Age and Tenure in Relation to Organizational Commitment: A Meta ...

BASIC AND APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, 1993, 14(2), 143-159 Copyright 1993, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Age and Tenure in Relation to Organizational Commitment: A Meta-Analysis Aaron Cohen Department of Political Science University of Haifa

Age and tenure are considered important correlates of organizational commitment (OC). However, the relations between these variables and OC were found to be relatively weak. This meta-analysis examines the relations between age and tenure and OC across different time frames of employment stages. The numbers of samples dealing with the relations between OC and age and between OC and tenure were 84 and 80, respectively. Age and tenure were divided into time frames of employment stages and a separate metaanalysis was conducted for each of these subgroups. The findings indicate different patterns of relations across employment stages. The relation between OC and age was strongest for the youngest subgroup. The relation between OC and tenure was strongest for the oldest tenure subgroup. These findings are discussed in terms of the practical and conceptual implications of the differences between age and tenure in their relations with OC and with a view to future research.

The issue of organizational commitment (OC) continues to receive attention both from scientists and practitioners. This interest is evidenced by numerous studies examining the relations between OC and its antecedents and outcomes (for reviews, see Griffin & Bateman, 1986; Matthieu & Zajac, 1990). One of the main reasons for the interest in OC is its relation to important organizational outcomes such as turnover (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974), turnover intentions (Shore and Martin, 1989), performance (Meyer, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin, & Jackson, 1989), and absenteeism (Farrell & Peterson, 1984). Requests for reprints should be sent to Aaron Cohen, Department of Political Science. University of Haifa, Mount Camel, Haifa 31 999, Israel.

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Two of the important antecedents of OC are age and tenure, primarily because they are considered as the main indicators of side-bets (Becker, 1%0), a term that has been used to refer to the accumulation of investments valued by the individual which would be lost if he or she were to leave the organization. However, recent literature, based on quantitative summaries of findings (Cohen & Lowenberg, 1990; Matthieu & Zajac, 1990), argues and with tenure have produced that, in general, the relations of OC with few large correlations. Because the overall magnitude of the relations between OC and age and OC and tenure was found to be relatively small, researchers began to question the importance of age and tenure as determinants of OC (Cohen & Lowenberg, 1990; Meyer & Men, 1984). A limitation of studies on these relati~nsis that they have relied on linear correlation analysis. Another limitation is that both age and tenure are considered in the OC literature as time-reIated variables representing similar effects and processes in their relations with OC. This article attempts to overcome these limitations by examining whether age and tenure, when controlled by the employment stage, differ in their relations with OC. Answering this question may increase our understanding of OC development. If the relations of OC with apte and tenure differ across employment stages, then the importance of incrwing levels of OC should be treated differentlydependiag on the specific employment stage. This understanding should enable the &sjdy of more effective ar#anizational cmr-planning programs as well as provide mamgms with more accurate explanations and predictions about their subordinates' and their own behavior on the job. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Age and Tenure as Determinants of OC

Two views of OC have dominated the literature (Griffin & Bateman, 1986). The first sees commitment as affective or attitudinal and hias been called the organizational behavior or psyckoiogy approach. This view sees the individual as identifying with the organization and, therefore, committed to maintaining membrswp to pursue his or her goals. This treatment of commitment perhaps has its most frequently cited origins in the work of Porter and his associates (e.g., Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; Porter et al., 1974) and has been termed clffectitivecommitment (Meyer & Allen, 1984) and value commitment (Angle & Perry, 1981). The second view has its basis in Becker's ( 1 M ) side-bet theory (Griffin & Bateman, 1986). The essential element of this approach is the argument that previous events have certain cost or forfeiture implications for the present and therefore place restraints on a person's options. Becker argued that,

