global images which are presented and this can bring about a revival of local cultures, often in the form of religious movements, or an escape into the security of ethnicity or tradition (Derné, 2008, pp. 27-28). In conclusion, it is clear that through the exposure to different value systems and lifestyles, traditional social and cultural identities are nowadays called more into question worldwide. Societies have to react to the challenges presented by cultural differences and social transformation, therefore, cultural identity is becoming the flashpoint of social change (Boecker, Debroy & Wieck, 2005, p. 10).

3. Reorientation through education Of all the forces having an effect on education, it is perhaps no more important than globalization (Stromquist, 2002, p. 87). The field of education cannot be considered to be an isolated discipline which changes according to the current challenges created by the macro and micro forces of globalization, but part of a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach within the social sciences (Stromquist, 2002, p. 93). Understanding the consequences of globalization has also become a serious concern for sociologists, anthropologists and economists as well as social scientists from other disciplines. It seems that a great number of social theorists agree that all areas of modern social life are increasingly characterized by the content, the character and the interconnectedness of global processes (Derné, 2008, p. 20). The future of society in the global knowledge and information age is therefore increasingly dependent on the future of education. Education is thereby regarded as one of the most important resources and as a result, it must be accessible to all individuals in the same manner (Wimmer, Reichenbach & Pongratz, 2007, p. 7). Due to the shift away from the ideal of humanistic personality and character formation as well as preparation for international employability, a paradigm change in the meaning of education can be seen. An increasing number of the previous actors having public control over education, science and technology are handing over their directive powers to supranational organizations as well as transnational groups and foundations. In economies as well as education, a massive loss of the nation-state influence in shaping structures and policies is observable (Laitko, 2005, p. 2). Consequently, within the institutional education system, a reorientation is taking place. Previously, the focus of the political and educational officials was the underpinning of national identity and the stabilization of social cooperation. Currently, there is a reorientation towards economically centered objectives and a demand for education reforms that respond to the intensification of international economic competition. One can find the call to increase efficiency at all educational levels accompanied by the demand for shorter training periods, an increase in speed or output as well as the desire to form an economically educated elite (Steffens & Weiß, 2004, p. 26). Thus, with globalization influences, public goods become tradable services, and due to privatization or the opening up of economic markets, they are increasingly left in the hands of private providers. This pattern of behavior has directly impacted educational practice, insofar as the legal and technical conditions for “trading” education have already been developed to a large extent (Steffens & Weiß, 2004, p. 19). As a consequence, education degenerates more and more, becoming a service which is dealt with on the private market and which thus becomes more cost intensive. Elements of education systems appear to act as initiators and amplifiers of globalization processes. One can argue that with regards to an initiative to positively confront the challenges of international discrepancies in education, in the sense of readiness for a global reconciliation, institutional education lags far behind. Education currently does not

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fulfill the role that it could be as a stabilizing global force, and the traditional educational institutions are not able to transfer the competences that they possess to the global identities, which have transcended the confines and limitations of globalization’s current structures (Steffens & Weiß, 2004, p. 28). Although there might be a tendency to think of all globalization forces as essentially macro processes, the individual is being challenged by these forces in crucial ways as well. Individuals and, particularly, educators need to develop a wider and deeper understanding of the meanings, challenges and consequences of globalization phenomena (Steffens & Weiß, 2004, pp. 87, 91) so that they are able to competently and systematically review, modify and assess the effects of globalization processes on educational practices. The development of a global consciousness as a universal key competence that prepares people for living in the world community should be at the center of education, but simply adding the dimension of global awareness to previously existing educational aims is not enough. Education that claims to be actively responsible cannot be limited to merely providing the contents of curricula. It needs to enhance the basic political conditions that are essential in response to global challenges. Hence, the goal lies in the ability of people to dynamically participate in the solving of current global problems (Wintersteiner, 2004, p. 320). Education systems have to adapt to certain global demands which call on people to interact and compete in global economies and politics, as well as to fulfill the specific roles and needs of their respective society. Moreover, individuals have to be educated to become more critical and self-aware to world citizens and to act more meaningfully in their local milieus. These requirements may appear to be contradictory, but they actually characterize the challenges which globalization presents for education processes worldwide (Adick, 2002, p. 52). However, it is insufficient to define globalization processes in educational contexts alone; it is also necessary to examine the effects and consequences of globalization processes in relation to educational strategies in order to gain an overall picture of the problems, challenges, realities, tasks and possibilities. Thus, educational settings and goals have to incorporate the relevant key problems of the future in order to be able to cope with the coming consequences of global changes (Wintersteiner, 2004, p. 318). It is possible to conclude that the pedagogical discourse of education must be revised to enable education to be a formative agent of change so as to create the type of globalizing that will be a service to the world rather than a harm (Steffens & Weiß, 2004, p. 25).

4. Asymmetrical effects of globalization phenomena There have been many debates about the merits and harms of globalization in recent years. Indeed, the real debate concerning globalization is neither about the efficiency of markets nor about the importance of modern technology, instead, it is about the extreme asymmetries of power (Sen, 2006, p. 341). The global movement which is often seen as a one-sided Western movement reflects an imbalance of power which needs to be resisted (Sen, 2006, p. 345). Because the stretch of globalization has been unevenly distributed, the involvement of the developing countries in globalization has been, with some exceptions, very low (Nayar, 2007, p. 18). The rules of globalization have been mostly determined by the advanced industrial countries to serve their own interests—often to the noticeable disadvantage of the developing world. Globalization thus faces enormous resistance, particularly in the developing countries of more southern regions, although it has been told as bringing prosperity to the billions of people who have lived with insecurity and have been caught up in poverty (Stiglitz, 2007, pp. 133-134). The failures of globalization processes are often related to the oversight of globalization. Many critics argue

