Abundance Of Benthic Foraminifera, Genus

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© Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 2014 ISBN: 978-967-0521-40-4

Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Chasing The Same Fish: Collaborative Management Initiative For Shared Fish Stocks Among The ASEAN Countries Mohammad Zaki Ahmad, Mohd Kamarulnizam Abdullah……………………………………………….…………….…

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The Implication in the Opening of Northern Sea Route on the Maritime Activity at Malacca Straits R.Rasdi, N.S.F. Abdul Rahman, A.H. Saharuddin………………………………………………………….…..………….

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Space Limitation at Container Ports: The Way to Face Challenges through New Milestones Technology Ahmad Zakwan Amir Zaidi, Noorul Shaiful Fitri Abdul Rahman……………………………………………………….

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Formulation of a Simplified Model for Preliminary Design of Spread Moored Vessels Lee Hsiu Eik, Mohd Shahir Liew………………………………………………………………..…...……………………....

41

A Comparative Study of Harmful Algal Bloom Distribution Pattern in The Coastal Area of Kota Kinabalu Using CIE and MRA Abdul MunirLadoni, Ejria Saleh, Muzznena Ahmad Mustafa, Dunstan Anthony……………………..………………

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Occurrence And Potential Risk Of Harmful Algal To The Coastal Communities In The Coastal Area Of Kota Kinabalu: A Preliminary Study Abdul MunirLadoni, Dunstan Anthony, Ejria Saleh………………………………………….……………………….…..

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The React By Cultivator Toward Introduction Of New Technology In Seaweed Cultivate System In Semporna, Sabah Nurulaisyah Rosli,Rosazman Hussin, Aisah Hossin……………………………………………………………………….

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The need to implement laws for Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS) shipments through the Straits of Malacca Wan Siti Adibah Binti Wan Dahalan, Zinatul Ashiqin Binti Zainol………………………...…………….…………….

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Nutrients and Hydrocarbons in Ballast Water and their concentrations in water and sediment of Port Klang NorAsyikin Razak, Hing Lee Siang, Hii Yii Siang…………………..………………………………………………..……

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Abundance Of Benthic Foraminifera, Genus TextulariaIn Pahang River Estuary, Pahang, Malaysia Muhamad Naim Bin AbdMalek, Ramlan Bin Omar………………………………………………………………….…….

108

The Opening Of Malaysia China Kuantan Industrial Park (Mckip) Attracts Main China Shipping Liners To Kuantan Port N.S.F Abdul Rahman, N.H Zakaria……………………………………………..………………..…………………….……

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An Innovation Approach For Improving Borneo Inland Passenger Water Transport Safety Level: Overload Problem Noorul Shaiful Fitri Abdul Rahman, Saharuddin Abdul Hamid, Hamidah Z Rosli………..………………………….

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Clay Minerals On Recent Surface Estuarine Sediments From Selected Rivers Of Terengganu, Malaysia Lina Idayu Abdullah, NorAntonina Abdullah, Noor Azhar M. Shazili…………………………………………………..

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Plankton And Microbes In Ballast Water From Container Ships Berthed At Port Of TanjungPelepas Hing Lee Siang, Rohaida Mat Hussain, Kesaven A/L Bhubalan………………………………………………….……..

149


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Key Factors For A Feasible Ro-Ro Short Sea Shipping Operation In Bimp-Eaga Sub-Region Aminuddin Md Arof, Rawindaran Nair …………………………………………………………………………..…………

159

Optimization of Crude Oil and Petroleum Demand using Integrated Malaysia Energy Model (IMEM) in Malaysia Zulkifli Mohd Nopiah, Maznah Banu Bt Mohamed Habiboo Raman, Ahmad MohdYusof…………..……………….

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Generating Tidal Power And Small Renewable Energy: An Energy Mapping Kamran Ahmed Samo, Andrew Ragai Henry Rigit, Mansoor A. Channa………….……………………...……………

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Initiative to Formulate an Integrated Maritime Court towards Stability and Prosperity in the Maritime Region of Southeast Asia. Madzli bin Harun, Wan Mariam bte Wan Abdullah, Siti Aminah Ruhani Binti Ariffin, Mohamad Rosni bin Othman, Azizul Yadi bin Yaakob…………………………………………………………………………….……………….

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Community Structure Of the Seagrass Ecosystem In Kongsi Island, Seribu Islands, Indonesia Nursyafirah Ashari, Siti Musyarofah Awaliah, Indra Cahya Wardhana, Kaisar Akhir...........................................

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Maritime Legal Integration in Southeast Asia for comprehensive negotiations to resolve the dispute settlement prolonged. Madzli bin Harun, Wan Mariam bte Wan Abdullah, Siti Natrah Binti Hussin, Mohamad Rosni bin Othman, Azizul Yadi bin Yaakob………………………………….…………………………………………………..………………...

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Analisis Awal Sosiodemografi Terhadap Penanaman Rumpai Laut Di Pulau Sebangkat Semporna, Sabah Aisah Hossin, Nurulaisyah Rosli……………………..……………………………………………………..……….……….

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Transformasi Hubungan Sosial Dalam Aktiviti Pengkulturan Rumpai Laut Di Semporna: Kajian Kes Di Pulau Bumbum. Aisah Hossin, Rosazman Hussin, Ahmad Tarmizi Abdul Rahman, Norhuda Salleh, Suhaimiyasir, Budi Anto Tamring, Nurulaisyah Rosli……………………………………………………………………………………...…………...

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Analisis Awal Terhadap Kebergantungan Pekerja Asing Dalam Industri Pengkulturan Rumpai Laut Di Sabah. Haslina Zakaria, Aisah Hossin, Rosazman Hussin, Suhaimi Md. Yasir …………..……………………………………

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Tinjauan Awal Terhadap Amalan Prinsip Islam Di Kalangan Penanam Rumpai Laut Di Semporna, Sabah. Nurul Auni Jamal, Aisah Hossin, Ahmad Tarmizi Abdul Rahman…….………..……………………….……..………..

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Kekangan Kastam Dalam Menyelesaikan Masalah Penyeludupan Barangan Di Sabah: SatuTinjauan Noritaanak Jubit, Dr. Nor-Ina Kanyo……………………………………………..……………….………………

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Isu Jenayah Pemerdagangan Orang Di Zon Maritim Sabah. Cabaran Agensi Penguatkuasaan: Satu Penelitian* Norcikeyonn Samuni, Nor-Ina Kanyo……………………………………………………..………………..………….……

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Aktiviti Ekonomi Komuniti Nelayan Tradisi : Kajian Kes Daerah Semporna, Sabah. Hastuty Binti Darwis………………………………………………………………………….………………..………………

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Potensi Komuniti Setempat Dalam Kesenian Dan Potensi Ekopelancongan Di Weston, Beaufort Sabah Kadir Jaafar, Mohd Suhaimi Md Yasin, Zulkiflee B. Ahmad ……………………..…….………….……………………

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A Proposed Bayesian Network Model For Measuring Time Charters’ Revenue Under Uncertainty R. Md Hanafiah, N.S.F. Abdul Rahman…………………………………………………………………………….……….

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Perompakan Di Selat Melaka Pada Abad Ke-19 : Hak Masyarakat Melayu Atau Pensalahtafsiran Pihak Barat Ibrahim Ahmad …………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….…

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Steamships, Waterways and Javanese Labour in British North Borneo, 1881-1941 Maureen De Silva ………………………………………………………………….…………….……………….…..……….

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Ketuanan Bajak Laut Suku Mandar Di Laut Celebes Dan Reaksi Kolonial Belanda Pada Abad Ke-19 Ismail Ali……………………………………………………………………………………………………............................

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Aktiviti Perikanan Jepun Di Sabah: Impaknya Terhadap Ekonomi Sabah, 1880-an hingga 1945 Md. Saffie Abdul Rahim………………………………………………………………….…………….……………….……..

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PREFACE

The 1st International Maritime Conference 2014 (IMC2014) is being hosted by Labuan International Campus of Universiti Malaysia Sabah, in Federal Territory of Labuan, Malaysia on October 21, 2014. The opening keynote address will be given by the ESSCOM Commander, YDH DCP Dato’ Abdul Rashid Bin Harun, who will address the topic ”Uplifting Maritime Agenda for Togetherness in Harmony”. The key purpose of the IMC2014 is to enhance professional opportunities and maritime information, knowledge and research development among academics and practitioners. Therefore, the call for papers was addressed to scholars of the fields of humanity, marine science, marine engineering, sovereignty and security issues. More than 50 abstracts were submitted to the conference. Finally, 35 original papers have accepted and hosted by IMC2014. The papers cover a wide variety of topics, including history, tourism and hospitality, maritime economy, religion and belief, marine engineering, geology, marine life, sovereignty and security issues. These papers have been published in the conference proceedings. The editors hope that these proceedings will provide valuable source information on the issues of maritime. Last but not least, we would like to express our gratitude to the entire conference committee and to the participants for their invaluable contributions to the success of conference. We wish you a most interesting conference.

Editors Ismail Ali Lee Hock Ann Dayang Ruhidah Raplee Universiti Malaysia Sabah October 2014


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1st International Maritime Conference Organising Committee Patron: Professor Datuk Dr Mohd. Harun Bin Abdullah Vice Chancellor Universiti Malaysia Sabah Conference Chairman: Lt. Col (PA) Associate Professor Dr. Ismail Bin Ali Deputy Vice Chancellor (Student Affairs & Alumni) Universiti Malaysia Sabah Deputy Chairman: Associate Prof. Dr. Geoffrey Harvey Tanakinjal Deputy Director Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Labuan International Campus Secretary I: Zamri Bin Hj. Mohammad Tuah Secretary II: Rafidah Binti Arshad Treasurers: Saini Binti Mohilap (Leader) Eldayana Binti Suhaili Secretariat: Mohizam Bin Mohamad


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1st International Maritime Conference Organising Committee Promotion & Publicity: Ryan Mac Donell Andrias (Leader) Azri Onn Othman

Photography & Multimedia: Ismet Zulfiqar Ahmad Shaffe

Sponsorship: Nur Iman Binti Reedzal

Paper Collection: Dr. Lee Hock Ann

Protocol & Invitations: Sharon Tan (Leader) Ezawati Pungut Dg. Norsiah Ag. Saman Yusrinah Abd. Menit Noreffaizza Jali Didiroy Dickson Joneh Nur Shuhada Sapran @ Salleh Farihin Izzati Mohd Nor Zulaiha Sapran @ Salleh

Conference Session & Programme Book: Mohammad Asly Bin Buncho (Leader) Nazariah Binti Jalib Dony Lidaus Jinik Kasmah Abdullah Subeda Soding Arifah Binti Lamin Mohd Fazlie Ardain Mohd Riaduan Taib Yusdi Lamat

Proceedings: Baharin Bin Entoh (Leader) Dayang Ruhidah Raplee Roslelawati Salim Malai Zaidee Bakar Dg. Marianah Ag. Ibrahim

Souvenier: Norhanizah Binti Adnan (Leader) Norasekin Angli Asmah Abdullah Noorezaty Nicholas

Conference Dinner: Mohd Fadzli Bin Sarudi (Leader) Mohd Norizal Md Jumat Erman Mohd Kadrih Azmi Ahmat Norfaizah Wahid Dayangku Syafiqah Pangeran Anak Roji Sinun

Technical: Mohd Azrie Bin Ag. Tanjong (Leader) Mohd Abdullah Manggul Ismail Alimin Md. Azibullah Olah Rayme Musa Arther Balingi Norfizan Norisan Mohammad Haffiz Khaled Mohd Azmie Helmi Jaffar Mohd Ali Kassim Abdul Rahman Ibrahim Jamberi Sahari Azmy Idris

Transportation: Bolhasney Bin Borhanordin Maritime Visit: Dr. Suddin Bin Lada

Student Arrangement: Mas Adi Bin Alimin


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Chasing The Same Fish: Collaborative Management Initiative For Shared Fish Stocks Among The ASEAN Countries Mohammad Zaki Ahmad School of International Studies (SOIS) Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) [email protected]

Mohd Kamarulnizam Abdullah School of International Studies (SOIS) Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Overexploitation and severe depletion of marine fisheries resources in Southeast Asia continue to be a source of great concern to many regional fisheries managers. The fact that ASEAN countries bordering these waters are highly depended upon marine fisheries as the main source of revenue, employment, and food security, it is crucial for them to address these fisheries problems. This is especially the case with respect to the management and conservation of commercially important shared pelagic fish stocks, particularly in the South China Sea and Celebes Sea. As the spatial migratory range of these stocks transcends across many politically drawn maritime zones of littoral States, it is highly impossible for one State, acting independently, would be able to manage these fisheries effectively within its own national jurisdiction. Perhaps the best approach in dealing with this problem is through collective management and conservation of fish stocks. Hence, this paper examines interstate cooperative arrangement for the management of shared fishery stocks among ASEAN countries. It begins by providing brief definition, biological and migratory profile of transboundary shared stocks. The second part covers existing international legal and policy framework that embraces the principle of interstate cooperation for managing such stocks. Finally, the paper provides recommendations of how ASEAN member States can address the issues and challenges of managing shared fish stocks in a more holistic and coordinated manner within the framework of interstate cooperation Keywords: responsible fisheries, ASEAN, shared fish stocks, institutional framework, cooperation INTRODUCTION

The growing depletion and overexploitation of marine fisheries resources in numerous offshore and coastal fishing grounds of Southeast Asia have been a source of great concern to both regional fisheries managers and policymakers. Nowhere of these problems are more acute than in the Malacca Straits, South China Sea, and the Gulf of Thailand (Stobutzki et al., 2006; Pauly & Thia-Eng, 1988, p. 202). A number of works in the literature reveal a multitude of factors contribute to the declining trend of these aquatic resources. Among these factors include the use of destructive fishing gears and methods, excessive fishing capacity, illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, degradation of marine ecosystems and habitats, to ineffective national fisheries management policies and systems (Morgan, Staple, & Funge-Smith, 2007; Wilkinson, Caillaud, Vantier, & South, 2006; Morgan, 2006; Thia-Eng et al., 2000). This alarming trend has an adverse repercussion, threatening not only the conservation and sustainable use of fish stocks, but also the long-term viability of regional marine fisheries industry in general. One must recognize that marine captured fisheries industry is of great importance to many littoral States in Southeast Asia. To the member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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bordering the regional seas - Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippine, fisheries sector has long been the principal source of revenue, livelihood, and food security. All four countries are traditionally known as a major fishing nation, and for over the past ten years, the last three consistently ranked among the top ten fisheries producers in the world (FAO, 2010, p. 13; Pew Environment Group, 2010). In terms of employment, roughly 100 million people in the region are directly depended on fisheries, either involved as fishermen or engaged in supporting fisheries industries. In the Celebes Sea, for example, Palma and Tsamenyi (2008) stated that fisheries resources provide employment to nearly 20 million people who live in the surrounding sea (p. 9). Substantial social-economic gains generated from the already dwindling marine fish stocks entail the adoption of a more viable and sound cooperative fisheries management regime that transcends across political boundaries. Through joint management among these ASEAN members, the desirable common long-term goals of achieving sustainable, healthy fisheries and rebuilding depleting stocks can finally be attained. This is especially case with respect to the conservation of transboundary shared fish stocks. In view that the migratory range of such stocks typically spreads across politically drawn maritime jurisdictional zones of more than one State, a meaningful ways for the affected States to sustainably manage the stocks is highly likely through their collaborative efforts. This paper intends to examine the nature and extent of interstate cooperative measures currently in place at regional level to manage transboundary shared fish stocks of Southeast Asia. It will examine interstate cooperative arrangement for the management of shared fishery stocks among ASEAN countries. The paper begins by providing brief definition, biological and migratory profile of transboundary shared stocks. The second part covers existing international legal and policy framework that embraces the principle of interstate cooperation for managing such stocks. It is, however, beyond the scope of this paper to explore the effectiveness of these cooperative management measures and international framework in terms of achieving their objectives. Finally, the paper offers recommendations of how ASEAN members can address the issues and challenges of managing shared fish stocks in a more holistic and coordinated manner within the framework of interstate cooperation. PROFILE OF TRANSBOUNDARY SHARED FISH STOCKS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Before one proceed with the detailed discussion on transboundary shared fish stocks, it is essential to understand first the terminology of “shared stocks,” as well as biological and migratory profile of the stocks, particularly from the perspective of Southeast Asia. DEFINITION

There is currently no universally accepted and accurate terminology and category of shared fish stocks. However, a number of writers do provide the aforementioned terminology and category. Martosubroto (1998), for example, simply referred “shared stocks” in the context of South China Sea as of those transboundary stocks shared by countries on a bilateral or multilateral basis (p. 154). Meanwhile, Caddy (1997) defines “shared stocks” as followed: ...a group of commercially exploitable organisms, distributed over, or migrating across, the maritime boundary between two or more national jurisdictions, or the maritime boundary of a national jurisdiction and the adjacent high seas, whose exploitation can only be managed effectively by cooperation between the States concerned... (as cited in Munro, Van Houtte, & Willmann, 2004, p. 3).


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Different categories of shared stocks can also be traced to several published reports and technical papers issued by the Food and Agriculture of the United Nations (FAO). One particular FAO fisheries technical paper provides such categorization (Munro, Van Houtte, & Willmann 2004): (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

fish resources crossing the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) boundary of one coastal State into the EEZ(s) of one, or more, other coastal States- transboundary stocks; highly migratory species, as set forth in Annex 1of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC), consisting primarily of the major tuna species (being highly migratory in nature, the resources are to be found, both within the coastal State EEZ, and the adjacent high seas); all other fish stocks (with the exception of anadromous/catadromous stocks) that are to be found, both within the coastal State EEZ and the adjacent high seas straddling stocks; and fish stocks to be found exclusively in the high seas- discrete high seas fish stocks.

A further note of caution should be added that certain fish stocks can be interchangeably classified to different categories of stocks mentioned above. As such, Van Houtte (2003) argued that the absent of precise categorization and definitive, universally accepted terminology of shared stocks is a source confusion (pp. 30-31). For the purpose of this paper, it only deals with “transboundary shared fishery stocks” - similar stocks or stocks of associated species occurring within two or more territorial seas/EEZs of coastal States. Biological Feature and Spatial Distribution

Fisheries inhabiting the tropical waters of Southeast Asia are typically complex and highly diversified in terms of their species composition; with the demersal and pelagic fishes represent the most dominant species of transboundary shared stocks in the region. Despite of being less mobile than pelagic species and commonly found in relatively shallow coastal waters, demersal species can be categorized as “shared stocks” by virtue of their geographical distribution that extends across boundaries of several national jurisdictional waters. Specifically, FAO/SEAFDEC report implies that the stocks of demersal fishes should be categorized as transboundary shared stocks if their fishing grounds encompass the boundaries of two EEZs claimed by different littoral States (FAO/SEAFDEC, 1985, p. 2). Key examples of such species or species group of demersal include snappers (Lutjanus spp.), threadfin breams (Nemipterus spp.), groupers (Epinephalus spp.), and croakers (Pennahia spp.). Trawl nets, stationary traps and lift nets are among the most frequently deployed fishing gears to capture these species. Transboundary shared fish stocks can also be divided into pelagic species. Based on a general survey of national catch statistical data of ASEAN countries, a sizable number of small pelagic species are typically caught in the regional waters. The most common species include mackerels (Rastrelliger spp.), round scads (Decapterus spp.), anchovies (Engraulidae spp.), Spanish mackerels (Scomberomarus spp.), and hardtail scads (Megalaspis cordyla spp.). Other dominant species under the category of transboundary shared stocks are tuna species. These species are mostly comprised of neritic tunas that include longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol spp.), frigate tuna (Auxis thazard spp.), bullet tuna (Auxis rochei spp.), and kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis spp.). Depending on their locations and weathers, these pelagic species are predominantly caught by purse seines, hook and lines and gillnets. As pointed out earlier, the geographical range of transboundary shared fish stocks of Southeast Asia extends across the boundaries between two or more maritime jurisdictional zones (e.g. EEZ, archipelagic waters, and territorial sea). Given their migratory characteristic, shared fish stocks, as rightly affirmed by Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Williams (2007, p. 3), “show no regards for national borders.” The distribution corridors of demersal and pelagic stocks in the region overlap several national maritime jurisdictional zones (e.g. territorial seas, EEZs) claimed by two or more States. The spatial range of demersal fish stocks movement is typical in the Gulf of Thailand, Andaman Sea, Northwest of Borneo, Gulf of Tonkin, and Sunda Shelf. For example, shrimp stocks such as penaeid shrimps can be found in the coastal waters between the maritime boundaries of Thailand and Malaysia in the northern corridor of the Malacca Straits, and between Cambodia and Thailand in the northern Gulf of Thailand (Martosubroto, 1998, p.156). For shared pelagic stocks, their distribution range in the regional waters can be divided into several corridors, with each of them overlapping national maritime jurisdictional areas of more than one single State (Yanagawa, 1998). Hardtail scads and round scads are found between the EEZ waters of Vietnam and Thailand in the Gulf of Tonkin, the territorial seas of Malaysia and Thailand in the Malacca Straits, and Thailand and Vietnam EEZs in the Gulf of Thailand. Mackerels are shared in the EEZ waters of the Malacca Straits (Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand), Gulf of Thailand to Singapore (Thailand and Malaysia), Gulf of Tonkin (Vietnam and Thailand), and Andaman Sea (Thailand and Malaysia). The distribution range of round scads covers the Malacca Straits, Gulf of Thailand to Sunda Shelf, and eastern South China Sea (FAO/SEAFDEC, 1985, p. 6).

BEYOND INDIVIDUAL STATE-CENTRIC APPROACH IN FISHERIES RESOURCE GOVERNANCE

Dictated by the limits of its jurisdictions, rights and authorities, a coastal State has the discretion and flexibility in determining how fisheries resources in the seas adjoining its coast are to be developed and managed. Garcia and Hayashi (2000) suggested that such approach to marine resource governance is a result from the current partition of oceanic frontiers into several distinct zones of national jurisdiction, extending seaward up to a distance of 200-nautical mile (or more) from the territorial sea baseline (p. 468). This concept of spatial division of national jurisdiction defined by demarcation lines or boundaries is sanctioned by the LOSC. Under the Convention, States are accorded with the rights and duties within each maritime zone to protect and manage fisheries resources and their surrounding marine environment this jurisdictional delineation of maritime space dictates the manner in which coastal and fishing States formulate and implement their fisheries policies and regulations. No other maritime jurisdictional zone recognised by the LOSC has made substantial transformation to international legal and policy framework for marine fisheries management more than the EEZ regime. The universal claim to this extended zone radically transformed the distribution pattern of global marine capture fisheries, with substantial portions of the world’s exploitable marine fisheries resources are now fall under the exclusive control of coastal States. By virtue of the EEZ regime found in Part V of LOSC, coastal States enjoy socio-economic gains obtained from the preferential rights and greater access to the fisheries resources created by the regime. Coastal States also have the sovereign rights and considerable discretion under Article 61(2) of the Convention in determining the manner in which fisheries resources are to be utilized and developed, but fell short of having the right to overexploit or deplete them. In relation to this, Edeson (2005) asserted that the considerable benefits obtained by coastal States from such exploitation are being balanced by their regulatory and enforcement responsibility to protect and conserve these resources. Coastal States are not only direct beneficiaries but also regulators of fishing activities and marine living resources, including species of fish with their migratory range extending into the EEZs of other countries (Hey, 1999, p. 22). In reality, however, the above fisheries management framework has not been able to fully achieve its objective due to the inherent weakness of the Convention’s provisions, combined with the failure of States to effectively exercise their obligations of protecting fishery stocks effectively (Juda, 1997, p. 148). According to Rayfuse (1999), the jurisdictional framework embedded in the EEZ regime of LOSC has proven to be an “inappropriate mechanism for the resolution of fisheries conservation and management issues” (p. 111). The enclosure of vast offshore marine areas under the coastal States’ EEZ jurisdiction Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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did not deliver the expected conservation benefits needed to address the problem of overfishing and environmental degradation (Matt, 1976; as cited in Tangsubkul & Fung-Wai, 1983, p. 9). Nor did the regime provide greater incentive for States to be more responsible in the way they utilized and managed fish stocks. REASONS TO PURSUE COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT OF SHARED FISHERY STOCKS

The underlying weakness of LOSC’s fisheries framework lies behind its emphasis on a zonal approach to manage marine fisheries. As stated earlier, this particular approach has largely failed to overcome the continuing deterioration of commercially important transboundary fisheries populations. This ineffectiveness is one that is intrinsically linked to the universal partition of oceans and seas under multiple, functional jurisdictional zones established under the Convention. The approach to manage fisheries resources within the spatial perimeter of States’ jurisdictional zones disregards both the temporal and biological distribution of various species of fish, along with the ecological interaction between the fish stocks and their surrounding marine ecosystem (Kirk, 1999, p. 69). Churchill and Lowe (1999) have observed that the Convention’s EEZ regime on fisheries seems to “convey the impression that most of the fish stocks only confine themselves to the EEZ of a single State” (p. 294). In reality, Hoel and Kvalvik (2006) asserted that the boundary lines of EEZs in many parts of the world rarely coincide with the natural migratory boundaries of shared fish stocks. Both commentators also concluded that the poor institutional fit between the migratory nature of the stocks and the legal boundary set of maritime jurisdictional zones raises the question on the validity of the LOSC’s zonal management approach as an effective regime for achieving the long-term conservation and sustainable utilization of transboundary shared fish stocks. As can be recalled, it is impossible for a single State alone to implement effective and holistic management measures for shared fish stocks within its own national waters. Even if an individual State has adopted and enforced stringent conservation and regulatory measures for these shared stocks under its jurisdiction, there is always the possibility that these national initiatives would be hampered by ineffective conservation effort and uncontrolled fishing in the EEZ of other States (Tangsubkul and Fung-Wai, 1983, p. 875). In relation to this, if there is incompatibility of conservation regime for shared fish stocks in one side of jurisdictional areas and with those on the other side of borders, Xue (2005) affirmed that the risk of mismanagement and/or inequality could deprive the involving States from gaining the full benefits of exploiting such stocks. This situation, which is currently happening in the Southeast Asian waters, could detrimentally affect the quality and quantity of shared species. A new approach in resource management governance is needed, one which involved joint efforts involving ASEAN members sharing the same stocks, either directly with the concerned States sharing the same stocks or through regional fisheries organization. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT SHARED FISH STOCKS

The principle of interstate cooperation in the management and conservation of marine fisheries, either directly with other State(s) or through regional fisheries organization, represents one of the cornerstones of responsible fisheries management. This particular principle can be found many multilateral treaties, non-binding instruments and resolutions. Mostly adopted under the purview of the FAO or the United Nations, some notable instruments include the LOSC, 1992 Declaration of the International Conference on Responsible Fishing, and the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Additional set of voluntary instruments that made indirect reference to cooperative measures in fisheries resource protection and law enforcement are found in the four non-binding International Plans of Actions (IPOAs). These instruments individually deal with specific issues in fisheries management that explicitly cover seabird by-catch, fishing capacity, shark management, and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. Of these four instruments, IPOA-IUU and IPOA-Capacity are of most relevance in promoting Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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State’s engagement in interstate cooperation applicable to the conservation of transboundary shared stocks. LOSC

Arguably the closest reference to global legally-binding framework requiring States to cooperate in the conservation and development of shared fish stocks is found in the LOSC. The Convention apparently affirms the requirement for coastal States to pursue cooperative arrangement when dealing with the conservation of transboundary fish stocks shared between their EEZs. This is evident in Article 63(1). Where the same stock or stocks of associated species occur within the exclusive economic zones of two or more coastal States, these States shall seek, either directly or through appropriate subregional or regional organizations, to agree upon the measures necessary to coordinate and ensure the conservation and development of such stocks without prejudice to the other provisions of this Part. Furthermore, States bordering an enclosed or semi-enclosed sea are duty bound under Articles 123 of LOSC to cooperate on various areas relating to fisheries conservation and management. Albeit the same article does not provide explicit reference to any specify category of fish stocks, it does applies to all marine fisheries. Hence, one can assume that this legal provision covers transboundary shared stocks. For this reason, this provision can be directly applied to many Southeast Asian States bordering the regional semi-enclosed seas, such as the South China Sea and Celebes Sea. Within these vast expanse seas, the national EEZs of these States abound with those stocks. According to Article 123(a) of the Convention, coastal States have the specific duty to coordinate the management, conservation, exploration and exploitation of fisheries resources. The areas of coordination also include the protection and preservation of marine environment (Art. 123(b)), and scientific research policies (Art. 123 (c)). NON-BINDING FISHERIES-RELATED INSTRUMENTS