over a period of time, certain costs accrue that make it more difficult for the person to disengage from a consistent line of activity, namely, maintaining membership in the organization. Working in the organization increases an individual's investments; hence, the costs of leaving can lead to higher levels of OC. Ritzer and Trice (1969) reasoned that side-bets will accumulate over time. For instance, through increased tenure the employee gains seniority and connections within the organization (Becker, 1960). The argument is that an employee's investment of time and effort, for example, makes it more difficult to leave the organization; the more time with the organization, the more side-bets or investments. Therefore, age and tenure were suggested by them and others (Alutto, Hrebiniak, & Alonso, 1973; Meyer & Allen, 1984; Sheldon, 1971) as the best indicators of actions that build up one's stake in the organization. Research findings, however, have demonstrated weak relations between OC and age and tenure. An explanation of these weak relations was proposed by Meyer and Allen (1984). They argued that younger employees may be more committed because of their awareness that, with less work experience, they often have fewer job opportunities. As they gain experience alternate employment opportunities may increase; this decreases the magnitude of one important cost of leaving, that of having no job. Meyer and Allen's explanation is supported by Mowday et al. (1982) and Rusbult and Farrell (1983) who emphasized the importance of the availability of attractive alternative job opportunities. Unavailability should prevent some negative attitudes toward the job and organization that would be possible if many opportunities were available. The Meyer and Allen explanation suggests that levels of OC vary across different age groups as a result of factors such as alternative job opportunities, and therefore age and tenure may affect OC differently across different age groups. Accordingly, the reason for the low correlations of OC with age and tenure may be that these relations are not simple or direct, but moderated by employment stages. It appears that the degree of OC attributable to age and tenure cannot be interpreted, to any large extent, through the side-bet model. The reasoning of the investment model may lead to the argument that the relations between age and tenure and OC should not be examined with simple correlations. This article argues that for those employees who have been in a job for only 1 month, 1 year, or 2 years, a meaningful test of age and tenure as determinants of OC cannot be conducted by charting a simple linear relation. Therefore, if these demographic variables are to be used as determinants of OC, then the appropriate way to test their effect is to control empirically those subjects for whom the true investment characteristics associated with the side-bet model have had a chance to operate. We need to exclude from consideration those individuals who are so early in

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their employment history that sigaificant investments have not yet been made. The dotemiltants of OC and the procccss through which commitment develops and is maintained can vary at different employment stages in a career. This aspect U s to be taken into account in examining the OC-age and 06-tenure relations. Another pertinent question is whether age and tenure, when control4a-i by employment stagas, have different patterns in their effect on OC. This question is apgpropriate because of the findings of M a n , Ferris, and Kacmar (1992) who claimed that age and tenure affect job satisfaction differently. Bedian et al. argued that although age and tenure are both time-related variables which covary with one another, there may be two different models that exphin their effects on job satisfaction. The first is the career-staipe model which was suggabd as an appropriate model for explaining the effect of age. The second is the experience model which was presented as a better repr~sentativeof the effect of tenure. A limitation of the OC literature is that it employs both models without any attempt to separate them conceptually as canslructs that represent different prmeses. Both age and tenure were shown as representing time-related variables that should have the same effect on OC. Foilowing Eedian et al., it can be argued that age represents the career-stwe model whereas tenure represents the experience model. The OC-Age Relation Across Career Stages

According to career developnzent models (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & MeKee, 1978; Super, 1957) the development and maintenance of OC will differ across career stages as represented by age. In the early career stage, lev& of OC vary dp-j oa an individtd's opportunities and the availability of attractive alternatives (Mowday et al., 1982; Rusbult & Farrel, 1983). Those in the early career stage face the contradictory tasks of making commitments and k m n g options open. An individual in the early career stage attempts to become establbhed in a job that interests her or him, but if this job proves inappropriate, she or he does not hesitate to choose another. Employees at this stage express greater inteation to leave their organization and more willimcss to relocate than those in other age groups (Orstein, Cron, & fiiocum, 19g8; Omnstcin & Isabelta, 1990). Based on this, age is expected to be an important determinant of OC in the early career stage. The experienccrs and oppwtunities of wnployges at this s t a e will vary signifiaantfy and will result in different OC levels depending on the number of alternative empfoyment opportunities. Such variations, represented by the employee' a$e, will have a strong effect on OC of employees at this stage. The career models of Super (1957) and Levinson et al. (1978) hold that

