FULL-LENGTH REPORT
Journal of Behavioral Addictions 5(1), pp. 59–67 (2016) DOI: 10.1556/2006.5.2016.017
A longitudinal study of factors explaining attitude change towards gambling among adolescents STÅLE PALLESEN1*, DANIEL HANSS1, HELGE MOLDE2, MARK D. GRIFFITHS3 and RUNE AUNE MENTZONI1 1
Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway 3 Psychology Division, International Gambling Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom 2
(Received: July 23, 2015; accepted: December 28, 2015)
Background and aims: No previous study has investigated changes in attitudes toward gambling from under legal gambling age to legal gambling age. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate attitudinal changes during this transition and to identify predictors of corresponding attitude change. Methods: In all 1239 adolescents from a national representative sample participated in two survey waves (Wave 1; 17.5 years; Wave 2; 18.5 years). Results: From Wave 1 to Wave 2 the sample became more acceptant toward gambling. A regression analysis showed that when controlling for attitudes toward gambling at Wave 1 males developed more acceptant attitudes than females. Neuroticism was inversely related to development of acceptant attitudes toward gambling from Wave 1 to Wave 2, whereas approval of gambling by close others at Wave 1 was positively associated with development of more acceptant attitudes. Continuous or increased participation in gambling was related to development of more acceptant attitudes from Wave 1 to Wave 2. Conclusions: Attitudes toward gambling became more acceptant when reaching legal gambling age. Male gender, approval of gambling by close others and gambling participation predicted development of positive attitudes toward gambling whereas neuroticism was inversely related to development of positive attitudes toward gambling over time. Keywords: attitudes, longitudinal, change, gambling
Studies have consistently shown that people’s attitude toward gambling is a good predictor of how much they gamble and how likely they are to experience gamblingrelated problems (Chiu & Storm, 2010; Delfabbro, Lambos, King, & Puglies, 2009; Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003; Orford, Griffiths, Wardle, Sproston, & Erens, 2009; Williams, Connolly, Wood, & Nowatzki, 2006; Wood & Griffiths, 2004). Such findings lend support to theories implying that attitudes play an important role in determining people’s intentions to act and, indirectly, their actual behavior, such as the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein, 2000). It is also known that the prevalence of problem gambling is higher among adolescents than adults (Gupta et al., 2013; Nowak & Aloe, 2014; Volberg, Gupta, Griffiths, Olason, & Delfabbro, 2010). Consequently, knowledge of factors that may influence attitudes toward gambling over time in this age group may point to important indicators in terms of risk factors as well as preventive and therapeutic priorities. Previous studies across different countries have shown that young males typically hold more positive attitudes toward gambling than women (Buczkiewicz, Griffiths, & Rigbye, 2007; Hanss, Mentzoni, Delfabbro, Myrseth, & Pallesen, 2014; Jackson, Dowling, Thomas, Bond, & Patton, 2008; Moore & Ohtsuka, 1997; Wood & Griffiths, 1998). Other individual factors such as personality also appear to play a role. For instance, Taormina (2009) found that Neuroticism and Gregariousness were both positively related to acceptant attitudes toward gambling, whereas
Hanss et al. (2014) showed that Agreeableness was negatively associated with acceptant attitudes toward gambling. It has also been reported that impulsivity and sensation seeking both correlate significantly and positively with acceptant attitudes toward gambling (Breen & Zuckerman, 1999; Hanss et al., 2014; Lee, 2013; McDaniel & Zuckerman, 2003). In relation to social influence, it has been found that social constraints in terms of parental monitoring are inversely related to acceptant attitudes toward gambling among adolescents (Magoon & Ingersoll, 2006). Additionally, participation in gambling by family and friends and approval of gambling have been shown to be positively associated with acceptant attitudes toward gambling, but not if others close to the individual have experienced gambling problems (Hanss et al., 2014; Orford et al., 2009). Although some factors that relate to attitudes toward gambling have been identified, there is significant shortage of knowledge of factors that may influence changes of attitudes toward gambling over time. In a trend study from Macao, the results suggested that there was development of a more negative attitude toward gambling as a consequence of the local gambling industry being deregulated and expanded (Vong, 2009). Some central theories of attitude
* Corresponding author: Ståle Pallesen; Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Christiesgt. 12, 5015 Bergen, Norway; Phone: +47 55588842; E-mail:
[email protected]
ISSN 2062-5871 © 2016 Akadémiai Kiad´o, Budapest
Pallesen et al.
change have put much emphasis on behavior when it comes to attitude change and formation. According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, an unpleasant arousal/dissonance occurs when a person in absence of external pressure behaves in contradiction to an initial attitude. The dissonance will motivate attitude change in line with the behavior and as such eliminate the dissonance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). According to self-perception theory, individuals typically infer which attitudes they possess based on their own behavior, without any preceding unpleasant cognitions or feelings (Bem, 1967), hence this theory seems to explain attitude formation more than attitude change. In Norway it is illegal to gamble for minors (
