Advances in the Research of Aquatic Environment

Nicolaos Lambrakis George Stournaras Konstantina Katsanou Editors

Advances in the Research of Aquatic Environment Volume 1

- Springer

Editors Prof. Dr. Nicolaos Lambrakis University of Patras Department of Geology Laboratory of Hydrogeology Patras Greece [email protected]

Prof. Dr. George Stournaras University of Athens Department of Geology and Geoenvironment Athens Greece [email protected]

Konstantina Katsanou University of Patras Department of Geology Laboratory of Hydrogeology Patras Greece [email protected]

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Contribution to the hydrogeological research of Western Crete E. Manutsoglu, E. Steiakakis Technical University of Crete, Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, University Campus, Akrotiri, 73 100 Chania, Hellas. [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Hydrogeological research in western Crete, has led to the revision of the geological map of the area and the creation of a new lithological map in scale of 1:25.000. According to the investigation results, Trypali Unit forms a separate hydrogeological entity in the region that is extended widely. Folding and faulting of this unit combined with the widespread fault systems determine the ground water flow in the region.

1 Introduction The Alpidic basement of Crete is composed of a number of fault bounded tectonic units with different lithologies, paleogeographical origins and metamorphic grade. Among others, a group of metamorphic rocks, or a part of it, composed mainly of phyllite and quartzite, has been described through time with variable names (Manutsoglu et al., 1995). This Group lies between Tripolitza nappe and "CreteMani Unit"1Plattenkalk Group oriand the Trypali Unit, and its maximum surface extension is located at Western Crete. The thickness of "PhylliteIQuartzite Series" (PQS) at Western Crete, which has been estimated at about 2150 - 2800 m (Cayeux 1902, Krahl et al. 1983), its stratigraphic position (normal or overturned), as well as the extension of the Trypali Unit and the emplacement of the large meta-evaporitic body in the region, still remains a matter of debate (PomoniPapaioannou and Karakitsios 2002, Krahl and Kauffman 2004). In order to answer these main questions, which are of great importance considering the hydrogeological framework of the region, an area in the western Crete (belonging to Paleochora sheet, Manakos et al. 2002) was surveyed. The relation between the crystalline carbonate formations (Trypali Unit) and the overlying metaclastic formations (PhylliteiQuartzite Series) was investigated and a new lithological map was created in scale of 1:25.000. This map can be used to clarify the hydrogeological regime in the study area and to evaluate the groundwater resources.

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2 Geological setting The study area is located at the western side of the "White Ori" mountains range. The "Complex" of metamorphic rocks in the area has been described by Creutzburg and Seidel (1975) as "Phyllite/Quartzite Series". It is dominated by phyllites of variable composition, quartzites of different thickness (meta) conglomerates, black platy dolomitic limestones, gypsum, rauhwake and basalts. This "Complex" corresponds to the "terrains metamorphique" Cayeux (1902), as well as to the formation of "Gypsum and Rauhwake" and to the "Phyllite-Quartzite-Shale Series" of Wurm (1950). Creutzburg and Seidel (1975) introduced also and defined the term "Trypali Unit" mainly to describe carbonaceous rocks (dolomites, dolomitic limestones, rarely pure limestones, carbonaceous breccia, rauhwake), as well as white, glace textured marbles. The mass of the aforementioned rocks has been subjected to different grade of recrystallization. The lithological evolution of this unit along with fossils (algae, corals, gastropods) led the researchers to accept that it was deposited rocks in a shallow water depositional environment. Gypsum and rauhwake occurrences in the western part of "White Ori" mountains range (between Stomio and Sougia settlement) were also included in Trypali Unit (Wurm 1950). Regarding the transitional correlation between the carbonaceous formations of the Trypali Unit and the metaclastic formations of PhylliteIQuartzite Series, Creutzburg and Seidel (1975) came up with a surprising conclusion. Although in several positions (Kallikratis, south of Leukogia, east of Chosti, north and east of Kandanos, south of the Arkadi monastery) they notice that Trypali Unit seems to pass gradually to PhylliteIQuartzite Series, they question the Upper Triassic (Rhaetian) to Lower Jurassic ("Liassic") age found for these rocks and claim that the contact with the underlying Plattenkalk is clearly tectonic. Considering the above they place Trypali Unit as underlying of the PhylliteIQuartzite Series, regarding it as a different structural unit. Further more, Krahl et al. (1982), studied biostratigraphical evidences in this unit and found that gypsum, dolomites and rauhwake, which until then were considered to consist the stratigraphically older horizons of the Trypali Unit, and they are in fact the youngest ones. Consequently they claimed that the PhylliteIQuartzite Series are in reverse position. However, this perspective was not adopted by all researchers (Kopp and Wernado 1983). In 1983 Krahl et al. provided new biostratigraphical data for the "Phyllite Group" of Western Crete. They dated the period between late Carboniferous to late Triassic, but they didn't manage to cover the Middle Triassic period using fossils. Coming up with even more biostratigraphical data, they accepted that rocks of the Phyl1iteIQuartzite Series are isoclinal folded in a large scale. Also, they presented a series of geological sections, stratigraphical columns, a synthetic stratigraphical column and also the synthetic model for the structure of PhylliteIQuartzite Series as well as of Trypali Unit at western Crete. In this model meta-evaporites, that stratigraphically consist the youngest formations, are observed in the lowest tectonic