the propensity to leave an employer and chosen field of work decreases as one moves into the middle and later stages of employment. People in the midcareer stage are more interested in developing stable work and personal lives and in making strong commitments to work, family, and the community. People in the late stage of their career are in a stage of relative tranquility. They are more oriented to "settling down" and are less willing to relocate or leave the organization for purposes of promotion. Mowday et al. (1982) argued that levels of commitment developed during the early employment period appear to remain stable. Moreover, increased investments in the form of time and energy make it increasingly difficult for employees to leave their jobs voluntarily. The relative stability of commitment levels along with increased difficulties in leaving the organization weaken the relation between age and OC in the mid and late career stages. Thus, one would predict a weaker relation between age and OC in the mid and late career stages than in the early career stage because very little variation in levels of OC are expected in the later career stages. OC-Tenure Relations Across Employment Stages

In addition to the common side-bet model, the experience model, as related to the effect of tenure on OC, seems to be well represented by Reicher's (1986) OC development theory. Reicher's model provides a good explanation of the effect of tenure on OC across employment stages by arguing that the antecedents of commitment can be roughly classified into three categories: (a) psychological (expectations, challenge, conflict), (b) behavioral (volitional, irrevocable acts), and (c) structural (tenure in the organization, accumulated investmentdsunk costs). She suggested that each class of antecedent variables may be primarily associated with early, mid, or late organizational commitments. At the early career stage, psychological attachments to the organization may be the primary antecedents of commitment. Over time, the individual engages in various acts that bind her or him to the organization and lead to commitment. In later career stages, not only do psychological and behavioral linkages operate to produce commitment on the part of the individual, but structural variables such as investments and lack of opportunity elsewhere may combine to cement the individual's attachment to the organization. Reichers (1986) concluded that the management of commitment among newcomers in organizations may be most problematic because behavioral and structural bonds had not yet had a chance to develop fully. Hence, in the early stage, personal psychological variables and not tenure explain a large proportion of variation in OC. During the mid and late career stages, structural and personal considerations increase the effect of tenure on OC. All this evidence points to the need to examine whether the OC-age and

OC-tenure relations differ as a function of empbyment stage. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to reexmine these relations while controlw for different employment stages. The expectations are that the OC-age relation will be stronger in earlier career stages than in later stages and the OC-tenure relation will be stronger in the later stagps than in the earlier stages. Recent developaents in meta-analysis (Hunter & Schmidt, 1% Hunter, Schmidt, & Jackson, 1982) have rn& it possible to reexamine existing studies using qusrntitrttive review methods. Such methods permit the statistical aggregation of research findings and the systematic asswimant of interstudy moderators. Quantitative effects and samples can be cumulated and, consequently, commonalities beyond the scope of narrative reviews can be brought to light. Given the lack of empirical research examining the OC-age and OC-tenure relations while controlling for emplo;ynmont s ~ w , a meta-analytic review appears to be concepttidy and praeticdy apprupriate. A meta-analytic review can increase our inskht into the research question raised by Griffin and Bateman (1986) of whether different theoretical mechanisms and models become activated are are more valid at different stages of the commitment process. METHOD

The Hunter et al. (1982) and Hunter and Schmidt (1990) meta-andytic procedure was used in this study because it aggregates correlation cocfficients across studies, corrects for the presence of stadstical artifacts, and provides unbiased estimates of the thearetical population relations. Following this method, this study consists of three basic steps: the e s t h t i o n of population mean correlation and variance, the correction for stadstical artifacts, and the analysis of moderating effects. Published studies were identified bath by a2ulual and computer-misted searches of the social science, psychology, and miana-ial literature (from 1967 to 1991). The total numbers of sannples that included correl~btional data dealing with the OC-qp and OC-tenure relations were 84 and 80, respectively. (The complete Iist of studks used in this research and for each age and tenure subgroup is available from the author.) Meta-Analysis

Several additional points need to be emphasized to further clarify the meta-analysisthat was conducted. This analysis controlied for the statistical artifacts of sampling error and of predictor and criteria unreliability, but because of insufficient data made no corrections for range restrictions. In accordance with recent arguments in the literature (e.g., McDaniel, Hirsh,

