An integrated socio-environmental approach to the

Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 586e603

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

An integrated socio-environmental approach to the study of ancient water systems: the case of prehistoric Hohokam irrigation systems in semi-arid central Arizona, USA Louise E. Purdue a, *, Jean-François Berger b a b

CEPAM, CNRS-UMR 7264, University Nice Sophia Antipolis, 24 avenue des Diables Bleus, 06357 Nice, France EVS, CNRS-UMR 5600, University of Lyon 2, 5 Avenue Pierre Mend es France, 69676 Bron, France

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 10 October 2013 Received in revised form 23 October 2014 Accepted 6 November 2014 Available online 15 November 2014

Water systems lie at the interface between nature and culture and in that perspective are a rich but under-explored research object. Their temporalities (construction, maintenance, abandonment) represent an image of a social, cultural, economic and political context as well as changing environmental conditions. This socio-environmental signature recorded in the spatial organization, sedimentary fill and profile of hydraulic structures can be reconstructed by means of a systemic cross-disciplinary approach (geoarchaeology, chronology and paleoenvironment). The principle and limits of the methods applied to this research object are presented and discussed in this paper. While they can be applied to different environmental contexts, they will be presented through the example of Hohokam irrigation systems in the semi-arid Phoenix basin, Arizona, where this approach has been applied as a whole. As water systems are structural elements of the spatial and socio-political organization of societies, this approach will provide elements to discuss the relative impact of human and/or environmental factors on landscape change and cultural shifts, and measure the long-term vulnerability and resilience of agricultural communities to regional environmental changes. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Water systems Socio-environmental study Geoarchaeology Chronology Paleoenvironment Hohokam Semi-arid Arizona

1. Introduction Since the emergence of the first agricultural communities, water control has been a major political, social and environmental issue. Its management and distribution have represented an element of construction and organization of human communities, even in extreme environments (e.g. Price, 1971; Butzer, 1976; Donkin, 1979; Gentelle, 1980; Hsu, 1980; Adams, 1981; Allchin and Allchin, 1982; Will, 1989; Chaudhuri, 1990; Eyre, 1994; Menu, 1994; Manning, 2002; Francfort and Lecomte, 2002; Charpin, 2002; Wilkinson and Rayne, 2010). Traditional approaches to studying past water systems (dams, reservoirs, wells, aqueducts, irrigation/drainage networks) have been integrated with the fields of theoretical anthropology (e.g. Wittfogel, 1957; Mitchell, 1973; Netting, 1974; Service, 1975), ethnography (Hunt and Hunt, 1973, 1976; Lees,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 6 89 65 74 35. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L.E. Purdue), [email protected] (J.-F. Berger). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.008 0305-4403/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1973; Downing and McGuire, 1974), social history (e.g. Glick, 1996; Nabhan, 1986) and spatial archaeology (e.g. Gentelle, 1980; Bruins et al., 1986; Francfort and Lecomte, 2002; Mouton, 2004; Ortloff, 2009). These fields of research consider water systems as physical and socio-political entities. While their construction and abandonment resulted in part from environmental constraints (hydroclimatic, tectonic, geomorphic) (e.g. Raikes, 1964, 1965, 1984; Harrison, 1977; Jacob, 1995; Waters, 2000; Dunning et al., 2002), their control was a structural element of the organization, cooperation and urbanization of complex societies. Their expansion followed climatic changes, technological innovations and transfer of knowledge, demographic increase, and/or the introduction of new crops (e.g. Sanders and Price, 1968; Morin, 1987; Vogt, 2004; Braemer et al., 2010; Wilkinson and Rayne, 2010). This model however does not consider water systems as dynamic socioenvironmental entities. Societies have built water systems for food production, energy, industry, transport and/or commerce purposes and they have dealt with water resources under the combined effect of social (water needs and technological capacity) and environmental constraints (water availability) (Fig. 1).

L.E. Purdue, J.-F. Berger / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 586e603

587

Fig. 1. Hydraulic structures at the center of socio-environmental studies (modified from Bernigaud et al., 2013).