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that globalization has undermined democratic processes (Stiglitz, 2007, p. 134) because global capitalism is, in general, not concerned with expanding education, establishing democracy or enhancing social opportunities for the poor, but instead, with expanding the domain of market relations (Sen, 2007, p. 129). Through global movements, some regions of the world have benefited over time from the progress and development occurring in other regions in various ways (Sen, 2006, p. 345). Despite the huge contribution that globalization and the global economy undoubtedly make to the prosperity of the world, it is also necessary to reflect on and confront the far-reaching manifestations of global inequality and injustice (Sen, 2006, p. 342). However, globalization has offered opportunities from which the whole world could do and does benefit. Questions remain: Is there fairness or inequity in the distribution of these opportunities? Are the benefits of globalization evenly shared? Can a more equitable sharing of opportunities be secured through institutional transformation? It is essential to pay attention to the interests and needs of the less well-off members of the world community, in particular those who suffer from special vulnerabilities, various interlinked inequalities and insecurities as well as injustice and deprivation (Sen, 2007, p. 132). Deprivation in this context can be understood not merely as an absolute lack of income—It is marked by various “unfreedoms” such as hunger, the prevalence of preventable or curable illness, premature mortality, social exclusion, economic insecurity, denial of political liberty, etc. The expansion of “basic freedoms”, which is a crucial aspect of development, and the ability of the poor to participate in globalization processes and economic growth depend on a variety of enabling social conditions. These conditions are drastically influenced by social arrangements for (basic) education, health care, economic safety nets, democratic practices, micro-credit facilities, land reform, fair public policies, civil and human rights, and other means of empowerment and participation (Sen, 2007, pp. 122-123). Globalization processes have been accompanied by increasing instability and insecurity in different areas over recent decades and relatedly, a number of worldwide countries have experienced crises. Those at the lowest income levels in developing countries suffer most from the numerous insecurities caused by crises because they have inadequate social safety nets and lack reserves to protect themselves from economic shocks (Stiglitz, 2007, p. 147). The advocates of globalization shift the blame to the developing countries: for their overpopulation, corruption, lack of transparency, lack of needed reforms, etc. There is little doubt that these problems exist in developing countries—as they do in developed ones. Nevertheless, with or without corruption, globalization has worsened the troubles of many developing countries; however, the policies of the developing countries alone cannot be blamed for its failures (Stiglitz, 2007, pp. 134-135). The precarious economic situation of the poor countries around the world cannot be changed if they are not able to make use of the advantages of contemporary technology, the efficiency of international trade, economic interrelations and the social benefits of living in open societies (Sen, 2007, p. 118). Many nation-states have already exploited the opportunities that globalization offers in the facilitation of their transition from underdevelopment to development. Since their initial encounter with colonialism, this transition has been the central challenge for many states in the developing countries. Undeniably, there are a lot of negative consequences associated with globalization, but in the context of making a transition for the better, they are more often not seen as side effects that have to be managed (Nayar, 2007, p. 43).

5. Competence in crisis response The American economist and author Stiglitz (2006a), who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in

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2001, argued that there are problems in every part of the global system with many related crises, insecurity and global instabilities. It is obvious that something is systemically wrong, but at the same time, little has been done to prevent the recurrence of the problems. Crisis scenarios occur because political structures are overwhelmed by a high level of external pressure along with transnational factors affecting the business, political, cultural and social arenas. In the coming decades, one can expect to see failed states in diverse parts of the globe, though this will not necessarily occur through a spectacular implosion but via a creeping erosion of political power instead. The problem is the enduring inability of political actors to take effective action which leads to social, humanitarian, ecological and health catastrophes due to the world’s increasing interdependence. As political power erodes, the generation of an adequate response will become a key task of what one can refer to as intervention or crisis response. If this response is understood as being a task for the military, it will not succeed. An appropriate crisis response is not primarily a task to promote democracy, but a task that requires an intelligent promotion of governance which includes the adequacy of infrastructure and provides citizens with basic public services. This requires new and intelligent strategies for taking action which cannot be reserved exclusively for the world’s major powers (Janning, 2006, p. 65). This re-evaluation needs to be carried out not only in the West but in all parts of the world (Munshi, 2006, p. 128); it is thus a direction for international initiatives as well as local and national leadership (Sen, 2007, p. 121). The question is in an age of global interdependencies: What might an international system that is able to ensure peace look like? Additionally, which role can civil society play in bridging the gap between cultural differences, both within pluralistic societies and internationally (Boecker, Debroy & Wieck, 2005, p. 10)? There are a number of policy issues and institutional reforms that the global community has to address, which can facilitate the type of change that is needed to make globalization a fairer arrangement. The range of necessary actions includes international initiatives and global arrangements such as global policies concerning education, health care, human security, etc. (Sen, 2007, p. 132). The goal is to address the various sources of insecurity and instability, discuss the questions and develop means to reduce and possibly eliminate the problems (Sen, 2007, p. 119). The rough consensus at the end of the World War II was that the war had brought on the Great Depression, surging nationalism, protectionist trade barriers and the inability of global institutions (e.g., the League of Nations) to foster stability. These effects challenged the world community to provide a framework and working definition of progress which allows improvement in the quality of the people’s lives in order to forestall another depression, prevent another world war and guarantee peace and security, economic development and the observance of human rights. Each of these goals was eventually enshrined in one or more global institutions: the United Nations Charter, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and later, the World Trade Organization, and the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as the Helsinki Accords. Even though there were many violent conflicts along the way, the new framework basically worked (Friedman, 2008, p. 48). In the 1980s, things started to change: (1) In 1987, the UN’s Brundtland Commission argued that economic development was not working because more people suffered from poverty and the environment was increasingly being degraded; (2) The Montreal Protocol mandated the phasing out the use of ozone-depleting chemicals; (3) In the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in 1992, governments agreed to a non-binding action plan “Agenda 21”, to address the problems which were identified by the Brundtland Commission using a concept called “sustainable development”; (4) In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol set binding limits for greenhouse gas emissions in developed countries. These environmental treaties were only 55