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

149

Schmidt, Raju, & Hunter, 1986) regarding the rules for rejecting the situational specificity hypothesis, it was decided not only to follow the Pearlman, Schmidt, and Hunter (1980) rule of 7970, but also to adopt McDaniel et al.3 (1986) recommendation that the actual amount of variance remaining after accounting for sample size should be considered when determining generalizability. The chi-square test suggested by Hunter et al. (1982) was used only as supporting evidence. Additionally, it was decided to adopt Schmidt, Hunter, and Raju's (1988) suggestion that confidence intervals should be used to interpret validity generalization results. Based on Hunter et al.'s (1982) finding that the average correlation does not violate the independence assumption, it was also decided that, if more than one correlation was reported for a single sample, the average of these correlations would be used.

Moderator effect. In the moderator analysis, a moderating effect would be indicated if: (a) the average correlation varied from subgroup to subgroup, and (b) the corrected variance average was lower in the subgroups than for the data set as a whole (Hunter et al., 1982, p. 105). Definition of age and tenure time-frames. Employee age was divided into four time-frame subgroups: (a) up to 30 years, (b) 31 to 35 years, (c) 36 to 40 years, and (d) older than 40 years. Similar to previous operationalizations (Gould, 1979; Hall & Mansfield, 1975; Rush, Peacock, & Milkovich, 1980; Slocum & Cron, 1985), the first subgroup represents the trial or the exploration career stage, the second represents the establishment or settling-down stage, the third represents the advancement stage, and the fourth represents the maintenance stage. Organizational tenure was divided into three subgroups: (a) 1 to 4 years, (b) 5 to 8 years, and (c) 9 years or more. Again, similar to previous operationalizations (Gould & Hawkins, 1978; Mount, 1984; Sturnpf & Rabinowitz, 1981), the first tenure subgroup represents the exploration or trial stage; the second, the establishment stage; and the third, the maintenance stage. Samples where age and tenure of the respondents were not reported were treated as missing values in the moderator analysis. One may argue that the findings could be affected by the number of years within each of the age or tenure subgroups-specifically, that higher average corrected correlation might be expected in the age or tenure subgroups with a greater number of years (e.g., older-than-40 category for age or 9-or-more year category for tenure). Two arguments can be provided in response to that contention. First, the rationale for the number of years within each category is based on career developments theories (Gould & Hawkins, 1978; Levinson et al., 1978; Ornstein, et al., 1989; Stumpf &

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Rabinowitz, 1981; Super, 1957). These theories argue, with ernpiri4 support, that changes in behavior across age or tenure are not due to chronological changes but that different behaviors or attitudes can be expected in different age or tenure subgsoups. In all these works, the number of years within each age or tenure category was determined sohly on conceptual arguments and as a result age or tenure categories include more years than others. These studies do not mention any effect of the number of years in age or tenure categories on the results. Second, the number of years cannot have any effect on the size of the correlation in meta-analytic research. The decision about which career stage each of the samples of the analysis would belong in was based on the average age of the total simple was reported in each of the studies. Using average age and/or tenure as a criterion for partitioning samples is the most common criterion in meta-analyses examining age or tenure (e.g., Cohn, 1991; Raz & Raz, 1990, Schuerger, Zarrella, & Hotz, 1989). Samples were grouped to this or another career-stage category based on the average age of the total sample. The correlations used for the meta-analysis are the total sample correlations and not the correlations in one or another age or tenure category. Therefore, the size of the correlation in any srunple included here could not be affected by the number of years in the age or tenure category because the correlations are not b e d on category correlations. In summary, there is no conceptual or mathematical reason to expect that the number of years in any age or tenure category will affect the size of the correlations. Measures of commitment. A methodological variable controlled for in this study was the measure of OC. ControUing for the moderating effwts of different OC measures enables compreh@risivecontrol of aEI methodoi~gical aspects of the OC-turnover relation and glSO prmits compaisons with the two previous rneta-andyses (Cohen & Lowenberg, 1990; Nathieu & Zajac, 1990). Three types of measures were controlled for in this study. Following Randall (1990), it was decided to differentiate between the common Organizational Cornmiant Q u e s t i o d e (OCQ;Porter et al., 1974) and other attitudiial measures. in addition, following M&thieua d Zajac, it was decided to control for side-bet calculative measures b a d an Ritzer and Trice's (1969) scale. RESULTS