Besides the LOSC, several non-binding fisheries-related instruments promote and encourage interstate cooperation directed to the conservation and management of fisheries resources, including transboundary shared stocks. With the exception of the FAO Code of Conduct, the following instruments - the 1992 Declaration of Cancun, IPOA-IUU and IPOA-Capacity - do not contain explicit reference of the need for States to cooperate in the conservation and management of transboundary shared fishery stocks. They do, however, contain provisions that encourage States to cooperate in fisheries-related matters, which one can assume to be applicable to the conservation and protection of shared fishery stocks. According to 1992 Declaration of Cancun, one the central elements of promoting responsible fisheries is for States to cultivate cooperation at international level. The recommended scope and activities of these cooperative fisheries management arrangement are varied. It includes fostering international cooperation and collaboration on matters relating to joint research, and facilitating the transfer and exchange of technological information on matters relating to fisheries (para. 16). Other suggested areas of cooperative arrangement that State can undertake include eliminating illegal fishing (para.18), and providing financial support required to improve surveillance and enforcement capacity in exercising their sovereign rights (para. 17). The non-binding requirement for the littoral States to undertake cooperative measures in fisheries has also found its way in the FAO Code of Conduct. Consistent with the objective of the Code, States are encouraged to cultivate and support cooperation, either directly or through regional organization, in all matters pertaining to fisheries (Art. 2(e)). Such cooperation may involve neighboring States to facilitate the sustainable use of coastal resources and the conservation of the environment (Art. 10.3.1). Unlike the UN Fish Stocks, the scope of the requirement for interstate cooperation established under the Code are Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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much broader, encompassing not only different types of fisheries (including inland fisheries) but also all categories of migratory fish species, such as shared stocks, straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks, and high seas fish stocks (Art. 7.1.3). In achieving this, the level of cooperation is not restricted to bilateral arrangement involving States sharing the same stocks but rather expanded to sub-regional or regional fisheries organization or arrangement (Art. 7.1.5). As endorsed by the Code, another of form of cooperative arrangements relevant for the protection of transboundary shared fish stocks is for the concerned States to ensure the compatibility of fisheries conservation and management measures in the EEZs and beyond their national jurisdiction (see Arts. 6.1.2 and 7.3.2). IPOA-IUU has been developed within the framework of the FAO Code of Conduct. The measures outlined in the former do not deal directly with transboundary fish shared fish stocks per se, but rather specifically address numerous issues of IUU fishing. Even one should realize that irresponsible, destructive practices and behaviors of fishermen and fishing operators engaged in IUU fishing, nonetheless, if occurred in the EEZs may cause harmful effect in terms of jeopardizing the biological population of transboundary shared stocks. A closer examination on the text of IPOA-IUU shows the considerable important of State to cooperate and coordinate directly or through regional fisheries organization in combating this irresponsible fishing practice. A list of suggested activities or areas of cooperation can be found under the title: Cooperation between States. One critical area involving interstate cooperation in combating IUU fishing is the exchange and sharing of information and data (para. 51.2). Specifically, States should exchange and share information on the detailed profile of authorized fishing vessels (Para. 28.2); fishing-related activities (para. 28.2) and vessels engaging in IUU Fishing (para. 80.4). States are also encouraged to share information that deal with law enforcement activities, specifically control, monitoring and surveillance (MCS) matters (para. 28.7). In sum, it appears that the provisions under the IPOA-IUU that promote interstate cooperation in fisheries management, surveillance and law enforcement attest the instrument’s relevancy in contributing the development of the international normative and policy framework with the aim of ensuring long-term sustainability of fish stocks, including transboundary fish stocks, through fisheries cooperative arrangement. RECOMMENDED INTERSTATE COOPERATIVE MEASURES FOR SHARED FISH STOCKS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

A number of bilateral and regional cooperative mechanisms or programs on fisheries-related matters are currently in place in Southeast Asia. Such joint initiatives, nevertheless, remain arguably inadequate and often less meaningful in attaining the long term goals of effective conservation and sustainable development of fish stocks shared across various States’ maritime jurisdictions. In terms of implementation, cooperative fisheries management regime in the region is still confronted with many institutional and policy challenges. For this reason, the following measures are recommended for the ASEAN members to undertake in strengthening the existing cooperative arrangement: EXCHANGING AND DISSEMINATING INFORMATION AND DATA

There is a need for ASEAN members sharing the same fish stocks to foster and establish cooperation and collaboration in various fields of research activities, especially on marine fisheries resources and oceanography, and their ecosystem components. This cooperative arrangement should also be broadened to include analysis, transferring, dissemination and exchange of information and data acquired from research activities. In recent years, most of the regional partnerships directed toward the conservation and protection of shared fishery resources are centred upon the pivotal role played by regional intergovernmental advisory bodies, such as the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) and Asia-Pacific Fisheries Commission (APFC). Perhaps the most successful and concrete regional research initiatives directed toward the conservation of such stocks are of those instigated under the purview of SEAFDEC. Based in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, it has taken the function of initiating, coordinating and implementing joint research projects and programs toward the conservation of Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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commercially important fish stocks and endangered marine ecosystem and its habitat in the South China Sea and Andaman Sea. Research focus of the organization are mainly on the population assessments of fish stocks and endangered aquatic species (e.g. marine turtle and sharks), health status of marine ecosystem and its habitat, and migratory pattern of selected small pelagic species. Recent examples of research projects funded by the Japanese Trust Funds (JTF) program include the “Tagging Program for Economically Important Pelagic Species in the South China Sea and Andaman Sea,” and “Research for Stock Enhancement of Sea Turtles in the Southeast Asian Region” (Kadir & Yaacob, 2007; Kadir & Abe, 2010). Another important field of research initiatives set up by SEAFDEC is the development of selective, environmentally safe fishing gears. Through the expertise sharing and cooperation with its member countries, SEAFDEC has successfully developed and tested a number of suitable types of ‘turtle excluding devices’ (TEDs) that could minimize incidental catch of marine turtles (Matic, 1997, p. 243). At national level, both Malaysia and Thailand have individually conducted experimental trial on these TEDs to test their suitability and efficiency for their respective shrimp fishing trawler fleet, without significantly reducing catch rate or increasing fuel consumption during fishing operation. Notwithstanding the existence of coordinated research programs in marine environment and fisheries, conspicuous missing is the available information on the latest knowledge and trend on the biological and ecological parameters of certain transboundary shared stocks. According to Doulman (2007), reliable timely and accurate information on marine fisheries and biodiversity within the regional seas are fundamental for policy deliberation and for the sustainable management and conservation of fish stocks and fisheries ecosystem (p. 204). In the context of Southeast Asian region, such information are generally inadequate, if not unavailable. And yet, the governments and stakeholder communities have no choice but to rely heavily on this questionable data as part of their policy planning and decision-making process. Of varied reasons attributing to this problem, marine scientific research is a difficult, time consuming and costly exercise (William, 2007, p. 50). Confronted with limited financial, technical or human capacity, it is indeed a daunting task for many developing littoral States in the region to individually conduct marine scientific research on tropical marine fisheries and ecosystems, as well as studies on oceanographic and climatic variations affecting regional fisheries (Alam, Omar, & Squires, 2002, p. 336). One of the main challenges hampering the attainment sustainable management of shared fish stocks in the regional water of Southeast Asia is the questionable catch statistical database operated in each individual State. A significant barrier in determining accurate sustainable harvesting limits for specific species groups of shared stocks can be in part explained by the inefficient catch reporting and capacity assessment mechanism at national level. For example, in the context of Indonesia’s dispersed multi-gear and multispecies fisheries, statistics on catch rates are very difficult to collect due to outdated sampling system for collecting fisheries statistics (Mous et al., 2005, p. 262). The problem of incomplete statistical data and information is also aggravated by the deficiency of financial and human capacity which is a prerequisite to monitor and compile fishery landings effectively. Another obstacle to sustainable fisheries management is the unavailability of accurate information and data of the actual amount of shared fish stocks and species composition caught by both local and foreign fishing fleets in national waters. This deficiency includes the exact quantity of catches unloaded in the latter home countries. The problem of underreported catches for statistical purposes is more acute on pelagic stocks of longtail tuna species, which are characterized by their migratory nature inhabiting several EEZs of countries bordering the South China Sea (Yonemori, Yanagawa, & Pong, 1996). Compounding this problem is the difficulty of regional fisheries manager to trace the actual catch efforts by fishing vessels engaged in unauthorized fishing activities, namely IUU fishing, in the regional waters (Varkey, Ainsworth, Pitcher, Goram, & Sumaila, 2010, p. 228; Willouhby, Monintja, & Badrudin, 1999). As way back as the late 1990s, information collected independently by, and found in the national inventory of regional States has been reportedly lacking in terms of their comprehensiveness (Saikliang Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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and Boonragsa, 1998, p. 135). Even if the inventory exists, the challenge lies on the difficulty of other interested parties to access it. In the context of Asia in general, Morgan et al. (2007) concluded that it is difficult for the interested parties to access the latest information pertaining to IUU fishing and fishing capacity due to two reason: (i). Much of the information is restricted by the country’s Ministries; and (ii). Neither of the information has been frequently published in media nor widely available (p. 3). This in turn has led to a state of affair where fisheries managers and policymakers have been unable to make informed decision in establishing a sound fisheries development policy and responsible fisheries management regime within their own national EEZ. Because of the inadequacy, unreliability and inaccuracy of the biological/ecological information and fisheries statistical data, some coastal States have in the past delayed and even failed to establish effective and coordinated regional cooperation in fisheries management. To overcome the above problems, the concerned States need to consider of establishing and strengthening cooperative mechanism designed to facilitate the exchange of information and data on fisheries among the interested parties, This approach should not only focus on integrated and systematic collection and dissemination of data relating to both shared and transboundary fish species, but also the analysis and interpretation the data. On the whole, the quality and quantity of scientific data and information on fisheries science and technology on transboundary shared stocks can only be enhanced through joint partnership with all parties sharing and harvesting the concerned stocks. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

One of the recommended measures to effectively manage transboundary shared fishery stocks is through the adoption of ecosystem approach to fisheries management (EAF) in regional cooperative arrangement. It is desirable for transboundary shared fishery stock to be managed over their entire area of biological distribution, which in the context of Southeast Asia, covering not only different areas of national jurisdiction but also a myriad and unique marine ecosystem and habitats. Accordingly, given the close interactions and interdependency between shared fishery stocks and their surrounding ecosystem, the destruction of fragile fisheries habitats and loss of biodiversity would likely have detrimental impact on the overall health of stocks concerned. For this reason, the principle of EAF entails cooperation among relevant governments, and regional fisheries and environment organizations to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the regional ecosystem and its habitat. This collaborative approach is critical given that biological and physical components of ecosystems in the region, as previously pointed out, typically extend beyond the jurisdictional boundary of a single State. Moreover, EAF has generally been perceived to be more efficient and effective in addressing environmental problems of a transboundary nature than the initiatives taken by individual States alone. This signifies a departure from the traditional species-centric management approach (Ahmad, 2011). Nevertheless, many commentators agreed that the EAF is not envisioned as a revolutionary approach deviating from the conventional fisheries management regime (Sinclair et al., 2002, p. 264). It is rather seen as an approach embracing a more integrated and holistic way of managing resources without disregarding fragile fisheries environment and its habitats (FAO, 2005). In giving effect to the EAF, littoral States sharing the same fishery stocks need to implement a number of measures. States should adopt fisheries conservation and management measures with the aim of not only ensuring the long-term sustainability of fish stocks but also protecting and maintaining marine aquatic ecosystem within which the stocks live. The LOSC, in particular, accords special protection to marine ecosystem and its components, including different groups of fish species (i.e. target or non-target) and fragile habitats. In line with this obligation, coastal States under Article 61(3) must take into consideration the dynamic interaction and interdependence between fish stocks and marine ecosystem when deciding the appropriate conservation measures to prevent overfishing in the EEZ. Moreover, as stipulated in Article 6.8 of 1995 Code of Conduct, EAF entails coastal States to ensure the marine aquatic ecosystem and its habitats are subject to protection against the harmful impact of human Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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activities. In giving effect to this principle, the Code has made it clear that States must establish appropriate measures for prohibiting the use of poison (e.g. cyanide fishing), dynamite (e.g. fish bombing) and other destructive fishing practices (e.g. muroami fishing and towed-bottom fishing gear, including pair trawling, push nets and otter trawling) (Art. 8.4.2). The Code also places stronger emphasis on regional collaborative arrangements and coordinated efforts to develop and implement environmentally friendly fishing gear, technology, and operational methods, which reduce the loss of fishing gear (Art. 8.4.6). Reducing the incidence of by-catch and discard mortality in fisheries population underpins the key management measures under the EAF framework. Littoral States needs to cooperate and make a firm commitment towards protecting non-targeted species (i.e. juvenile and low-value species) against indiscriminate catching. A widespread practice of by-catch and a high rate of discard mortality of undesirable marine species are increasingly becoming a norm in tropical multi-species resources and multi-gear fisheries in the regional EEZs. An obvious example of this problem can be seen in the quantity of trash fish generated from by-catch of both coastal and offshore fishing activities, which constituting the highest percentage of species composition landed in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Thus, it is in the best interest of regional governments to cooperate in conserving target fishery resources and protecting non-target species from incidental capture by unselective fishing gears and methods. Achieving this objective would necessitate cooperative technical management measures, and common legislative and policy instruments. More specifically, the aforementioned measures may include interagency projects for developing technologically advanced selective fishing gear, community-outreach education programs, and regulatory restrictions on gear and mesh size. STRENGTHENING OF MONITORING, CONTROLLING AND SURVEILLANCE (MCS) SYSTEM

Interstate cooperative arrangement in monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) activities for fisheries is broadly viewed as one of the integral elements of ensuring regional transboundary fish stocks are to be harvested in a sustainable manner. Wide spectrums of MCS measures have been commonly implemented at national level, with most of their implementation have been strengthened by legislative, policy and institutional reforms. These government initiatives focus on tightening of fishing and vessel licensing conditions, adopting stringent sanctions and effective prosecution against fisheries offenders, and enhancing fisheries law enforcement and monitoring capability. These national efforts may have improved the conservation of shared fishery resources at national fisheries jurisdictional waters, but arguably fall shall short of protecting the overall population of the resources in question throughout their entire spatial migratory range. Exacerbating the problems of fisheries law enforcement in the region is the absence of formalized regional mechanism with command function to coordinate fisheries surveillance and enforcement operations, coupled by limited enforcement capability and capacity suffered by individual coastal States. Insofar as vessel boarding and inspections are concerned, there is gap in the standardized operational procedures at regional level. Consequently, the aforementioned challenges provide reasons why littoral States should take into consideration of institutionalizing a coordinated MCS system at regional level. Joint surveillance and law enforcement exercise become even more critical due the enormous size of individual EEZ and fishing grounds to cover in the Southeast Asian region. The prohibitive operational costs of implementing MCS measures - a situation that placed heavy burden to many regional developing States - can be equally shared or even lessened through the coordinated use of maritime surveillance and enforcement assets. Concerted action and cooperation in MCS becomes more acute when managing transboundary fish stocks. Because of varying socio-economic interests and different management approach among the States to regulate those stocks in their respective EEZs, there is an obvious need for coordinated MCS measures applicable throughout the entire migratory range of the concerned stocks. To add, much more needs to be done on strengthening fisheries surveillance and enforcement efforts among ASEAN countries given that IUU fishing incidents have long been pervasive in the regional waters. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Institutionalized mechanism for joint fisheries law enforcement, as stated earlier, is currently nonexistence in the regional water; with the cooperative programs on fisheries surveillance and law enforcement have been mostly focused on intelligence and information sharing on illegal fishing activities. Different cooperative arrangements involving ASEAN members are presently in place. There are already examples relating to such arrangements, such as coordinated maritime surface and aerial patrol initiative aimed at addressing non-traditional security challenges, including transnational crimes (e.g. piracy, sea robbery and human trafficking), and promoting navigational safety (e.g. search and rescue) in the Malacca Straits (Koh, 2013). Other relevant example of maritime surveillance and law enforcement cooperation arrangement in the region is the agreement signed Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei and Indonesia, which have agreed to conduct regular joint patrol in border areas surrounding the Celebes Sea (Jakarta Post, 2005). While the ultimate objective of these joint patrol exercises is to secure overall maritime security in the regional waters, subsidiary benefit generated from these collaborative efforts is likely to spill over towards the protection of fisheries resources from the threat of illicit activities, such as IUU fishing (e.g. foreign fishing encroachment, fish bombing, unauthorized transhipment of fish at sea). A number of joint actions relevant to strengthening the existing MCS system can be implemented by the regional littoral States. These include exchange of intelligent information on IUU fishing activities, formulate standardize procedure for catch documentation, vessel inspection and boarding, and establish coordinated port State control measure for fishing vessels. The fact that “no country can go alone” in fisheries enforcement and surveillance efforts reinforces the need to develop a stronger cooperation and coordination between/among neighbouring States sharing the said resources. CONCLUSION

A prerequisite to any present and future policy direction at reaching a more meaningful cooperation for sustainable and equitable management of transboundary shared fishery stocks necessitates a close engagement and strong political will among the neighboring ASEAN States. Because the geographical distribution of these transboundary shared stocks typically spanning across multiples jurisdictional zones, interstate cooperation for the management of such stocks has become increasingly critical. Given this circumstance, even comprehensive conservation efforts of an individual State within its national jurisdictional waters might be rendered futile. Further reason for reinforcing the need to increase the level and scope of regional cooperation and coordination is the ongoing overlapping maritime boundary disputes and contested maritime features in large portions of national EEZs. Whilst the definite resolution of overlapping maritime boundary and features remains the subject of political and diplomatic negotiation, it is not an excuse for the affected States not to pursue some forms of cooperative measures to protect and regulate the access to these shared fishery resources. This warrants proactive and collective government intervention and participation aimed at securing a more equitable and responsible fisheries management and long-term utilization of resources in the region. REFERENCE

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Morgan, G. R. (2006). Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Asia-Pacific region. Proceedings of the APFIC workshop on IUU fishing, Kuala Lumpur, August 2006. Rome: FAO. Morgan, G., Staples, D., Funge-Smith, S. (2007). Fishing Capacity Management and IUU Fishing in Asia. RAP Publication 2007/16. Bangkok: FAO. Mous, P.T., Pet, J. S., Arifin, Z., Djohani, R., Erdmann, M. V., Halim, A., et al. (2005). Policy Needs to Improve Marine Capture Fisheries Management and to Define a Role for Marine Protected Areas in Indonesia. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 12(4), 259-268. Munro, G., Van Houtte, A., and Willmann, R. (2004). The Conservation and Management of Shared Fish Stocks: Legal and Economic Aspects. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 465, Rome: FAO. Palma, M. A., and M. Tsamenyi, M. (2008). Case Study on the Impacts of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing in the Sulawesi Sea, April 2008, APEC#208-FS-01.1. Pauly, D., and Thia-Eng, C. (1988). The Overfishing of Marine Resources: Socioeconomic Background in Southeast Asia. AMBIO: A Journal of Human Environment, 17(2), 200-206. Pew Environment Group. (2010). China tops world in catch and consumption of fish. ScienceDaily, September 23, available online at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/ 100922121947.htm (Accessed on September 16, 2014) Rayfuse, R. (1999). The Interrelationship between the Global Instruments of International Fisheries Law. In E. Hey (ed.), Developments in International Fisheries Law (pp. 107-158). The Hague: Kluwer Law International. SAIKLIANG, P., AND BOONRAGSA, V. (1998). PELAGIC FISHERIES AND RESOURCES IN THAI WATERS, ANNEX 10. IN MFRDMD-SEAFDEC, REPORT THE THIRD REGIONAL WORKSHOP ON SHARED STOCKS IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA AREA, KUALA TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA, 6-8 OCTOBER 1997 (PP. 113-140). KUALA TERENGGANU: MFRDMD-SEAFDEC. Sinclair, M., Arnason, R., Csirke, J., Karnicki, Z., Sigurjonsson, J., Skjoldal, H. R., et al. (2002). Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem, Conference Report. Fisheries Research, 58(3), 255-265. Stobutzki, I.C., Silvestre, G.T., Talib, A.A., Krongprom, A., Supongpan, M., Khemakorn, et al. (2006). Decline of Demersal Coastal Fisheries Resources in Three Developing Asian Countries. Fisheries Research, 78, 130-142. Tangsubkul, P., and Fung-Wai, F.L. (1983). The New Law of the Sea and Development in Southeast Asia,” Asian Survey 23(7), 858-878. Thia-Eng, C., Gorre, I.R. L., Ross, S.A., Bernad, S.R., Gervacio, B., Ebarvia, M.C. (2000). The Malacca Straits. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 41, 160-178. Van Houtte, A. (2003). Legal Aspects in the Management of Shared Fish Stocks- A Review. In FAO, Papers presented at the Norway- FAO Expert Consultation on the Management of Shared Fish Stocks, Bergen, Norway, 7-10 October 2002 (pp. 30-42). FAO Fisheries Report No. 695, Suppl. Rome: FAO. Varkey, D. A., Ainsworth, C. H., Pitcher, T.J., Goram, Y., Sumaila, R. (2010). Illegal, unreported and unregulated fisheries catch in Raja Ampat Regency, Eastern Indonesia. Marine Policy, 34(2), 228-236. Wilkinson, C., Caillaud, A., De Vantier, L., South, R. (2006). Strategies to Reverse the Decline in Valuable and Diverse Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Fisheries: The Bottom of the J-Curve in Southeast Asia?. Ocean & Coastal Management, 49(9), 764- 778. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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The Implication in the Opening of Northern Sea Route on the Maritime Activity at Malacca Straits R.Rasdi School of Ocean Engineering, University Malaysia Terengganu. rasdiroslina@gmail .com

N.S.F. Abdul Rahman School of Ocean Engineering, University Malaysia Terengganu. [email protected] .my

A.H. Saharuddin School of Maritime Business and Managemnt, University Malaysia Terengganu. [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The opening of Northern Sea Route as an alternative route for transporting cargoes between Far East and Europe seems highly acceptable by shipping companies due to the great saving in fuel consumption, bunker cost, operating cost, emissions and journey time. Assume that, if only 30% ships sail via Malacca Straits as the second maritime route for transporting cargo from and to Europe and Far East, then the total number of ship call at port alongside Malacca Straits will be reduced. Due to this situation, shipping activity at Malacca Straits automatically will be affected when ships navigated via the Straits is decreased. By having these problems, this study is intended to analyses the implications of the opening Northern Sea Route to the Malacca Straits shipping activity. A number of methods will be use 1) PESTEL Analysis and 2) Spider diagram method. A qualitative dataset will be used in order to produce a valuable and comprehensive study. Such a data set will be obtained using a set of questionnaires and interview session with a number of maritime experts. The potential outcome of this study is determined major factor implication of the opening of Northern Sea Route on maritime activity at Malacca Straits. Keywords: Northern Sea Route, Maritime Activity, Malacca Straits, PESTEL Analysis, Spider Diagram INTRODUCTION

On September 19th, National Snow and Ice Data Center, (NSIDC) announced that Arctic sea ice has shrunk as far as it will shrink this summer, and that the ice is beginning to reform, expanding the floating ice cap that covers the North Pole and the seas around it (NSIDC, 2012). The Arctic Sea Ice extent this September was far smaller than the previous record set in 2007. At 3.4 million square kilometers of ice coverage, this year’s Arctic minimum was 800,000 square kilometers smaller than the 2007 record. That difference between the previous record and this year’s is larger than the entire state of Texas. An ice-free summer in the Arctic, once projected to be more than a century away, now looks possible decades from now. Some say that it looks likely in just the next few years. NASA said 1984 was chosen for the comparison because sea ice coverage that year was roughly 6.7 million square kilometers, which was the average minimum extent between 1979 and 2000. Figure 1, shows compare the minimum coverage of Arctic ice in 1984 and 2012.


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Figure 1. The maps compare the minimum coverage of Arctic ice in 1984 and 2012 (Source : NASA, 2012) From this map, it gives an idea of how much condition between 2012 and 1984 strayed from the longterm average. The minimum ice extent in 2012 was about half the average. Due to this global climate change, is offering new opportunities for international transportation networks, notably with a trend of receding ice around the North Pole. If this trend continues parts of the Arctic could be used more reliably for navigation, at least during summer months and for longer periods of time. The main trans-Arctic routes include of the Northern Sea Route and Northway Passage. According to Congressional Research Service report, China runs a trade surplus with the world’s three major economic centers the 1) United States, 2) European Union, and 3) Japan. Since 2000, the United States has incurred its largest bilateral trade deficit with China ($201 billion in 2005, a 25% rise over 2004). In 2003, China replaced Mexico as the second largest source of imports for the United States. China’s share of U.S. imports was 14.6% in 2005, although this proportion still falls short of Japan’s 18% of the early 1990s. The United States is China’s largest overseas market and second largest source of foreign direct investment on a cumulative basis. U.S. exports to China have been growing rapidly as well, although from a low base. In 2004, China replaced Germany and the United Kingdom to become the fourth largest market for U.S. goods and remains the fastest growing major U.S. export market. China is purchasing heavily from its Asian trading partners with particularly precision machinery, electronic components, and raw materials for manufacturing. China is running trade deficits with Taiwan and South Korea and has become a major buyer of goods from Japan and Southeast Asia. During the global economic recession in late 2008 and early 2009, shipping companies struggled in operating their vessels due to the cargo market demand was dramatically decreased compared to early 2000. According to Abdul Rahman (2012), the history of the bunker prices shows that the increase of bunker prices from $180.32 per tonnage in 2004, to $261.90 in 2005, $313.18 in 2006, $372.82 in 2007, spiking at $505.62 in 2008 and suddenly falling to 371.87 in 2009. However, bunker prices have steadily increased to a level of above $464.14 in 2010. The bunker prices fluctuate and are unpredictable based on the data described. This uncertain situation will automatically affect the performance of shipping Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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companies, voyage cost and the freight rates and they now looking for other alternative elements such as energy saving, cost saving, environmental friendly, saving journey time and shorter distances.

Figure 2. China’s New Shipping Frontier (Source: Northern Sea Route Information Office; National Snow and Ice Data Center; Cosco; Lloyd’s List) igure 2, shows the comparison between two routes which are navigate via Suez Canal and Northern Sea Route (NSR). The shortest route to travel from China to Rotterdam is using NSR than Suez Canal Route which is saving 13 days. The philosophy applied in the shipping industry is the reduction in route distance will automatically reduce the total travel time, ultimately the total fuel consumption, bunker fuel cost and vessel operating cost will be reduced. Consequently, the amount of emissions produced by ships will definitely be reduced. Finally, the shipping companies’ profit margin will dramatically increase without any argument. Figure 3 shows the today’s cargo transported between Far East and Europe depending on the shipping route via Suez Canal which is located in Egypt. The canal has officially been opened to the maritime transportation industry in November 1869 (Suez Canal Authority, 2013) and the length of such a canal is 101 miles (163 kilometers) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with Gulf of Suez, Red Sea (Suez Canal Authority, 2013). By crossing the Suez Canal and Indian Ocean as a medium of connection between Far East and Europe, all ships will pass by the Malacca Straits and the potential of having port of calls at Penang Port, Northport, Westport, Johor Port and Port of Tanjung Pelepas are very high. This is because Malacca Straits is becoming the most important straits has to be used for transporting cargoes from both regions. Obviously, Malaysia is obtaining benefits from this situation. The full opening of the Northern Sea Route as an alternative maritime route in less than five years for transporting cargoes from and to the Far East and Europe seems highly acceptable and agreeable by shipping companies due to the great saving in fuel consumption, bunker cost, operating cost, emissions and journey time.