treated as options, not as imperatives; the United States never accepted the Kyoto Protocol and China and India have generally kept them distanced from the goals outlined in the treaties (Friedman, 2008, p. 49). Today, the need for international organizations like the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization and the United Nations has never been greater, but confidence in these institutions has rarely been lower. The world has become more interdependent over recent decades and the need to act together is on increase, but the institutional frameworks for doing this effectively and democratically do not exist (Stiglitz, 2006b). Unfortunately, the United Nations, the quintessential global organization of the 20th century, still represents the global situation as it was in 1945 when the World War II ended. The United Nations has become outdated and is no longer representative of the majority of the world community (Singh, 2005, p. 39). To conclude, one can argue that it is probably not possible to expect continued economic growth, peace and security, good governance, sustainable development and respect for human rights if the key problems such as education, health care, poverty, political instability as well as inequality and insecurity, climate change, energy poverty and loss of biodiversity are so often ignored and a strategic path into the future is not developed (Friedman, 2008, p. 49).

6. Cultural exchange through changing orientations The history of cultural exchange has always been intensely interconnected with the history of trade and commerce. If one thinks of the Silk Road or the Amber Road, both connecting Europe and Asia, it is possibly easier to understand that trade has traditionally been a powerful force in cultural transmission. The development of civilized societies in Asia as well as in Europe was facilitated by the process of passing on culturally relevant knowledge, skills, competences, attitudes and values from person to person and from culture to culture. Economic development driven by international trade was closely connected with cultural exchange and paved the way for great cultural achievements. Cultural exchange and transmission was always an evolutionary process and therefore, a relatively slow phenomenon which took place over the course of decades or even centuries. Replacements and adjustments were, in most cases, the result of choices made for reasons of efficiency and utility. Contrastingly, globalization processes have totally transformed the processes of cultural exchange, and evolution has nowadays turned into a kind of “turbo-evolution” which is driven by accelerated and expanded flows of information, technology, capital, goods, services and people throughout the world. This turbo-evolution is driven by the power of multinational corporations which have multiplied through free trade agreements and other liberalizing factors that have arisen as part of globalization. However, cultural exchange was never balanced, so that one culture integrated everything that it received from another culture and at the same time, preserved its own features. On the contrary, because many of the new cultural concepts were not only different from what had been previously known but even perceived of as being better, they replaced traditional cultural elements (Körber, 2006, pp. 80-81). Thus, cultural globalization intrinsically affects structural arrangements and the meanings people attached to those arrangements. Transnational cultural flows then only affect local cultures when new meanings can be layered on top of the existing structural realities (Derné, 2008, p. 162). One consequence of Western dominance is that other cultures and traditions are often identified and defined by their contrasts with the contemporary Western culture. In other words, different cultures are interpreted in ways that reinforce the political conviction that Western civilization is somehow the main or the only source of rationalistic and liberal ideas with exclusive access to the values that lie at the foundation of rationality and reasoning, science and analysis, liberty and tolerance and rights and justice. This view of the West, which is seen

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as a confrontation with the rest, tends to justify itself. A non-Western civilization can then be characterized by referring to those elements of the other civilization which are the most distant from the identified Western traditions and values. As a consequence, the selected elements are taken to be more authentic or more genuinely indigenous than the elements that are fairly similar to what can be also found in the West. Through the elements which point out the differences with the West, other civilizations can be redefined in alien terms as being exotic and charming, bizarre and terrifying or simply strange and engaging. But when identity is defined by contrast, divergence with the West becomes central. As a result, showing how other parts of the world differ from Western civilization can shore up artificial distinctions. However, it is important to note that many ideas that are taken to be quintessentially Western have also flourished in other civilizations and these ideas are not as culture-specific as is sometimes claimed (Sen, 2006, p. 285). A willingness to respect the cultural identity of different nations and societies as well as a respect for local cultural roots are needed because without such respect, the process of globalization will be threatened by a backlash that will discredit its past (economic) achievements (Körber, 2006, p. 85). The New York Times journalist and its author Thomas Friedman (Körber, 2006, pp. 81-82) described the need to support the value of and right to cultural identity—in particular, the right of a society to protect its cultural heritage and uniqueness: You cannot build an emerging society—which is so essential for dealing with the globalization system—if you are simultaneously destroying the cultural foundations that cement your society and give it self-confidence to interact properly with the world .... My concern is that ... without sustainable culture, there is no sustainable community and without a sustainable community, there is no sustainable globalization.

7. Cultural exchange through dialogical competence Globalization inherently contains powerful forces for equalizing cultural differences, these forces certainly clash with cultural traditions which cannot be readily reconciled with modernity. If cultural exchange does more than only scratching the surface, it must include such long-standing traditions, but how can such traditions be made useful in modern life without destroying them in the process? The ability to utilize dialogue in the form of a questioning and gradual process of search and discovery can be a worthy method. Through dialogue, people are able to better comprehend their differences and use them in achieving common goals. Cultural exchange thus means defining one’s own cultural identity and transforming it via the process of dialogue (Knopp, 2006, pp. 118-119). If a culture which is made up of values, attitudes, traditions, lifestyles and dreams that provide a framework for politics, business and other social activities is deprived of its roots, conflict is sure to arise (Mohn, 2005b, pp. 18-19). Only when cultural values encounter each other and do not clash with each other can they be the subject of a productive transnational dialogue (Kakar, 2006, p. 125), which can ensure the recognition of variety that makes coexistence possible and provides a solid foundation for freedom, non-violence and respect for the dignity of every human being. Across all social orders and cultures, humanity’s core values have found their expression in concentrating on what different cultures share instead of focusing on what separates them (Mohn, 2005b, p. 19). Many of humanity’s core values therefore have a privileged place in the histories of all societies and cultures and through dialogue people are able to discover that fact (Mohn, 2005a, p. 6). Only if we respect other cultures and religions and value their uniqueness and diversity can we take advantage of what globalization has to offer. In ensuring a peaceful coexistence in the contemporary world, dialogue among cultures has to play a key role (Mohn, 2005b, pp. 18-19). Dialogue illuminates the countless