Contribution to the hydrogeological research of Western Crete

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position. For these rocks researchers accept that either consist a part of the Upper Triassic/Liassic meta-carboniferous formations of the "Phyllite Group" (and constitute the overturned part of the massive isoclinal fold) or they are a facial differentiation of the rocks of the Plattenkalk Group. The above claims were also supported by a paleogeographical evolution model of the External Hellenides during the Permian-Triassic period (Domsiepen et al. 2001).

3 Methodology A new geological map in scale 1:25.000 was created, using bibliographic data, data of the existing geological map, and data of the spatial distribution of relatively easy-mapped lithological units (such as quartzitic layers, blacklgraphitic schists - quartzite that enclose gypsum relicts), the new finding related to occurrences of marbles within phyllites and transitional formations (from phyllites to marbles and meta-evaporites). The new lithological map covers an area of about 150 km2.The geological information used to construct the new map, includes a simplification of the mapped units. Using the current geological map (Palaiochora sheet, Manakos et al. 2002) the large scale structures were checked and lithological sequences were grouped in order to construct three geological sections with E-W direction (Fig. 1). The aspect that meta-evaporites are part of the Plattenkalk Group (Manakos et al. 2002) was not adopted, because none of the characteristic lithofacies elements of this Group was identified in the field. In order to proceed with the geological mapping, the limits for the upper non metamorphic units (Tripolitza and Pindos) and the limits of the Neogene and Quaternary formations were accepted as reliable. Moreover, according to the widely accepted model of the region, "Phyllite Group", was considered to be in a reverse position. Finally, the observation of characteristic formations such as blacvgraphitic schist-quartzite that enclose gypsum relics, it was the guide to reach in conclusions for the study area.

4 Results of the geological mapping The tectonic structure of the region has been resulted by the combined action of thin-skinned deformation and fault tectonics. The structure of the study area has been defined by the existence of a large scale fault, striking NNW-SSE, which passes through Sfinari village. The geological survey led to the creation of a new lithological map of the study area (Fig.1). This map was based on lithological and interpreted biostratigraphical data from cited literature.


Secti

Leaend

-Faults fAxis of anticline Axis of syncline

4 0

sections

? Quaternary

I Neogene I tindos Nappe

,

1

Tripoliiza Nappe

Section M82

Plaltenkaik Group

0 -Krn

1

2

-

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Fig. 1. New lithological map of the Sfinari area in Western Crete, Sheet Paleochora (after Manakos et al. (2002), modified).