24

Current Routes

Europe

Suez Canal

Malacca Straits

Far East

Alternative Routes

Europe

Northern Sea Routes

Far East

Figure 3. Current Routes and Alternative Route

LITERATURE REVIEW Malaysian As Maritime Nation

Malaysia as a leading maritime nation because surrounded by a sea is much larger than land mass. Ports and shipping are recognized as essential contributors in facilitating Malaysia’s trade, hence crucial to its economic prosperity. In 2008, the country’s total trade was valued at US$335 billion, an increase of 6.8 percent from 2007. Exports rose by 9.6 percent to US$187 billion, while imports increased by 3.3 percent to US$147 billion, resulting in a trade surplus of US$40 billion (Khalid. N, 2009). According to Khalid (2007), Malaysia has emerged as one of the world’s most significant maritime nations but not all activities in the maritime sector in the country are conducted in line with the concept of sustainable development. International trade is very important to economic growth for Malaysia. This is because international trade is one of the important factors that contribute to the Malaysian growth economy. Malaysia’s export and import sector is the main contribute to the Malaysian economy. Malaysia’s export sector has undergone significant changes over the past five decades. In line with industrial economy, the composition of exports is largely a based on agriculture and mining in the 1960s, a gradual shift to manufactured goods in 1980s. Development and growth of the manufacturing sector is rapidly so by the end of the 1990s, this sector accounts for over 80% of total exports. Important Of Malacca Straits

Straits of Malacca is an international navigation and crucial in the world of trading whether for international trade or local trade. Malacca straits is the second busiest waterway in the world and have been used by international shipping since time memorial (Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Laws , 1998). The Straits of Malacca is one of the world,s most strategic and important shipping lanes that is located in one of the world’s most vibrant economic growth areas, the Strait is a pivotal link in international trade and transportation ( H.M Ibrahim and Khalid N., 2007). According Gilmartin 2008, this Straits of Malacca is one of the most important shipping waterways in the world from both an economic and strategic perspective. It is the shortest shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, linking major economies such as the Middle East, China, Japan, South Korea, etc. By using Malacca Straits, it can save costs around US $84 billion until US $250 billion annually in term of exporting oil from the Middle East by sails through the Malacca Straits rather than choosing to navigate via any other Straits in Southeast Asia like Lombok Straits and Makassar Straits (Hanizah Idris , 2001). There are more than 200 vessels passing through the straits on a daily basis and this gives an Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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annual throughput of approximately 70,000 ships carrying 80% of the oil transported to Northeast Asia (Gilmartin, 2008) but if the straits here to be closed to navigation, global trade would be adversely affected, thus injuring the world economy (Hazmi Rosli, 2011). IMO (2003) state that more than 60,000 ships pass through the Straits of Malacca every year by carrying various cargoes, from raw material to finished products from all over the world (Forbes, 2004). Malacca Straits is one of the most important shipping waterways in the world from both an economic and strategic perspectives (Gilmartin, 2008). Opening Of Northern Sea Route

NSR has been introduced as a one of the supply lines for transporting oil and gas to the Russia’s northern area since the 1970s (Ragner, 2008). According to Drent (1993), over the past eight decades the iceinfested sea route along the Russian Arctic coast has been steadily developed. However the number of vessels navigated using this route was very low due to geographical reason (e.g. ice block).

The Northeast Passage Receding ice opens up elusive northern trade route which could compete with the Suez Route

Northeast passage 11 500 km approx 25 days travel

The implication in the Opening of Northern Sea Route on Maritime Activity at Malacca Straits

RUSSIA Suez Canal CHINA

Suez route 23 000km approx 35 days travel

\

Figure 4. The Northeast Passage Figure 4 shows the comparison between the navigation via the Suez Canal and Northern Sea Route in term of distance in kilometer (km) and the total journey time of day. In terms of distance perspective, the navigation via Northern Sea Route is 11,500 km or 50% shorter than the navigation via Suez Canal. By using the same vessel speed for both navigation routes, the travel time between Far East and Europe via Northern Sea Route is just 25 days which saves 10 days compared to the navigation via the Suez Canal (35 days). The philosophy applied in the shipping industry is the reduction in route distance will automatically reduce the total travel time, ultimately the total fuel consumption, bunker fuel cost and vessel operating cost will be reduced. Consequently, the amount of emissions produced by ships will definitely be reduced. Finally, the shipping companies’ profit margin will dramatically increase without any argument.


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According to the Drent J. the commercial of an Artic sea route to and from Siberia was first promoted in the 1860s. During the Soviet era, the Russian Arctic Ocean was in practical terms closed to foreign shipping. This all changed in 1991, when the Soviet Union formally opened up the NSR to foreign vessels. During the years when the NSR was inaccessible to outsiders, huge progress in ice-breaking technology has been made, and the trend of global warming has accelerated, justifying a new, thorough investigation into the commercial merits of the NSR (Ragner, 2000). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Pestel Analysis

The PESTEL framework is designed to provide managers with an analytical tool to identify different macro-environmental factors that may affect business strategies, and to assess how different environmental factors may influence business performance now and in the future (Johnson et al, 2008). The PESTEL Framework includes six types of important environmental influences: political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal. By using PESTEL analysis the implication in the opening Northern Sea Route on maritime sector of Malaysia economy was categories into six factor 1) Political, 2) Economic, 3) Social, 4) Technology, 5) Environment and 6) Legal. Some of the implications give positive impact or positive benefits which are tending to emphasize laudable to maritime sector and also have negative impact to the Malaysian Economy which is give disadvantage impact to community or environment surrounding and related. Based on Figure 5, the increasing or decreasing of the total number vessel traffic across the Malacca Straits will automatically effects on maritime sector of Malaysia economy.

Vessel Traffic

Political

Economy

Social

Technology

Environment

Legal

Figure 5. Conceptual Framework of the Implication in the Opening Northern Sea Route to Maritime Sector of Malaysia Economy According to the PESTEL theory, it concludes that the implication of the opening Northern Sea Route to maritime sector is divided into two implication which are positive and negative. Table 1 summarises the information based on both implications


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Perspective

Parameter

Positive

Negative

Impact

Political

Stability of Government

/

Reduce

Economy

Employment Rate Business Trade

/ /

Ship Call Port Profit

/ /

Country Income

/

Social

Attitude Towards Imported Goods and Services

/

Reduce Less Profit Reduce Less Profit Less Profit Reduce

Technology

Basic Infrastructure Level Technology Level in Country Industry

/ /

Normal Normal

Environmental

Ship Collision Emission

/ /

Reduce Reduce

Legal

Piracy Safety and security Policy and regulation

/ / /

Reduce Increase Normal

Table 1. The Implication of the Opening Northern Sea Route on Maritime Activity at Malacca Strait Based on Table 1, by using spider diagram, the important implication are determined. Spider Diagram

The Spider diagram method is a freeform technique for visualising taxonomy without the rigid hierarchical formalism of a sitemap. Usually it use along with interviews and formal survey. In keeping with all network formalisms, a spider diagram consists of nodes connected by links. Borrowing concepts from the idea of liquid browsing, the nodes of the spider diagram can be different in size, so as to reflect different aspects of that node, e.g. amount of content contain complexity of the functionality and so on. Spider diagrams offer a convenient way to visualize a whole site structure on a single page. Step 1: Create categories Use headers or title of research which is resulted from brainstorm with expert. Step 2: Standardize performance definitions Standardize performance definitions in each category so that ratings are performed consistently. Define the scoring range (e.g., 0 to 5 with 5 being full performance). Step 3: Rate each performance category Each evaluator rates each category individually, and the researcher then develops an average consensus score for each category. Five (5) experts who are originally from the shipping and legal background have been selected to rate each category. Step 4: Construct the chart Draw a large circle and insert as many spokes as there are performance categories. Around the perimeter of the circle, label each spoke with the title of a performance category. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Subdivide each spoke into the number of increments established in the rating scale. Label the centre of the circle where spokes join as 0 (no tendency) and place the highest rating number (full or exceptional tendency) at the end of the spoke at the outer ring. Implication Respondents Expert A Expert B Expert C Expert D Expert E A+B+C+D+E/5

Political

Economy

Social

Technology

Environmental

Legal

2 3 3 3 3 2.8

4 4 4 4 5 4.2

2 4 4 3 3 3.2

2 2 3 3 4 2.8

4 5 4 4 4 4.2

3 4 3 3 4 3.4

Step 5: Plot the ratings For each performance category, plot on the chart the associated rating. Then connect the plotted points on all the spokes. Highlight the enclosed central shape as necessary for ease in viewing.

POLITICAL 5 4 LEGAL

3 2

ECONOMY

EXPERT A

1

EXPERT B

0

EXPERT C EXPERT D

ENVIRONMENT

SOCIAL

EXPERT E

TECHNOLOGY

Figure 6. Implication: Political, Economy, Social, Technology, Environment and Legal in maritime activity at Malacca Straits Step 6: Result and discussion According to Figure 1, it is shows the tendency is towards to the economy and environmental. The lowest tendency is political. Together with the data, can be analyzed that economy and environmental are the most implication in the opening Northern Sea Route on the maritime activity at Malacca Straits. At the same time, the total number of vessels navigated at Malacca Straits decreased. Therefore, the best solution is shipping companies and port management need to be prepared to faced this problem to maintain their profit. In order to achieve this objective, ship and port operator need to use these four (4) steps: Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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1) Establish a problem 2) Identify improvement potential 3) Implement and monitor 4) Evaluate and update In the short term, the ship and port operator will expand more cost if use this plan that requires high technology to improve the propulsion and operational efficiency. However for the long term, the cost will be decrease as the efficiency that has been focused more to attracted the customer, maintain operation and technology level CONCLUSIONS

In all, the opening of Northern Sea Route as an alternative route for transporting cargoes from Far East and Europe affected the maritime activity of Malacca Straits in scope of 1) political, 2) economy, 3) social, 4) technology 5) environment and 6) legal. This situation gives positive impact and negative impact to Malaysia economy especially in maritime sector. Malaysia economic professional should be preparing if this situation continue and find new method to sustain our economic as a maritime nation. Port authorities can no longer be just regulators, administrators and landlords. They have to play a variety of roles, which include marketing, attracting investors, financial planning, business development and even customer relations. They must act as strategic partners to the terminal operators and work in concert to ensure their ports remain highly competitive. All port management and operation in Malaysia need to be systematic, weighing not only economic, geographical and physical factors, but also political factors as well. Further, they need to be reasonably prepared for whatever changes to the industry and to the global economy might happen. In terms of National Port Policy and National Port Authority, we suggest a study on the feasibility of establishing a proper national port policy, and even a national port authority. This will have the benefit of harmonizing cooperation between the various Federal ports, improving port planning and development, standardizing procedures and increasing competitiveness with other regional ports. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thanks Ministry of Education Malaysia for giving financial support through the Research Acculturation Grant Scheme (RAGS) and the University Malaysia Terengganu for providing research facilities. REFERENCES

Abdul Rahman, N. S. F. 2012. A Decision Making Support Of The Most Eficient Steaming Speed ForThe Liner Bussiness Industry,37-49 Claeslykke Ragner 2000, “Northern Sea Route Cargo Flows and Infrastructure- Present State and Future Potential”. Drent, J., (1993). The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du Nord, Vol.3, No. 2, pp.1-17. Forbes, V.L.(2004), “The Malacca Strait in the Context of the ISPS Code,” MIMA Conferences Papers on the Straits of Malacca: Building A Comprehensive Security Environment. Kuala Lumpur: MIMA. Gilmartin, H. (2008), EU-U.S-China: “Cooperation in Malacca Straits, Hamburg,” Nov. 2008. Ibrahim H.M and Khalid, N. (2007), “Growing Shipping Traffic in The Strait of Malacca: Some Reflections on The Environmental Impact,”MIMA. HanizahIdris(2001), “IsuKemalanganKapaldanPencemaranLaut di Selat Melaka: SatuTinjauan,” Jati , Vol. 6, pp.116-137 Hazami Bin Mohd Rusli. (2012) “Balancing Shipping and the protection of the marine environment of straits used for international navigation: a study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore”. University of Wollongong. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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IMO.(2003), http://www.marine.gov.my/misc/indexstat.html (19 Mac 2006) Khalid, N.(2007), “Port Privation in the content of the developing nation maritime institute of Malaysia,” MIMA. Khalid, N. (2009),“Malaysia: A Maritime Player of Considerable Clout”.MIMA Northern Sea Route Information Office; National Snow and Ice Data Center; Cosco; Lloyd’s List 2013. National Snow and Ice Data (NSIDC,2012) , Retrieved from http://nsidc.org/news/ NASA, 2012 “Image of Arctic Sea Ice 1984 compare to 2012” Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Law, 1998, “The importance of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,” pp.3012-322. Suez Canal Authority (2013),Suez Canal Service, http://www.suezcanal.gov.eg/sc.aspx?show=24


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Space Limitation at Container Ports: The Way to Face Challenges through New Milestones Technology

Ahmad Zakwan Amir ZAIDI Universiti Malaysia Terengganu [email protected]

Noorul Shaiful Fitri ABDUL RAHMAN Universiti Malaysia Terengganu [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Container port is facing an increasing demand of service capacity as it is reflected by a tremendous growth in the worldwide container transshipments per year. For example, the top 20 terminals in the world showed an average relative increase of 14% with respect to the number of handled container units from 2006 to 2007. Due to the increment of container demand and increasing volume of vessels entering the port, the problem of space limitation arises. Many seaports of the world are currently facing the problem of capacity shortage. The space at the container port becomes constrained. For instance, Port Klang needs to build a third port to accommodate the growing demand and the existing North and West ports are only capable to cater the port user’s until 2016. There are many factors contributing to the space limitation at container ports such in term of economic, environmental, technological, management, etc. This paper intends to discuss the idea regarding to an innovation technology of stacking container storage that can be applied to solve space limitation by taking the application of car’s Automated Parking System (APS). Keywords: Container Port, Port Space Limitation, Container Stacking Storage Container Port, Maritime Innovation; Maritime Operations INTRODUCTION

Over the years, maritime industry had experiences tremendous growth and provides numerous incomes for the country. One of its domains is the shipping and port industry that have proven to be the most important economic activities as it is an essential contributor in facilitating Malaysia’s trade, hence crucial to its economic prosperity. The amounts of container in Twenty Foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) have increased gradually due to the increment of the container demand. If this situation is continuously to happened, it may lead to the space limitation at container port area. As a consequence, the efficiency of the container operation performance will be declined. Thus, more space is needed in order to cater high demand of container. In the dynamic market perspective, port operators have to take further action in this matter especially in competitive advantage issue. This paper will be looking to design a conceptual innovation technology by introducing the staking container storage as a potential solution of space limitation and to explore and analyze the working system concept at the proposed solution. LITERATURE REVIEW

A further trend in maritime container transport is the high growth in the volume of transshipped containers in ports. The container transshipment by continents within the years 1998 until 2006 keeps increasing. It can be seen that the total number of transshipped container units has more than doubled Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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within this time span. This growth reflects the increasing transshipments demand caused by the attractiveness of containerized cargo transport (Frank Meisel, 2009). With a total throughput of an estimated 3.79 million tonnes in 2012, the European port system ranks among the busiest port systems in the world. Growth was particularly strong in the pre-crisis period between 2000 and 2008, partly driven by fast growing container throughput. The average annual growth rate was 10.5 % in the period 2005-2008 and 7.7 % in the period 2000-2005. The total weight of goods handled in EU ports is estimated at 3.7 billion tonnes in 2011, a rise of 1.7 % compared with 2010 (Theo Notteboom, 2012). China is the world’s leading for container handling. From 2000 until 2012, major ports in China have shown incredible upsurge in total throughput of container. In 2000, only 21 million TEUs were handled by the major ports and it totally fluctuated to 176 million TEUs by 2012. For the first half of 2013, it container throughput had shown a total of 91.5 million TEUs (Tianjin Port Development Holdings Limited, 2013). The Strait of Malacca is one of the world’s most strategic and important shipping lanes. It is a vital artery linking the region’s economy with the rest of the world. Located in one of the world’s most vibrant economic growth areas, the Strait is a pivotal link in international trade and transportation. Traffic in the Strait has been growing steadily over the last decade, in line with growing international trade which is carried for the most part using seaborne transport. In 2006, over 65,000 ships sailed through the Strait of Malacca, making it one of the world’s busiest sea lanes. This figure is expected to grow in the coming years, in light of the increase in global trade and the rise of East Asian economies, and the accompanying upsurge in the demand for shipping services to transport the majority of their trade (Nazery Khalid, 2007). Every year, more than 60,000 ships pass through the Strait of Malacca carrying various cargoes, from crude oil to finished products from all over the world. This number is nearly three times the number of ships that navigate through the Panama Canal and more than double the number that uses the Suez Canal. The strait which connects the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean, are one of the busiest ocean highways in the world. One third of the world trade is passing through the strait, making it to be touted as the artery of the world economy (Mokhzani Zubir, 2004). Transshipment traffic at Port Klang was up 17% in 2010 compared to 2009. Export containers showed a 17.6% increase, while import traffic rose 14.1 per cent. Port Klang which comprises of Northport and Westport, solidified its position as the busiest container port in the country, with nearly half or 48.5% share of the total number of containers handled by all Malaysian ports. Its container throughput rose 24.8% in the January-October 2010 period compared with the same period in 2009. It increased to 7.43 million TEUs in 2010 compared to 5.95 million TEUs in 2009. Its container throughput rose 8.8% to 5.38 million TEUs against 4.95 million TEUs before (Kong Cho Ha, 2010). In a statement, Westport said the better-than-expected container volume throughput comes from both transshipment and indigenous boxes, registering positive increases of 22% and 13% respectively. The robust performance in 2011 has made Westport one of the fastest growing ports in the world (Ruben Emir Gnanalingam, 2011). The number of container ships entering Port Klang had shown a steady growth from 2005 until 2012. Based on Port Klang statistics, in 2005, 10,266 container ships were reported at the port and it increasing to 11,241 in 2012. While the total throughput of container also shown an amazing growth with total throughput almost doubled from 2005 until 2012. With 5,543,527 containers in 2005, it upsurges to 10,001,495 in 2012 (Port Klang, 2013). Growing Chinese trade and intra-ASEAN present great opportunities. More containers as result of containerization and hinterland development will need us to enhancing port competitiveness to cater to greater container throughput and to cater to bigger vessels. Globalized markets, outsourcing and changing production base have boosted trade and demand for maritime services. More trade means bigger investment in ports to enlarge capacity to facilitate greater trade volume (Nazery Khalid, 2007). Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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The unprecedented expansion in world demand for shipping has brought with it unintended problems for the international shipping ports. Ports are getting congested, while ships are turning away cargo that they courted so intensely. The cargo shut out and skipping of Port Klang by some lines anxious to keep to their tight schedules could impact on the growth of the port. It is understood that some lines which are full to the brim when they call at Singapore, have no choice but to skip Port Klang and head for Europe. Omitting Port Klang by the shipping lines is also understood to be on account of the fact that the ships now have to queue up Singapore which is getting congested and causing ships to lose valuable time in the global schedule. In order to catch up with the lost time, shipping line tend to omit Port Klang, a move which has also prompted some shippers to send their cargoes from Port Klang to Singapore. Member lines and their customers are grappling with transit time delays of eight to nine days that are largely beyond their control, and infrastructure gridlock that will easily take more than a year to fix (Brian Conrad, 2012). The proposed third port, to complement the existing Northport and Westport, is currently awaiting cabinet approval with this facility will help to accommodate the growing demand. The existing North and Westport are capable to cater the port users only until 2016 (Teh Kim Poo, 2011). TOTAL CONTAINER HANDLED AND NUMBE ROF SHIP CALLS AT PORT KLANG

400

300 Africa and Australia

200

Asia

100 0

Europe

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Container Transshipment (in million TEUs)

Figure 1 shows that Asia conquers the highest number of container transshipment from 1998 until 2006 where more than half of it was in Asia continents. Moreover, Asia shows the most tremendous growth within the time span which it container transshipment exceeds the total number of container transshipment in Europe, America, Africa and Australia. This reflects that Asia is the main market access in the world.

America

Year

Figure 1. Container transshipment by continents from 1998 until 2006 (Source: Frank Meisel, 2009) Figure 2 shows the number of ship coming to Port Klang. There are various types of ships reported at the port. But, container ship shows the highest number by far with more than half of the ship calls every year are container ships. From 2005 until 2007, the numbers are steadily increased. Due to world’s economic crisis, the number declines until 2009 before it shows upsurge from 2010 until 2011. It decreases again the next year but this never affected the numbers of container that continue to increase as shown in the Table 2 below. Although the number of ship calls show fluctuation pattern, number of container ships coming to Port Klang steadily above 10,000 and is the main type of ships entering Port Klang.


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20000 Other 15000

Passenger Container

10000

General 5000

Liquid

Dry

0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Figure 2. Number of ship calls at Port Klang from 2005 until 2012 (Source: Port Klang, 2013) Figure 3 shows the statistics of all types of cargo that being handled by Port Klang from 2005 until 2012. The number of cargo steadily increased annually except in 2009 where the number declined due to the world’s economic crisis. From the table and graph, the number of container exceeding half of the total cargo handled. It means that container is the main type of cargo that entering Port Klang every year. The total number of container handled far exceeding the total number of dry, liquid and general cargo.

250000000 200000000 150000000 100000000 50000000 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Dry

Liquid

General

Container

Figure 3. Cargo Statistics (Fwt) (Source: Port Klang, 2013) Figure 4 shows the number of container handled at Port Klang from 2005 until 2012 in millions TEU. The numbers of container handle almost double from 2005 until 2012. Although it slightly decreases in 2009, it shows a surge in 2012 which more containers are predicted to coming next year.


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12000000 10000000 8000000 6000000 4000000 2000000 0 2005

2006

2007 Import

2008

2009

Export

2010

2011

2012

Transhipment

Figure 4. Total number of containers at Port Klang from 2005 until 2012 (Source: Port Klang, 2013) Stacking Container Storage Currently, the growth of containerized trade shows a steady growth around the world. The main container port in Malaysia which is Port Klang also moving along with the growth where it totals container handle and entering vessels shows an increment. The world’s economic condition is recovering from the crisis back in 2009 and the number of container and vessels are predicted to increasing more in the future. Due to the number of container that keeps increasing, it causes the port area to become congested. The spaces to put the container become a limitation. If this problem do not solve, the efficiency and effectiveness of operation at container ports will declined which will hamper the trade worldwide. Take a look of the current situation at Port Klang where they need to build third port to accommodate growing demand. But, with the increasing of containerized trade every year, the space at the third port will be limited too. So, this study tends to think of a way to keep receiving more containers without expand the port or built another one. As consequences, more container scan be receiving which will help to strengthen up the economic condition.

Figure 5: Congestion situation at Mombasa Port Port

Figure 6: Congestion situation at Tin Can Island

Figures 5 and 6 show the container port congested situations due to port space limitation as the main problem which located at Mombasa Port, Kenya and Tin-Can Island Container Terminal (TICT), Nigeria. The Mombasa port’s container terminal has been stretched beyond its original capacity surpassing the 250,000 TEUs (twenty foot equivalent units) it was built to handle per year. It now grapples with up to 800,000 TEUs. Speaking at the recent ground breaking ceremony to commence building of a second container terminal at Kilindini harbour, President MwaiKibaki reiterated the need to expand the capacity Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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of Mombasa port to position Kenya as a regional maritime hub. He said that with an additional space for 1.2 million containers, the second container terminal would accommodate the current volumes and be well positioned to cater for the projected increase in excess of 960,000 TEUs by 2015. While the same situation faced by Tin Can Island Port because this port is now under serious criticisms from industry stakeholders due to the huge challenges posed to timely delivery of cargo to the importer’s warehouse by the present system of cargo examination. Recently, importers and their clearing agents, who bring in the goods through Tin-Can Island port, the nation’s second largest seaport, using the facility of TICT, have been witnessing drop in the volume of containers scanned by Cotecna, the Destination Inspection service provider in charge of scanning and issuing of risk assessment report (RAR) on imported consignment(Uzoamaka Anagor, 2013). Industry stakeholders have blamed lack of sufficient cargo handling equipment and stacking space at TICT’s scanning site for the current drop in the number of scanned containers. According to them, Cotecna has the capacity to scan about 400 containers on daily basis but space limitation and lack of trucks to move containers to the scanning site, TICT, has hindered it from moving the above-mentioned number of containers for scanning. Confirming this, Jibrin Zakari, Customs area controller of Tin-Can Island Port command, told newsmen last week that as it is, TICT can only move 200 containers per day for scanning due to shortage of truck and lack of space. (Uzoamaka Anagor, 2013) For the possible solution, imagine being able to put containers on top of each other like the cars Automated Parking System (APS) that make you are able to store containers even more (Figure 7). Such idea of stacking system are real and are used throughout the world to save precious space which maximize the space and do not binding to any problem of limitation of space. An APS is mechanical system designed to minimize the area and volume required for parking cars. Furthermore, an APS provides parking for cars on multiple levels stacked vertically to maximize the number of parking spaces while minimizing land usage. The APS utilizes a mechanical system to transport cars to and from parking spaces rather than the driver. The concept for the automated parking system was and is driven by two factors: a need for parking spaces and a scarcity of available land. This is applicable to container port which facing the problem of space constrained. By using this system, ten cars can be park in the ground apace normally used for two cars. The ever-increasing scarcity of available urban land (urbanization) and increase of the number of cars in use (motorization) make this system very important. At container port, this system can be applied where more containers can be stored at the shipyards instead of space limitation. During the ancient times until nowadays, the container arrangement at port still the same. In globalization world, the container still has been place on top of another in stacking arrangement. To move the container at the bottom, the top container need to been move first which more time and work is needed. If the APS system been used, more container can be store and less work to been done because no need to move top container to take the bottom container and because this system can be operated automatically or semi-automatically, the human error can be reduce that cause injury and damage of goods.


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Figure 7. Conceptual of Automated Parking System for container storage All APS take advantage of a common concept to decrease the area of parking spaces which it removing the driver and passengers from the car before it is parked. With either fully automated or semi-automated APS, the car is driven up to an entry point to the APS and the driver and passengers exit the car. The car is then moves automatically or semi-automatically with some attendant action required to its parking space. The stacking system works with a simple mechanical hydraulics system. It can simply lift the first container so that another container can be put below. The systems can be designed differently to accommodate the user’s needs. Because this is a new idea, more evaluation will be conducted on how to apply it to store the container. With the elimination of ramps, driver lanes, pedestrians and the reduction in ceiling heights, the APS requires substantially less structural material. Many APS utilize a steel framework (some use thin concrete slabs). These factors contribute to an overall volume reduction and further space savings for the APS. Stacking container storage is a mechanical device that multiplies container capacity inside a container port (Figure 8). The systems are generally powered by electric motors or hydraulic pumps that move container into a storage position. This container storage system use a similar type of technology to that used for mechanical parcel handling and document retrieval. The containers that being unloaded from the ships are put into designated area. Hydraulic or mechanical container lifters raise the container to another level for proper storing. The container can be move vertically (up and down) and horizontally (left and right) to a vacant space until the container is needed again. To moving down the container, the process is reversed and the lifts moved the container back to the bottom. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Figure 8. A conceptual innovation of container stacking storage

For a long time, Automated Parking System and the accompanying technologies have increased and diversified. This system is a response to the need for storage space for vehicles. So, this system can be a possible solution to the restrictive space at container ports and cater to increasing demand of container. For maintenance and service of this system, the service intervals vary for the system depending on the type of machines used and their usage. As for suggestion, the system should be serviced at least once a year and up to four times a year for high container traffic areas. In addition, regular cleaning is mandatory to keep the system in good working order; especially with the problems posed by weather (salt can spread to lifter platforms and cause severe damage if not removed. All critical elements of the system should be cleaning regularly including the car lifters top and bottom, all concrete pits, all posts resting on the concrete and the entire concrete floor in the parking area. There are tremendous benefits from this stacking system. First, no more hunting for container spaces and at mean time, it will preserve the natural beauty and greenery of the area from being damaged by the port expansion or building project thanks to more intelligent and efficient use of space. Furthermore, it not only saving space, but will save time and money too although the investment on this project still not been measured yet. Besides that, it will generate more income for the nation and boost the economic which will make our country more stable in term of economy. Then, it will increase the efficiency of the port and attract more customers to choose Malaysian ports instead of other ports which will generates more revenue for the port owner. As infrastructure been improve, it will improves international market access and leads directly to increased trade and through this, to higher incomes and significant reductions in poverty (Nazery Khalid, 2009) Significances and Beneficiaries

First and foremost, based on Figure 8, the significant of this study in term of economical is to enhance the condition of country’s economy. As the technology of stacking container storage been applied at the port, the shipyard can keep more container as the result of more spaces. As consequences, based on Figure 9, it will attract more ships coming to Malaysian ports that lead to the increment of container throughput. The higher numbers of container throughput will generate more incomes for the port owner and country. In the meantime, it will boost country’s economic condition that lead to the. Development of new technology to cater with increment of container demand will enhances the competitiveness of ports in Malaysia over the ports around the world.


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• No need to build another port or expand it that will damage the environment. Environmetal

Political

Economic

• Raise the image of local government. • Raise the image of Malaysia worldwide.

• To attract more ships coming to Malaysian ports and keep increasing the number of throughput. • Increase the income. • Increase the competitiveness of ports in Malaysia over the ports around the worlds.