Results of the meta-analysis for age and tenure for the total sample, controlling for employment stages, are prasentd in Tables 1 and 2. Results demonstrate that the OC-age relation is higher in the early age

TABLE 1 Meta-Analytic Results for the OC-Age Relation Controlled by Career Stages

k

Age

N

r r ,

Observed Residual VAR VAR

CI

%

x2

-

All samples Up to 30 years 31 to 35 years 36 to 40 years Older than 40 years

84 36,482 7 1,207 18 9,224 21 11,655 12

.17 .22 .14 .I7

.I9 .24 .I5 .18

7,509 .19

.20

-.03 to -.20 to -.08 to .00 to

.40 .67 .39 .36

.0127 .0471 .0147 .0086

.0105 .0418 .0128 .0068

17 493.43. 11 62.75* 13 141.56* 20 105.63.

.06 to .35

.0060

.0043

27

47.53,

Note. k = the number of samples in each analysis; N = the total number of individuals in the k samples; r = the mean weighted uncorrected correlation; r, = the mean weighted correlation corrected for attenuation; CI = 95% confidence interval for r,; observed VAR = variance of the uncorrected correlations; residual VAR = observed VAR corrected for statistical artifacts; qo = the percentage of variance across samples attributed to statistical artifacts; and 2 = a chi-square test for variance remaining unaccounted for. *p < .001. TABLE 2 Meta-Analytic Results for the OC-Tenure Relation Controlled by Career Stages Tenure

k

N

r r ,

80 36,877 .09 All samples Up to 4 years 8 5,325 .00 5 to 8 years 23 10,256 .09 9 years or more 15 9,231 .13

.10 .00 .09 .14

CI

-.I0 to .29

- .10 to .10 - .10 to .28 -.07 to .34

Observed Residual VAR VAR % .0105 .0038 .0102 .0109

.0084 .0023 .008O .0093

X2

20 393.43** 39 20.26* 22 106.32** 15 103.96**

Note. k = the number of samples in each analysis; N = the total number of individuals in the k samples; r = the mean weighted uncorrected correlation; r, = the mean weighted correlation corrected for attenuation; CI = 95% confidence interval for r,; observed VAR = variance of the uncorrected correlations; residual VAR = observed VAR corrected for statistical artifacts; % = the percentage of variance across samples attributed to statistical artifacts; and X2 = a chi-square test for variance remaining unaccounted for. *p < .01. **p < .001.

group (up to 30 years, r = .24) than for the total and for the other career stages. The pattern of relations across career stages is not consistent. Whereas the correlation is highest in the exploration or trial career stage, it is lowest in the settling-down or establishment career stage (31 to 35 years, r = .15) and rises again in each of subsequent stage. The pattern of OC-tenure relations across career stages is consistent but opposite to that for age. There is a consistency in the effects in that there is no relation at the exploration or trial career stage (up to 4 years, r = .00), but rises gradually for each of the subsequent stages (r = .09, advancement stage; r = .14, establishment stage).

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COHEN TABLE 3

Meta-Analytlc Results for the OC-Age and OC-Tenure Rslattons Controtled by the Type of OC Measure Variabie

k

N

r

r,

Age All OC measures

84 Porter et al. (1974) OCQ measure 53 Ritzer & Trice (1969) side-bet scale 9 measure Other OC measures 22 Tenure A11 OC measures 80 Porter et al. (1974) OCQ measure 48 Ritzer & Trice (1969) side-bet scale 8 measure Other OC measures 24

CI

36,482 .17 .19

- .03 to .40

26,402 .18 .20

.O1 to .39

Observed Residual VAR VAR %

x2

1,803 .16 .18 -.08 to .43 7.910 .13 .15 -.I5 to .44 36,877 .09 .I0

- .10to .29

26,175 .09 .10 - .08 to .27 1.435 .18 .19 8,759 .07 .07

- .17 to .32

Note. k = the number of smwks in each analyak N = the totat number of individuals in the k samples; r = the mean weighted uncorrkted correlation; r, = the mean wei@ted correlation corrected for attenuation; C1 = 95% confidence interval for r,; obsmred VAR = variance of the uncorrected correlations; residual VAR = observed VAR corrected for statistical artifacts; Oh = the pcrcentw of variance across samples attributed to statistical = a chi-square test for variance remain@ unaccounted for. artifacts; and * p < .001.

