An Empirical Study - IEEE Computer Society

Proceedings of the 39th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2006

ICT, Multi-channels, and the Changing Line of Visibility: An Empirical Study Mary Tate Beverley G. Hope David Johnstone School of Information Management Victoria University of Wellington PO Box 600, Wellington 6015, New Zealand [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This paper argues that the advent of multi-channel environments, incorporating ICT-mediated channels, necessitates a reinterpretation of the ‘line of visibility’ found in the service quality literature. In a multi-channel environment, inconsistency or service breakdowns above the line of visibility gives a negative impression of organisational competence below the line. Many face-to-face contact points have been replaced by ICT-mediated contact points, and this gives a transparency to the line of visibility, allowing customers to see into the organisation’s back office systems. In this research, two propositions are empirically tested using mystery shoppers. We find that multi-channel customers using a mixture of face-to-face and ICT-mediated channels can gain insights into organisational systems, processes and values that were previously below the line of visibility. This suggests that organisations need to concentrate on consistent quality delivery throughout the organisation, including back-office processes, in order to maintain their customers’ confidence.

1. Introduction It has been said that to the customer, “the encounter is the service” [3], that is, customers form opinions of the service quality delivered by an organisation based on their encounters. Providing quality encounters requires commitment at all levels of the organisation, not only from customer-facing staff. Integrated internal resource systems and processes, supported by appropriate organisational culture and training, are required to provide consistent quality across channels [1] [8] [11]. Each channel in a multi-channel environment provides a point of contact with the organisation, presenting the visible face of the organisation. Collectively, these faces

form a line of visibility between the customer and the organisation. A significant trend in channel strategy over recent years has been the provision of automated selfservice channels such as interactive voice response (IVR) and Internet channels. These channels allow customers to perform a range of functions such as maintaining personal information, determining product availability, or checking on the status of orders. Servicing these channels often requires organisations to give customers access to information in back-end systems such as customer databases, inventory systems or order tracking systems, thus allowing customers to evaluate systems below the line of visibility. In this paper we explore the impact of multi-channel interactions on the line of visibility and on customer perceptions of quality. We suggest that self-service has made the line of visibility more transparent and that the line can develop cracks caused by inconsistent customer experiences across channels. Customers can now see much more deeply into an organisation’s core infrastructure, systems, processes, and values. This creates new challenges for organisations trying to deliver consistent quality in customer experiences. This rest of this paper is organised as follows. First we review the concept of the line of visibility from the service quality literature and apply it to a research model from the multi-channel e-commerce literature to develop theoretical propositions about the changing line of visibility. We then describe our methodology for testing the propositions with data collected by mystery shoppers operating across multiple channels. Next we qualitatively analyse the data with respect to the theoretical propositions to determine the extent to which they are supported. We conclude with some implications for research and practice and present some final remarks.

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2. Literature review In this section, we briefly review the concept of the line of visibility from the service quality literature and present a multi-channel e-commerce model from our previous research. We then consider the evolution of functionality in e-commerce web-sites and the increasing trend towards the provision of self-service functions. Finally, we develop theoretical propositions based on these two models.

2.1. The line of visibility The line of visibility is a theoretical line between an organisation and its customers. The line is comprised of a series of points at which an organisation touches its customers, and is defined by the deliverables that are visible to customers [13]. The concept of a line of visibility has been enormously influential in informing the practice of service delivery. In the past, service was delivered by front-line staff but today a wide range of technologies and channels are used as customer contact points. New ICT-mediated self-service channels are changing the nature of the line of visibility: More contact points are available, organisations have 24x7 accessibility, and customers are increasingly interacting with an information system rather than with a person [5].