•Enhance the technology of Malaysian ports. Technology

• Increase the standard of living. Social

Figure 8: Significances of this study

Furthermore, based on Figure 8, this study is crucial for social which is to Malaysian society in general and the local community in particular. As infrastructure been improve, based on Figure 9, it will improves international market access and leads directly to increased trade and through this, to higher incomes and significant reductions in poverty (Nazery Khalid, 2009). This will significantly make the society more stable and comfortable throughout their life. Meanwhile, based on Figure 8, this study is significant for the political sector. Due to development of new technology, it will help to build a good image for the Malaysian government and local government. The use of stacking container storage that aims to cater the increment of container demand will help to enhance the efficiency of container operation. Based on Figure 9, a positive feedback is expected from the customer which will raise the image of Malaysia worldwide as one of the country that have the most reliable and efficient technology used at the port. Apart from that, it will raise the image and reputable of local government as the port in that particular area known by its crucial technology. Besides that, based on Figure 8, the implementation of this technology is important for the environment. The more intelligent uses of space at container port means there is no need to build or expand the port that will damage the environment such seabed disturbance and changes in coastal processes. Based on Figure 9, the natural beauty and greenery of the area around the port can be preserved thanks to the new development of technology. Moreover, based on Figure 8, in terms of technological, it will enhance the technology at Malaysian ports. Nowadays, the competitions among the ports are very fierce that port operator must increase their competitiveness to stay realistic for the customer. The efficiency and effectiveness at container port can be increase through this stacking container storage. Based on Figure 9, Malaysia will be the first country to promote this innovation of technology to the world and technology manufacturer can produce this technology to be used at the ports.


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Environmental

• Local area- It will preserve the natural beauty and greenery of the area from being damaged by the port expansion or building project thanks to more intelligent use of area.

Political

• Malaysian Goverment- Enhance the image of Malaysian government. • Local government- Enhance the image of local government.

Economic

• Malaysian government- It will generate more income for the nation and boost the economic which will make our country more stable in term of economy. • Port owner- It will increase the efficiency of the port and attract more customer to choose Malaysian ports instead of other ports such as Singapore which will generates more revenue for the port owner.

Technology

Social

• Malaysian government- Malaysia will be the first country to promote this innovation of technology to the world. • Technology manufacturer- Produce this technology to be used at the ports.

• Malaysian resident- As we improve our infrastructure, it will improves international market access and leads directly to increased trade and through this, to higher incomes and significant reductions in poverty.

Figure 9. Beneficiaries of this study

CONCLUSIONS The growth of seaborne trade reflected by the increase of container ships, container throughput and container terminals. This shows that economy worldwide are continue to growth again and recover from the economy crisis. As the containerized continue to upsurge, it is a must to brainstorm how to cater with it. The spaces become a limitation as the number increase. If we keep receiving the container without thinking about the storage area, it will become congested at the port and it cannot receive any additional container. Container ships will reluctantly to come to our port which will impact the economy as well as the image of the port. As we do not want to jeopardize the future of Malaysian ports, it is the time to turn for a new technology. The introduction of stacking container storage will be recommended to be use at container port in order to cater the increasing container. This system from the adoption of car’s Automated Parking System (APS) needs a further analysis to be fully applicable at container port. REFERENCES

Anagor, Uzoamaka (2013). "Tin-Can Island Container Terminal and the Challenge of Cargo Clearance." Business Day, 25 Sept. 2013. Chao, S.L. and Lin, Y.J. (2011). Evaluating advanced quay cranes in container terminals. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 47, 432-445. Conrad, B. (2013). Port Klang may fall victim to surge in world demand. David, N. and Sichman, J. S. (2009). Multi-Agent-Based Simulation, Berlin, Springer. European Commission (March 2013). Europe’s Seaports 2013: Challenges Ahead. Gateway (January 2011). A Publication of Port Klang Authority. Henesey, L., Davidsson, P. and Persson, J. A. (2009). Evaluation of automated guided vehicle systems for container terminals using multi agent based simulation. In: NUNO, D., JAIME, S. and O, S. (eds.) Multi-Agent-Based Simulation IX. Springer-Verlag. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Islam, S. and Olsen, T.L. (2011). Factors affecting seaport capacity. 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Perth, Western Australia. 412-418. Kim, K. (1998). A transportation planning model for state highway management: A decision support system methodology to achieve sustainable development. Doctor of Philosophy, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Sate University. Lee, C. (2011). Infrastructure and economic development. In: Z. Mahani (Eds.), Malaysia: Policies and Issues in Economic Development, Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) Malaysia, 423-436. Lian Yong, K. (July 2010). Port Klang Retain Status as Busiest Container Port. Liu, Q. (2010). Efficiency Analysis of Container Ports and Terminals, University College London, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering. Mokhzani Zubir, (2004). The Strategic Value of The Strait of Malacca. Nazery Khalid, H.M. Ibrahim. (2007). Growing Shipping Traffic in the Strait of Malacca. MIMA Nazery Khalid, (2005). The Development of Port and Shipping Sector in Malaysia. Notteboom, T. (2013). Cargo Volumes in the European Port Systems. University of Antwerp, ITTMA. Ocean Shipping Consultants Limited. (2009). North European container markets To 2020. Available: http://biodata.asp4all.nl/andreas/2010/09012f97806ff81b/09012f97806ff81b.pdf [Accessed 23April, 2014]. Pallis, A. A. and De Langen, P. W. (2010). Seaports and the structural implications of the economic crisis. Research in Transportation Economics, 27, 10-18. Robinson, B. (2003). Container terminal vehicle booking systems. Cargo Systems, 30, 16. Shanghai Port Container Traffic Reaches 30 Million TEUs record high in 2011. (2011, December 2011). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://libguides.bgsu.edu/content.php?pid=47132&sid=410457. Stopford, M. (2009). Maritime Economics, Oxon, Routledge. Tongzon, J.L. and Ganesalingam, S. (1994). An evaluation of ASEAN port performance and efficiency. Asian Economic Journal, 8, 317-330. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (February 2012). Review of Maritime Transport. Widdows, R. (2007). Unblocking the congestion - growth in containerised trade has not been matched by infrastructure development. Cargo Systems, 37.


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Formulation of a Simplified Model for Preliminary Design of Spread Moored Vessels Lee Hsiu Eik Offshore Engineering Centre Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750, Tronoh, Perak [email protected]

Mohd Shahir Liew Faculty of Geoscience and Petroleum Engineering Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750, Tronoh, Perak [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In recent times, growth in computational power and capabilities has seen the development of robust software capable of solving highly complex mathematical models for floating systems. Clients and asset operators do not typically require detailed design specifications of a project at the early or appraisal stages but rather, quick information which is sufficiently reliable to provide an estimate of the project’s feasibility. This study provides a customizable layout formulation on the algorithm of a simplified hydrodynamic model applicable to spread moored vessels. Relevant fundamental vessel hydrodynamic and mooring theories are reviewed and adapted into the algorithm. The approach is to formulate an open source simplified limited degree of freedom rigid body dynamic model to compute estimates of vessel hydrodynamics and simulate vessel excursion. The vessel mass and damping matrices are truncated to account for surge, sway and yaw only. The results obtained from vessel dynamics are used to design the spread mooring system. A method is formulated to account for the non-linear hydrodynamic drag forces on the mooring system. In this paper, the vessel hydrodynamics are formulated and the other modules of the system are discussed briefly. Typical FPSO vessels are referred to for the purpose of this study. Keywords: Computational power, hydrodynamics, numerical analysis, floating systems, FPSO, rigid body dynamics. INTRODUCTION

As the offshore oil and gas industry pushes the boundaries of water depths in order to source more reservoirs, floating structures typically take feasibility precedence over their fixed counterparts. To name a few floaters would be to point out Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) Vessels, Spars, Tension Leg Platforms, Semi submersibles, Mobile Offshore Drilling or Production Units, and supporting structures like that of Catenary Anchor Leg Moored buoys. The station keeping requirements of these floaters can be generally attributed to mooring and dynamic positioning systems. FPSOs have been widely used globally to develop deep-water oil and gas fields. As the FPSO is a ship shaped entity, it is relatively more sensitive to storm directionality than, say, a symmetrical SPAR platform whose hull wave- current loading is practically indifferent to the direction of environmental loading. This can be attributed to the fact that an FPSO has an extended water plane area as compared to other floater concepts. When it comes to station keeping, it is then obvious that the ability of the floater to maintain an acceptable offset for safe operations and riser integrity, largely, depends on either its mooring system or if applicable, available dynamic positioning mechanisms. For long term station keeping of a Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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floater in its position, common amongst production systems, a mooring system would be the preferred choice over dynamic thrusters. The two station keeping systems can work in tandem of course, but one is usually given precedence over the other. In the case of production platforms, permanent moorings will tend to dominate while the dynamic positioning will take a supporting role such as that of weather vanning assists. Whilst there are numerous complex computer software capable of modelling in great detail the complex problem of floaters, the market today lacks simple, approximation tools to aid engineers or executives at the very beginning stages of a project like that of the pre-Front End Engineering & Design (FEED) phase. This study addresses from a generic approach, such a need for FPSO vessel related projects in the form of developing a module capable of simplistically computing the key motions of the vessel that would affect the main components of the FPSO development, with minimal input from the decision maker. Two such components are its global size and mooring system. This research is anticipated to result in a program that can be used by first line executives and pre-FEED/FEED engineers to have a better gauge on the viability of a field development employing the concept of a spread moored FPSO, hence ultimately leading to more effective and efficient decision making. Each mooring system will be unique for the conditions it is designed for. As such, each field can be anticipated to require different sets of mooring techniques and technologies – with little, if any, standardization in design aside from the standard mooring components. PETRONAS, as it pushes exploration and production to deeper Malaysian waters, would need a quick judging and FEED selection criteria. This is to provide the management teams with sound preliminary mooring system design over the shortest analysis time period possible. The two main mooring configurations to choose from are spread or single point and turret mooring systems. This is made even more complicated by the types of moorings, namely taut and catenary moorings alongside different mooring materials. This study will only address the preliminary design of a mono hull FPSO vessel with a catenary spread mooring system with both chain and wire components. Figure 1 illustrates very simply, a spread moored FPSO with two bow mooring groups and one stern moor group.

Figure 1 FPSO Spread moor grouping at the aft and fore sections


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GENERIC EQUATIONS OF MOTION

It can be reasonably assumed that the induced motion of a vessel equals to that of the frequency of incoming waves adjusted by a phase difference unique to each individual wave in an irregular sea. Assuming small elevation of the sea surface for free surface boundary linearization purposes, it also leads to the proposition that the corresponding vessel motion is also small compared to the wave length. In line with linear assumptions, the vessel motion amplitude is taken to be related proportionally to the wave amplitude. The coordinate system usually employed is the conventional (x,y,z) formulation of the right hand rule. Herein, the z axis is pointed upwards normal to the mean sea surface, x axis in the longitudinal direction of the ship from aft to fore with y forming a plane parallel to the undisturbed sea surface. The translatory displacements of the vessel can be described in the x , y, z directions with respect to a point of reference as η1 (surge) , η2 (sway), and η3 (heave) respectively. The rotational displacements of the vessel about the x, y, z axes can be described as η 4 (roll) , η5 (pitch), and η6 (yaw) respectively. This can be depicted in Figure 2. A freely floating vessel will typically have six degrees of freedom in a three dimensional coordinate system. The generic coupled dynamic equation of motion for a floating vessel can be expressed as in Equation 1 (Salvesen et. al, 1970). 6

∑[ (𝑀𝑖𝑗 + 𝐴𝑖𝑗 ) 𝜂̈ 𝑗 + (𝐵𝑖𝑗 )𝜂𝑗̇ + (𝐶𝑖𝑗 )𝜂𝑗 ] = 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑗=1

(1) In Equation 1, Mij , Aij , Bij , and Cij are the vessel mass, added mass, damping coefficient, and restoring coefficient respectively. Fij is the exciting external forces and moments, with the understanding that only the real part of the complex force be considered. This force can consist of wave, wind , current, impulse or any other external force imparted onto the structure, although for the harmonic formulation given, it is intrinsically implied that only the oscillating wave forces and moments be considered within the context of the equation. Mij and Bij , can be formulated theoretically through the use of potential theory with the appropriate numerical methodologies such as panel methods. Model testing in wave tanks can also be employed to determine the added mass or damping coefficients.


45

Figure 2 The six degrees of freedom of a floating vessel (Salvesen et. al, 1970)

The total mass of the vessel can be assumed to be constant in time (Journée et. al , 2001). This assumption neglects effects like that of decreasing mass due to fuel consumption, although caution should be exercised for analyses of offloading activities involving major cargo load transfer. Given that the vessel possesses six degrees of freedom, the mass and damping is in effect, a 6 x 6 matrix. Given a vessel with lateral symmetry, which is a fitting representation for the majority of vessels today, the ship mass matrix can be written as in Equation 2 (Salvesen et. al , 1970). 0 0 𝑀𝑧𝑐 0 𝑀 0 −𝑀𝑧 𝑀 𝑐 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝑀 0 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = (2) −𝑀𝑧𝑐 0 𝐼4 −𝐼 0 0 46 𝑀𝑧𝑐 0 𝐼5 0 0 0 0 0 0 [ 0 −𝐼46 𝐼6 ] It can be noted that M is the ship’s mass, equivalent to the water displaced by the vessel in accordance to Archimedes Principle, where M = ρ x (displacement volume, V). The term I in the matrix refers to the moment of inertia about the x , y, and z axes respectively down the diagonal from I 4 to I6. The ship mass matrix above takes into account the fact that the center of gravity is located at (0,0,zc) with respect to the coordinate system adopted. Equation 2 depicts the full mass matrix for the six degrees of freedom of a floating vessel. One can eliminate the non-diagonal terms if the coordinate system has its origin at the center of gravity of a ship. To another extent the moment of inertia of the ship may be omitted if the engineer chooses to ignore rotational motion. An important fact to note when analyzing the equation of motion of Equation 1 is the distinction between the two hydrodynamic loads present in its derivation, namely the hydrodynamic forces in the form of added mass and damping coefficients due to the motion of the body in calm water and the wave exciting forces and moments induced by the incoming wave train. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Due to the linear assumption inherent in potential theory which is widely used in several commercial software, the superposition of both forces is a mathematically valid operation (Salvesen et. al , 1970).


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Figure 3 Superposition of body hydrodynamic and wave excitation loads (Journée et. al, 2001)

The added mass matrix for a laterally symmetric ship can be expressed as the 6 x 6 square matrix with alternating zeroes as in Equation 3. The damping matrix can be similarly expressed as Equation 4 (Salvesen et. al , 1970).

𝐴𝑖𝑗

𝐵𝑖𝑗

𝐴11 0 𝐴13 𝐴 22 0 0 0 𝐴31 𝐴33 = 𝐴42 0 0 𝐴51 𝐴53 0 [ 0 𝐴62 0 0 𝐵11 0 𝐵13 𝐵 22 0 0 0 𝐵33 𝐵31 = 0 𝐵42 0 𝐵51 0 𝐵53 [ 0 𝐵62 0

0 𝐴15 𝐴24 0 0 𝐴35 𝐴44 0 0 𝐴55 𝐴64 0 0 𝐵15 𝐵24 0 0 𝐵35 𝐵44 0 0 𝐵55 𝐵64 0

0 𝐴26 0 𝐴46 0 𝐴66 ] 0 𝐵26 0 𝐵46 0 𝐵66 ]

(3)

(4)

For a freely floating ship, the linear hydrostatic restoring coefficients are restricted to the modes that cause a change in buoyancy which prompts the system to revert back to its initial state. By physical intuition or a phenomenological analysis of a symmetric vessel, only motions in heave, roll and pitch will induce a change in wetted surface area, hence a change in the aforementioned buoyancy. Accordingly, the related coefficients are given as C33, C44, C55 and C35 = C53 (Salvesen et. al, 1970). NOVEL SIMPLIFICATION OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION

In this study, the simplification of the mass, added mass and damping matrices can be made due to the nature of the problem at hand. The author infers herein that mooring line static and dynamic characteristics are predominantly affected by the planar translational motion of a vessel, namely surge and sway. It must however be noted that first order heave and pitch, from a phenomenological point of view may have credible contribution to the wave frequency mooring line dynamics and damping. Herein, the heave motion is neglected even though it is dully noted that it constitutes part of the coupled equation of motion for surge. This is reasoned by the assumption of this study that all motions are uncoupled and that the actual coupling with other motions can potentially be taken into account by the program’s accumulated design experience by the proposed learning algorithm. Contribution from heave and the angular motions of pitch, roll and yaw cannot be dismissed during detailed design stages. This can be Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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accomplished by utilizing the model specifications developed by the program in a refined analysis via commercially available software. This type of work is typically performed by design consultants who would be contracted by the client or asset operator. However, for a preliminary mooring system design tool the problem at hand can be assumed to be made up of only surge and sway motions of the wave frequency and slow drift oscillation. Pass studies have shown that the second order drift force will dominate the mooring line tension. Nonetheless, first order surge and sway are taken into account for inclusion into the dynamic analysis of mooring lines. This will enable the model to be simplified significantly, in terms of reduced matrix size, and simplicity of coordinate systems where the neglect of angular motions permits straightforward translational transformations from local to global coordinates. Hence, intrinsic with this study, the major assumptions are summarized as:

Potential flow and theory is valid throughout the fluid region of interest.



Uncoupled vessel motions.



A two degree of freedom in surge and sway is adopted.



A neural network back propagation feed will be implemented to calibrate correction factors upon project detailed design delivery.

The simplified mass matrix Mij can be written very simply in a square 2 x 2 form as in Equation 5. 𝜌𝑉 0 ] 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = [ (5) 0 𝜌𝑉 The terms involving zc vanishes given that the origin of the coordinate system chosen for the vessel body coincides with the center of gravity for the vessel. The terms I 46 and its negative counterpart are of negligible consequence for bow-aft symmetrical vessels (Salvesen et. al, 1970) which is assumed herein, hence are omitted from the matrix formulation. The main diagonal moment of inertia terms are neglected as this study takes into account only the planar translational motion in surge and sway of the floating body. The simplified added mass matrix Aij is proposed herein to be written in the form as in Equation 6. 𝐴 0 𝐶𝐴11 ][ ] 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = [ 11 (6) 0 𝐴22 𝐶𝐴11 Analogously, the simplified damping matrix coefficient Bij is proposed herein to be written in its 2 x 2 matrix form as in Equation 7. 𝐵 0 𝐶𝐵 ] [ 11 ] 𝐵𝑖𝑗 = [ 11 (7) 0 𝐵22 𝐶𝐵22 The matrices CAij and CBij where i = j were introduced as corrective values for the surge and sway added mass and damping coefficients respectively. These matrices will be briefly elaborated in a later section. As the plane translatory motion in surge and sway do not cause change in draft and hence buoyancy, the value for the hydrostatic restoring coefficient can be omitted from Equation 1. However, instead of being freely floating, the vessel is spread moored and hence the mooring stiffness has to be accounted for in the stiffness matrix. An initial seed value of mooring stiffness is employed for the first run of the iteration using the mean static offset of the vessel. The vessel static offset is then updated to account for the preliminary input of mooring stiffness. The nonlinear geometry variation of the mooring lines is modelled via the static Catenary Theory. The mooring line tension, however, is modelled dynamically using the finite difference, lump mass method by Van Den Boom (1985). Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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VESSEL – MOORING NUMERICAL FORMULATION

The mooring line analysis can be broken down into two distinct modules, namely static and dynamic. In addition, the mooring line analysis will be that of a two dimensional planar model illustrated in Figure 4, assuming that transverse forces and motion resulting from cross flow of water particles may be neglected.

Figure 4 2 Dimensional plane spread mooring (Hsu et. al. , 1972)

The mooring lines comprising of a particular group on each side of the vessel will be assumed to comply to the fundamental force equilibrium-summation conventions, ∑F =∑M = 0. That is, for example, if the lines are equally spaced along the length of the vessel’s beam, loaded upon by a fluid continuum, then the loading will take an equally spreaded value for each mooring line. For the purpose of this study, the lump mass method (Van, 1985). will be utilized to simulate the mooring dynamics while the static catenary theory is used for the static module. The static catenary theory will essentially neglect seabed skin friction and assumes no additional appurtenances such as mid water buoy, clump weights or tethers be present on the mooring lines. The mooring line hydrodynamic drag required in the lump mass method will be computed through a novel procedure as discussed briefly in the section’s remainder. HYDRODYNAMIC DRAG ON MOORING LINES

The hydrodynamic drag on the mooring line will be computed using a combination of Computational Fluid Dynamics and statistics. The multi-purpose analysis software ANSYS Fluent will be employed to compute the hydrodynamic drag on single standard chain components or equivalently a unit length of a wire rope mooring line. The flow characteristics across the mooring line will be investigated using RANS simulation or other transient modules where the computational prowess is within reasonable frames of the project schedule. The fluid velocity imparted upon the structural elements during the simulations will be user defined inputs calculated as a function of water depth and fluid particle velocity. Due to convenience, the structural model will be built in the computer aided design software, Solidworks. All meshing and analyses will be performed in ANSYS. Figures 5and 6 showcases the mooring line wire rope and chain component respective as sketched in Solidworks. The proposed methodology assumes a linear relationship between adjacent mooring components in terms of individual hydrodynamic characteristics. Hence, the total mooring drag force can be obtained simple by superposing the entire length of a mooring line. In continuous form, this can be written mathematically as Equation 8. 𝑠 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑧 , 𝐶 , 𝐶𝑀) 𝑑𝑠 (8)


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Where Ftotal is the restraining force provided by the entire length of the mooring line, f is a function describing the drag force on a finite segment of mooring line which is a function of z, the local water depth and C, which is a function of the type and size of the mooring component. CM is the correction factor for the mooring line employed via the learning algorithm.

Figure 5 Wire Rope Model in Solidworks

The function f can be obtained by performing statistical regression analysis or curve fitting procedures on the results from the Computational Fluid Dynamics analyses in ANSYS Fluent on single mooring line components. A sketch model of both wire rope and chain is shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

Figure 6 Chain model in Solidworks

HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES

The finer details of the hydrodynamic computations will not be included in this paper. Instead, a succinct overview will be given in this section. The steady state vessel hydrodynamic characteristics will be computed from a simplified motion decoupled model based on potential theory in the frequency domain. The transfer functions will be employed extensively to determine the behavior of the vessel in the second order oscillation mode of motion. Note that no transient time domain analyses will be conducted within the scope of this study; though it is an exciting thought that an impulse response function (Salvesen et. al , 1970) may be fitted to bridge the frequency and time domain herein. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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It is prudent to note that only forces will be accounted for in this study. Moments will be omitted alongside the neglect of rotational motions. Now that the algorithm modules for ship mass, added mass, damping coefficient and mooring analysis has been briefly accounted for, the right hand side of Equation 1 is the remaining unknown. Herein, the wave forces on the body can be developed using two distinct methods, namely the far field and near field methodologies. The pre-requisite of the analyses is the development of a simplified first order vessel surge and sway motion. Diffraction theory (S. Chakrabarti , 1987) with simplified first and second order potentials will be employed along with the panel method. The momentum flux method of calculating second order wave drift force (Hsu et. al , 1972) will be employed to obtain a comparative value for the simplified diffraction theory. A third method of calculating the second order wave drift force (Journée et. al ,2001) is through a direct approach which requires the generation of irregular waves via a wave spectra transformation or a linear filter. LEARNING CURVE ALGORITHM

Only the top line briefs for the program’s learning algorithm module is presented herein. The various simplifications inherent with this preliminary design tool will render it incapable of ever possessing the power and accuracy of a full 3 dimensional hydrodynamic commercial software. Its suitability extents from the appraisal or conceptual phase only to that of the beginning phases of Front End Engineering and Design (FEED). In view of the latter, this study proposes a novel application of an existing artificial learning curve module for the program to update the numerics of the algorithm through the correction matrices seen in Equations 6, 7 and 8 of this paper. These corrections will be applied via a multi-layer back propagation feed forward artificial neural network module with user input using information from detailed design engineering studies. This will serve as a calibration to the model to be competitive with other commercial software available in the market. Figure 7 showcases the basic ideology. 1. Simplified Model Output 2. Decision making at FEED level (proceed) 3. Detailed design using commercial software 4. Standard error between (1) and (3)

5. Feed into Neural Network (back propagation)

6. Update weights / C matrix to minimize error

7. Store all results in database for future use Figure 7 Use case scenario of the simplified algorithm


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CONCLUSION The rigid body floating dynamics of a simplified preliminary FPSO spread mooring design tool is presented. Novel approaches to simplify the required computations for time and cost savings have been put forth. This includes a conceptual proposal of a learning curve algorithm employing artificial neural network for the algorithm. It is anticipated that this formulation will be able to provide mooring engineering specifications for a spread moored FPSO to reasonable accuracy for preliminary design and appraisals. The paper was constructed in a generic format to structure it as an open ended – open source which can be customized further by other researchers in the field. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the custodians of the YUTP grant (A42) for providing financial assistance and technical support where it was needed. REFERENCES

Van Den Boom (1985). Dynamic Behaviour of Mooring Lines, Behaviour of Offshore Structures Elsevlel Science Publishers B V. J. A. Pinkster (1975). Low-Frequency Phenomena Associated With Vessels Moored at Sea, in SPE-AIME European Spring Meeting, Amsterdam. F.H. Hsu , K.A. Blenkarn (1972). Analysis of Peak Mooring Forces Caused by Slow Vessel Drift Oscillations in Random Seas, in Second Offshore Technology Conference, Houston. Nils Salvesen, E.O. Tuck, Odd Faltinsen (1970). Ship Motions and Sea Loads, The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol. 6. S. Chakrabarti (1987), Hydrodynamics of Offshore Structures, Southampton : WIT Press. J.M.J. Journée , W.W. Massie(2001). Offshore Hydromechanics, Delft University of Technology.


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A Comparative Study of Harmful Algal Bloom Distribution Pattern in The Coastal Area of Kota Kinabalu Using CIE and MRA

Abdul Munir Ladoni

Ejria Saleh

Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Muzznena Ahmad Mustafa

Dunstan Anthony

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor

National Hydraulic Institute Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Harmful algal Bloom (HABs) has drawn great attention in coastal areas worldwide in the past decades because of their multiple effects on marine ecosystems as well as public health. The algal bloom resulted in extensive mortalities of marine organisms including annelids, molluscs and many species of fish. In 2005 Cochlodinium polykrikoides is a common of dinoflagellate flora in Kota Kinabalu coastal water. Occasionally this species blooms in the coastal waters with sufficient cell density to cause the mortality of farmed fish and other marine fauna through the production of toxin. This study utilized geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing techniques in identification of HABs distribution pattern in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. The comparisons have been made between Northeast Monsoon, InterMonsoon and Southwest Monsoon with employing a modified “CIE” or Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis and “MRA” or Multiple Regression Analysis which using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). Physical water parameters were collected and was analyst using these techniques which are available in ArcGIS software. With using “CIE” the HAB distribution pattern and concentrations can be identify through the colour code. The result produced shows the significant value between the distribution of HAB and water leaving radiance on the satellite data. On the Northeast Monsoon and Inter-Monsoon period HAB was clearly identified in the mouth of the river and certain part of the coastal zone of the study area. The spring tide event was occurred in that period is strong enough to produce sediment plume with HAB. Although, on Southwest Monsoon period, a small pattern of HAB concentration was identified especially in the river mouth. The GIS technology has been employing in this research with creation of several coverage of maps is useful for a coastal and monitoring system through the database management was established in a GIS. This paper provides a novel method to assess the relative risk caused by HAB and some useful information for HAB monitoring and management and aquaculture development. Keywords: Remote Sensing, Harmful Algal Bloom, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis, Multiple Regression Analysis and Kota Kinabalu INTRODUCTION

Harmful algal Bloom (HABs) has drawn great attention in coastal areas worldwide in the past decades because of their multiple effects on marine ecosystems as well as public health. The algal bloom resulted in extensive mortalities of marine organisms including annelids, molluscs and many species of fish. Sabah or Malaysian Borneo has facing the harmful algal bloom (HABs) problems along the coastal waters since three decades. Since 1970s, many poisoning cases and even mortalities were reported all Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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over Sabah. This has become a public concern as HABs species are increasing from time to time in the Kota Kinabalu coastal waters. In 2005 Cochlodinium polykrikoides is a common of dinoflagellate flora in Kota Kinabalu coastal water. Occasionally this species blooms in the coastal waters with sufficient cell density to cause the mortality of farmed fish and other marine fauna through the production of toxin. Kota Kinabalu coastal water has experienced the damages in aquaculture field due to C. polykrikoides bloom in the recent years, thus continuous sampling and research is required to monitor C. polykrikoides. Realizing the lack of techniques in determination of HAB in the Kota Kinabalu coastal water, this study was carried out using geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing techniques in identification of HABs distribution pattern in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. The comparisons have been made between Northeast Monsoon, Inter-Monsoon and Southwest Monsoon with employing a modified “CIE” or Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis and “MRA” or Multiple Regression Analysis which using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). Although there were many reports on HABs in Sabah waters, the understanding of the environmental effect on these HABs species is still limited. The traditional ship-based field sampling and analysis are very limited in both space and temporal frquency (Ahn et al, 2006). Reliable quantitative monitoring of HAB is even more complicated. This is caused by the nature of HAB, in which the algae capable of regulating their buoyancy can be located in the top layer of water or at the water surface instead of being uniformly mixed in the water column (Paerl & Ustach, 1982; Sellner 1997). The use of unattended flowthrough systems on ships of opportunity (Leppanen et al, 1995; Rantajarvi et al, 1998) and airborne (Dekker et al, 1992; Jupp et al, 1994) and satellite remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) (Kahru et al, 1993, 2000; Kahru 1997) have been recommended to provide more reliable information about the extent of HABs than the conventional monitoring program. OBJECTIVES

This study aims (1) to determine the effect of seasonal changes on the distribution of HAB, (2) to compare the use of CIE and MRA technique in identifying HAB distribution pattern. THE STUDY AREA Population

The 2013 Census stated that the population of Kota Kinabalu more than 600,000. Under a Trend projection it will grow to more than 800,000 by 2015. By then all the population is urbanised. The preferred strategy however is to decrease the urban population to 650,000 leaving approximately 41,054 people as rural. The following table shows a comparison between the Trend and Preferred Strategy in 2015 together with the expected total urban land take and proportion of prime agricultural land. Topography

The original topography of Kota Kinabalu varies from tidal swamps north of Kota Kinabalu town particularly around Likas Bay, Kolombong, Inanam, Yayasan Sabah area up to Menggatal, freshwater peat swamps and floodplains in the interior of Luyang, beaches along Tg. Aru and Sembulan, some moderate to high hills in the northern part particularly Telipok and the coastal areas of Sepanggar Bay, Signal Hills, Kepayan Ridge and the Bukit Likas. Mountain ranges run parallel along the coast that forms the background for the Kota Kinabalu City.