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layers of globalization from political and economic restructuring at the local and global level to communication between different cultures (Zieghan, 2007, p. 2). To strengthen the dialogic process, it is essential that the dialogue involves community members as well as governments (Sen, 2006, p. 42): Through collective dialogue, alternatives for action can be identified ideas which do not lead to oppression but lead to liberation (Zieghan, 2007, pp. 5-6). Dialogical competence can be enormously important in countering social inequalities and removing poverty and deprivation. To give voice to the people is then a crucial component of the pursuit of social justice (Sen, 2006, p. xiii). Differences are usually not the cause of conflict, instead, it is often the misunderstandings arising from the differences which cause disputes (Knopp, 2006, p.117). Sources of misunderstanding which lead to tensions in dialogue between people of different cultural backgrounds are often caused by the misinterpretation of basic cultural values such as individualism and collectivism, time, gender, power distance, uncertainty and avoidance of interaction. One will talk about intercultural communication competence when he/she is able to manage the challenging differences and misunderstandings which are inherent in communication with a person or people from unfamiliar cultures (Zieghan, 2007, p. 10). Intercultural competence refers to social competence which can be described by characteristics such as cooperation, communication, competition and self-awareness that refers in turn to intercultural aspects in local and global contexts. Intercultural competence is essential in understanding and being able to communicate well with people of different cultural backgrounds. Dialogue is an accepted and practical way in which these features can be demonstrated (Briede, 2006, p. 58). Through dialogical competence, it is possible to increase tolerance for diversity. Tolerance, as one of the features of dialogue, is crucially important because of the inevitability of stereotyping and prejudice. Tolerance in interaction involves skills which are essential for individuals to act appropriately in diverse cultures, societies and groups. The term “tolerance” is strongly tied to the term “dialogue” because dialogical competence is a means of coping with extensive diversity and related conflicts. Dialogue then means tolerance of one another which is necessary in equal partnership interactions. Because the human developmental process is dialogical, it is vital to reveal and understand the diversity of the dialogue. To solve dialogical problems therefore means solving the problems of being human (i.e., existence) (Briede, 2006, pp. 60-61).

8. Adult education and the competence of critical dialogue The well-known Indian economist, philosopher and winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1998, Sen (Zieghan, 2007, p. 2) suggested that the role of adult education in a globalized world, which is characterized by increased diversity and economic and political imbalance, is the promotion of material and cultural changes. The challenge in adult education is to encourage critical dialogue that seeks to achieve a more just and equitable global environment (Zieghan, 2007, p. 13). Adult educators are tasked with nurturing the cultivation of the intellect, spirit, kindness, and the commitment to support the cultural development of humanity. This role of adult educators reflects the radical tradition of adult education inspired by the philosophy of liberation of Brazilian educator Paolo Freire (1970; 1990) and its emphasis on freedom from oppression (Paolo, 1970; 1990, p. 2). Talking about global issues through critical dialogue is an important dimension of adult education (Zieghan, 2007, p. 9). Dialogue is considered critical when it actively questions the instinctual responses to forming meaning in particular situations instead of passively tolerating social realities. Critical dialogue explores underlying assumptions about the way the world works, and forges new views on both personal and sociopolitical

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relationships. The following characteristics emerge as important for critical dialogue: (1) an open environment free of fear and oppression; (2) respect for the stories of individuals and communities; and (3) active problem-posing through dialogue that includes a plan for action. The problematization (Freire, 1970; 1990) of the various paradoxes and contradictions which characterize globalization thus starts with listening to the stories of the individuals, which leads to a mapping of connections between individuals, communities and beyond (Zieghan, 2007, p. 3). Knowing about the common value dimensions of cultural variations can be useful for engaging in critical dialogue concerning globalization. In the context of adult education, the structuring of a critical dialogue about global issues has to take into account the problem-posing nature of the dialogical process in addition to the values of individuals who may differ in their cultural backgrounds. Adult educators are therefore challenged to develop methods which give voice to stories about experiences with race, gender, being the other, etc. This gives voice to doubts, fears and potentially unpopular opinions surrounding the social and cultural aspects of globalization; this in turn questions the habitual thinking and long prevailing prejudices around global topics and encourages viewing past experiences in a new light through familiarity with different cultural values (Zieghan, 2007, p. 9). The future lies in the competence of cultivating dialogical responses to this situation such as the tendency to respond to people with certain kinds of respect and sympathy—caring about the miseries and the happiness of others. In other words, the hope for the future depends on the sympathy and respect with which people can dialogically respond to things happening to others. These competences are particularly important and should be adequately recognized (Sen, 2006, p. 278).