2.2. Multi-channel e-commerce and service branding research model The e-commerce literature suggests that in multichannel environments, management of integrated internal resource systems is required to deliver a consistent customer experience across channels and this leads to multi-channel e-commerce success (Figure 1). Quality management of internal resource systems

Consistent customer experience

Multi-channel e-commerce success

Figure 1. Generalised e-commerce value creation model Several e-commerce studies have supported this general model at a high level, but the detailed constructs proposed for each of the three components have varied

across studies [1] [8] [11]. A weakness of many studies is that they ignore the softer, organisational characteristics implied in the model. These include factors such as the internalised brand (defined as clear and deeply embedded values that are lived by the staff) [2] [4] [6], staff training [4] [9], and the sense of shared values and emotional connection that many successful organisations develop with their customers [2]. Research propositions in this study are based on the general model and on a theoretical model we developed in previous research (Figure 2) [11]. The theoretical model is informed by both the service branding and e-commerce literatures and it addresses both the hard and soft aspects of organisational processes and culture. This model follows the general structure we have already outlined: quality internal resource systems leading to quality customer experiences, leading to multi-channel e-commerce success, but it includes additional constructs from the service branding literature. Organisation culture and values: Internal training and reinforcement Emotional connection Quality management of internal resource systems: Process Engineering Functional integration Information management

Consistency and quality in the customer service experience: Channel synergy Logistics Management Customer Management

Multi-channel e-commerce success

Strong service brand

Figure 2. Multi-channel e-commerce and service branding success model Adapted from: Tate and Hope, 2004 [11]

Quality management of internal resource systems. This construct is generalised from factors relating to the internal management of resource systems identified from both multi-channel e-commerce and service quality literatures. These include functional integration (the degree to which channels share common organisational resources such as finance, marketing and logistics within a multi-channel environment), integrated information management (application infrastructure, internal and external communications infrastructure, and IT management), and quality process engineering (particularly when it leads to consistency in the production and delivery of products and services).

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Consistency and quality in the customer experience. Both the e-commerce and service branding literatures emphasise the importance of quality and consistency in the customer experience. This includes customer management practices (such as responsiveness to e-mail), tools (such as adaptive personalisation), logistics management for order fulfilment, and channel synergy. The aim is to provide a seamless and consistent purchasing experience across channels Organisation culture and values. This factor has received relatively little attention in the e-commerce literature, but is common in the service quality literature. To deliver consistent customer experiences, internal systems must be supported by organisational commitment at all levels. A culture of customer service and staff training enables staff to portray brand values that resonate emotionally with customer. Strong service brand. The outcome of quality managed internal systems is consistency and quality in customer experiences which, in turn, leads to a strong service brand. A strong brand engenders trust, customer loyalty, customer retention, and a higher spend per customer factors that have been found in e-commerce studies to lead to multi-channel e-commerce success. We assert that success in multi-channel e-commerce requires an understanding of service branding and marketing. In multi-channel e-commerce, the number of customer contact points and the resource systems that deliver them increase. To achieve a service brand in such an environment requires a commitment at all levels of the organisation, extensive training, and quality management of a diverse range of internal resource systems. The customer experience is delivered through channels where the organisation interacts with its customers

Quality management of internal resource systems

Multi-channel e-commerce success (business outcomes)

Channel contact points form a line of visibility between the customer and the organisation

Consistent customer experience

Strong Service Brand

Figure 3. The line of visibility applied to the generalised e-commerce value creation model

customer encounters are all contact points on th ne of visibility, then inconsistent multi-channe xperiences can create a negative impression of th rganisations internal resource systems below the line.

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Internal resource systems

Figure 4. Multiple channels create opportunities for service inconsistencies and breakdowns The line of visibility occurs in the multi-channel e-commerce and service branding success model between the internal resource systems and the customer service experience (Figure 3). Multi-channel e-commerce increases the number of customer contact points on the line of visibility (Figure 4). The average number of channels in multi-channel business-to-customer firms is now greater than four [7]. While an increase in the number of channels creates a stronger ‘anywhere, anytime’ line of visibility, it also creates new opportunities for service breakdowns. Customers can, and will, interact across multi-channels and expect to have consistent experiences. Inconsistent service at different points along the line of visibility will likely create a negative impression of the organisations internal resource systems (Figure 4). Initially e-commerce websites provided only information and communication services. Today these sites commonly provide self-service transaction capability [3]. Customer service and support is predicted to be the largest single organisational use of the Internet in the South Pacific in 2005 (Table 1). This suggests that the line of visibility will increasingly consist of a channel mix that includes both human-human and human-computer interaction. Table 1. Uses of the Internet (South Pacific) Use of the Internet Customer Service and support Communication with suppliers and customers Marketing/advertising Taking orders/sales transactions Market research Product delivery Other Source: IDC forecast (2005) [10]