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Socio-economic

Industrial areas are mostly concentrated around Inanamtownship, Kolombong areas and along JalanTuaran (From Inanam) up to Menggatal. The new Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park (KKIP) at Sepanggar is set to be a major industrial area for Kota Kinabalu and Sabah. Light industry is another economic activity in Kota Kinabalu. Inanam and Kolombong are also established industrial areas. However, heavier industrial activities are being introduced with the opening up of the KKIP. Agriculture area is about 35.6% of the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area and river basin is suitable for agriculture. However, only 49.1% of that is being cultivated. It is found that cultivated land in the district exceeds the amount of land suitable for agriculture which indicates wide agricultural activities on unsuitable land. This is mostly found near Telipok area.

Figure 1: The Study Area of Kota Kinabalu Coastal Zone METHODOLOGY

As shown in Figure 2 the study approach involves two levels incorporating the utilisation of remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) to analyse and produce the results from both methods in the study of the distribution of harmful algal in the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area. In order to understand the overall methodologies involved, it is important to know the types of data used in this study. These data generally are grouped into three main categories. They are: (1) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data (2) in-situ data or field data; (3) maps derived from GIS. Each of these data sets contains information to be extracted and/or manipulated in the process of generating the Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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thematic maps.The detection and determination of the HAB concentration in a coastal zone, needs ground data and satellite data at the same time as the satellite overpass on the study area. The method using remote sensing involves multispectral fusion of MODIS data and application of simple calculation method using the Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis (CIE) algorithm. With using the colour chromaticity transformation analysis techniques the HAB concentrations can be identify through the colour code. The mathematical approach was compared with the results from the modified colour chromaticity transformation analysis test based on using visible channel 1, 4, 3 of MODIS fusion data. The information to be generated in GIS database will be analysing the HAB concentration and distribution in the coastal zone area of the Kota Kinabalu. The field or in-situ data provided information about the physical parameters such as sea surface salinity, sea surface temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and HAB density. All of these information sources were processed using Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) to generate thematic maps in order to map the distribution of HAB concentration. The final stage of this study will be compare the distribution pattern of HAB based on CIE and MRA analysis.

Figure 2: Methodological Proces


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HAB DISTRIBUTION PATTERN USING CIE Algal Bloom Estimation and Map Production

The use of spaceborne instrumentation in oceanography and estuarine studies is well established and satellites are now accepted as an important means by which large areas of the world’s oceans can be monitored synoptically. Theoretically there is a great potential for using MODIS data for estimating water quality, especially harmful algal bloom. The past and present studies have undertaken an assessment of MODIS data as a remote sensing tool for monitoring harmful algal bloom in the estuaries and coastal area using many techniques based on equation was developed by many researcher such as Hu et al, 2005; SeungHyun, 2011; Mahmood, 2010. The equation below is a modified Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis (CIE) which is can used in identification of harmful algal bloom and its distribution in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu.

N=

N N+A+S

A=

A N+A+S

S=

Equation 1

S N+A+S

Where

N = Band 1 A = Band 4 S = Band 3

The result above finally has to process using this function of equation in order to extract the harmful algal bloom in the study area is as follows: HAB = N x A x S

Equation 2

The arithmetic technique was applied in this program to perform the arithmetic or a logical operation on image data stored in the two-database image channel (DBIC) and/or a constant (CNST). The result produced is saved on the specified output channel (DBOC). In this case output channels are channel 1, channel 2, and channel 3. The entire output channel represents the colour indicating the harmful algal bloom was load in the coastal zone area of Kota Kinabalu. The Pseudocolour table was implemented in this study considering the maximum and minimum values in the water body. Each input image grey level value was assigned a specific colour and legends were also created to assign the harmful algal bloom concentration through the colour code. Each colour presented in the images was named with land, cloud, and sea water, high concentration of HAB and concentration of HAB. Figure 3, shows the image produced after process in digital image processing with the modify colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Northeast Monsoon. Figure 4, shows the image produced with the colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Inter-Monsoon period and Figure 5, show the image produced with the colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Southwest monsoon period. Note that the slices range for water as shown throughout of the three figures below, were slices associated with how much water leaving radiance values correspond from the water body. The slice range is flexible in order to separate clean water and water contaminated by harmful algal bloom, which is assigned in the legends. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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HAB Distribution Map Using CIE The mathematical approach was compared with the results from the modified colour chromaticity transformation analysis test based on using visible channel R,G,B between the Northeast monsoon period, Inter-monsoon period and Southwest monsoon period. The result from this approach was almost identical with respect to the geographical location and the area covered by the HAB concentration and its distribution. Through a relatively simple digital image processing approach with MODIS fusion data sets, the extent of HAB in the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area was effectively and accurately mapped. In this study, the Northeast monsoon period the high HAB concentrations in the study area were due to high input of fluvial sediments from the several rivers along the coastal area. In addition, the season of Northeast monsoon inflow of sea water from offshore and surrounding area also contributed to increased HAB concentrations by carrying nutrient and fluvial sediment from other places such as islands and eddy to the coastal area. On both season especially on 14 March this is Northeast Monsoon and, 14 April is Inter-monsoon period, the stream flow is quite fast generated by the storm and this results in the large occurrence of HAB. In the case of rainy occasion, the mean discharge recorded is high in the study area is 120.50 m³s ¹ and the water level is about 3.19m. This condition makes the stream flow run faster and brings a lot of particles contained in the sediment to the open sea. Figures 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, have shown the HAB concentration spread out to the several areas around the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu, but HAB appears to be serious in the mouth of the river and the near coastal zone. The extent of the HAB is very small in the Southwest monsoon, which is on 10 May 2012 and the location of HAB is located in Sepanggar Bay. As shown in map produced after applied with NAS algorithm; Figures 3, have been shown the HAB is clearly identified in the river mouth, estuary and bay. The visible bands, as often used in this case, showed variation within water bodies and provided sharp differentiation between HAB and clear water. Comparing these three bands used in terms of identifying HAB concentration, the blue band and green band are related extremely well to the water features displayed on the image. The green channel shows the highest radiance values from all the channels used in this study. In this case the green channel recorded more successfully the yellow substances in water body. Images produced from the atmospherically corrected chromaticity data as shown in Figures 3, Figure 3, and Figure 5 which corresponds to the Northeast monsoon period, Inter-monsoon period and the Southwest monsoon period; these were found to provide the most useful information for quantifying and mapping the HAB present in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu.


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Figure 3. Total Distribution of HAB on 14 March 2012 and Statistical Analysis Results

Figure 4. Total Distribution of HAB on 14 April 2012 and Statistical Analysis Results Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Figure 5. Total Distribution of HAB on 10 May 2012 and Statistical Analysis Results HAB DISTRIBUTION PATTERN USING MRA Development of Spatial Regression Model

Spatial regression models were estimated only with the significant physical water variables identified by the stepwise OLS model. The spatial regression model takes the following form (Cressie, 1991): Y ¼ Xb þ 4

Equation 3

where Y is the vector of the dependent variable; X is the n p matrix on the intercept term plus (p 1) significant covariates; b is the vector of p regression coefficients; and 4 is the vector of n spatially correlated residual terms with the distribution of HAB. DETERMINATION OF WATER PROPERTIES OF HAB CHANGES AT DIFFERENT SEASON HAB Distribution Pattern in Northeast Monsoon Occasion

The higher concentration of HAB on 13 March 2012 after applied using MRA method were located at station 18 (Kota Kinabalu Port) and station 19 (ko-Nelayan KK) with cell density in between 17,320 cell/m to 1,134,400 cell/m see Figure 6.2.1. Regression analysis using OSL was computed to assess the relationship between HAB and the four aspects of physical water parameter. The relationship between the variables is reported in Table 6.2.1, the dissolved oxygen ( 97%) was significantly correlated with concentration of HAB at the study area. Specifically, it was positively correlated with HAB concentration. In addition, pH, Salinity and Temperature differed significantly in terms of HAB concentration. Significant differences were found between the temperature and HAB concentration, salinity and HAB concentration, as well as between pH and HAB concentration. Temperature (-6%), Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Salinity (-10%) and pH (-14%). The results suggest in this date shows a strong correlation in terms of the four aspects of physical water with HAB concentration. As shown in Table 6.2.1, the relation score for all aspect of physical water and HAB concentration was 79% in range.

Table 6.2.1: HAB Distribution on 13 March 2012 by Using MRA Technique

Figure 6.2.1: Algal Concentration Map by Using MRA Technique on 13 March 2012 Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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HAB Distribution Pattern in Inter-Monsoon Occasion

MRA analyses were employed to determine the physical water that best factor to predict the HAB concentration. The degree of influence of a factor on an aspect of HAB concentration can be assessed by inferring on the standardized beta coefficient and the correlation coefficient squared or R 2. According to Field (2006), R2 is a measure of the amount of variability in one variable that is explained by another. The R2 value can then be converted into a percentage (multiply by 100) in order to assess the percentage of variance explained by a variable (Field, 2006). The following paragraphs report the findings from linear regression analyses for each aspect of physical water parameters. Results of the MRA analysis of HAB concentration shows on 14 April there is less significantly predicted the variable with R² value just achieved 26 percent. Results of the MRA analysis of temperature showed a positive relation with HAB concentration with 25 percent and other variable was explained by three factors, namely, salinity, dissolved oxygen and pH has negative relationships to explain the correlation among the HAB concentration with this three aspects. Results of the MRA analysis are reported in Table 6.2.2.

Table 6.2.2 : HAB Distribution on 14 April 2012 by Using MRA Technique


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Figure 6.2.2: Algal Concentration Map by Using MRA Technique on 14 April 2012 HAB Distribution Pattern in Southwest Monsoon Occasion

The monitored HAB concentration at the 20 monitoring sites on Southwest Monsoon which is on May 10, 2012. The two sites with the small abundance of C. polykrikoides and this small frequency of bloom events during the study period, Sites 10 and 16 were located in regions of the Kota Kinabalu coastal area has map successfully using MRA techniques in GIS application. Site 10 was located in an isolated in abroad shallow (i.e.1m – 2m) embayment and Site 16 was located in abroad, somewhat deeper (i.e.4–5m). Despite these distinctions, the two regions share one important feature, their close proximity to watersheds with significant human development and associated anthropogenic enhancement of nutrient inputs (Adkins et al., 2004; Gao, 2009). Three significant physical water parameter variables were identified: temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen have percentage with a positive coefficient and pH percentage with a negative coefficient (Table 6.2.3). Temperature percentage reflects the highest intensity of HAB concentration in the study area. Its identification as the most significant variable suggests that temperature is likely the major caused of HAB concentration in the trophic coastal water such as the study area of Kota Kinabalu coastal water. Results of the linear regression analysis of the relationship between the physical water and HAB concentration are reported in Table 6.2.3. Four factors explained 27.2 percent of total R² in the relationship between physical waters and HAB concentration. These factors are temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and pH. Among the all factors, temperature is the strongest predictor with 55.7 percent. Figure 6.2.3 shown algal concentration map by using MRA technique on 10 May 2012


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Table 6.2.3: HAB Distribution on 10 May 2012 by Using MRA Technique

Figure 6.2.3: Algal Concentration Map Using MRA Technique on 10 May 2012


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CONCLUSION

The result gained from the colour chromaticity transformation analysis technique (CIE) has given well in identification of HAB concentration and distribution in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. A large HAB concentration appears mostly in the Northeast Monsoon. As the erosive power of the stream rises very rapidly with discharge, most of the sediment discharge will occur during the occasional extreme events. The colour chromaticity technique was employed in this study because this technique is suitable to be applied where there is a colour in the surface of water. The MRA analysis was carried out with ground data that was collected in the study area. The MRA analysis which is based on physical water parameters such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and pH were found that the area of Kota Kinabalu coastal zone was polluted by C. polykrikoides. From this research the concentration map of HAB has been produced according to MRA techniques in GIS software. This achievement by using GIS tools is very important in terms of database management where this data can be stored and retrieved in order to update the coastal zone data. REFERENCES

Abuso ZV, Cabella LMT, Tuazon LC, Barrios EB (1996) Final Meeting on ASEAN-Canada Red tide network. Organized by ASEAN-Canada Cooperative Programme on Marine Science.Singapore (unpublished report). Adam. A, N.Mohammad Noor, Anton. A ,Saleh E, Saad. S, Muhd Shaleh S.R., 2011. Temporal and spatial distribution of harmful algal bloom (HAB) species in coastal waters of Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, Harmful Algae 10 (2011) 495–502 Ahmad Asmala, Hashim Noorazuan, Nordin Laili, 2009,Red tide detection using remotely sensed data: A case study of Sabah, Malaysia, GEOGRAFIA OnlineTM Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 5 issue 3 (1 - 7). Ahn Yu-Hwan, Shanmugam Palanisamy,2006, Detecting the red tide algal blooms from satellite ocean color observations in optically complex Northeast-Asia Coastal waters, Remote Sensing of Environment 103 (2006) 419–437. Ahn, Y. H., P. Shanmugam, J. H. Ryu and J. C. Jeong. 2006. Satellite detection of harmful algal bloom occurrences in Korean waters. Harmful Algae. 5(2): 213-231. Amolins, K., Zhang, Y., & Dare, P, 2007. Wavelet based image fusion techniques—An introduction, review and comparison. Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 62(4), 249−263. Anton, A., P. L. Teoh, S. R. Mohd-Shaleh and N. Mohammad-Noor. 2008. First occurrence of Cochlodinium blooms in Sabah, Malaysia. Harmful Algae. 7: 331-336. Azanza Rhodora V., David Laura T., Borja Roselle T., Baula Iris U., Fukuyo Yasuwo, An extensive Cochlodinium bloom along the western coast of Palawan, Philippines, Harmful Algae, Volume 7, Issue 3, April 2008, Pages 324-330. Carper, W. J., T. M. Lillesand, and R. W. Kiefer. 1990. The use of Intensity-Hue-Saturation transformations for merging SPOT panchromatic and multispectral image data. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 56(4): 459-67. Chavez, P. S. Jr., S. C. Sides, and J. A. Anderson. 1991. Comparison of three different methods to merge multiresolution and multispectral data: Landsat TM and SPOT Panchromatic Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 57(3): 295-303. Corrales RA, Gomez ED,1990, Red tide outbreaks and their management in the Philippines. In:Graneli E et al. (eds) Toxic marine phytoplankton, pp. 453-458. Elsevier Publishing Co, New York. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Gires U., Leaw C.P. and Asmat A., 2002, Increasing Importance of Harmful Algal Blooms in Malaysia Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Environment and Natural Resources 10-11th April 2002, Hotel Renaissance, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1: 144-153. Hallegraeff GM, Maclean JL (1989) Biology. Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium Red tides. ICLARM Conf Proc. 21, 1-7. Hu Chuanmin, 2009, A novel ocean color index to detect floating algae in the global oceans, Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 2118–2129. Hu Chuanmin, Muller-Karger F.E, Taylor Charles (Judd), Carder Kendall.L, Kelble Christopher, Johns Elizabeth and Heil Cynthia A, 2005, Red Tide detection and tracing using MODIS fluorescence data: A regional example in SW Florida coastal waters, Remote Sensing of Environment 97 (2005) 311 – 321. Kahru, M., & Mitchell, B. G. ,1999, Empirical chlorophyll algorithm and preliminary SeaWiFS validation for the California Current. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 20, 3423– 342. N.Mohammad Noor, Ong Fang Sing and Encik Weliyadi Encik Anwar, 2012, Seasonal Distribution of Harmful Algal Bloom Species in East Coast of Sabah, Malaysia, Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 7 (6): 431-438. N.Mohammad Noor, A.Adam, J.M.Franco Soler, A. Anton & S.R.Muhamad Shaleh, 2008, First Record of Toxic Gymnodinium catenantum off the west coast of Sabah, Malaysia, Harmful Algal 2008, Environmental Publication House Hong Kong. China . 25-30. Pohl, C., & Genderen, J. L. V.,1998. Multisensor image fusion in remote sensing: Concepts, methods and applications. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19(5), 823−854. Roy, R.N. 1977. Red Tide and outbreak of paralytic shellfish poisoning in Sabah, Med. J.Malaysia. 31: 247 -251. SeungHyun Son, Wang Menghua and Shon Jae-Kyoung, 2011, Satellite Observations of optical and biological properties in the Korean dump site of Yellow Sea, Remote Sensing of Environment 115 (2011), 562-572. Sirguey, P., Mathieu, R., Arnaud, Y., Khan, M. M., & Chanussot, J. (2008). Improving MODIS spatial resolution for snow mapping using wavelet fusion and ARSIS concept. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, 5(1), 78−82. Solé Jordi Estrada Marta, Garcia-Ladona Emilio,2006, Biological control of harmful algal blooms: A modelling study, Journal of Marine Systems 61 (2006) 165–179. Tan C. K., Sam Wouthuyzen, Tong Phuoc Hoang Son, Varis Ransi, J. Ishizaka and C. S. Wong, ____, Utilization of Satellite Imageries for Monitoring Algae Blooms at the Northern Borneo, United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan. Tillmann U and John. U 2002 Toxic effects of Alexandrium spp. on heterotrophic dinoflagellates: an allelochemical defence mechanism independent of PSP-toxin content Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser 230 47– 58. Wang.Jinhui & Wu Jianyong, 2007, Occurrence and potential risks of harmful algal blooms in the East China Sea, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 407, Issue 13, 15 June 2009, Pages4012-4021 Wang, S.F, Tang .D.L, He.F.L, Fukuyo.Y and Azanza R.V, 2008, Hydrobiologia 596 (1): 79-73


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Occurrence And Potential Risk Of Harmful Algal To The Coastal Communities In The Coastal Area Of Kota Kinabalu: A Preliminary Study Abdul Munir Ladoni Geography Program, Universiti Malaysia Sabah Email: [email protected]

Dunstan Anthony Borneo Marine Research Institute Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Ejria Saleh Borneo Marine Research Institute Universiti Malaysia Sabah Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Sabah or North Borneo has experiences with a few numbers of phytoplankton species recorded especially along the west coast of Sabah. The species of Phyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, is the first occurrence of HAB was reported in 1976. However, in year 2005, Cochlodinium polykrikoides was found starting to bloom in this area of Kota Kinabalu that occured almost annually in this area. This study aims (1) to determine the occurrence of HABs in the Kota Kinabalu coastal water using integrated modelling techniques, (2) to determine the potential risk of HABs to the coastal communities in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. In this paper there has two different stages of study concerning the Harmful Algal Bloom, the first stages was employing a modified Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis algorithm namely “NAS” and integrated with MIKE 21 modelling technique to determine the distribution pattern of HAB based on three different seasons (Northeast Monsoon, Inter-Monsoon and Southwest Monsoon). The result produced in the first stage shows the significant value between the distributions of harmful algal and the modelling technique was implemented. Second stage of this study is to clarify the implications of Harmful Algal Bloom to the coastal communities in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. The main types of problems caused by different chemical groups of toxins includes Paralytic Shellfish Poisioning (PSP), Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisioning (DSP) and Amnesic Shellfish Poisioning (ASP). The incidence of HABs has resulted in economic loss and considerable public interest in this phenomenon. The problem is especially acute in the coastal water of Kota Kinabalu region where the cyanobacterial blooms in 2012 covering areas of 0.368 km2 to 23.85 km2. The impact of HAB on the coastal comunities can be devided into many categories, first category of impacts is the production of toxins. Toxins may kill fish or shellfish directly, or may cause one of several human illnesses following ingestion of contaminated seafood. Toxins enter the food chain as the phytoplankton is filtered from the water by shellfish such as clams, mussels, oysters, or scallops, which gradually accumulate the algal toxins eventually reaching levels, are potentially lethal to humans or other consumers. The second category of impacts is high biomass accumulation, which, in turn, leads to environmental damage or degradation. These effects can include light attenuation, clogging of fish gills, or depletion of dissolved oxygen upon decay of the algal cells. Some HABs can even kill fish because of their physical shape, lodging in gill tissues and causing a physiological response leading to death. The third category of impact is socio-economic impact; many millions of dollars are spent annually addressing the known HAB-related impacts on public health, commercial fisheries, recreation, tourism, environmental


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monitoring, and bloom management. Public health impacts account for the largest economic impacts, followed by commercial fisheries and tourism. Keywords: Remote Sensing, Harmful Algal Bloom, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Modelling and Kota Kinabalu INTRODUCTION

Sabah or North Borneo has largely got impact with a number of phytoplankton species such as Phyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, however, in year 2003, Cochlodinium polykrikoides was found starting to bloom in this area that capable of releasing toxins during periods of rapid growth, which are referred to as harmful algal blooms (Tan et al 2003, Anton et al 2006; Anton et al 2008; Adam, 2011). Some of the toxin accumulate on fish and shellfish and can have harmfull effect on humans and other verterbrate consumers. The main types of problems caused by different chemical groups of toxins include Paralytic Shellfish Poisioning (PSP), Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisioning (DSP) and Amnesic Shellfish Poisioning (ASP) (Gires et al, 2002; Tillmann and John, 2002; Sole et al, 2006; Anton et al, 2008). HAB pose serious impacts on both coastal ecosystems and human activities in coastal areas including aquaculture, public health and coastal management. In 2005 Cochlodinium polykrikoides resulted red discolorations of sea water and caused fish mortalities during periods of rapid growth, which are referred to as harmful algal blooms (Tan et al 2003, Anton et al 2006; Anton et al 2008; Adam, 2011). Kota Kinabalu coastal water has experienced the damages in aquaculture field due to C. polykrikoides bloom in the recent years, thus continuous sampling and research is required to monitor C. polykrikoides. Realizing the lack of techniques in determination of HAB in the study area, this study was carried out using MODIS Fusion data to identify HAB in the coastal water of Kota Kinabalu. Reoccurences of HABs in Kota Kinabalu coastal water had called for detail study to understand the environmental factors, which may contribute to the occurences of HABs. Although there were many reports on HABs in Sabah waters, the understanding of the environmental effect on these HABs species is still limited. The formations of HABs are reported to correlate with the interaction between physical and ecological factors (Wong et al, 2009). Mesoscale dynamic sea surface features, such as HAB is very importance for our understanding of local dynamic of the marine coastal environment. However, they are often not fully resolved by numerical models currently in use. On the other hand, traditional ship-based field sampling and analysis are very limited in both space and temporal frquency (Ahn et al, 2006). Reliable quantitative monitoring of HAB is even more complicated. This is caused by the nature of HAB, in which the algae capable of regulating their buoyancy, can be located in the top layer of water or at the water surface instead of being uniformly mixed in the water column (Paerl & Ustach, 1982; Sellner 1997). The use of unattended flow-through systems on ships of opportunity (Leppanen et al, 1995; Rantajarvi et al, 1998) and airborne (Dekker et al, 1992; Jupp et al, 1994) and satellite remote sensing (Kahru et al, 1993, 2000; Kahru 1997) have been recommended to provide more reliable information about the extent of HABs than the conventional monitoring program. THE CONCEPT

Algal blooms are biological phenomena associated with high cell concentrations of phytoplankton. Since phytoplankton form the base of the marine food web, algal blooms have close relationship with the oceanic primary production.Often the terms 'Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)' or red tides are used to describe algal blooms that cause negative impacts on humans (Asmala Ahmad, 2009). Red tide (RT) is a general term referring simply to the accumulations of very dense phytoplankton that the water appears to be coloured (Lin et al., 1999).In Southeast Asia, HABs or red tides have been observed in many coastal waters (Hallegraeff& Maclean, 1989), for examples in Bays in the Philippines (Hallegraeff& Maclean,


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1989; Coralles& Gomez, 1990; Abusoet al., 1996), in Brunei Darussalam's coastal waters and off Sabah, Malaysia during the period of 1980 to 2003 (Abusoet al., 1996; Wang et al., 2007). Coastal communities are such as cities or towns near the water or coast. A Community is a form of people or a group of people that live and work together like councils or a group of different species living together in the coastal area. A Community is not just people who work together they may be special clubs or groups that people go on. (http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Definition_of_a_community_helper#slide=2). A community is a social unit of any size that shares common values. The word "community" is derived from the Old French comunete which is derived from the Latin communitas (from Latin communis, things held in common), a broad term for fellowship or organized society. One broad definition which incorporates all the different forms of community is a group or network of persons who are connected to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties, and who mutually define that relationship as important to their social identity and social practice. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community) OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the occurrence of HABs in the Kota Kinabalu coastal water using integrated modelling techniques. 2. Determine the potential risk of HABs to coastal communities in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. THE STUDY AREA Population

The 2013 Census stated that the population of Kota Kinabalumore than600,000. Under a Trend projection it will grow to more than 800,000 by 2015. By then all the population is urbanised. The preferred strategy however is to decrease the urban population to 650,000 leaving approximately 41,054 people as rural. The following table shows a comparison between the Trend and Preferred Strategy in 2015 together with the expected total urban land take and proportion of prime agricultural land. Topography

The original topography of Kota Kinabalu varies from tidal swamps north of Kota Kinabalu town particularly around Likas Bay, Kolombong, Inanam, Yayasan Sabah area up to Menggatal, freshwater peat swamps and floodplains in the interior of Luyang, beaches along Tg. Aru and Sembulan, some moderate to high hills in the northern part particularly Telipok and the coastal areas of Sepanggar Bay, Signal Hills, Kepayan Ridge and the Bukit Likas. Mountain ranges run parallel along the coast that forms the background for the Kota Kinabalu City. Socio-economic

Industrial areas are mostly concentrated around Inanamtownship, Kolombong areas and along JalanTuaran (From Inanam) up to Menggatal. The new Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park (KKIP) at Sepanggar is set to be a major industrial area for Kota Kinabalu and Sabah. Light industry is another economic activity in Kota Kinabalu. Inanam and Kolombong are also established industrial areas. However, heavier industrial activities are being introduced with the opening up Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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of the KKIP. Agriculture area is about 35.6% of the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area and river basin is suitable for agriculture. However, only 49.1% of that is being cultivated. It is found that cultivated land in the district exceeds the amount of land suitable for agriculture which indicates wide agricultural activities on unsuitable land. This is mostly found near Telipok area.