xf

Table 3 presents the OC-we and OC-tenure r-ow controlling for the type of OC measurement. For Me, no corrshleralde dfferences were found between the total d the subgroups of mwaires, For tenure, however, there was an interest& difference between the t d and the subwoups of measures. The OC-tenure regation was much higher using the Kitzer and Trice (1969) side-bet measure (r = .19) than for the total sample (r = .lo), for the Porter et al. (1974) attitudinal measure (r = .lo), or for dher measures (r = .07).Mareover, the muks obtdnad for the Eetzer and Trice measure were very consistent, as d e m a n s t f d by the fact that the entire variance across the sample correlations (i.e., I-) was attributed to statistical artifacts. DISCUSSION

"The goal of research in any area is the production of an integrated statement of the findings of the many pieces of research done in that area"


153

(Hunter et al., 1982, p. 162). In the case of the OC-age and OC-tenure relations, the need today is not necessarily for additional empirical data, but for some means of making sense of the vast amounts of data that have already been gathered. The main purpose of this study was to examine these relations controlling for time frames of employment stages. In general, the results have demonstrated that the relations of age and tenure to OC vary across employment stages. The OC-age relation was strongest for the earliest employment stage, whereas the OC-tenure relation was strongest for the latest stage. Based on these findings, it can be suggested that age and tenure as determinants of OC offer two different processes regarding the development of OC. Whereas the OC-tenure relation represents the job experience model and is affected more by job and organizational factors, the OC-age relation represents the career model and is also affected by external factors. The main argument is that age as an OC determinant is exposed to factors external to the organization and the work itself (i.e., having to do with one's life and attitudes beyond those in a very specific work situation such as the organization). Tenure, on the other hand, is a variable focused more on events and factors in the specific job and organization. Tenure cannot have any effect in the early employment stages because investments in the organization have not been accumulated. In the late employment stages, investments have been accumulated and evaluated by employees. Those employees that perceive them as sufficient will stay, and those that perceive them as insufficient will leave. That is, OC-tenure relations can develop only after the employee has spent some years in the organization and, hence, develops investments, evaluates them, and decides, based on the exchange relation, whether or not to commit himself or herself to the organization. This explanation may also clarify the strong relation between tenure and the Ritzer and Trice (1%9) calculative measure of OC. The calculative measure is more organizationally focused. It questions the respondents on the likelihood of their leaving the organization given various levels of inducements in pay, status, responsibility, job freedom, and opportunity for promotion. That is, it concentrates only on pure organizational rewards. It is worth noting the difference between my findings and those of Bedian et al. (1992). Their conclusion was that tenure is a more stable predictor of job satisfaction than chronological age. In this study, however, both age and tenure were found to have a stronger effect on the relations of age and tenure to OC when controlling for employment stages. The findings of the two studies showed that OC and job satisfaction are related differently to age and tenure and demonstrated the differences between OC and job satisfaction. Conceptually, commitment is considered to be a different