9. Concluding thoughts: Responsible education through global thinking Global interactions have enriched the world over millennia (Sen, 2006, p. 347) and thus, a one-sided criticism of globalization phenomena ignores the enormous opportunities that globalization offers to both individuals and nations in increasing their ability to act (Mohn, 2005b, p. 17). It would be a great mistake to reject globalization in favor of insularity and isolation (Sen, 2007, p. 118). The ability to think globally is of fundamental significance, but to be concerned with ideas that are relevant to the whole world does not by itself qualify as global thinking. Instead, global thinking is an inclusive way of thinking using knowledge of and sensitivity towards the whole of humanity and the earth itself. An adequate answer to the question of how people can peacefully live together can only be reached via a dialogue between thinkers from different parts of the world (Munshi, 2006, p. 129). To solve current problems, dialogical competence, critical dialogue, innovative educational ideas, new ways of thinking, new ways of collaborating with others and new scientific breakthroughs are necessary to better understand the new era that the world’s cultures are heading towards. Friedman (2008, p. 27) argued in this context that it is necessary to stop thinking of ourselves as “post-something”—postcolonial, postwar, post-cold war, post-post-cold war, but instead as something new. Today, in an age of mass innovation, it is very likely to find profitable ways to deliver solutions to the 21st century’s greatest problems. Interestingly, the history of innovation is filled with elite actors and centralized processes, but if one looks closer, ordinary people have always played a quiet role in innovation. Countless small innovations have been achieved through the creative potential of individuals from all rungs on the social ladder, and they contributed to the advances that people enjoy in today’s post-industrial and post-modern societies (Friedman, 2008, p. 166). Friedman (2008, p. 165) argued in this context:

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The effects of globalization phenomena on educational concepts Imagine—imagine—if we could tap into the creativity and innovative capacity of the world’s poorest people. Imagine if we could empower them with the tools and the energy they need to really compete, connect and collaborate. It would lead to an explosion of innovation—from science and technology to art and literature—the likes of which the world has never seen. … In doing so, it would unlock the innovative power of the very people who will help us solve the last remaining big problems we have (around health, education, and energy). These solutions need to come from both the bottom up and the top down.

As we learn from the past, the threat for the future is a dead end culture which believes that truth belongs to it and that God is with it. The point postmodernism makes in this context is that there is no truth, but instead only different interpretations of the world. In other words, postmodernism proceeds from the assumption that no one has the right to impose his or her truth on other people—that no civilization is better than another. In this view, a conflict is not only a struggle between different views of life and world—it is a conflict of interpretations. The truth, which is created through social dialogue, will be only reached when different peoples’ interpretation of the world agrees (Weiming & Vattimo, 2007, p. 15). It is possible to side with Stiglitz (2006b) who argued that globalization could be changed and without doubt it will be changed; the question is whether the changes will be forced upon people by crises or whether they will result from careful democratic deliberation and competence in dialogical communication. While crisis-driven changes risk is producing a backlash or a haphazard reshaping of globalization, controlled changes through cautiously lead cultural exchange, critical dialogue, innovative educational concepts and democratic efforts can positively reshape globalization processes. Only in this way will globalization be able to develop its potential and promises. References: Adick, C. (2002). The impact of globalisation on national education systems. In: Wulf, C. & Merkel, C. (Eds.). Globalisation as a challenge for education: Theories, fundamentals, case studies. Münster, New York, München, Berlin: Waxmann, 45-58. (in German) Arjun, A. (1996). Diversity and disciplinarity as cultural artifacts: Disciplinarity and dissent in cultural studies. In: Nelson, C. & Gaonkar, D. (Eds.). New York: Routledge. Boecker, M. C., Debroy, B. & Wieck, H. G. (2005). Editors’ note. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Volume VI). Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 9-11. Briede, B. (2006). Dialogue in the context of intercultural competence. In: Studies about Languages (Kalbų Studijos), (8), 58-63. Retrieved September 9, 2009, from http://www.ceeol.com. Derné, S. (2008). Globalization on the ground, media and the transformation of culture, class, and gender in India. New Delhi: SAGE. Friedman, T. L. (2008). Hot, flat and crowded: Why we need a green revolution and how it can renew America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Janning, J. (2006). Conflict patterns in global change: Challenges for India and Europe. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization. A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 60-65. Kakar, S. (2006). Cultural encounters in the era of globalization. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 122-125. Kemper, P. (2003). Thinking globally, acting locally: The everyday consequences of globalization. In: Kemper, P. & Sonnenschein, U. (Eds.). Luck and globalization: Daily life in times of a global community. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 15-26. (in German) Knopp, H. G. (2006). Intercultural competence between India and Germany. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 116-121. Körber, H. J. (2006). Economic globalization and cultural exchange: Chances and challenges from a retail company’s point of view. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of 60