The current work comes up for discussing the geological model of the area and they are presented in following: . - The meta-evaporitic body and meta-carbonate rocks of Upper Triassic (included in Ionian Zone according to Manakos et al. 2002), was regarded to be (together with the limestones of "Mana" formation) in Trypali Unit. - Calci-phyllites and quartzites of "Mana" formation, the main part of "Sfinari" formation and "Poikilos" formation that consist of schists, re-


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crystallized limestones and quartzites. (have been considered to be in Ionian Zone according to the existing geological map, Manakos et al. 2002), constitute a single formqation under the name of "Calci-phyllites". In this formation the existence of black graphitic schist-quartzite with gypsum intercalations is characteristic and outcrops in the whole study region. According to the current geological survey the "Calci-phyllites Unit" occurs stratigraphically between the clastic formations of Phyllite-Quartzite Series s.s and the carbonate formation of Trypali Unit. In the village Livadia, was observed intense karstification inside the aforementioned transitional layers. Taking into account the spatial distribution of the geological formations, the topography and the biostratigraphic data derived from bibliographic sources, the rest formations of PhyllitiesIQuartzite Series s.s. (schists, phyllites, quartzites) can be grouped into two stratigraphical successive formations: "Phyllites" and "Quartzites" formations. "Phyllites" formation is topographically lower, with extensive surface outcrop on both blocks of the fault. It is stated that "Varied Formation", "Stauros-Seli" schists and "Koutrouli" schists make up the "Phyllites" formation. The second one is topographically higher. The quartzites "Agios Dikaios" and the largest part of quartzites "Koutrouli" consists the "Quartzites" formation. The main fault is lifted the eastern part of the study area, preserving the NNE-SSW dip direction and the NNW and SSE direction of fold axes as well. The aforementioned directions were not preserved in the depressed western part. Instead, the general direction of the intensively folded rocks was changed after rotation to NNW-SSE. This rotation is evidenced by the presence of two additional tectonic clues. The first one is the existence of a large past of upper nappes (Tripolitza and Pindos) west of Sfinari and the second is the outcrop of tectonically reversed and stratigraphically younger meta-carbonate formations with anhydritelgypsum in the proximity of Stomio area. Large scale anticline and syncline are observed in the eastern and western part, respectively. Apart from this large fault, several smaller faults run through the area with general direction NNW-SSE and NNESSW, as shown on the map.

5 Discussion and Conclusions The authors have revised the lithostratigraphy in the area, and certain views are set out concerning:

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A large scale meta-evaporites body, with a meta-carbonate core, which (in contrast with the existing geological map which classifies it within the Plattenkalk Group), is assigned to the meta-carbonates formations of Trypali Unit. A large fault with NNWJSSE direction passes from Sfinari village and follows the general direction of the fold axes of the metacarbonate rocks, with subduction either to NNW or to SSE. As it is shown in the three geological sections (Fig.l), there are three main large scale structures are formed over the metamorphic rocks of the Plattenkalk series: 1. Trypali Unit which evolves into Calci-phyllites, Phyllites and Quartzites formations of the Phyllitic Nappe Group are overthrust on the preceding formations and stratigrapically are in a reversed position. 2. The transition of Trypali Unit towards PhyllitesIQuatzite Series s.s. (Phyllites and Quatzites Formations) is made gradually with transition beds of Calci-Phyllites. Based on the spatial distribution of Calci-Phyllites, it is concluded that apart from the anticlinic structure that exists in the eastern part of the area, an open synclinal structure is created to the west part that affects and is affected by the large fault striking the area. The general directions of the fold axes are N/NNW, while on the east block an N/NE direction is prevalent.