construct than job satisfaction. "Commitment as a construct is more global, reflecting a general affective response to the organization as a whole. Job satisfaction, on the other hand, reflects one's response either to one's job or to certain aspects of one's job" (Mowday et al., 1982, p. 28). Therefore, whereas job satisfaction can be rdated to variables associated with the immediate work environment, such as organizational tenure, OC appears to be related to variables outside the immediate work situation as well. Job satisfaction is affected mainly by the job experience model as demonstrated by tenure, whereas OC, as a broader concept, is affected by both the job experience and career models. Job satisfaction and OC should be perceived as separate concepts, each having its unique relation to different anttxedents. Future research needs to reexamine the relations between OC and job satisfaction with age and tenure based on this study's finding and those of Bedian et al. Results of this study lead to several conclusions having implications for future research. The first implication has to do with the effects of the measurement of commitment on the results. Controlling for commitment measure shows that with respect to age, there was no meaninsful and consistent difference between the results based on Porter et al.3 (1974) OCQ measure and those based on Rit~erand Trice's (1969) side-bet measure or on the other affective measures. With respect to tenure, however, differences emerged between the OC attitudinal measure and the side-bet measure in which a higher correlation was found with the side-bet mertsure. This finding partly supports Mathieu and Zajac's (1!2%) argument that calculative commitment is more strongly rdated to age and tenure than is attitudinid commitment because it reflects in its measurement the nature of accumulation of investments as demonstrated by variables such as age and tenure. In that regard, a question can be raised concerning the usefuIn.e6~of combining studies using different measures of commitment. More research is needed to examine the effect of type of measurement on results. It seems, however, that future meta-analyses on OC antecedents and outcomes should control for the type of OC measurement to interpret the findings more accurately. The second recommendation is that more research is needed to examine age and tenure simultaneously in their relations to valued work attitudes and outcomes. Although most of the research so far hiis examined either age or tenure separately in their relation to work outcome vari&b1es, the findings of this study as well as those of Bedian et al. (1992) have demonstrated the importance of examining the effects of both these variables on work outcomes. Biedian et al. argued that a s and tenure are theoretically interesting variables for which, unfortunately, questions of how and why we might expect them to be related to impartant outcomes have been neglected. They suggest& that such theoretical and methodolog-


155

ical advances concerning these two variables should prove fruitful both scientifically and practically. The third recommendation relates to the fact that a large percentage of variance across samples attributed to statistical artifacts in the main-effects findings and in the moderator-analyses findings remains unexplained. In meta-analytic terms, this means that the remaining unexplained variance in the correlations of age and tenure with OC could be due to artifacts, such as variations in the quality of OC measurement, or it could indicate that there are other moderators, some of which may also have strong effects (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). There are probably other moderators affecting these relations. Research should continue, but with some shift in focus. More theoretical developments should direct empirical research and quantitative summaries of previous findings to assist in detecting other moderators that affect OC linkages with age and tenure. Much of the metaanalytic work in the industrial psychology literature has concentrated on main-effect analyses rather than moderator effects. As Guzzo, Jackson, and Katzell (1987) pointed out, "one of the most exciting promises of meta-analysis is that it allows the reviewer to determine the effects of moderators that have never been examined in an original empirical study" (p. 414). Only through further examination of moderator effects will meta-analytic research achieve its potential for stimulating the development of new theories and testing the adequacy of existing theories. Shoemaker, Snizek and Brayant (1977) suggested, for example, that "a fruitful avenue for further research had best take into account differences in the types and levels of employee studied" (pp. 602-603). Another set of recommendations deals with the conceptual implications of this study for future research on OC-age and OC-tenure relations. The findings of this study showed that, even when controlling for employment stages and the type of OC measurement, the magnitude of the correlations of age and tenure with OC was not large. This finding suggests several alternative directions for future research. The first would be to accept one of the arguments of Meyer and Allen (1984) who stated that "the instrument used in tests of the side-bets theory may not be measuring commitment as Becker conceptualized it" (p. 377). The implication of this conclusion is that "in order to test the validity of the side-bet theory, however, a commitment measure must be used that is congruent with Becker's conceptualization" (Meyer & Allen, 1984, p. 377). Meyer and Allen constructed a Continuous Commitment Scale which they think measures more accurately what Becker had intended than do the affective measures that other researchers have used to test his theory. McGee and Ford (1987) reexamined the scales of Meyer and Allen and concluded that one of the subscales of the Continuance Commitment Measure "appears to more closely parallel the side-bet view of commitment,