The effects of globalization phenomena on educational concepts the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 80-85. Laitko, H. (2005). Education and globalization: Minor approximations relating to a major topic. In: Gräbe, H. G. (Ed.). Knowledge and education in the modern society. Texts of the V. Rosa-Luxemburg Conference of the Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung Sachsen, Number of Texts in Political Education, Heft 34. Leipzig, 25-74. (in German) Mohn, L. (2005a). Forewords. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 6. Mohn, L. (2005b). Introduction and agenda-setting. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 15-26. Munoz, F. (2006). Imperfect peace. In: Dietrich, W., Echavarria, Alvarez, J. & Koppensteiner, N. (Eds.). Key texts of peace studies. Wien: LIT-Verlag, 241-281. Munshi, S. (2006). The need for global thinking. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol. VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 126-129. Nayar, B. R. (2007). Globalization and politics in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Plate, V. B. (2003). Main features of globalization. Information for Political Education: Globalization, 280, 3-6. (in German) Sen, A. (2006). The argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian culture, history and identity. London: Penguin Books. Sen, A. (2007). Global inequality and human security. In: Nayar, B. R. (Ed.). Globalization and politics in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 117-132. Singh, K. (2005). Identities in globalization—An Indian perspective. In: Mohn, L. (Ed.). Cultures in globalization: A Europe-India dialogue on global challenges and cultural visions. Proceedings of the International Cultural Forum New Delhi (Vol.e VI), November 2005, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 38-45. Steffens, G. & Weiß, E. (Eds.). (2004). Yearbook of educational science 2004: Globalization and education. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag TB. (in German) Stiglitz, J. E. (2006a). Taking control of globalization. In: The Seattle post-intelligencer. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://www.seattlepi.com/opinion/288524_ourplace13.html. Stiglitz, J. E. (2006b). Making globalization work. In: The guardian. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/ commentisfree/2006/sep/07/stiglitz. Stiglitz, J. E. (2007). The overselling of globalization. In: Nayar, B. R. (Ed.). Globalization and politics in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 133-148. Stromquist, N. P. (2002). Globalization, the I, and the other. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 4(2), 87-93. Varwick, J. (2004). Globalization. In: Woyke, W. (Ed.). Concise dictionary of international politics. Bonn: National Centre for Political Education, 159-169. (in German) Weiming, T. & Vattimo, G. (2007). Prologue toward a dialogical civilization: Identity, difference and harmony, dialogue between Tu Weiming and Gianni Vattimo. In: Dunhua, Z. (Ed.). Dialogue of philosophies, religions and civilizations in the era of globalization: Chinese philosophical studies, XXV. Washington DC: Department of Philosophy, Peking University, 11-18. Wimmer, M., Reichenbach, R. & Pongratz, L. (2007). Preface. In: Wimmer, M., Reichenbach, R. & Pongratz, L. (Eds.). Justice and education, series of publications of the commission education philosophy of the German society for educational science. Paderborn and others: Ferdinand Schöningh, 7-11. (in German) Wintersteiner, W. (2004). Peace education: Educational science in the age of globalization. In: Steffens, G. & Weiß, E. (Eds.). Yearbook of educational science 2004: Globalization and education. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag TB, 319-329. (in German) Wulf, C. & Merkel, C. M. (2002). Introduction: The global challenge for education. In: Wulf, C. & Merkel, C. (Eds.). Globalisation as a challenge for education: Theories, fundamentals, case studies. Münster, New York, München, Berlin: Waxmann, 11-28. (in German) Zieghan, L. (2007). Critical dialogue around the social justice and cultural dimensions of globalization. PAACE—Journal of Lifelong Learning, 16, 1-15.


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Educational management in transitionalized world of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University∗ Pornphan Verapreyagura (Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Prathumthani 12121, Thailand)

Abstract: Education reforms in transitionalized world arose first against neo-classical education or “humanistic education” which resembled classical education in many respects, with the most concern being in both majority and minority of students. Besides, they resembled in that their effects force the instructors teach for the tests, to make the curriculums change to standard, to push the students to become the academic entrepreneurs, etc. Necessarily, the academic of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University has been adjusted. Then, this quantitative in research approach focuses on educational management guidelines. The open-ended questionnaire and structural interview are main instruments. Percentage, mean, mode, standard deviation, F-test and Pearson-correlation were used for analyzing the data. The research finding reveals that the mainstream and the alternative aspects in the educational management guidelines concern with external factors such as the entrepreneurs’ satisfaction, the standardization and the students’ voices. The entrepreneurs’ satisfaction relates to the general qualifications, identifications and abilities of the graduates under the trend of selecting between government universities and private universities in rate of 3:1. The standardization means new curriculum structure: 25% of general basic courses, 10%-15% of elective courses and 60%-65% of architectural program courses. The students’ voice indicates the reduction on central control and standardized testing. Key words: transitionalized world; educational management; entrepreneurs’ satisfaction; standardization; students’ voices

1. Introduction/rationale—Impacts from transitionalized world Globalization, the new term which is complex and abstract phenomenon, has come into popular favor in the last seven years referring the post-cold war international economic paradigm. It has had a profound effect on the economics of nations worldwide. A complex and abstract phenomenon expands and accelerates the movement and exchange of ideas and commodities over vast distances. Thailand, one of the countries in South East Asia, is seemingly ubiquitous from globalization’s effects. The effects of globalization encompass a range of Thai social, Thai political, Thai economic, Thai cultural and especially Thai education changes. Then, Thai national strategies must be assimilated, adapted and developed proportionally under the agenda. Besides, Thailand government’s policies in education and educational research, to transmute under integrated principles, become the mechanic for Thailand development in this transitionalized world. Globalization of education, heightened quality requirements, changing and increasing customer expectation ∗

The author warmly thanks for Thammasat University as the grant supporter and thanks all the entrepreneurs and graduates who share data. Pornphan Verapreyagura, Ed.D., assistant professor, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University; research fields: educational research, social sciences research, behavioral research.

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Educational management in transitionalized world of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University

towards quality work-force and stakeholders pressures have led to the need of implementing quality assurance in education. Quality assurance (QA) is a standard-based quality assurance aiming at providing public confidence in the ability of higher education institutions (HEIs) to regulate standard in a diverse, flexible and mass system to higher education. With the implementation of quality assurance, architecture programs of higher education institutions, which are ISO (International Standardization Organization) certified, are now at a crossroad for whether to maintain the ISO certification or to concentrate on quality assurance only. Quality assurance in education has applied the theoretical and conceptual foundation of total quality management (TQM) and performance and planning management as the panacea for the strife for education quality. The degree of success for the qualities strive is debatable as quality assurance and strategic implementation that treated as two contending rather than two collaborative partners. As educational institutions for the development of human resources and agents of social change, universities as one kind of the educational institutes need to pay critical attention to human resources, particularly the graduates. Many education experts stated that the graduate is one of the vital elements of the education system. Hence, the graduate is required to have the competencies that can achieve the high-quality working standard, which would in turn enhance and improve the overall university-wide quality standing and its image. With the need of holistic approach in integrating quality assurance with the strategic planning, as well as the need to train the man powers/graduates of architecture program which are suitable for an era of rapidly evolving body of knowledge, several architecture schools/programs now adopt the PBL (problem-based learning) curriculum. It is possible for architecture schools/programs to start on a sound PBL philosophy, but they soon deviate from it and yet claim to be problem-based learning-driven. Then, the sustained and successful PBL curriculums are in a flux by one of the major factors named “graduates”. Graduates of architecture schools/programs must possess two synergistic characteristics: an internationalization of the PBL philosophy (to ensure quality) and enthusiasm (to ensure growth). If the graduates are conversant with the philosophy but lack enthusiasm, the curriculum will not grow. On the other hand, enthusiastic graduates lack philosophy; it is a recipe for curriculum failure. For higher education of quality standard, it is necessary to find more about the educational management guidelines especially for the architecture programs of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University in this transitional world. Based on that, this paper has three main research questions: (1) For educational management, what should be managed? (2) What should be transitionalized? (3) How does the faculty’s academic have been adjusted during transition? The main objective of this quantitative in research approach has been planned to explore the inter-relationship and inter-dependency between the strategic plan in education and entrepreneurs’ satisfaction or graduates in Faculty of Architecture and Planning of Thammasat University—users expectation in the labor force and job market. The research findings will lead to the standardization of the graduates, the curriculum development guidelines and the trend of job market need hopefully.