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The existence of the main fault, combined with the anticlinal and synclinal structures and synthetic faults that fracture the heterogeneous rocks in the area, determine the underground water flow. Small occasional aquifers and springs of low yield are developed in PhylIiteIQuarzite Series s.s., that covers most of the surface of the study area and they are exploited for irrigation and water supplying needs. The overlaying carbonate rocks of Tripolitza Nappe are of great hydrogeological interest; however their extent is limited. They feed the spring of Agia Paraskevi - Sfinari at the N/NW of the study area, with average annual flow which reaches 1.9~106 m3Jyear. It is a contact spring (Lionis and Perleros 2001), without ruling out the existence of a small scale reservoir in negative altitudes. The quality of the water is good despite the fact that the spring discharges in the coastal zone (altitude +2.42 m). This is probably due to the narrow discharge front. We believe that the extent of the Tripolitza limestones (2: 2 km2) and the estimated infiltration in the area, explain the average flow of the spring, indicating that its catcment is formed in the Tripolitza limestones (SW of the spring).

- Considering the macrotectonics of the area (formation of an open syncline with NNWISSE axis), it is concluded that Trypali Unit is partially hydraulically isolated and it forms a hydrolithological entity of high interest. It is a hydrolithological entity extended widely and it forms a significantly long


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synclinorium, with longitudinal axis in NNWISSE direction. However, it should be noted that in the southern part of the study area the carbonate series include anhydrite-gypsum in variable sizes and consequently a high water concentration in sulfate ions should be expected. It is suggested that an exporation program should be carried out in the area, by drilling the PhylliteIQuarzite Series S.S. Calci-Phyllites (with thickness up to 300 m) in order to reach the underlying Trypali Unit (0 to +loom asl) that is expected to contain a karstic aquifer. The final depth of the boreholes shall depend on the elevation of exploration site and it is estimated at about 500-600 m. It must be mentioned that due to lack of detailed mapping and hydrogeologicalhydrochemical data, there is an increased uncertainty regarding the type and depth of the aquifer, as well as the depth where lithologies and groups might change.

References Cayeux L (1902) Sur la composition et I'age des terrains metamorphiques de la Crete. C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris 134, 1 116-1119 Creutzburg N, Seidel E (1975) Zum Stand der Geologie des Praneogens auf Kreta. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Abh. 149 (3), 363-83 Dornsiepen UF, Manutsoglu E, Mertmann D (200 1) Permian-Triassic paleogeography of the Extemal Hellenides. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. 172, 327-338 Kopp KO, Wemado G (1983) Ueber eine intra-triadische Deckenbewegung auf Kreta. Geol. Rdsch 72,895-909 Krahl J, Eberle P, Eickhoff J, Forster 0 , Kozur H (1982) Biostratigraphical Investigations in the Phyllite-Quartzite Group on Crete Island, Greece. Proc. of the International Symposium on the Hellenic Arc and Trench, 306-323, Athens Krahl J, Kauffmam G, Kozur H, Richter D, Forster 0 , Heinritzi F. (1983) Neue Daten zur Biostratigraphie und zur Lagerung der Phyllit Gruppe und der Trypali Gruppe auf der Insel Kreta (Griechenland). Geol. Rdsch 72, 1 147-1 166 Krahl J, Kauffmann G (2004) New aspects for a palinspastic model of the External Hellenides on Crete. Proc. of the 5th International Symposium on Eastern Mediterranean Geology, 119-122, Thessaloniki Lionis M, Perleros V. (2001) Hydrogeological Study of Kampos area, Chania (KA: 9481721). Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Department of GeologyiHydrology, Branch of hydrogeology/drills and mathematical models, Athens Manakos K, Vidakis M, Kopp KO, Krahl J, Skourtzi - Koronaiou B (2002) Geological Map of Greece, scale 1:50.000, Paleochora Sheet. lnst Geol and Miner. Explor., Athens Manutsoglu E, Mertmam D, Soujon A, Dornsiepen UF, Jacobshagen V (1995) Zur Nomenklatur der Metamorphite auf der Insel Kreta, Griechenland. Berliner geowiss. Abh E 16,579-588 Pomoni-Papaioannou F, Karakitsios V (2002) Facies analysis of the Trypali carbonate unit (Upper Triassic) in central-western Crete (Greece): an evaporate formation transformed into solution-collapse breccias. Sedimentology 49, 11 13-1132 Wurm A (1950) Zur Kemtnis des Metamorphikums der Insel Kreta. N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Mh. 1950,206-239