Figure 1: The Study Area of Kota Kinabalu Coastal Zone METHODOLOGY

As shown in Figure 2 the study approach involves two levels incorporating the utilisation of remote sensing and hydrodynamic modelling techniques to analyse and produce the results from both methods in the study of the concentration of harmful algal in the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area. The summary is intended to describe the chronological process rather than to evaluate the substance of the methodology involved. In order to understand the overall methodologies involved, it is important to know the types of data used in this study. These data generally are grouped into three main categories. They are: (1) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) data (2) in-situ data or field data; (3) maps derived from MIKE 21 HD modelling. Each of these data sets contains information to be extracted and/or manipulated in the process of generating the thematic maps.The detection and determination of the HAB concentration in a coastal zone, needs ground data and satellite data at the same time as the satellite overpass on the study area. The method using remote sensing involves multispectral Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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fusion of MODIS data and application of simple calculation method using the modified Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis (CIE) algorithm. With using the modified colour chromaticity transformation analysis techniques the HAB concentrations can be identify through the colour code. The mathematical approach was compared with the results from the modified colour chromaticity transformation analysis test based on using visible channel 1, 4, 3 of MODIS fusion data. Finally this study will determine significant impact of the Harmful Algal Bloom to the coastal communities. For example, closure of a body of water or beach due to HAB-related fish kills and toxic aerosols can have substantial effects on tourism and fishing. Negative public reaction to HAB events can be severe and prolonged, creating heavy pressures on management agencies and increasing economic losses. The method suggested of this stage which is significantly used are collecting data from management agencies, a national program such as existing federal, state, and local monitoring and research programs, while providing overall coordination and direction for state and local efforts.

Figure 2: Methodological Proces Data Collection & Preparation Satellite Data Set

The remote sensing data used were acquired by the MODIS sensor aboard the TERRA platform of NASA’s Earth Observation System (EOS). The MODIS Level 1B product is a set of geolocated and calibrated data. The MODIS sensor operates across a very wide spectrum, with 36 bands that cover the region from 0.4 to 14.4 μm, observing with a spatial resolution varying from 250 m to 1 km.The MODIS data were obtained from Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency, Kuala Lumpur (MRSA). The available satellite data is indicated in Table 1.


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Date 14/3/2012 14/4/2012 10/5/2012

Scene SIZE 1035 x 1035 1035 x 1035 1035 x 1035

Occasion North East Monsoon Inter-Monsoon South East Monsoon

Table 1. The Available Satellite Data Primary Data Sources for MIKE 21 HD

Examples of some primary data sources for water circulation using MIKE 21 HD are shown in Table 2. The MIKE 21 HD application was carried out for mapping various thematic maps and simulation of sea surface modelling. The database was designed according to the objectives of this project, the main one being to detect, monitor and explain the parameters which influence the HAB concentration, especially for coastal water in the study area. Types Information Tidal data

of Identity Point Location

Current Data

Point Location

Wind Data

Point Location

Bathymetry

MAL 8608

Boundary Location

and C-Type Edition

Sources

Reference NO.

Geodesy Department Dept. of Land & Survey, Malaysia Malaysian Meteorological Department Department of Meteorology, Sabah Branch The Hydrography Royal Malaysian Navy, C-Map Ocean View Dept. of Land & Survey

Tide Gouge No: 74074 Coordinate Location

Coordinate Location

1: 25,000

1 : 250 000

Table 2. Sources of Data Input into the MIKE21HD System In-Situ Data

The field data were used in the study of algal bloom including meteorological data, tidal data, bathymetry data and algal bloom data, salinity, temperature, current data and wind data. Government agencies and private sectors supplied a secondary of in-situ data may require in this study. Primary data such as algal bloom data was collected based on sampling stations had been planned (Figure 3).


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Figure 3. Sampling Station at the Study Area of Kota Kinabalu Coastal Zone ALGAL BLOOM CONCENTRATION ESTIMATION AND MAP PRODUCTION The use of spaceborne instrumentation in oceanography and estuarine studies is well established and satellites are now accepted as an important means by which large areas of the world’s oceans can be monitored synoptically. Theoretically there is a great potential for using MODIS data for estimating water quality, especially harmful algal bloom. The past and present studies have undertaken an assessment of MODIS data as a remote sensing tool for monitoring harmful algal bloom in the estuaries and coastal area using many techniques based on equation was developed by many researcher such as Hu et al, 2005; SeungHyun, 2011; Mahmood, 2010.The equation below is a modified equation from Colour Chromaticity Transformation Analysis which is can used in identification of harmful algal bloom and its distribution in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu which is experienced with this phenomena since 1976. N=

N N+A+S

A=

A N+A+S

S=

Where

Equation 1

S N+A+S N = Band 1 A = Band 4 S = Band 3


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The result above finally has to process using this function of equation in order to extract the harmful algal bloom in the study area is as follows: HAB = N x A x S

Equation 2

Figure 4, shows the MODIS satellite image of the study area on 14 March 2012 and Figure 5, the image produced after process in digital image processing with the modify colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Northeast Monsoon. Figure 6, the MODIS satellite image of the study area on 14 April 2012. Figure 7 shows the image produced with the modify colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Inter-Monsoon period and Figure 8, shows the MODIS satellite image of the study area on 10 May 2012 and Figure 9 shows the image produced with the modify colour chromaticity transformation technique, indicating the Southwest monsoon period. Note that the slices range for water as shown throughout of the three figures below, were slices associated with how much water leaving radiance values correspond from the water body. The slice range is flexible in order to separate clean water and water contaminated by harmful algal bloom, which is assigned in the legends.

Figure 4. The MODIS satellite Image of Sabah Region on 14 March 2012


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Figure 5. (a) The Distribution Map of HAB, (b) Hydrodynamic Condition and (c) IS Regression Analysis on 14 March 2012

Figure 6. The MODIS satellite Image of Sabah Region on 14 April 2012


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Figure 7. (a) The Distribution Map of HAB, (b) Hydrodynamic Condition and (c) GIS Regression Analysis on 14 April 2012

Figure 8. The MODIS satellite Image of Sabah Region on 10 May 2012


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Figure 9. (a) The Distribution Map of HAB, (b) Hydrodynamic Condition and (c) GIS Regression Analysis on10 May 2012 RESULT AND DISCUSSION AFTER APPLIED WITH NAS ALGORITHM AND MIKE 21 SIMULATION MODEL

The mathematical approach was compared with the results from the modified colour chromaticity transformation analysis test based on using visible channel R,G,B between the Northeast monsoon period, Inter-monsoon period and Southwest monsoon period. The result from this approach was almost identical with respect to the geographical location and the area covered by the HAB concentration and its distribution. Through a relatively simple digital image processing approach with MODIS fusion data sets, the extent of HAB in the Kota Kinabalu coastal zone area was effectively and accurately mapped. In this study, the Northeast monsoon period the high HAB concentrations in the study area were due to high input of fluvial sediments from the several rivers along the coastal area. In addition, Monsoon winds derived current especially in Northeast monsoon is the key reason for HAB distribution in the Kota Kinabalu coastal waters where the strong wind can resuspend cycst above the sediment, potentially causing blooms in the west coast of Sabah. Coastal currents may shift HAB masses around the coastal water of Kota Kinabalu (Wang et al, 2008). Relative high frequencies of HAB in this particular date are related to the specific environmental conditions associated with monsoon season. The current speed and direction during the Northeast monsoon for particular date events is from South to North with current speed of 0.11 m/s. In this study based on hydrodynamic modelling in Inter-Monsoon that is on 14 April 2014, the condition can figured out is as follow: 1. Wind speed 5.4 m/s, wind direction 340 degree 2. Current speed 0.05 to 0.11 m/s, current direction is east to West and went out to open sea. Analysis on the average current speed and direction refer to Figure 9 (a), were approximately 0.05 m/s to 0.11 and East to West respectively. The HAB was bring by wind drive current directly bring this pollutant to the coastal area which is most Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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observed in the narrow part in between Kota Kinabalu city and Gaya Islands (Figure 9 (b)). Figures 5, Figure 7 and Figure 9, have shown the HAB concentration spread out to the several areas around the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu, but HAB appears to be serious in the mouth of the river and the near coastal zone. The extent of the HAB is very small in the Southwest monsoon, which is on 10 May 2012 and the location of HAB is located in Sepanggar Bay. As shown in map produced after applied with NAS algorithm; Figures 7, have been shown the HAB is clearly identified in the river mouth, estuary and bay. The visible bands, as often used in this case, showed variation within water bodies and provided sharp differentiation between HAB and clear water. Comparing these three bands used in terms of identifying HAB concentration, the blue band and green band are related extremely well to the water features displayed on the image. The green channel shows the highest radiance values from all the channels used in this study. In this case the green channel recorded more successfully the yellow substances in water body. Images produced from the atmospherically corrected chromaticity data as shown in Figures 5, Figure 7, and Figure 9 which corresponds to the Northeast monsoon period, Inter-monsoon period and the Southwest monsoon period; these were found to provide the most useful information for quantifying and mapping the HAB present in the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu. POTENTIAL RISK OF HARMFUL ALGAL TO THE COASTAL COMMUNITIES IN THE COASTAL AREA OF KOTA KINABALU

Human Health The study area especially along the coastal area of Kota Kinabalu in Sabah represent a first contaminated area by algal bloom which refer to red tide contains of some dinoflagellate species that cause seawater to appear reddish due to high concentations of the photopigment peridinin. The first report of HABs and shellfish toxicity in Malaysia was in 1976 when marine dinoflagellate Pyrodinium Bahamense var. Compressum bloomed in Brunei Bay on the west coast of Sabah (Roy, 1977; Tan et al 2003; Anton et al 2000; Anton et al 2008; Adam, 2011)). Several people were poisoned during this event. According to Department of fisheries Sabah branch , in the first poisoning cases, is about 202 cases have been reported in 1976, after eaten oyster and clams and 7 people were death ( Ting & Joseph, 1989). There are various health issues associated with more than 60 identified toxins of cyanobacteria which are regarded as neurotoxins, hepatoxins, cytotoxins, skin irritants and gastrointestinal toxins. Toxins enter the food chain as the phytoplankton is filtered from the water by shellfish such as clams, mussels, oysters,or scallops, which gradually accumulate the algal toxins eventually reaching levels that are potentially lethal to humans or other consumers (Codd, 1998).The bloom eventually spread to other parts of the Sabah west coast and have continued to occur almost annually in this state (Usup & Azanza, 1998; Anton et al 2000; Anton et al 2008). Over the years, since 1976 to 1988 many poisoning cases have been reported including several fatalities (Table 3). Date

Location

Cases

Fatalities

15/1/1976 5/3/1976 21/3/1976 17/9/1979 17/5/1980 30/12/1983 7/1/1984 15/3/1984 6/11/1984 23/8/1985 1/10/1987

Putatan Sipitang Mantanan Kawang P. Papan Binsuluk P. Gaya Bongawan P. Sepangar P. Sepangar Kudat

8 186 7 3 30 9 8 8 5 2 6

2 4 1 1 2 4 2 5 1 -


Types of shellfish clams clams clams Oyster clams Atrina sp. Oyster Oliva spp. Donax spp. giant clams Oyster 78

13/10/1987 19/1/1988 20/1/1988 21/1/1988 27/5/1988 13/2/2013

Tuaran 2 P. Gaya 20 3 Kota Kinabalu 2 Kota Kinabalu 3 Sipitang 26 6 Kota Kinabalu 18 1 Table 3. PSP Cases Reported Since 1976 untill 2013 Sources: Ting & Joseph (1989)

Oyster cockles Oyster Oyster Mussels Mussels

The harmful properties of these algae involve the production of biotoxins, physical structures that cause physical damage to higher trophic levels. The deleterious impacts of these harmful algae to human health problem includes paralytic, neurotoxic, diarrhetic , amnesic and azaspiracid shellfish poisoning and ciguatera fish poisoning. Figure 10, shown PSP incidents in south East Asia, among them Malaysia seems to be a second country of most serious occurrence of poisoning with dead case after Philippines.

Figure 10. PSP incidents are most common in the Philippines, Sabah in Malaysia and Indonesia. Its occurrence was most serious in 1980s and 1990s, and the annual number of poisonings has been low during the last decade due to successful monitoring of shellfish toxins. Source: GEOHAB Asia, 2010 Socio-Economic

Many millions of dollars are spent annually addressing the known HAB-related risk to public health, commercial fisheries, recreation, tourism, environmental monitoring, and bloom management. Public health impacts account for the largest economic impacts, followed by commercial fisheries and tourism. Even one HAB can be extremely costly. The hidden costs to secondary industries (e.g. food processing or aquaculture suppliers), human illness (e.g. medical care for undiagnosed or chronic Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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illnesses), and decline in consumer confidence (e.g. failure to purchase seafood in restaurants or reserve fishing charter trips) remain unknown (Anderson, 2012). A harmful phytoplankton bloom dominated by a dinoflagellate Pyrodinium Bahamense var. Compressum along the coastal area of west coast of Sabah since 1976 caused estimated economic damage of million ringgits (Gires et al, 2002). These events also resulted in significant economic losses to fishermen, because the public are afraid to consume all types of seafood especially during a bloom event, which normally lasts two to three week. A bloom of the toxic dinoflagellate species Cochlodinium spp. in 20052006, which extended is about 500 km along the western side of Palawan, Philippines, apparently transported from Sabah, Malaysia, following the prevailing wind and current systems, caused massive fish kills in both countries (Azanza et al. 2008, Onitsuka et al, 2010). In the Philippines, other known common toxic dinoflagellates are Pyrodinium bahamense and Gymnodinium catenatum, both of which cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (Bajarias et al. 2006). The Philippines have long suffered from these toxic outbreaks, with >2000 intoxication events and 123 human deaths recorded from contaminated seafood consumption from 1983-2005 (Bajarias et al. 2006). From a recently compiled report, "Estimated Annual Economic Impacts from Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in the United States" (Anderson et al., 2000), summarizes the economic costs associated over a five year period in the coastal U.S. Averaging $40M annually, HAB impacts stress public resources by diverting local funds to coastal monitoring programs, health services, and public awareness documentation. As we can see on Table 4 below shows the economic impact from the harmful algal bloom in the Asian region including Malaysia which is occurred in Sabah coastal area:

Location Hong Kong Hong Kong Sabah, Malaysia Canada Manila Bay, Philippines

Time/Event/Lost March-April 1998 Wiped off Hong Kong fishery Industry (1000 fish farms) in 1998. The estimated lost is around 10 millions US$ Nov 1998 Wiped off Hong Kong fishery Industry (1000 fish farms) in 1998. The estimated lost is around 10 millions US$ May 1998 Toxic event, shell fish found to contain toxin at 5 times hazardous level July 1998 Affected an area 150km long by 2-3km wide. Toxic species of red tide : Alexandrium Tamarense August 1998 Toxic species of red tide namely Pyrodinium Bahamense. Two persons died after eating polluted shell fish

Table 4. Summaries some facts and figures about red tide in the year 1998. Fish Kills

Whether toxic or noxious algal species dominate a bloom or alternatively, occur at low but harmful levels within a phytoplankton community, their presence often affects other trophic levels, resulting in ecosystem dysfunction, public health risk, and enormous economic losses. The devastating effects of HABs are frequently seen on the west coast of Sabah where the proliferation of the toxic dinoflagellate cochlodinium polykrikoides can result in massive fish kills, closure of shellfish beds due to NSP. These blooms are responsible for the loss of millions of dollars to the commercial and recreational fisheries and tourist industries. Cochlodinium polykrikoides appears to be one of the most notorious causative species Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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of HABs occurring recently and regularly in the coastal waters of western Sabah which has caused fish mortalities in cage-cultures (Anton, et al, 2008). Tourism Activities

The greatest concern of harmful algal bloom risk to coastal areas is potential threat to humans economic activities. Recreational businesses also suffer, through reduced boat charters, cancelled rentals for recreational boats and jet skis, and public avoidance of beaches and associated service industries. Seafood dependent firms are impacted by poor seafood sales, low restaurant visitation, and declining seafood processing. Single events can be long-lasting and expensive. For example, the Maryland Pfiesteria events of 1997 resulted in total economic losses estimated at $43M, from total fish mortalities estimated at less than 30,000. Kim (1998) and Ahn et al, (2006) have been ducumented several Coclodinium Polykrikoides bloom events along with an extensive event in summer 1995, which caused heavy mortalities of aquaculture fish amounting to loss US$95.5 million, It was already reported from South China Sea during March and April 1998 that HABs appear to have caused tremendous damage to coastal aquaculture industry, wiping out 1500 tonnes of firmed fish. The incidence of dying blooms washing upon beaches during the certain time of the Monsoon season has resulted in economic loss and considerable public interest in this phenomenon because impacted from air pollution to the coastline with a foul-smelling slime. The problem is especially acute in the area were got impact from the HABs condition along the coastline. HABs affect the tourism activities. For example, harmful algae of C. Polykrikoides can produce obnoxious and nauseating smell along the coast besides causing massive fish kills (Padmakumar, 2006). The alga also discolors the seawater and caused seawater appears to be slimy and foamy (Figure 11). With the faulty smell, discolorations of the sea and sighting of dead fish by the beach, it can deter tourism and recreational activities, especially the place have long beautiful beaches and islands that attract many tourists such as Kota Kinabalu coastal area (Chin, 2008).

Figure 11. Deep-red colored boundary of the Cochlodinium Polykrikoides (Margalef) bloom in Sepanggar Bay, off Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Ecosystem

Ecosystem risk of many different types can be linked to toxic and non-toxic HABs. Impacts include loss of shellfish, loss of habitat, seagrass die-backs, and altered food web interactions that decrease preferred higher trophic level species. An example of a species causing such impacts is the proliferation of microalga when grow out of control can cause ecological impacts. One of the examples of the ecological impacts is the alterations of habitat suitability of other marine life and depletion of oxygen. This can eventually alter the marine food chains through adverse effects of eggs, young and adult marine invertebrates (such as corals and sponges), marine mammals and seabirds (Chin, 2008). These species have had substantial ecosystem impacts that include a reduction in light penetration, a reduction in the extent of seagrass beds, and a reduction in the growth rates of hard clams. It is recognized that harmful algae and their toxins can influence ecosystems from both the top-down (i.e., affecting predators and influencing grazing) and from the bottom-up (i.e., affecting plankton and benthic communities)(Anderson, 2012). Acute or chronic exposure to HABs and their toxins, either directly or through the food web, puts these populations at increased risk (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. Biotoxins from HABs are transferred throughout the food web when toxic algal cells are eaten by zooplankton, fish, and shellfish that are, in turn, eaten by other animals and humans. (G. Wikfors)


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CONCLUSION

Experiments in coastal embayment have demonstrated that water and HABs movement can be detected by remote sensing. The use of such a platform can provide near-synoptic and repetitive data, which would otherwise be difficult to obtain using ship borne equipment and time-averaged result. As concluded by other investigators, estuarine and continental shelf transport dynamics are potential research areas wherein unique contributions can be made from remote sensing when combined carefully with conventional oceanographic research methods. The result from this investigation can help to determine the relative solid loading situation along the coastline; information gathered in this way is very important for environmental planning and the management of the coastal zone area. The risk of HAB on the coastal communities can be divided into many categories; first category of risk is the production of toxins. The second category of risk is high biomass accumulation, which, in turn, leads to environmental damage or degradation. The third category of risk is socio-economic impact; many millions of dollars are spent annually addressing the known HAB-related risk on public health, commercial fisheries, recreation, tourism, environmental monitoring, and bloom management. But public health risks account for the largest economic impacts, followed by commercial fisheries and tourism. REFERENCES

Abuso ZV, Cabella LMT, Tuazon LC, Barrios EB (1996) Final Meeting on ASEAN-Canada Red tide network. Organized by ASEAN-Canada Cooperative Programme on Marine Science.Singapore (unpublished report). Adam. A, N.Mohammad Noor, Anton. A ,Saleh E, Saad. S, Muhd Shaleh S.R., 2011. Temporal and spatial distribution of harmful algal bloom (HAB) species in coastal waters of Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, Harmful Algae 10 (2011) 495–502 Ahmad Asmala, Hashim Noorazuan, Nordin Laili, 2009,Red tide detection using remotely sensed data: A case study of Sabah, Malaysia, GEOGRAFIA OnlineTM Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 5 issue 3 (1 - 7) Ahn Yu-Hwan, Shanmugam Palanisamy,2006, Detecting the red tide algal blooms from satellite ocean color observations in optically complex Northeast-Asia Coastal waters, Remote Sensing of Environment 103 (2006) 419–437 Ahn, Y. H., P. Shanmugam, J. H. Ryu and J. C. Jeong. 2006. Satellite detection of harmful algal bloom occurrences in Korean waters. Harmful Algae. 5(2): 213-231. Amolins, K., Zhang, Y., & Dare, P, 2007. Wavelet based image fusion techniques—An introduction, review and comparison. Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 62(4), 249−263. Anton, A., P. L. Teoh, S. R. Mohd-Shaleh and N. Mohammad-Noor. 2008. First occurrence of Cochlodinium blooms in Sabah, Malaysia. Harmful Algae. 7: 331-336. Anderson. D., 2012, Coastal Ocean Research Coastal Ocean Program (NOAA/CSCOR/COP) Grant to the National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Center. Azanza Rhodora V., David Laura T., Borja Roselle T., Baula Iris U., Fukuyo Yasuwo, An extensive Cochlodinium bloom along the western coast of Palawan, Philippines, Harmful Algae, Volume 7, Issue 3, April 2008, Pages 324-330 Carper, W. J., T. M. Lillesand, and R. W. Kiefer. 1990. The use of Intensity-Hue-Saturation transformations for merging SPOT panchromatic and multispectral image data. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 56(4): 459-67. Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Chavez, P. S. Jr., S. C. Sides, and J. A. Anderson. 1991. Comparison of three different methods to merge multiresolution and multispectral data: Landsat TM and SPOT Panchromatic Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 57(3): 295-303. Chin, W.L, 2008, Ribosomal DNA Analysis of Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) Species Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum and Its Associated Marine Microbes. Master Thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sabah Corrales RA, Gomez ED,1990, Red tide outbreaks and their management in the Philippines. In:Graneli E et al. (eds) Toxic marine phytoplankton, pp. 453-458. Elsevier Publishing Co, New York Gires U., Leaw C.P. and Asmat A., 2002, Increasing Importance of Harmful Algal Blooms in Malaysia Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Environment and Natural Resources 10-11th April 2002, Hotel Renaissance, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1: 144-153 Hu Chuanmin, 2009, A novel ocean color index to detect floating algae in the global oceans, Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 2118–2129 Hu Chuanmin, Muller-Karger F.E, Taylor Charles (Judd), Carder Kendall.L, Kelble Christopher, Johns Elizabeth and Heil Cynthia A, 2005, Red Tide detection and tracing using MODIS fluorescence data: A regional example in SW Florida coastal waters, Remote Sensing of Environment 97 (2005) 311 – 321 Kahru, M., & Mitchell, B. G. ,1999, Empirical chlorophyll algorithm and preliminary SeaWiFS validation for the California Current. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 20, 3423– 342 N.Mohammad Noor, Ong Fang Sing and Encik Weliyadi Encik Anwar, 2012, Seasonal Distribution of Harmful Algal Bloom Species in East Coast of Sabah, Malaysia, Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 7 (6): 431-438 N.Mohammad Noor, A.Adam, J.M.Franco Soler, A. Anton & S.R.Muhamad Shaleh, 2008, First Record of Toxic Gymnodinium catenantum off the west coast of Sabah, Malaysia, Harmful Algal 2008, Environmental Publication House Hong Kong. China . 25-30. Padmakumar, K. 2006. Harmful Algal Blooms along the Kerala Coast, Southern India, Copenhagen; 12th International Conference of Harmful Algae, Copenhagen , Denmark. Pohl, C., & Genderen, J. L. V.,1998. Multisensor image fusion in remote sensing: Concepts, methods and applications. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19(5), 823−854 Roy, R.N. 1977. Red Tide and outbreak of paralytic shellfish poisoning in Sabah, Med. J.Malaysia. 31: 247 -251. SeungHyun Son, Wang Menghua and Shon Jae-Kyoung, 2011, Satellite Observations of optical and biological properties in the Korean dump site of Yellow Sea, Remote Sensing of Environment 115 (2011), 562-572 Sirguey, P., Mathieu, R., Arnaud, Y., Khan, M. M., & Chanussot, J. (2008). Improving MODIS spatial resolution for snow mapping using wavelet fusion and ARSIS concept. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, 5(1), 78−82. Solé Jordi Estrada Marta, Garcia-Ladona Emilio,2006, Biological control of harmful algal blooms: A modelling study, Journal of Marine Systems 61 (2006) 165–179 Tan C. K., Sam Wouthuyzen, Tong Phuoc Hoang Son, Varis Ransi, J. Ishizaka and C. S. Wong, ____, Utilization of Satellite Imageries for Monitoring Algae Blooms at the Northern Borneo, United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan


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Tillmann U and John. U 2002 Toxic effects of Alexandrium spp. on heterotrophic dinoflagellates: an allelochemical defence mechanism independent of PSP-toxin content Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser 230 47–58. Wang.Jinhui & Wu Jianyong, 2007, Occurrence and potential risks of harmful algal blooms in the East China Sea, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 407, Issue 13, 15 June 2009, Pages-40124021Wang, S.F, Tang .D.L, He.F.L, Fukuyo.Y and Azanza R.V, 2008, Hydrobiologia 596 (1): 79-73


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The React By Cultivator Toward Introduction Of New Technology In Seaweed Cultivate System In Semporna, Sabah Nurulaisyah Rosli, Development, Ethnography & Research Unit, Faculty of Human, Art & Heritage, Bangunan Sains Sosial , Universiti Malaysia Sabah [email protected]

Rosazman Hussin Development, Ethnography & Research Unit, Faculty of Human, Art & Heritage, Bangunan Sains Sosial ,Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Aisah Hossin Development, Ethnography & Research Unit, Faculty of Human, Art & Heritage, Bangunan Sains Sosial , Universiti Malaysia Sabah

ABSTRACT

The name of seaweed actually gambols up in the Malaysia market because of the goodness and beneficence which able to make people attracted to try it. The raw seaweed with high quality is not as simply that been thought. The stage of upstream needed one system that or technic for cultivator to get the satisfied output, although the output process which has been done by cultivator before this actually did not fulfil the accurate which involved take care of the environment and efficacious seaweed which high quality in the same level with another country producer. From that, the government were take the step with convey through a duct the fund to existence the research to born a new concept or cultivate system that ecofriendly. The overcome in changing the way of seaweed cultivate, is not an easy task and the parties that responsible naturally realize the risk that they had to face it. The aim is to recognize and assess the react by cultivators that involves in this project neither positives or negatives react. This project actually has begun and been implement in Selakan Island, Semporna under seaweed Mini Estate System. The workers actually were filling up from villager to encourage themselves adaptation toward new technologies. This research has been doing with participate observation in collect the data from respondent and also observe in Selakan Island. The finding of the research has been found the technologies introduction to the community is not really been interest like them aspect and they also criticism because it disable to provide a good produce like before they using a conventional system. Indirect way, actually is it the one of the cause why the resistance happen from cultivator to adapt the new technology. Keyword: Introduction of new technologies, government strategies, Mini Estate System, Cultivators react INTRODUCTION

Seaweed actually been knows after the researcher found the seaweed in Sabah area for Kappahycus Alvarazii and it expose, then this species become popular. Before this seaweed been sell as demanding product, this aquaculture plants were a routine food for the local not only Sabah area it also been found in Kelantan and Terengganu area but different species. From the history we can see the chronology the Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Philippines country with Malaysia country actually been separate with the border in Semporna district, so many people from Philippines migrate to Malaysia and continues the daily day with fishing and cultivate seaweed like them doing it before they come to Malaysia. So when they come and bring it along the experience that have in the back there, local people have been attracted with the activities they doing when demanding become increase from Philippines. When the party from department of fisheries saw the condition, they create new chance to local especially fisherman to earn income from another job. From here, fisheries department were build up the programs that call Project Seaweed Cultivate (PPRL). Where they been given the tools such as seaweed seed, raffia rope, and many more for a rent. The cultivator can use the method on how they cultivate because aspect from other party is they already know how to do in right way because they already done before this. After they get circumstances from selling the dry seaweed they pay to the fisheries department with the contract in the term of been agreed. It actually one of effort to help local fisherman not only depend on catching but with another work may be able make them earn enough for the family. Many products have been produce by seaweed without we realize it, after seaweed been commercializing in social media suddenly this aquaculture plants become gambols up increase. People start talking about the goodness and benefit using this thing, many people begun take place make a product from carrageenan (seaweed extract) especially cosmetic and pharmacy. From the higher demand for seaweed produce and the person who take charge to produce a lot of seaweed have to think a technic to increase the supplier so they can fulfill the demanding. So the new issue appear is the technic to cultivate seaweed is not been proper and cause the dirt for the sea. It actually effect the goodness of the seaweed from maintain the quality and in the same time decrease the yield produce without they realize. So when this becomes big issue, the governments of Malaysia were take responsibilities to make an effort with set up the research and development (R&D) to build seaweed industries. Demand for the seaweed species such as Kappahycus Alvarazii and Euchema Cotonii were popular among exports to other countries that only focus for the carrageenan. The advantages for seaweed produce in Malaysia is bigger than other and in high quality condition either in raw one or dry. So to make this thing better than before the R & D doing the research following the phase one to recognize the climate, weather, salinity of the water, the wave, coral reef and many more to find the right place to build up the place for phase two to implement it as Estate Mini System in new cultivate way of technique. Although that, the question is why Malaysia still cannot overcome produce with other produce country in being the main produce of seaweed market world for carrageenan. Right now Malaysia compete with Philippines and Indonesia but with new technologies will been transfer may be it will solve the produce of seaweed. The seaweed actually cannot be denied that with conventional way also able to produce the output but the government want it be done in advance way and systematic so the management for this industries will become structuring in good condition. The community will get benefit and these industries will grow bigger than before. The issue is would local community accept this technologies for their new technic to enhance the produce in seaweed because it not easy to change to another way and it take time. LITERATURE REVIEW