2. Literature review 2.1 Standard and quality In general, the word “standard” means the basis for comparison that is a reference which point against other things, it can evaluate, namely, criterion: The ideal in terms of which something can be judged, the level of performance on the criterion being assessed that is considered satisfactory in terms of the purpose of the evaluation. Besides these, there are three major categories of standards, related to various purposes: First is about

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the developmental standards that specify improvement levels to attain and use for professional development and self-assessment. Second is the minimum standard that designates the level below which performance is not acceptable and used for such purposes as licensure and job assignments? Third is about the desired performance standards that reflect what is regarding as accomplished or effective teaching and typically used for such purposes as promotions, awards and certification, etc. 2.2 Quality definition From http://hyperdictionary.com (2007), there are six entries of “quality” definition: (1) [n], a degree or grade of excellence or worth; the quality of students has risen; an executive of low caliber; (2) [n], the distinctive property of a complex sound (a voice or noise or musical sound); the timbre of her soprano was rich and lovely; the muffled tones of the broken bell summoned them to meet; (3) [n], a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of something; each town has a quality all its own; the radical character of our demands; (4) [n], high social status; a man of quality; (5) [adj], of high social status; people of quality; a quality family; (6) [adj], of superior grade; choice wines; prime beef; prize carnations; quality paper; select peaches. Furthermore, it is defined as an essential and distinguishing attribute of something or someone, a degree or grade of excellence or worth and a subjective term for which each person has his or her own definition. In technical usage, quality has two meanings: the characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs; and a product or service free of deficiencies, degree of excellence. The quality of assessment evidence characterized primarily by authenticity of the tasks, reliability of sample of evidence and the credibility of the evidence for the intended purposes, etc. 2.3 Architecture program It is known that most architecture programs in this world usually offer vision and demand commitment, throughout a variety of options and terms of study. The purposes of architecture curriculum are to educate expressive and skillful designers, and prepare them to act as thoughtful, effective members of society and the professional of architecture. Besides these, it seems to be interconnected and integrated into sequences of design studio and parallel coursework, moving between values of technology and craft, emphasizing both theory and practice and considering of site, material, assembly and purpose (http://www.arch.wustl.edu). Architecture education’s heart is the design studio. However, it is necessary to study more: the sequence of courses in history and theory that place architecture in the context of culture, politics, technology and philosophy; and the sequence of courses in technology sequence that build knowledge and skills around the engaging technological and practical issues within architecture. Truly, all above reflect that architecture programs of all educational institutes in the world must concern about three main parts of curriculum: the design studio, history and theory sequences and technology sequence. The architecture programs in Thailand of higher education of both the government and the private sectors seem to be like other countries, but may differ in details and period for study. In conclusion, the goal and vision statements of the Faculty of Architecture, the architecture program and the architecture schools in Thailand consist of: (1) Developing human resources that serve the best interests for the country, society, university and the faculty or school of architecture consecutively; (2) Achieving academic excellence, in accordance with university’s vision (Unity is the foundation for 64


achieving excellence, quality and efficiency are the goal and means of achievement, and continuous change is normal for a dynamic organization); (3) Building up the future towards the globalize society with initiative and creative thinking in new paradigm (It is essential that the new problems should never be solved within an old conceptual framework, while maintaining a balance in art and culture transition in the development of science and technology); (4) Producing high-quality architects of international standard to serve the profession; (5) Producing competent architects who are specialized in particular areas of architectural profession; (6) Producing competent and ethical graduates who could become leaders in various dimensions of the profession, promoting and enhancing substantially the development of the profession, and who will responsibly contribute to the development of the country; (7) Producing competent architects with academic and research capabilities, who are keen to develop themselves and the profession continually? All statements above give the purpose that learners/students who study this program must learn many branches of knowledge: social, human, economics, technical problems, technology, etc. However, it is not necessary to be strict or precise about the proportions in architecture curriculum because the proportions are as the theoretical thoughts of the architects and the mathematical techniques involved. In Thailand, there are many higher education institutes that teach the 5-year architecture program, and except that, the Thammasat University teaches the 4+2 program, though they are unlike about the time for study, they are similar about credits for study. The more important these details are for educational management, the more important the man-factor is, too. Man-factor means all persons who concern with learners/students such as instructors, peers, administrators and entrepreneurs. Be provable, learning process of learners/students occurs everywhere and everytime with textbooks, magazines, internet, etc., under the control of educational system. They must learn with guide or instruction from the man-factor. If the interaction among the learners/students and instructors, peers, administrators and entrepreneurs progresses positively, they can learn well, be good at architectural subjects and be the best indicator for quality assurance. 2.4 Quality and education reform Thai education system comprises of four levels: pre-school, primary, secondary and higher education. Thailand had launched the education reform in 1966 to enhance the quality of education until educational excellence achieved in the year 2007. Goal and objectives of education reform, 1966-2007, were to realize the potential of Thai people to develop themselves for a better quality of life, develop the nation for peaceful co-existence in the world community and create learning individuals, organizations and society. The education reform has been conducted in four areas: school/educational institute reform, teacher and educational administrator and personnel reform, curriculum reform and administrative reform. However, today’s university has given up much of that automatic praise. It is common to hear academics complain about the sheer rudeness that they feel from the world around them. It may occasionally be bad manners, but often they are resenting the amount of administrative handling that is typical of modern civilization and the civilized units called universities. Universities asked for developing and applying knowledge to complex social and economic issues. This requires a new level of interconnectivity and engagement with those concerned about the issues together with the recognition that people outside the academy are professionals demanding of their own respect as knowledge workers and knowledge generators in their own right. In turn, this requires collaboration and mutual respect in 65