2004 32

(forecast) 2005 44

30

26

14 7 4 4 9

9 6 3 2 10

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Because self-service channels provide direct customer access to the organisations information systems, the line of visibility becomes transparent. The customer can ‘see through’ into selected subsets of the organisation’s information systems (Figure 5). Self-service electronic channels make the line of visibility transparent, allowing the customer to “see into” the organisations information systems

Internal resource systems

Figure 5. Self-service ICT-mediated channels make the line of visibility transparent

2.3. Research propositions Proposition 1: Inconsistent experiences of multichannel service delivery above the line of visibility create a negative impression of organisational resource systems below the line of visibility. We have established that multi-channel e-commerce increases the number of points on the line of visibility. We have also established that this places demands on organisational cultures, values, processes, and competencies. Unless organisations practice quality management across a wide range of internal resource systems and support this with customer-focussed values and staff training, it will be difficult to achieve consistent delivery at the line of visibility. Faced with service breakdowns or inconsistencies above the line of visibility, multi-channel customers will make informed inferences about the quality of an organisation’s internal systems. The customer may become aware of ‘cracks’ in the line of visibility. Proposition 2: Self-service digital channels make the line of visibility transparent. Customers can ‘see’ into the organisation’s back end processes and information systems. Digital self-service channels allow customers to view, and in some cases update, data held in organisational information systems. This makes the line of visibility permeable, enabling customers to see and penetrate deep within the core systems and processes of the organisation.

3. Methodology

A journal approach was used to capture customer experiences and perceptions of actual service encounters across multiple channels of organisations. Twelve research participants each mystery-shopped a self-selected organisation for three months. Participants included four women and eight men aged between twenty and forty-five. All participants were tertiary-educated, experienced Internet users, and had basic knowledge of the principles of information systems management. Each participant was requested to interact a minimum of six times across a minimum of three channels with an organisation with which they had an existing relationship. They were encouraged to attempt similar tasks across more than one channel where possible, but beyond this, no guidelines on expected behaviours, outcomes, or reactions were given. The study included two public sector organisations, a liquor distributor, a children’swear retailer, an electronics retailer, a bike and accessories retailer, four banks, a courier company, and a provider of mobile telephony products and services. Participants were asked to record in a journal the name of the organisation, and any other relevant contact information (e.g., address, URL). For each service encounter, they were asked to record: when, where and how they contacted the organisation (or the organisation contacted them), the purpose of the interaction, whether that purpose was achieved, how satisfied they were with the interaction (not satisfied, partly satisfied, or completely satisfied), the reason for the satisfaction rating, and any other aspects of the interaction that seemed important or interesting Data were analyzed qualitatively. First, inference statements in the journals were identified. Inference statements were defined as statements where participants ascribed causes to the phenomenon they observed. Each inference statement was coded as either ‘above’ or ‘below’ the line. Statements were coded as ‘above the line’ if the participant explained their level of satisfaction with the outcome in terms of the immediate encounter. For example, a face-to-face encounter that was recorded as unsatisfactory ‘because the sales person was unhelpful and bored’ would be coded as ‘above the line.’ Statements were coded as ‘below the line’ if the participant explained their level of satisfaction with reference to some internal system. For example, a telephone call that was recorded as unsatisfactory because it was not answered and ‘I would have expected that they would at least have had a voice messaging system’, was coded as ‘below the line’ because the explanation provided for the poor service included an inferred lack of an appropriate back-end system. Next, statements coded as ‘below the line’ were analysed using pattern-matching with a list of categories based on constructs in the research model. We had determined that data would not be forced into existing

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categories, and additional categories would be created as required. Using the model creates a link between theory and empirical data “providing a template against which to compare the results of the study” [12, p.50]. This met our goal of empirically testing existing theoretical propositions. The decision to allow new categories allowed us to make explicit areas where existing theory required extending.