Poverty is often knows as reaction from the low productivity per capita. So it may be a challenge in the development of the economy revolves around how to improve the productivity of the poor. Especially since poor countries have to do with the agricultural industry, one reasonable focuses in understanding the economy by increasing the productivity of agriculture. Receiving a slow and incomplete in agricultural innovation has been severely inhibiting productivity growth. There are several barriers to adoption of agricultural technology in low income farmers Nation, measuring the four main factors: the first is not enough treasure to labor, land or finance necessary to make it interesting and adaptation or implemented, the problems of natural resource management, especially in relation to private ownership or resources in the open, a third failure in a market that affect the length of time for the exchange of new by small and fourth failure of a financial market investment barriers in improving product technology or characteristics Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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of natural resource management training significantly overwhelmed by the cost or high production and price risk unstable (Cristopher B.Barret, 2005: 214). In addition, there are two strategies that have been designed to deliver as rural development policy. There is the main thing that the approach to the planning of rural development in developing countries may be distinguished analytically, although in practice the two may overlap. The first strategy is the increased focus on adaptation strategies more efficient technique with the existence of social and economic structures. Agricultural development is aimed at improving the method by working through additional rural areas, to encourage farmers to use new crops, new production methods and marketing skills. Problems faced regularly by approaches including small scale farmers who conservatism, a chronic shortage of manpower skills, and additional efforts are not skilled. Contributors to this factor including the perception of small scale farmers by what makes economic rationale for them and spread innovation through the creation of an elite of rural farmers, sometimes referred to as "progressive farmers" by the pioneers of this approach (Tom Gabriel, 1999: 15 & 16). In Hawaii Furthermore, since the introduction of seaweed Eucheuma in 1977, the full commercialization done in 1986 followed by various attempts at cultivation and marketing methods. Livestock species and Eucheuma is Eucheuma Spinosum Alvarezi, respectively producing kappa and iota carrageenan. Next only E. Alvarezii watched as the growth of E. Spinosum species is slow. With the establishment of 10 potential sites in the Gilberts major, six of which have been proven commercially viable cultivation. Among Beru Aranuka, Abemama, South Tarawa, and Butaritari Abaiang where most exports come. Four other sites are Maiana, Nonouti Atolls; North and south Tab, Onotoa; and North Tarawa, a monitoring program for ongoing growth. There are obstacles of the past in marketing and farming as having a lack of knowledge and limited experience in this new industry. However, now that these efforts have gained social acceptance and the overseas market has recovered, but the incentive to see it as one of the income generating activities by community Kiribati (James Uan, 1990). Although production increased, but the rate of production quality levels should be taken into account when assessing the quality of current buyers will set the payment. The buyers will claim in selection quality seaweed processing machines to process them is carrageenan is the last in a string of purchases marketing seaweed. Failure to find quality claims will produce seaweed prices fall to a lower level. Consistency in the quality of low will force them to migrate to other sources. The basic claim they are dry, clean and seaweed containing high carrageenan. Shipping consistently is material by Pacific island countries will ensure that they are in a great position in the market. Moisture content is important because high moisture leads to deterioration of the seaweed in the process of packing and shipping, resulting in a loss in carrageenan content and quality. Moisture content must be at the level of 40 percent or less, the moisture level of 35 percent is the most good. Processor refers to a supplier who can provide the amount of seaweed turned parts consistent business (Dennis J. Mc Hugh, 2006: 13-14). However, not all approaches given to the community, particularly in rural areas receive all this because, according to Brown's (1996) theory of refusing has become one of the branches of social science practical domination of theoretical and slackness in the analysis of social change. One can always find a way to justify in some pragmatic or less within a certain period or whether to actively push for change. Farmers in developing countries will find the reasons why they refuse to try equipment, new techniques, fertilizers or differences in cultivation. Renewal, variation, farmers may not want to, will only poison the soil, resulting in lower grain, God sorrow, nor cause his wife will give birth to only girls. Any of the new or renewal objectionable or less, it can also be a social or cultural innovation, scientific discovery, or mechanical or social invention. Regardless of the type of reform, it is not eligible for admission in any way guarantee regardless of how socialization in life or it may be beneficial if there is it will be obvious (Vago, 1996:232).


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SEAWEED CULTIVATE PLACE

There are few areas suitable for culturing activities, especially in the east coast of Sabah as Kunak (Lahad Datu), Tawau and Semporna. However Semporna main target culture as a strategic area. However Selakan Island being spot as a place for the culturing the implementation of Mini Estate Project because this place been monopoly by local people than other place in Semporna. Although that, Selakan Island communities still carry on the conventional system of a small scale that includes family members only.

Source: Semporna District Office

OBJECTIVE & BACK GROUND RESEARCH

The seaweed industry has begun 27 years ago in Malaysia, especially in Sabah, even with the increase in seaweed cultivation in contributing to changes in the scope of work of permanent jobs. They actually starting cultivate with many technique of culturing of seaweed but they only focuses on one technique only because of the condition and the demography of Semporna than other technique because it may produce a lot of output. Although it still not able to maintain the environment for long run in develop the seaweed industries. After various studies have been conducted to find out the problem and the solution, researcher found the solution that how to manage the seaweed cultivation in systematic ways. When this condition is been recognized by the government, then comes the EPP Programme 3 in which that have stressed out the concept of technology in the seaweed industry to find a solution to the problem of seaweed cultivation so that Malaysia can be one of the supply seaweed into world markets could even open up opportunities greater employment to rural communities, particularly in the islands, which normally depend on fishing activities. Indirectly, this study aimed to identify Mini Estate System of seaweed cultivate given to local community in Selakan Island and review the reaction of community that using the new technology from Mini Estate. METHODOLOGY

This research used qualitative, where the researcher interview the community that involved by using open and spontaneous questionnaire as the method to collecting the data from the field, because researcher know they may be have another else question that did not think before would be ask. So the researcher doing participate observation toward the community when their using the new approach for their daily job in seaweed cultivate so from that we can see the reaction really are.


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RESEARCH FINDING & DISCUSSION

Mini Estate System been implemented in the local community Selakan Island because in this stage of R & D actually still doing a trial process to determine the accessibility of the project in increasing the rate of production. Although that the committee members actually know what the risk that will have to face it when they try to change local habits from conventional system to new approached that the innovation been transfer in their daily work in cultivate of seaweed. As we know the chronology of cultivate the seaweed starting from the place that will be develop for the farm. The selection of place is really important because the thing that which needs to take off because seaweed actually very sensitive aquaculture plants. If the selection not in care seaweed cultivate only in vain. Among the things that need to be taken into account is salinity of sea water, wave height, having coral reef and away from the path of ship or boat. Most important thing is the place has been selected having a wave, so the seaweed can get nutrient from the flow, because without flow from the water the seaweed actually is easy to get an illness of ‘ice-ice’. After getting recognize the place the exercise program installation system more systematic cultivation plots, where a plot must have 50 lines with a length of each string PE of 110 meters with a diameter of 8 mm, 6 concrete anchors (A) are used to cover the main rope anchor frame weight is 250kg each and a concrete anchor (B) is installed at each end of the interval 2 PE rope anchor weighing 70kg each and a total of 50 anchors. The 6 small anchors (C) with a weight of 70kg per installed to support PE rope, a rope PE represent 500 tie-tie 'where each' tie-tie 'has two seeds. The distance between each tie-tie 'is 18cm and the length of each tie-tie' is 20cm, however the distance between each float is 5.25m and can accommodate a 30 'tie-tie' (Department of Fisheries, June 19, 2013: 3). Back to the main point after the place ready for cultivate then preparation for the tool to facilitate the process of planting. In Mini Estate System the equipment that has been provided is rope ep, eco-friendly rope tie-tie, buoys, seaweed seeds and fertilizer. This equipment has been given to local community that works together with members of the Estate Mini System. Someone will guide local community so they can learn using the new method which more scientific such as when selected of the seaweed seeds has been recognize they actually have to measure them with the buds neither that part have been infection, so they have to eliminate that part because the seaweed will be fracture caused by infection ice-ice and sereng.

Infection of ice-ice


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Infection of sereng

Casino Table After the cleaning is done, they continue to be binding on the ropes of seaweed seedlings eco-friendly tietie. The ropes have two part not only one like usual. Casino tables have been provided as seed binding seaweed, in which the design table as table casino in cycles simplifies the process of bonding the seed on the ropes. Actually facilitate workers seaweed accelerate bonding time, because with this technique it is a method that more simple and efficient than before. After settling the process of binding the seed of seaweed been soaked in the water and they spray that with the fertilizer. Use fertilizer to accelerate the growth rate and improve the resilience of sea grass against disease. Type of fertilizer used is a liquid fertilizer or foliar application to facilitate the nature of seaweed that contains 90 percent water. More fertilizer for plant needs a mixture of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and trace elements. Nitrogen content should be increased because the seaweed is a plant that does not produce fruit. The ratio of mixing / dilution of the appropriate fertilizer to water is 1: 100 (e.g. steel 200ml equal to 20 liters of water). Tempering method is done by spraying continued high rate of absorption by plants, no waste. Moreover, this method is also suitable to its rapid seaweed 'stress' or depressed and will allow the absorption of just over 5 minutes (DOF Sabah.19 June 2013. Quality Procedures: 4).


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Fertilizer been spray toward seaweed seedling Culturing method is to take the rope that was tied to seaweed seeds and cut through the area of the plot provided by the Mini Estate Management System and Cluster Systems. It is known as sea hock where it remains in the sea anchor and lock just need to put it at the end of the anchor rope. It is easy as only using clips only concern the rope from end to end of the rope. Maintenance activities are affected isolate and remove epiphytes attached to sea grass. Then the infected seaweed ice-ice should be removed. Foreign material such as plastic bags, debris and seaweed kinky with crop needs to be cleaned. Seaweed loss, missing or weak should be replaced with new seedlings. PE rope shaken to remove mud and sand attached to seaweed. Reinstall PE rope detached from the anchors or buoys. Replace or repair the pole, rope or buoys damaged. The use of chemicals to clean the organisms attached to seaweed is not allowed at all (Department of Fisheries, Aquaculture Practices Sabah.19 June 2013: 10). As we are aware, seaweed cultivation depends on the season and one of the factors causing the damage is weather and season of uncertainty will cause sereng and ice-ice. In addition, ice-ice disease not only exists due to inclement weather but it can also appear if the fish belawis attack seaweed. Seaweed is a fish habitat belawis where it likes to be under it and usually it will suck the seaweed will indirectly cause the hollow seaweed and white. Therefore, if the culture is not strategic frequent monitoring should be done to prevent such things happening and operators have to bear the losses which may result in no ability to produce the output. After going through the process of planting the next process is to harvest after reaching a predetermined period. The harvesting and drying process is the last process in the production of dried seaweed ready for commercialization. Seaweed that has reached the age of 45-55 days to harvest, because seaweed has reached the age of maturity and containing the high carrageenan content (Fisheries Department in Mizpal Ali, 2011). Modern harvesting seaweed is harvested directly using special boat or PE rope tied with seaweed removed and transferred to a boat and then it was brought to the platform for the harvests. The drying process is the most important process in getting the seaweed quality and high standard. For most companies, it is a secret key that determines in seaweed production and earnings. Post-harvest drying process if drying seaweed food grade which are white with harvest taking put in an airtight container (plastic) and dried in the sun for 2 hours then rinsed and the water replaced. This process is repeated until the seaweed just turns white. Then dried seaweed to achieve 30 to 35 percent humidity, this is one of the criteria required to produce quality dried seaweed (Department of Fisheries. Practices Aquaculture.19 June 2013: 12). Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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The drying method for industrial-grade seaweed harvests are taking put in airtight containers and light pierced at the bottom (sauna) for 24 hours for drying. Then seaweed drying moved into the house for 1 to 2 days to get the moisture content of 30 to 35 percent (ibid). Each drying process depends on the weather and drying techniques, which aim Philippines and Indonesia to suspend using seaweed drying process because they do not have enough area to carry out drying. Drying seaweed in purple again quickly and can take only two days, it seeks to eliminate chlorophyll.

Drying Seaweed After completion of the process of drying, the process of carrageenan processing is most important for the manufacturer, where the color of the seaweed was a symbol of the color production of carrageenan. This is because processing tool carrageenan in Malaysia is dependent on the color of seaweed in the production of carrageenan. If the purple seaweed carrageenan is also purple. So far they say there is no problem, but the issue of technology is the string 'Eco Friendly Tie-Tie "where most workers are not happy with these reforms, because it causes a lot of seaweed broken during the process of harvesting them, and they believe that the rope is too sharp, causing seaweed truncated when it grazed the rope during the movement of currents or waves occur. Even the clip that connects the strap end to end is also questionable because it is said to cause damage to seaweed where the rope will rotate with the tide. Thus they refuse to apply this method. The issue of why they feel they need to continue to use conventional methods because it is easy and save. But when they see the technology used by Mini Estate System is a high cost and is not suitable to be applied. Although they received only a handful of such equipment is accepted but to carry seaweed cultivation technology system Mini Estate they refuse altogether. In this situation the worker from local community in Selakan Island actually did not understand of the concept of Mini Estate System, the trial actually only to test the application before been implemented to the company that been involved with Mini Estate Project. The achievement that Mini Estate project actually want to achieve is to make seaweed as an industry which been commercialize not only domestic but also international market. So the focus is preferred for company that willing to take responsible by using new innovation from Mini Estate System. Although the worker complain about the new innovation such as tie-tie rope, actually before this thing been released the committee member from Mini Estate Project were test it before by migrant worker and it succeed to do it without any problem been appeared.


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CONCLUSION

From the finding we can describe that the community actually need to build up their mind and little bit open for the new thing so they can achieve the goal in their dreamt not just only complain but try to do more effort and discuss with the committee member if something isn’t right. In this situation the committee member of Mini Estate Project and local community having a conflict in adapt new thing and they need more briefing and capacity building so they can find what actually problem that they having with. REFERENCE

Cristopher B.Barret. 2005. The Social Economics of Poverty: on Identities, Communities, Group & Network. Routledge. New York. Dennis J. Mchugh.2006.The Seaweed Industry in The Pasific Island. ACIAR Working Paper. James Uan.1990. Country Report: Kiribati: Proceedings of The Regional Workshop on Seaweed Culture & Marketing. Fisheries & Aquaculture Development. Fisheries Department Sabah. 19 June 2013. Management Report Cluster area Look Buton. No File (KLLBT-0004). Mizpal Ali. 2011. Projek Pengkulturan Rumpai Laut (Seaweed) dan Cabaran Komuniti dalam Kalangan Nelayan Miskin di Semporna, Sabah. Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Kota Kinabalu. Profile Semporna District. 2010. Semporna District Office Tom Gabriel.1999. The Human Factor in Rural Development. Belhaven Press. London. Vago Steven.1996. Social Change: Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.


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The Need To Implement Laws For Hazardous And Noxious Substances (HNS) Shipments Through The Straits Of Malacca Wan Siti Adibah Binti Wan Dahalan Faculty of Law, National University of Malaysia [email protected]

Zinatul Ashiqin Binti Zainol Faculty of Law, National University of Malaysia

ABSTRACT

The Straits of Malacca is important to Malaysia from navigational, economic, environmental and strategic considerations. The increasing need for transportation by sea, of oil, chemicals and other hazardous products has created a greater risk of injury to persons, damage to property and in particular damage to the marine environment. With the ratification of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention by the straits states (Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore), the Straits of Malacca falls within the legal definition of “a strait used for international navigation “ and it is governed by the transit passage regime encapsulated in Part III of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. The Straits of Malacca and Malaysian waters scheme of liability and compensation for chemical damage are inadequate under the laws of Malaysia. This article examines the international conventions pertaining to chemical or Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS) shipments. The findings of this article suggest the importance for Malaysia to implement legal protection for chemical shipments under the International Convention on Liability and Compensation for the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 2010 (the 2010 HNS Convention). Keywords: the Straits of Malacca, 2010 HNS Convention, marine environment INTRODUCTION

The Straits of Malacca is located between the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and the east coast of the island of Sumatra in Indonesia.1 According to Hamzah, the Straits is approximately 451.9 nautical miles in length and varies in width from 173.8 nautical miles in the north to 11 9.6 nautical miles at the southern extremity. 2 The Straits of Malacca is defined as the area lying between the west coasts of Thailand and Malaysia on the Northeast, and the coast of Sumatra on the Southwest between the following limits:3 On the Northwest: A line from Ujung Baka (Pedro punt) (5º 40' N, 95º 26' E), the Northwest extremity of Sumatra, to Laem Phra Chao (7º 45' N, 98º 18' E), the South extremity of Ko Phukit, Thailand. On the Southeast: A line from Tanjung Piai (1º 16' N, 103º 31' E), the South extremity of Malaysia, to: Pulau Iyu Kecil (1º 11' N, 103º 21' E), thence to: Pulau Karimun Kecil (1º 10' N, 103º 23' E), thence to: Tanjung Kedabu (1º 06' N, 102º 59' E). George, Mary, “Adequacy of Strait States Laws for the Control of Marine Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore”, (2001) Asia Pacific Journal Of Environmental Law, Vol 6, Issue ¾, 241-295.. 2 Hamzah Ahmad, ed., The Straits of Malacca, International Co-Operation In Trade, Funding & Navigational Safety, (Petaling Jaya, Pelanduk Publication, 1997), at page 4. 3 Idat1. 1


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The width at its entrance in the north is about 126 nautical miles, namely between Tanjung Tamiang, Indonesia and Penang Island, Malaysia, and at the south end at the narrowest part it is about 8 nautical miles. 4 The water depths within the shipping lane of the Straits of Malacca vary: 100 meters in the north-west approach,5 more than 200 meters in the north, between 200 meters and 30 meters in the centre and less than 30 meters at the southern end.6 There are no historic international agreements binding this waterway. 7 The Straits is among the most important international waterways since the 7th century, it has been connecting the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, linking the major Asian economies of India, China, Japan, South Korea and ASEAN with the rest of the world.8 The increase in the international trade has resulted in a commensurate increase in the volume of commercial traffic through the Straits.9 Sakurai points out that the Straits provides the shortest and the most valuable shipping lane for tankers trading between the Middle East and Far East Asia as well as container ships trading between the Mediterranean/ Europe and the South East Asia/ East Asia/ North Africa. 10

Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS)

The purpose of The International Convention on Liability and Compensation for the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 2010 (2010 HNS Convention) is to ensure adequate, prompt and effective compensation to persons who suffer damage caused by incidents in connection with the carriage by sea of such substances. The 2010 HNS Convention in Article 1, 5 (a) (i) to (vii) defines that noxious substances are any substances, materials and articles carried on board a ship as cargo, referred to the items below: a)

oils11 carried in bulk listed in appendix 1 of Annex l to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), as amended ;

b)

noxious liquid substances carried in bulk referred to in appendix II of Annex II to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), as amended, and those substances and mixtures provisionally categorised as falling in the pollution category A, B, C or D (revised as X, Y, Z or OS subsequently) in accordance with the regulation 3 (4) of the said Annex II;

Bernard Kent Sondakh, “National Sovereignty And Security In The Strait of Malacca” Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment, (Kuala Lumpur, 11-13 October 2004). 4

5

George,Mary, loc. cit. Forbes, Vivian Louis, “The Malacca Strait In The Context Of The ISPS Code”, Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment, (Kuala Lumpur, 11-13 October 2004). 6

7 8

Ibid. Maritime Institute of Malaysia, 24 August 2010, http://www.mima.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=85&Itemid+88.

9

Ibid. Toshiki Sakurai, “The Straits of Malacca And Challenges Ahead: Japan’s Perspective”, Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment, (Kuala Lumpur, 11-13 October 2004). 11 The inclusion of oil in this list is to provide for the risks of fire and explosion (i.e non -pollution) damage arising from the carriage of oil as well as for pollution damage caused by non-persistent oil. Pollution damage arising from the carriage of persistent oil is covered by CLC/FUND and is therefore excluded from the 1996 HNSC. Citation extracted from Alan Khee-Jin Tan (2006), Vessel Source Marine Pollution, Cambridge University Press, page 336. 10


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c)

dangerous liquid substances carried in bulk listed in chapter 17 of the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk, 1983, as amended, and the dangerous products for which the preliminary suitable conditions for the carriage have been prescribed by the Administration and port administrations involved in accordance with paragraph 1.1.3 of the Code;

d)

dangerous, hazardous and harmful substances, materials and articles in packaged form covered by the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, as amended;

e)

liquefied gases as listed in chapter 19 of the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk, 1983, as amended, and the products for which preliminary suitable conditions for the carriage have been prescribed by the Administration and port administrations involved in accordance with paragraph 1.1.6 of the Code;

f)

liquid substances carried in bulk with a flashpoint not exceeding 60 C (measured by a closed cup test);

g)

solid bulk materials possessing chemical hazards covered by appendix B of the Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes, as amended, to the extent that these substances are also subject to the provisions of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code when carried in packaged form; and

h)

residues from the previous carriage in bulk of substances referred to in (a) (i) to (ii) and (v) to (vii) above.

It is reported that an extremely large number of HNS are transported at sea. It is estimated that of about 37 million different chemicals used by man, some 2,000 are transported regularly by sea, either in bulk or in packed form. The UK-based independent research company, Ocean Shipping Consultants Ltd, forecasts that the chemical seaborne trade will increase to 215 million tonnes by 2015.12 In 2008, 76,381 ships were reported at the Klang Port Traffic Reporting System. As stressed by H.M.Ibrahim, as reported in 2008, more than 60 % of these ships had transported hazardous and noxious cargoes.13 It may be presumed that the HNS cargoes passed through the Straits of Malacca had been unnoticed and were without any liability and compensation on the HNS regime by the strait. To date, as reported in 2013 there were 77,973 ships reported by the STRAITREP.14 Rickaby opines that there are many ship types which can, and do, carry HNS15: i) ii) iii)

iv)

Dry bulk carriers:- solid bulk cargoes, for example ores, fishmeal, manufactured powders. Oil/Bulk/Ore or Combo Carriers:- multi-purpose carriers of solid or liquid cargoes. Container ships:-boxes for dry cargo, powders and/ or liquids International Standard Organisation (ISO) tanks.

in

portable

General cargo ships: cargo in consignments for example crates, boxes, drums, sacks and bags.

Purnell, K. (2009). “Are HNS spills more dangerous than oil spills, A white paper for the Interspill Conference & the 4 th IMO R &D Forum Marseille”. 13 H.M.Ibrahim,” Straits safety not just littoral states’s burden”, News Straits Times, 25 November 2008, 22. 14 Marine Department, “Bilangan kapal melapor di bawah STRAITREP Februari 2014” Retrieved on April 2014. 15 Rickaby, Simon, “Marine response to HNS and dealing with the MSC Napoli contaminated cargo”, 15 January 2010, http://www.spillcontrol.org/IMO%20Documents?Braemar%20Howells%20HNS%20paper%20Nov%202008 ,15 June 2010, 11.45 am. 12


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v) Roll on, Roll off ferries:-vehicles that can carry internally unitized, package or bulk cargoes. vi) Chemical carriers:- specialised vessels designed to carry bulk liquid chemicals. vii) Gas carriers:-specialised vessels designated to carry liquefied gas. Rickaby has identified various HNS ships and most of them are included in the Vessel Traffic System (VTS) at Port Klang.16 Given the increase in the number of ships and the peculiar characteristics of the Straits17, the possibility of HNS vessel accidents occurring not only in specific areas18, but also within the busier shipping routes of the Straits is high. hTe 1982 Law of the Sea Convention

The Straits of Malacca falls within the definition of a strait used for international navigation in Part III of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (the 1982 LOSC), under Article 37, as it connects one part of the high seas or an exclusive economic zone with another part of the high seas or an exclusive economic zone. The regime of the transit passage prevails in such straits unlike the regime of innocent passage that prevails in territorial seas. Strait States shall, under the provisions of Article 44, give appropriate publicity to any danger to navigation or overflight within or over the strait of which they have knowledge. 19 To minimize the number of accidents and to enhance the safety of navigation, strait States have the right to prescribe sea lanes and traffic separation schemes that conform to international organizations and which are duly publicized on charts as stated in Article 41. 20 To this end, strait States have to adopt, enforce and publicise municipal laws and regulations under Article 41 and Article 42 which:21 i)

provide safe navigation and regulate maritime traffic;

ii) implement and give effect to international marine pollution conventions; iii) apply international regulations in municipal laws for the control of pollution by oil and noxious substances; iv) harmonise national legislation of strait States such as Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore with the provisions of the 1982 LOSC; and v) deal with the loading and unloading of any commodity, currency or person. 16

Interview with Mr. Ahmad Nordin bin Ibrahim, Head of Vessel Traffic Services Unit, Marine Department of Malaysia, email interview on 18 May 2007. 17

Hamzah Ahmad,ed., The Straits of Malacca, International Co-Operation In Trade, Funding & Navigational Safety, (Petaling Jaya, Pelanduk Publication,1997), at page 4. 18

The earliest and most catastrophic example of HNS incidents occurred in Texas City on April 16, 1947, when the ship SS Grandcamp, carrying explosive ammonium nitrate, caught fire and consequently exploded at the docks in Texas City. The entire dock area was destroyed, along with the nearby Monsanto Chemical Company, other smaller companies, grain warehouses, and numerous oil and chemical storage tanks. The ship SS High Flyer, in dock for repairs and also carrying ammonium nitrate, was ignited by the first explosion; it was towed 100 feet from the docks before it exploded early the next day. The exact number of people killed was unknown, although the ship’s anchor monument recorded that 576 persons were known dead. The number of casualties ranged in the thousands, and loss of property totaled about $67 million. Litigation over the Texas City disaster was finally settled in 1962, when the United States Supreme Court refused to review an appeal court ruling that the Republic of France, owner of the Grandcamp, could not be held liable for any claims resulting from the explosion. The disaster brought changes in the chemical manufacturing and new regulations for the bagging, handling and shipping of chemicals. More than 3,000 lawsuits involving the United States government, since the chemicals had originated in the U.S ordinance plants, were resolved by 1956, when a special act passed by Congress had settled all claims for a total of $16.5 million 19 George, Mary, Legal Regime of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, (Malaysia: Lexis Nexis, 2008) at 25. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid.


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Strait States are required to draft and enforce laws and regulations that do not hamper, deny, discriminate, impair or impede transit passage rights.22 Strait States should realise that the standard of responsibility remains undefined where international responsibility is to be borne by the flag State and State of registry of the aircraft for the violation of the strait State laws as outlined above (on maritime traffic, pollution control, fishing vessels, fishing, loading or unloading of any commodity, currency or person). 23 Strait States have no right of enforcement against foreign flag ships for the breach of compliance with national laws and regulations. 24 In situations of distress, or where force majeure applies, ships and aircraft should not delay, threaten or actually use force against the strait States and carry out any activity outside their mode of transit.25 Strait States, however, have the right to give effect to international regulations on the discharge of oil and oily wastes and other noxious substances in the strait through municipal regulations. 26 There are no provisions regulating HNS shipping in Part III. However, there are many international conventions related to HNS shipping adopted by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) for the safety of navigation, control of marine pollution, liability and compensation, regional response action plans, and regulation of chemical wastes that strait States can enforce provided that they are the contracting parties. Unfortunately, the 2010 HNS Convention on liability and compensation for HNS pollution is yet to be in force. Malaysia has not ratified this convention and consequently, has no obligation to incorporate its rules and standards into the municipal law except to the extent that the rules represent customary international law or that such international rules and standards are necessary for the protection and preservation of the marine environment. The International Convention On Liability And Compensation For Damage In Connection With the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 2010 (the 2010 HNS Convention)

The 2010 HNS Convention anticipates the dangers posed by the world-wide carriage by sea of HNS 27

and seeks to ensure that adequate, prompt and effective compensation is available to persons

who

28

suffer damage caused by the maritime carriage of HNS.