place of the unilateral respect that they expect to be accorded as knowledge experts (“professors”). The according of respect to academics as knowledge experts has declined as knowledge has democratized and societies have rebelled against “closed shop” arrangements seen as favoring knowledge elites. These different ways of working require not only the different mental models and behaviors and the ways of thinking, but also new processes and different types of infrastructure of the educational institutes. The understanding and knowledge about how to manage knowledge based on organizations and knowledge workers is nascent. There are no clear road maps to follow, although there are some organizations. There are differences among the understandings of different groups within the society—government, parents, learners/students and employers. Each one has different view on “What university experience is or should be”. Moreover, the announcement of Premier Bracks on the four pillars of learning was contained in UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Delors Report. These four pillars of education for life are learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. Then instructors’ functions must go ahead towards student-based learning. Instructors must use more information and innovations and try to develop new methods of teaching. Teaching evaluation or teaching assessment has two kinds: pretest-posttest and E1/E2 standard. Because of the complexity of higher education, teaching evaluation has stressed only on traits and teaching behaviors of instructors such as responsibility, teaching techniques, ethics, etc. Impliedly, it is more difficult to study about the students’/graduates’ quality in architecture programs from instructors’ qualities, entrepreneurs’ satisfaction, the curriculum and the learning process. Then, students’/ graduates’ quality in architecture programs seems to be as the framework (as shown in Figure 1). Globalization Effects

Higher Education

Keys Administrator

Instructors

Student

Community

Stakeholder

* Curriculum * Learning process * Entrepreneurs’ satisfaction Figure 1 Conceptual framework for research

However, in Thailand, the research about entrepreneurs’ satisfaction towards the graduates is scant. Most researches emphasize on graduates’ satisfaction in working. Though this research must lean on many theories or concepts such as human capital theory, the Herzberg’s two-factor theory, the achievement theory, the Hoppock’s theory about measuring job satisfaction, the need fulfillment theory, the reference group theory, the hierarchy of need theory, the ERG (existence, relatedness and growth) theory, the acquired need theory, the expectancy theory, etc. For this research, all mentioned theories were used for finding factors that make entrepreneurs satisfy with the graduates and the trend of graduates’ properties.

3. Research methodology Based on the three main research questions and the main objective, this quantitative in research approach has

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been planed to explore the inter-relationship and inter-dependency between the strategic plan in education and entrepreneurs’ or graduates’ satisfaction in the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University—users expectation in the labor force and job market. The research findings will lead to the graduates’ criteria, the curriculum development guidelines and the trend of job market need hopefully. The open-ended questionnaire and structural interview are main instruments. The open-ended questionnaire has been developed and created under the measurement theory. It has three parts with five-level scaling. It had been tested about the internal consistency with alpha coefficient (0.96). The structural interview by phone concerns with information about the policy and the trend about manpower of each entrepreneur or organization. Moreover, in this research data from secondary source has been used, too. The research population or key informants are eighty-seven entrepreneurs in Thailand: government offices, companies or limited partnership, education institutes and others such as state enterprises, proprietor and freelance factories. Necessarily, these entrepreneurs have to run an architectural business and work with architectural graduates from the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University. Only forty-three samples are willing to share data for this research. Quantitative data from the open-ended questionnaire have been analyzed by percentage, mean, mode, standard deviation, F-test (ANOVA) and Pearson-correlation, and qualitative data from the structural interview have been analyzed by content analysis technique. The quantitative data are about the entrepreneurs’ satisfaction toward the graduates on six parts: academic/knowledge, professionalism, research skill, identity, qualification and abilities. The qualitative data are about types of organizations or enterprises, working position, organization services or enterprises’ welfare, number of officers or members of enterprises and organization’s decision about the graduates. Beneficially, results of this research have to be useful for universities or organizations that relate with the graduates. Overall, the most important proposition from this research should reflect the educational management guidelines that can lead especially the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University to be the smarter leader in architecture.

4. Research findings The correlation between the faculty’s strategies and the entrepreneurs’ satisfaction indicates that there are three mainstream and alternative aspects in educational management guidelines for the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University: the entrepreneurs’ satisfaction, the standardization and the learners/students’ voices. By the entrepreneurs’ satisfaction, it is found that the entrepreneurs in Thailand including government offices, companies or limited partnership, education institutes, and others such as state enterprises, proprietor, and freelance factories, run an architectural business, which are working with one to five architectural graduates from the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University. Data from all graduates of the Faculty of Architecture and Planning in Thammasat University have pointed out that seventy-five percent of the graduates like to work in private companies, fifteen percent of them like to work in government offices, seven point five percent like to work in the education institutes and two point five percent like to work in other enterprises such as state enterprises, proprietor and freelance factories respectively. In addition, these are in accord with graduate-producing goal of the faculty: architecture program, interior program and planning program in rate of 85:

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12.50: 2.50 respectively. To consider sizes of organization, sixty-two point five percent of graduates of the faculty have worked in small organizations (