4. Results In total the twelve participants recorded 66 service encounters (Table 2). The average number of service encounters per participant was a little less than six and the average number of channels per participant was just under four. Channels included face-to-face visits (to stores, bank branches, and government agencies), websites, telephone contact centres, catalogues, and selfservice digital transactions (using, for example, mobile phones, ATMs and EFTPOS machines). Of the 66 encounters 6 were rated unsatisfactory, 18 partly satisfactory, and 42 satisfactory. For a third of the encounters (22), participants gave ‘below the line’ explanations for the service outcome (Table 2). Table 2. Mystery shopper service encounters

Not satisfied Partly satisfied Completely satisfied Totals

Total encounters 6 18 42 66

‘Below the line’ explanations 3 7 12 22

4.1 Proposition 1 Inconsistent experiences of multi-channel service delivery above the line of visibility create a negative impression of organisational resource systems below the line of visibility. Inference statements which suggested impressions of ‘below the line’ organisational resource systems included aspects of: • quality process engineering, • information management, • functional integration, • staff training, and • emotional integration. 4.1.1 Quality process engineering. Some unsatisfactory service encounters led participants to infer breakdowns in organisational processes. For example, participants expected modern multi-channel organisations to provide a semblance of continuous availability. The minimum expectation was an ability to make asynchronous contact

using a message system. As one mystery shopper commented: “One day I tried to call the Embassy [in New Zealand] but they were closed and there was no message as to whys. I was not sure if they were indeed closed or if the operator just did not take my call.” and another observed “The call [to a retailer] was not answered, not even an answer phone…. I am astounded that this would happen. I would expect a recorded message at the very least.” Participants expected interactions above the line of visibility to be backed by reliable back-office processes, and inferred that process breakdowns had occurred when promises made by front-line staff were not met. For example, one mystery shopper commented “I never got my call back [from a Govt agency…. A week later, when I phoned to find out why, the person I spoke to was unaware of the request…. I still do not know what happened to my request” and, later “Before the presentation, the sergeant asked my family member to take a fitness test. He had already taken two…the fact that [they] can lose records is a major issue” There was also an expectation that organisations will support multiple channels and allow customers to interact via the channel of their choice. One of the organisations in the study had the appropriate ICT infrastructure, but it was not backed by appropriate processes. As a mystery shopper observed: “On the form there had been an option to provide an email address. I asked the representative why I was not emailed. She said she wasn’t sure, but [they] tend not to use e-mail to contact people.” Mystery shoppers also commented positively about the way enhanced organisational processes provided more convenience and better service for them. One bank had re-engineered their branch queuing system, as a shopper reported: “I did not have to stand in line to hold my place in the queue. A chit numbering system structures the queue and allows customers to sit down and wait. I’d not been to the bank for a while and found this new method very interesting.” An electronics retailer used a combination of e-mail, and website functionality to make it easy for a mystery shopper to identify the product they were interested in and to order it: “I received an e-mail later the same day including a link to the [web] page outlining the product and where I could order it online…I followed the link provided in

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the e-mail. No site navigation was needed because I was provided a direct link to the product.” 4.1.2 Information management Many of the unsatisfactory service encounters were attributed to poor information management. Customers expect that information will be consistent across channels, as one shopper commented: “The information [the Embassy] provided me was not consistent. For example, the passport renewal fees on the website were not consistent with what they told me when I spoke with them.” and they expect changes made in one channel to be instantly reflected in others, as a bank shopper said: “I checked the balance of my bank account after the transaction I had made that day. I was not totally satisfied. Balance details are not updated in real time.” Similarly, customers expect a seamless service across locations. When one of our mystery shoppers asked for inventory information from other stores in the chain of a clothing retailer, and it was not available, she assumed it was a deficiency in their back-end information systems, as she wrote: “She told me that they could not view their other store’s stock. This told me that their systems are not synchronised…. This is very disappointing” Another mystery shopper was frustrated at having to repeat information on a return call – she expected better information storage and retrieval. “I phoned them and someone else answered the phone. I had to repeat all the information. To avoid this kind of frustration, the Embassy needs to set up a database to collect and store customer’s details” When customers are interacting with ICT rather than face-to-face, technical faults reduce confidence and trust in the organisation’s competency: “The first time I tried to register [on the website] some technical problems occurred. This affects customer trust. I had to reset my password through customer service” Our mystery shoppers did not take good service experiences for granted. ‘Below the line’ explanations were offered for almost a third of successful interactions as, for example, the comment: “It was the first time I had ordered something via their website. After ordering, I promptly got an automated e-mail acknowledging the order.” 4.1.3 Functional integration Participants commented positively on organisations displaying evidence of functional integration. For example, one shopper wrote:

“It took only 40 minutes for them to reply to my enquiry. Not only was it quick, it was after hours, which meant they had a contact centre that handled emails. They contacted me in the evening, which was my preferred contact time, and they contacted me through my preferred contact channel” 4.1.4 Staff training Mystery shoppers noticed when staff training produced consistent outcomes between ICT and face-toface channels. “I mentioned the same parameters I had used for my email enquiry and the sales person gave the same options as the email response.” 4.1.5 Emotional integration Our mystery shoppers appreciated a sense of emotional connection even from Internet channels. A mountain bike, clothing and accessories retailer does not have any physical stores, but still creates a sense emotional connectedness with their customers, as a shopper commented “Their warranty is ‘Conceived by cycle nuts and refined by the style police…If it breaks when it shouldn’t have, we’ll put it right. No horsing around, no excuses. No cost to you. No problems’. From my experience that is exactly what happens” Even a major bank managed to create a sense of emotional integration on their website “They really gave the impression [on their website] that they welcomed feedback and wanted to help”

4.2 Proposition 2 Self-service digital channels make the line of visibility transparent. Customers can ‘see’ into the organisation’s back end processes and information systems. Mystery shoppers commented on the ability to directly access relevant information held by the organisation. This was seen as a positive outcome, especially the ability to select desired information, as a bank shopper observed: “I was able to track my transactions for my own, userdefined, periods of time, and for any account I chose.” However, sometimes a transparent line of visibility also allowed the customer to see cryptic internal system codes that would have benefited from further translation, as the same bank shopper commented: “[at the ATM] I was able to print out a list of the last 10 transactions, however, I was disappointed to find that there was no key explaining abbreviations on the transaction list like POS and WTB .”

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Mystery shoppers liked being advised of the progress of their orders, although this could be seen as overkill when service levels were already high, as the bike and accessories shopper commented: “All courier companies and a lot of online retailers allow you to track your order. [Bike and accessories firm] sent only one e-mail saying the order had been submitted. This didn’t matter because inside New Zealand it is overnight delivery. For overseas customers, for whom delivery will take longer, tracking may be more important.” Transparent information systems also gave insights into circumstances beyond the organisation’s control: “I sent my package to the United States during a time of heightened security. I could see from the track package feature on the website that my package had got stuck in Los Angeles, and I assumed it was due to security issues.”

5. Discussion Overall, we found support for our research propositions from the mystery shopper data. ‘Below the line’ explanations were offered for outcomes of approximately a third of all service encounters, including both positive and negative outcomes. We found that inconsistent multi-channel service delivery experiences above the line of visibility created a negative impression of ‘below the line’ organisational resource systems. Multiple channels provide multiple contact points and 24x7 visibility for organisations. Customers can, and will, use multi-channels and they expect a seamless, consistent experience. To consistently provide high quality service across contact points, organisations need quality internal resource systems. In an extension to our research propositions, we found that customers also make cross-organisational comparisons concerning the line of visibility. Organisations with a quality culture, excellent organisational processes, and strong information management systems are able to deliver consistent quality above the line of visibility using both ICTmediated and face-to-face channels. This raises customer expectations across the board. Unexpectedly, we found our mystery shoppers did not take good experiences for granted, but attributed them to quality processes, good information management, functional integration, staff training, and emotional integration. The research provides empirical support for our multi-channel e-commerce and service branding success model. In particular, we confirmed that quality management of internal resource systems is a key enabler of successful customer service experiences.

Our second research proposition, that self-service digital channels make the line of visibility transparent, was also confirmed. The research supported our assertion that digital channels allow customers to see into the organisations back end processes and information systems: That ICT is no longer solely a ‘below the line’ organisational function. Many of the interactions our mystery shoppers had with organisations were ICTmediated or ICT-automated (using, for example, Internet, telephony, or mobile channels). In an extension of our research propositions, mystery shoppers also commented on the ability of ICT systems to convey empathy and to create in customers an emotional connection with the organisation.