It adopts uniform international rules and 29

procedures for determining questions of liability and compensation in respect of such damage and ensures that the economic consequences of damage caused by the carriage by sea of HNS is shared 30

by the shipping industry and the cargo interests involved. A lack of ratifications implies that the 1996 HNS Convention was failing to come into force and as a result, a Protocol was developed to address practical problems that had prevented many states from ratifying the original Convention. The 2010

22

Id at 56. Id at 57. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 26 Id at 25. 27 Article 1 of 1996 HNS Convention; person means any individual or partnership or any public or private body, whether corporate or otherwise, including a State or any of its constituent subdivisions. 28 Establishing a guaranteed level of compensation for claims arising from HNS accidents up to 250 million Special Drawing Right s (SDR). Special Drawing Rights is the rights within the meaning of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. SDR 250m is about GBP 200 or USD$ 303m. 29 Preamble of the 1996 HNS Convention. 30 Ibid. 23


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Protocol to the International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 1996 was adopted through a consensus by a 31

Diplomatic Conference convened by the IMO in April 2010. The 1996 HNS Convention as stated in Article 3 (a) applies to any damage by contamination or otherwise caused in the territory, including the territorial sea of a State Party; Article 3(b) applies to 32

damage by contamination of the environment caused in the exclusive economic zone of a State Party , Article 3(c) applies to damage other than damage by contamination of the environment, caused outside the territory, including the territorial sea, of any State, if this damage has been caused by a substance carried on board a ship registered in a State Party or, in the case of an unregistered ship, on board a ship entitled to fly the flag of a State Party and finally in Article 3 (d) the Convention covers costs of 33

preventive measures, whenever taken. According to the 1996 HNS Convention, the scope of claiming damage covers damage by contamination or otherwise within the territory including territorial sea of a State party. The damage caused by contamination in the exclusive economic zone of a State party is also covered by convention. 34

McKinley explained that the convention will govern claims for pollution damage in the exclusive economic zone of a state party, irrespective of whether the ship was registered in that State party. However, for other types of damage which occur in the exclusive economic zone, the convention will only cover ships registered in the State party or entitled to fly the flag of a State party. The 1996 HNS 35

Convention does not cover damage occurring during the maritime carriage of radioactive materials. Article 7 stipulates that the owner of the ship at the time of an incident shall be liable for damage caused by any hazardous and noxious substances in connection with their carriage 36

by sea on board the ship. However, the owner may be exonerated from liability if the owner proves that the damage was wholly 37

caused by an act or omission done with the intent to cause damage by a third party. However, the owner of a ship shall be entitled to limit his liability under this convention: International Maritime Organization (IMO). “ International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS). Retrieved on 23 September 2014 at www.imo.org. 32 If a state has not established such a zone , in an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea of that State determined by that state in accordance with international law and extending not more than 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of its territorial sea is measured. 33 This Convention shall not apply to pollution damage as defined in the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, as amended, whether or not compensation is payable in its respect under that Convention and to damage caused by a radioactive material of class 7 either in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, as amended, or in appendix B of the Code Solid Bulk Cargoes, as amended. 34 McKinley, Derek, The 1996 International Convention on Liability and Compensation for the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Su bstances by Sea: Implications for State Parties, the Shipping, Cargo and Insurance Industries, (Diss. LLM, University of Cape Town, South Afri ca, 2005) at 20. 35 The compensation for nuclear damage (including damage of all forms of transport to and from a nuclear i nstallation) is provided under the 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. The 1996 HNS Convention has adopted a resolution on liability and compensation for damage occurring during the transport of radioactive materials which are contained in the Attachment of this Final Act. 36 Article 7 of 1996 HNS Convention under Chapter II- Liability. 31


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a) 10 million units of account for a ship not exceeding 2,000 units of tonnage; and b)

for a ship with a tonnage in excess thereof, the following amount in addition to that mentioned in (a): for each unit of tonnage from 2,001 to 50,000 units of tonnage, 1,500 units of account; for each unit of tonnage in excess of 50,000 units of tonnage, 360 units of account; provided, however, that this aggregate amount shall not, in any event, exceed 38

100 million units of account . A ship carrying hazardous and noxious substances shall be required to maintain insurance or other financial security in order to cover liability for damage under this 39

convention. As to the limitation of actions, rights to compensation under Chapter II (liability of ship owner) and under Chapter III (HNS Fund), an action should be brought within three years from the date when the 40

person suffering the damage knew or reasonably ought to have known of the damage.

No action 41

should be brought later than ten years from the date of the incident which caused the damage. The side effect of HNS damage whether to persons or the marine ecological system would sometimes appear later than three years. However as stated in Article 37 (4) where the incident consists of a series of occurrences, the 10 year period shall run from the date of the last of such occurrences.

37

The liability of the owner of the ship will be exonerated if the owner proves that: a) the damage resulted from an act of war, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a natural phenomenon of an exceptional, inevi table and irresistible character; or b) the damage was wholly caused by the negligence or other wrongful act of any Government or other authority responsible for the maintenance of lights or other navigational aids in the exercise of that function; or c) the failure of the shipper or any other person to furnish information concerning the hazardous and noxious nature of the substances shipped either i) has caused the damage, wholly or partly ; or ii) has led the owner not to obtain insurance in accordance with article 12; provided that neither the owner nor its servants or agents knew or reasonably ought to have known of the hazardous and noxious nature of the substances shipped. 38 Article 9 of 1996 HNS Convention. 39 Article 12 of the 1996 HNS Convention, the compulsory insurance certificate shall be carried on board of the ship. 40 Article 37 of 1996 HNS Convention, right of compensation under Chapter II and Chapter III is within three years from the date when the person suffering the damage knew. 41 The rationale was to harmonize the time bars for claims against the ship owner and claims against the HNS Fund to facilitate the distribution of the second tier fund, and also to reduce delays in the distribution of the second tier fund due to unknown, future claims. Submission by Norway, LEG/CONF.10/6 (a)/33, 17 April 1996. 42 For example, between Tanjong Tohor (latitude 1 51 N) on the Malaysian side and Tanjung Parit on the Indonesian side, the fairway narrows to a width less than 26 miles over a distance of about 11 miles. Facts taken from Ahmad, Hamzah ,ed., The Straits of Malacca, International Co-Operation In Trade, Funding & Navigational Safety, (Petaling Jaya, Pelanduk Publication, 1997), at page 128. 43 Bateman Sam, Ho Joshua, Chan Jane, “Good Order At Sea In Southeast Asia” S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanya ng Technological University, Policy paper, 2009.


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CONCLUSION The spillage or incidents of HNS would become critical to the Straits of Malacca as certain portions of the Strait of Malacca are narrower than 24 (twenty four) nautical miles.42 Although the volume of chemicals transported by sea is significantly lower than the seaborne trade in oil, it is nevertheless increasing.43 The consequences of a chemical spill can be more far-reaching than those of oil and there is growing international awareness of the need for safe and effective contingency arrangements for chemical spills.44 The present status quo of the Straits is that HNS shipping is an uncontrolled activity enjoyed by user-States. At the same time, the Straits deserves legal protection under the 1982 LOSC. To conclude, it is recommended that now is the right moment for the government of Malaysia to ratify the 2010 HNS Convention. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their gratitude towards Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) for supporting the research through grant DPP-2014-033. REFERENCES

Bernard Kent Sondakh. (2004). “National Sovereignty And Security In The Strait of Malacca” Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment, Kuala Lumpur. Email interview with Prof John Ross, Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources & Security, University of Wollongong, Australia on 21st July 2010. Forbes, Vivian Louis. (2004). “The Malacca Strait In The Context Of The ISPS Code”, Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment, Kuala Lumpur. George, Mary. (2001). “Adequacy of Strait States Laws for the Control of Marine Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore”,Asia Pacific Journal Of Environmental Law, Vol 6, Issue ¾, 241295. George, Mary. (2008) “Legal Regime of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore” Kuala Lumpur: Lexis Nexis, 4. George, Mary. (2008). Legal Regime of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Lexis Nexis, Malaysia, 25. H.M.Ibrahim. (2008). “Straits safety not just littoral states’ burden”, New Straits Times, retrieved on 25 November 2008, 22. Hamzah Ahmad,ed., (1997). The Straits of Malacca, International Co-Operation In Trade, Funding & Navigational Safety, Pelanduk Publication, Petaling Jaya,4. Ho, Joshua. (2006). Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, Singapore, The IMO-KL Meeting on the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. International Maritime Organization (IMO). “ International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS). Retrieved on 23 September 2014 at www.imo.org. 44

Ibid.


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Interview with Mr. Ahmad Nordin bin Ibrahim, Head of Vessel Traffic Services Unit, Marine Department of Malaysia, email interview on 18 May 2007 Maritime Institute of Malaysia, 24 August 2010. Retrieved from; http://www.mima.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=85&Itemid+88. Prof. Dr. Hashim Djalal. (2007). Symposium On The Enhancement Of Safety Of Navigation And The Environmental Protection Of The Straits Of Malacca and Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Purnell, K. (2009). “Are HNS spills more dangerous than oil spills, A white paper for the Interspill Conference & the 4th IMO R &D Forum Marseille”. Toshiki Sakurai. (2004). “The Straits of Malacca And Challenges Ahead: Japan’s Perspective”, Conference On the Strait of Malacca: Building a Comprehensive Security Environment,Kuala Lumpur.


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Nutrients and Hydrocarbons in Ballast Water and their concentrations in water and sediment of Port Klang

NorAsyikin Razak School of Marine Science and Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, [email protected]

Hing Lee Siang School of Marine Science and Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, [email protected]

Hii Yii Siang School of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study focused on nutrients and hydrocarbons in ballast water that discharged into the surrounding environment of Port Klang. Ballast water of eight container ships and one tanker ship were sampled through service manhole and overflow through air-vent. In order to extrapolate the impact of the ballast water discharges, water and sediments samples from seven different locations within the port areas were collected for this study. The concentrations of nutrients in the ballast water were ranging from 0.024 – 0.671mg/L (nitrite), 0.052 – 0.379 mg/L (nitrate),not detected – 0.439mg/L (ammonia), 0.231 – 1.970mg/L (total nitrogen), 0.102 – 0.560 mg/L (orthophosphate) and 0.110 – 0.650 mg/L (total phosphorous). Ballast water samples from Shekou, China recorded the highest nitrite concentrations whereas those with highest ammonia concentrations were water from Hong Kong. Water from Atlantic Ocean, in general had lower concentrations of N and P. Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) of ballast water varied from3.11 to16.50mg/L. Ballast water from Yangon having the highest TPH concentration. Nutrients and TPH in the aquatic environment of Port Klang were found higher than those in the ballast water. Nevertheless, total aliphatic hydrocarbons (TAH: n-24 to n-34)) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs : 7 compounds) in the sediment of Port Klang is considered as low. Average concentration of TAH and PAHs in the sediment sampleswas7.444 µg/g and 0.207 µg g-1(dry weight)respectively.. Keywords: Port Klang, Ballasts water, Nutrients, Hydrocarbons, Sediment. INTRODUCTION

Port Klang including North Port and West Port, is one of the busiest ports in the South East Asia. In 2012 alone, a total of 17,721 ships were docked at the port this includes 11,241 container ships. In order to attain stability for the vessel, ballast water is taken in or discharged at the port during loading and unloading the vessels. This would inevitably bring in not only the biological species but also all sorts of pollutants from other regions of the world to Malaysia waters and vice versa. The ballast water could be a point source pollutant to the adjacent environment nearby the port. Port Klang is situated close to the Klang valley where rapid industrialization and urbanization. Klang valley is heavily populated area, harboring around 16% of the national population of the country. Nutrient especially nitrogen and phosphorus are the key water quality parameters in the aquatic ecosystem. Nutrient concentrations in the water vary according to the surrounding land use. Depending on their chemical forms, nitrogen and phosphorus can have significant impacts on plant growth, dissolved Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

102

oxygen contents, water clarity, and sedimentation rates in the environment. Hydrocarbons, in the other hands, are common pollutants in water and sediments of urbanized water bodies. They are one of the most serious pollutants listed in many developed and developing country including Malaysia. Hydrocarbon pollution could introduce through urban runoff, point source and non-point source discharges such as used crankcase oil and industrial effluents. For the sea based sources, petroleum hydrocarbon pollution is always related to tanker accidents and accidental spills in ports, harbor and marinas. In the present study, we aim to establish baseline data for nutrient and hydrocarbons in both the ballast water and port environment for future reference MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ballast water was sampled through service manhole or overflow through air-vent (Table 1). Water and sediment samples were collected from seven stations located within the north port and west port. Water samples were collected by using Vann Dorn water sampler while sediment samples were collected by using ekman grab. Hydrological parameters such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and pH was measured in situ by using multi parameter (Hydrolab Quanta). Nitrogen (Ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and total nitrogen) in water was determined by using methods of Parsons et al. (1984). Orthophosphate and total phosphate were analyzed based on the standard method of APHA 1998 Total petroleum hydrocarbon was analyzed by using method Parsons et al. (1984). Whereas for analysis hydrocarbon in sediment analyzed using modified UNEP 1992 and followed by GC-FID to determinethe concentrations of PAH and TAH. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sample ID

Ballast Water Origin

Water Duration in Tank (day)

Excess point of Water

Vessel Type

PK 1 PK 2 PK 3 PK 4 PK 5 PK 6 PK 7 PK 8 PK 9

Yangon Singaore Kaohsiung Shekou, China Hong Kong Yangon Chennai Ho Chi MInh Atlantic Ocean

7 3 14 6 33 28 5 34 71

Manhole Manhole tube pump (steel) Manhole Manhole Manhole Overflow Manhole Manhole

container container container container container Tanker container container container

Table 1, Ships Particular for each selected Vessels Berthed at Port Klang


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Samples Sources

Ballast water (Ships berthed)

Port Water

Sample ID PK 1 PK 2 PK 3 PK 4 PK 5 PK 6 PK 7 PK 8 PK 9 EPK 1

6.35 6.61 7.23 8.21 8.33 6.65 7.56 6.64 6.51 7.95

Salinity (PPT) 2.62 32.37 27.11 29.6 31.75 2.16 27.24 22.04 35.32 25.09

4.922 49.58 42.51 45.85 48.83 4.101 42.68 35.17 53.67 39.53

29.66

6.94

26.66

41.76

EPK 3

30.03

6.95

24.85

39.23

EPK 4

29.63

7.34

27.89

43.28

EPK 5

29.52

7.07

27.02

42.23

EPK 6

29.62

7.01

26.57

41.68

EPK 7

29.73

7.22

27.14

42.47

Temperature (°C)

pH

29.67 28.8 29.45 29.48 29.51 29.63 32.1 29.69 29.66 29.62

EPK 2

SpC

Table 2, Hydrological Parameter for Ballast water and Port Water at Port Klang The concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous in the ballast water samples were ranging from 0.024 – 0.671mg/L (nitrite), 0.052 – 0.379 mg/L (nitrate),undetected – 0.439mg/L (ammonia), 0.231 – 1.970mg/L (total nitrogen), 0.102 – 0.560 mg/L (orthophosphate) and 0.110 – 0.650 mg/L (total phosphorous). Ballast water from Shekou, China recorded the highest concentration except for nitrate (Figure 1). High concentration of Shekou water might be due to rapid economic and population growth in Shekou as reported by Hu et al (2010).Due to the rapid economic growth in the southern China and trade between Hong Kong and Guangdong, the economy around Shekou peninsula has rapidly developed and also reclamation of land for housing. Reclamation process might contribute to the high concentration of nutrient in the Shekou’s water. Some studies carried out at Chanjiang river estuary reported by Sun et al (2011), also reported the significant effect of the land reclamation on phosphorous, nitrate, ammonia nitrogen and pH in the seawater. Atlantics ballast water was among the lowest nitrogen and phosphorous in water. The nitrite (0.017 mg/L), nitrate (0.152 mg/L), ammonia (0.021 mg/L) total nitrogen (0.231 mg/L), orthophosphate (0.293 mg/L) and total phosphorous (0.300 mg/L) are lower than the coastal area. This is partly due to the influence from anthropogenic effects such as population, agricultural and urbanization. Moreover, terrestrial drainage and coastal run off were also natural supply of the nutrients in the open water (Xavier et al, 2008).


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2.000

Concentration mg/L

Concentration mg/L

Nitrogen in Ballast Water from Ship Berthed at Port Klang

1.000

0.000

1.000

Phosphorous in Ballast Water from Ship Berthed at Port Klang

0.500

0.000 PK 1 PK 2 PK 3 PK 4 PK 5 PK 6 PK 7 PK 8 PK 9

PK 1 PK 2 PK 3 PK 4 PK 5 PK 6 PK 7 PK 8 PK 9 Nitrite Nitrate

Orthophosphate

TP

Figure 1, Nitrogen and Phosphorous Concentration in Ballast Water of Ship Berthed at Port Klang Phosphorous in Water at Port Klang

Nitrogen in Water at Port Klang Concentration mg/L

Concentration mg/L

3.000 2.500 2.000 1.500 1.000 0.500 0.000

1.400 1.200 1.000 0.800 0.600 0.400 0.200 0.000 EPK 1

EPK 1

EPK 2 Nitrite

EPK 3

EPK 4

Nitrate

EPK 5

EPK 6

Ammonia

TN

EPK 2

EPK 3

EPK 4

EPK 5

EPK 6

EPK 7

EPK 7 Orthophosphate

TP

Figure 2, Nitrogen and Phosphorous Concentration of Port Klang Water Figure 2 showed the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorous at the port environment. Mean concentration for total nitrogen, total phosphorous, nitrite, nitrate, ammonia and orthophosphate were 2.003 mg/L, 0.733 mg/L, 1.242 mg/L, 0.183 mg/L, 0.337 mg/L and 0.594 mg/L respectively. Under the Marine Water Quality Criteria endorsed by Department of Environment, Malaysia (Class 3, ports, oil and gas field of the Malaysia Marine), the nitrite and ammonia in the port Klang water had exceeded the MWQC guideline. High concentration of ammonia might due to sewage pollution, which is sewage is major source of ammonia, ammonia results of urea breakdown by urease bacteria (Radojevic et al, 2006). Concentration of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Ballast Water YANGON PK 1 SINGAPORE PK 2 KAOHSIUNG PK 3 SHEKOU, CHINA PK 4 HONG KONG PK 5 YANGON PK 6 CHENNAI PK 7 HOCHIMINH CITY PK 8 ATLANTICS OCEAN PK 9

16.500 9.610 8.003 5.670 5.840 8.270 8.613 3.113 5.967

North Port

West Port

Port Water EPK 1 EPK 2 EPK 3 EPK 4 EPK 5 EPK 6 EPK 7

16.500 9.610 8.003 5.670 5.840 8.270 8.613

Table 3, Concentration of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) of ballast water ranging from 3.11 – 16.50mg/L. Ballast water from Yangon had the highest TPH concentration while ballast water from the Ho Chi Minh City had the lowest TPH concentration (3.11mg/L). Mean TPH concentration in the port Klang water is 9.19 mg/L.TPH in the port Klang water was higher as compared to other reports from various countries and previous study as reported by Abdullah et al, 1995 and 1996. Abdullah reported petroleum hydrocarbon ranged between 0.32 – 2.28mg/L varied with location and 0.135 mg/L in Johore (1996). The high TPH in port Klang maybe direct inputs from shipping activities, urban runoff, effluent discharge, industry and oil spill. Concentration of TAH (µg/g) EPK 1 EPK 2 EPK 3 EPK 4 EPK 5 EPK 6 C24 5.087 C25 21.138 13.418 C26 6.051 5.227 4.377 20.695 C28 19.081 7.818 5.326 4.404 24.902 C30 19.402 7.131 4.516 3.978 15.527 18.065 C32 19.653 8.162 3.968 17.402 4.953 C34 20.817 31.564 Figure 4, Concentration of TAH in Sediment at Port Klang and Its Species

PHE B(a)A CHR B(b)F I(1.2,3cd)P B(g,h,i)P D(a,h)A

EPK 1 0.402 -

Concentration of PAH (µg/g) EPK 2 EPK 3 EPK 4 EPK 5 1.083 0.933 -

EPK 6 1.250 1.054 0.000 0.178

0.445

-

-

-

-

0.326

0.204 0.567

-

0.333 0.273

0.195 0.381

-

0.273 0.607

Figure 5, Concentration of PAH in Sediment of Port Klang and Its Species Sediment from Port Klang was analysed for total aliphatic hydrocarbons and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The average concentration of TAH and PAHs in the port sediments was 7.444 µg/g dry weights and 0.207 µg g-1dry weights respectively. PAHs in port Klang sediment was mainly pryrogenic hydrocarbon. Pyrogenic hydrocarbon were sourced from incomplete combustion of organic compound such as fossil fuel, cooking oil, coal burning vehicle emissions and waste tyre etc.(Sany et al, 2014).


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CONCLUSION

In general, water from the port Klang contained higher concentration of nutrients and hydrocarbons than the ballast water. In this context, the ballast water may not be a direct threat in term of nutrients and hydrocarbons contamination to the aquatic environment of Port Klang. The baseline data presented in

this paper is important information for initial risk assessment, an important tool for the implementation of ballast water management in the country. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysia under e-science grant. The authors would like to thank the Port Klang Authority, Marine Department and the officer-in-charge of vessels for their supports in sampling and field works. REFERENCES

Abdullah, AR, WC Woon and RA Bakar.(1996) Distribution of oil and grease and petroleum hydrocarbons in Straits of Johor, Peninsular Malaysia Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 57: 155-162 American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC Parsons, T.R., Maita, Y., and Laili, C.m (1984). A Manual of Chemical and Biological Methods for Seawater Analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press Radojevic, M., Bashkin, V.N., 2006. Practical Environmental Analysis. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge Sun, Y and Li X. et al. (2011). Effect of Reclamation Time and Land Use on Soil Properties inChangjiang River Estuary, China. State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shan Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Salleh A, Rezayi M, Mehdinia A, et al. (2014) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Coastal sediment of Klang Strait, Malaysia:Distribution Pattern, Risk Assessment and Sources. PLoS ONE 9(4): e94907. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094907 Xavier, G. Corine, L.Q. and Leticia, C.C. (2008). Importance of coastal nutrient supply for global ocean biogeochemistry. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 22, GB2025.


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Abundance Of Benthic Foraminifera, Genus Textularia In Pahang River Estuary, Pahang, Malaysia Muhamad Naim Bin Abd Malek School of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, [email protected]

Ramlan Bin Omar School of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Benthic foraminifera are one of the most important studied microfossils in the oceanic habitat. These microorganisms play an essential role in the ecological research as well as in the biostratigraphy studies. The genus Textularia is one of the most abundance agglutinated group of foraminifera recorded in the marine environment. This study investigates the abundance of this genus on marine sediments taken from Pahang River estuary with the coordinate between latitude 03°42’34.56’’ to 03° 27’33.84’’ N and longitude 103°25’40.08’’ to 103°29’5’’ S, respectively. Twenty-two surface sediments samples were collected for grain-size analysis and foraminifera assemblages. The sediment samples collected were dominated by sand with total of 661 specimens of foraminifera. Four common species of Textularia successfully recorded were T. agglutinans, T. conica, T. oceanica, T. gramen and one unknown species, T. sp. T. gramen is the most abundance with the percentage of 36.76%. The highest abundance of the genus was recorded at station 5 (89 individuals) followed by station 20 (81 individuals) whereas the lowest was at station 14 with only 3 individuals collected. Keywords: benthic, foraminifera, agglutinated, Pahang River. INTRODUCTION

Foraminifera are known as one of the important studied unicellular protists in the ocean. They distributed ubiquitously in marine, as well as freshwater and terrestrial environments. These heterotrophic microorganisms are mostly benthic, although some are important component of plankton. They secrete a carbonate shell or agglutinate grains from the sediments to produce a shell which remain as part of the sediments for a long period of time. Due to this fact, foraminifera became an outstanding fossil record, used by the geologist to conduct research on modern deep-sea faunas as reliable tools for reconstruction on ancient ocean floors (palaeoceanography) as well as in near-shore settings (paleoecology). Benthic foraminifera show a great diversity compared to planktonic group in coastal environment. The short life cycle of benthic foraminifera triggers it to respond hastily towards their environmental changes, therefore are useful as an excellent indicators to environmental monitoring. Hallock et al. (2003) successfully studied the relationship of benthic foraminifera with the conditions of the coral reefs in United States (Toruan et al. (2013)). The past researchers subdivided benthic foraminifera into four main groups according to their wall structures which are the agglutinated (Textulariina), calcareous granular (Fusulinina), porcelaneous (Miliolina) and the hyaline calcareous group (Rotaliina). Agglutinated foraminifera are characterized by their coarse sand grains that attached to their test wall. This particular group inhabit on areas of warm waters within sun lights and high calcium carbonate concentration, such as the coral reefs. (Natsir 2009) stated that there is a tendency for the agglutinated Proceedings of the 1st International Maritime Conference (1st IMC2014) October 21, 2014.

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group to become dominant in almost extreme environment, such as in area under pressure and close to the river mouth or bay. The agglutinated foraminifera were given further attention during the study on the abundance and distribution of benthic foraminifera in Pahang River because the areas are closed to the estuary and the occurrences of this group are relatively higher. This paper will be discussing the agglutinated group, mainly genus Textularia due to the highest abundance of this genus in the study area. The genus Textularia is one of the important and frequently described species of agglutinated foraminifera. However, they were no published record of this agglutinated spesies in Pahang River partly due to its appearance that sometimes may confused with the sand grains. Murray stated that this epifauna spesies incorporated the area which they attached to the hard substrate or move freely in the sediment (Murray 2006). Recently, the study of agglutinated group foraminifera has been conducted at Lombok, Indonesia (Natsir 2009) with two spesies of genus Textularia successfully recorded; T. candeiana and T. kerimbaensis. Minhat et al. (2012) also recorded this genus in Penang Island without naming the spesies. While another three spesies were recorded in Thailand Gulf by Melis & Violanti (2006) namely T. conica, T. sagitulla and T. aciculate. The aim of this paper is to record and describe the genus Textularia in the study area and to study their abundance in relation to the environmental conditions on the surface sediments. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-two surface sediments samples were collected for grain-size analysis and foraminifera assemblages with coordinate between latitude 03°42’34.56’’ to 03° 27’33.84’’ N and longitude 103°25’40.08’’ to 103°29’5’’ S, respectively (Figure 1). The petite Ponar grab were used to collect the sediment samples and stored in the plastic bags to be labeled according to respective stations. Hydrometer method describe by Day (1965) were used to determine the texture sediments in Pahang River estuary. The hydrometer is placed lightly into the cylinder which contains the suspension of sediments after predetermined periods of time. The reading were taken by determining where the meniscus of the suspension strikes the hydrometer and recorded. For the foraminifera assemblages, sediment samples were taken to the laboratory and washed through a series of Retch sieves (500, 150, and 63 µm). Fraction sizes of 150 µm were only used to pick the foraminifera with stereomicroscope and then mounted on reference slides, identified and counted. The only undamaged specimens of the benthic foraminifera that can be recognized were collected and the identification process were done by comparing the specimens with some important literature of agglutinated benthic foraminifera published by (Loeblich, & Tappan 1988), (Barker 1960) and (Jones 1994). The description of the species were taken from (Milker, & Schmiedl 2012) and (Natsir 2009). The SEM images of the specimens were taken using Hitachi Tabletop Microscope model TM-1000. The total numbers of foraminifera’s specimens were recorded at each station.


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Figure 1. Map showing sampling stations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The study successfully collected a total of 661 specimens of agglutinated benthic foraminifera in the area. Four species of genus Textularia successfully recorded were T. agglutinans, T. conica, T. oceanica, T. gramen and one unknown species, Textularia sp. The agglutinated assemblages are dominated by T. gramen with percentage of 36.76% followed by T. agglutinans (29.65%). The least recorded species were Textularia sp with total percentage of 1.36 % due to its presence only in station 15 and 22 (Figure 2). The highest abundance of the genus was recorded at station 5 (89 individuals) followed by station 20 (81 individuals) whereas the lowest was at station 14 with only 3 individuals collected. The texture sediments of the study area were dominated by sandy particles. According to the result of Textularia’s abundance (Table 1), they show favors towards high percentage of sand in the sediments. Meanwhile, low abundance (