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COHEN

as described originally by Becker" (p. 640).To wee with the Meyer and Allen and the McGee and Ford conclusions would be to agree that future research needs to examine the side-bet theory using the same strategy as before (i.e., evaluating the relations of age and tenure to an OC measure), but with a more appropriate "Wker-type" m a u r e of continuance 06. A second direction would be to accept the other EAeyer and Allen (1984) argument that perhaps the strategy used to examine the side-bet theory was inappropriate: "Using age and tenure as indexes s ~ s lless s appropriate than directly obtaining employees' perceptions of the size and importance of investments they have made. This type of strategy would be consistent with Becker's theory" (pp. 337-338). Along this line of thought, one could go further and conclude that the strategy of examining Beoker's theory bmed on the relations of age and tenure with OC measures was inappropriate no matter which OC measures were used. It is not sido-bet indices such as age and tenure which are meaningful but rather the "individuals' perceptions regarding the number and the magnitude of the side bets that they made" (Meyer & Allen, 1984, p. 378). Based on this argument, we need a different strategy for examining the thwry. Meyer and Allen thmselves s the works of Farreil and Rusbult (1981) and Rusbult and Fwrell(lM3) as containing a more appropriate strategy for examining the side-bet theory in the future. The practical implication of either of the precwhg conclusions is that we need a new body of empirical research before we can reach any conclusions regarding the side-bet theory. Because the two conclusions require a new body of empirical research, only future studies wiU prove their validity. A third direction is to follow the W a n et al. (1992) argument that it is quite common in behavioral sciences to overentphwka the proportion of variance explained to the exclusion of other issua. In the "softer," wilder areas of psychology (including organizational), the practical valw of a result should not be based on the magnitude of the associated effect. Establishing the shape or functional ridation between key variables should be emphasized more because the measures of exp1tlined variance may be misleading or inappropriate indicators of a finding's importance. Because the intent is usually to explain or understand, maximizing variance accounted for is not a primary concern. On a final note, despite some of the limitations of this study, it demonstrates that more attention should be paid to moderating effms in the relations between OC and age and tenure. Future rasearch should further explore the explanations offered in this study. Another avenue for research could be a longitudinal study of OC-qe and W-tenure relations across employment stages, cornwing their effects at different st-. Although this study has shown that these relations vary with empbyment stage, future research should try to provide a more solid conceptual


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framework for this moderating effect. This study demonstrates the need to develop such a conceptual framework and apply some of the career development (Levinson et al., 1978; Super, 1957) and OC models (Mowday et al., 1982; Reichers, 1986). The arguments proposed in this study may well be a good starting point for such research. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions. I also thank Karen Dustan and Pat Elemants for their editorial assistance. REFERENCES Alluto, J. A., Hrebiniak, L. G., & Alonso, R. C. (1973). On operationalizing the concept of commitment. Social Forces, 51. 448-454. Angle, H. L., & Perry, J. L. (1981). Organizational commitment and organizational effectiveness: An empirical assessment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 1-14. Becker, H. S. (1%0). Notes on the concept of commitment. American Journal of Sociology, 66, 32-40. Bedian, A. G., Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Age, tenure, and job satisfaction: A tale of two perspectives. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 40, 33-48. Cohen, A., & Lowenberg, G. (1990). A reexamination of the side-bet theory as applied to organizational commitment: A meta-analysis. Human Relations, 43, 1015-1050. Cohn, L. D. (1991). Sex differences in the course of personality development: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 252-266. Farrell, D., & Petersen, J. C. (1984). Commitment, absenteeism and turnover of new employees: A longitudinal study. Human Relations, 37, 681-692. Farrell, D., & Rusbult, C. E. (1981). Exchange variables as predictors of job satisfaction, job commitment and turnover: The impact of rewards, costs, alternatives and investments. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27, 78-95. Gould. S. (1979). An equity-exchange model of organizational involvement. Academy of Management Review, 4, 53-62. Gould, S., & Hawkins, B. (1978). Organizational career stage as a moderator of the satisfaction-performance relationship. Academy of Management Journal, 21. 434-450. Griffin. R. W., & Bateman, T. S. (1986). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In C. L. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology @p. 157-188). New York: Wiley. Guzzo, R., Jackson, S. E., & Katzell, R. A. (1987). Meta-analysis analysis. In L.L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 9, pp. 407-442). Greenwich, CT: JAI. Hall, D. T., & Mansfield, R. (1975). Relationships of age and seriority with career variables of engineers and scientists. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 201-210. Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, E. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hunter. J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Jackson, G. B. (1982). Meta-analysb: Cumulating research findings across studies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

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