5.1. Implications for Research and Practice These findings have implications for research and practice. From a research perspective, we provide empirical support for a holistic multi-channel e-commerce and service branding success model that posits that quality management of internal resource systems supported by a customer-oriented organisational culture, is necessary to deliver consistent quality in a multi-channel e-commerce environment. This suggests that the research in this area needs to concentrate on the causal relationships among these factors, rather than investigating individual factors in isolation. We also raise important questions about the meaning and application of the line of visibility in a multi-channel environment, particularly one that makes extensive use of digital and self-service channels. Since the line of visibility is a widely cited construct in service quality literature, continuing research into the nature of the interface between organisations and their customers is essential to the success of the modern multi-channel organisation. Our research points to the changing nature of customer expectations of service quality. Perceived service quality has been extensively studied in both traditional and e-commerce environments. The current research suggests that customers make cross-channel and cross organisational comparisons when setting their expectations and these need to be reflected in measures of service quality gaps. This research also has significance for practice. The holistic, inter-connected nature of the factors that lead to a consistent customer experience places great demands on organisations. Increasingly, organisations cannot rely on a line of visibility between front and back offices, and need to make a commitment to quality, integrated, customer-focussed systems and processes at all levels of the organisation, so that even their information systems convey empathy!

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6. Conclusion The line of visibility between customers and organisations is changing. Multiple channels and the increasing use of ICT-mediated channels can increase an organisations visibility to their customers. This increased visibility is perceived positively by customers, but it also raises expectations. Services such as automated afterhours messaging systems become part of the expected norms of customer service. As well as raising expectations, multi-channel environments increase the opportunities for service breakdowns. Customers receiving inconsistent advice or service ‘above the line’ will assume that there are issues with organisational competence ‘below the line’, and their trust in and perception of the organisation may be affected. So organisations need to take a holistic approach to managing the customer experience. Excellence in individual channels, such as a contact centre, or individual systems, such as a CRM system, is no longer sufficient. Quality management of all internal resource systems is essential to providing consistent customer experiences. The line of visibility is increasingly digital, making it both transparent and permeable as customers use digital self-service channels to directly access and manipulate data stored in the organisation’s information systems. This blurs the distinction between front and back office and makes aspects of the organisations internal resource systems and processes more visible to customers. It also means that organisations may use digital channels to convey values such as empathy and emotional connection with customers - formerly the preserve of staff members. In conclusion, the line of visibility has not only changed, it may be in danger of disappearing. Higher levels of availability and self-service give customers unprecedented insights into the internal resource systems of the organisation – either directly, by accessing data from the organisations systems, or indirectly, via comparisons made about service levels between different channels of the same organisation, or between different organisations. This raises many interesting questions for future research, and many challenges for organisations committed to using ICT to deliver quality customer service.

[3] Bitner, M.J., Brown, S., and Meuter, M.L., "Technology Infusion in Service Encounters", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2000, 28(1), 138-149. [4] Chernatony, L., Drury, S., and Segal-Horn, S., "Building a Services Brand: Stages, People and Orientations", The Service Industries Journal, 2003, 23(3), 1. [5] Cox, J. and Dale, B.G., "Service Quality and E-commerce: An Exploratory Analysis", Managing Service Quality, 2000, 211(2), 121-131. [6] Crosby, L. "Exploding Some Myths about Customer Relationship Management", Managing Service Quality, 2002, 12(5), 271-277. [7] Day, G.S. and Hubbard, K.J., "Customer Relationships Go Digital", Business Strategy Review, 2003, 14(1), 17. [8] Goersch, D., "Multi-Channel Integration and Its Implications for Retail Web-Sites", Proceedings of the 10th European Conference on Information Systems, Gdansk, Poland, 2002, 748-758. [9] Gronroos, C., "From Scientific Management to Service Management: A Management Perspective for the Age of Service Competition", International Journal of Service Industry Management, 1994, 5(1), 5-20. [10] IDC, “Forecast for Management," 2005. Report available from: http://www.idc.com.au/managementportfolio/ forecastformanagement/ [11] Tate, M., and Hope, B., "The Importance of Service Branding in Multi-Channel E-commerce Success: Towards a Research Framework", In S. Elliot (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Australasian Conference on Information Systems. Hobart, Australia, 1-3 December 2004, CD-ROM, pp. 1-5. [12] Yin, R.K., Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd Ed., Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 1994. [13] Zeithaml, V.A., Parasuraman, A., and Berry, L., Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations. New York: Free Press, 1990.

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