Therefore, ancient water systems represent ways of adapting to existing and evolving environmental constraints but are also an image of a socio-economic, cultural and technological system and of its evolution, articulated around phases of cultural stability and breakdown (Burnouf et al., 2003). In that perspective, larger interdisciplinary research projects have focused on the relation between climate change, water management (technology, water policy), and human adaptation (e.g. IGBP-PAGES, Past HumanClimate-Ecosystem Interactions (PHAROS) coordinated by J. Dearing (Dearing et al., 2007); Farming the Desert: The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey coordinated by G. Barker et al (1996, 2008). Balikh Valley Syria: Investigations from 1992e1995 coordinated by T. Wilkinson; Long Term Vulnerability and Transformation Project coordinated by M. Nelson (e.g. Nelson et al., 2010); Survey, mapping, and excavation of Pre-Hispanic irrigation systems, northern Peru from 1976e1980, directed by M. Moseley (e.g. Ortloff et al., 1985); Archaeology and Desertification: The Wadi Faynan Landscape Survey, Southern Jordan coordinated by G. Barker et al.; Harrower, 2006). In parallel, research revolving around the development of new methods of studying water systems in environmental history (e.g. Crook et al., 2008), geography and geomorphology (e.g. Marcolongo and Morandi Bonacossi, 1997; Kamash, 2012; Harrower, 2006), hydrology (e.g. Orengo and Alaix, 2013), geomatics and geophysics (e.g. Keay et al., 2009; Powlesland et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2000), image analysis such as aerial imagery (e.g. Sanders, 1982; Clarke et al., 2005; Wilkinson, 2003; Hritz and Wilkinson, 2006), Public released Corona imagery (e.g. Pournelle, 2003; Hritz, 2004; Altaweel, 2005; Fowler and Fowler, 2005; Goossens et al., 2006), Landsat data (e.g. Fowler, 2002; Pope and Dahlin, 1989), has resulted into flourishing studies. Despite the relevance of these contributions, ancient water systems themselves remain a rich but under-explored research object. Indeed, they are only rarely considered as three dimensional objects, which can be perceived at scales interlocking at various spatial and temporal levels (system, hydraulic structure, stratum, microscopic observations; short and/or long-term social or environmental events such as floods or cultural shifts), and are directly connected to local and micro-regional geomorphic evolutions (e.g. Wilkinson, 1998; Berger, 2000; Beach et al., 2009; Purdue, 2011; Bernigaud, 2012; Orengo et al., 2014). It seems necessary therefore to specify the existing research by better considering water

systems as direct signatures of long-term historical and environmental contingencies, by understanding the significance of the fill of hydraulic structures on a local scale, by providing a better chronology of these structures which represent an issue in off sitein site archaeology and reconstruction of land-use cycles, and lastly by integrating socio-natural interactions on a large scale. This would allow us to answer four major questions: 1) Is the construction of water systems a result of environmental and/or human constraints to emancipate themselves from the stress of water scarcity? And when considering the latter, to which extent did social, political, demographical and/or economical conditions influence the development and the scale of water systems? 2) How did communities adapt to changing environmental dynamics and water supply in the long-term? 3) In the process of social and demographic development, what is the impact of a fluctuating water supply? How did the technology, organization and maintenance of hydraulic systems evolve through time? 4) What is the long-term impact on the environment of water management and water use? This article presents a systemic and interdisciplinary approach ((geo)-archaeological, chronological and paleoenvironmental), as well as its limits, to answering these questions. Some aspects of this approach have been applied in diverse environments and are mainly mentioned as methodological references to demonstrate that this approach can be applied to other pedosedimentary and climatic contexts. However, the paper uses the semi-arid Phoenix Basin in central Arizona, cultivated and irrigated by the Hohokam between the 4th and the 15th century AD (Gumerman, 1991), as a major illustration of this approach (Purdue, 2011) (Fig. 2). 2. General approach To understand the evolution of water systems, they have to be considered as major components of a socio-natural system, also referred to as an anthroposystem, defined by a set of interacting physical, chemical, biological, ecological and human factors which ve ^que et al., 2003) (Fig.1). evolve at various spatio-temporal scales (Le

588


These factors, and more precisely the environmental framework in which water systems are built, must be reconstructed first (geomorphology, pedology, hydrology, climate, topography). Hydraulic structures are traditionally filled with clastic or geochemical sediments which record local or allogenic paleo-ecological dynamics (Bertrand, 1975) as well as hydrosedimentary ones, such as local and short-term events (storms, floods, vegetation development) to regional long-lasting environmental shifts (fluvial metamorphosis, incision, soil erosion) (Berger, 2000). Also, their spatial organization, occurrence, shape, design and maintenance result from a technical system which reflects social dynamics (Fig. 1). Hence, hydraulic structures can be studied from a multi-disciplinary approach (geoarchaeology, archaeology, chronology and paleoenvironmental studies). Hierarchised water systems are analyzed at different spatial scales (structure itself, networks, geomorphic unit or watershed) and temporal scales (phases of cultural stability, cultural shifts, transcultural use integrating morphological and functional inheritances) (Chouquer, 2000; Chouquer and Favory, 1991). Systematic studies provide local to regional results to emphasize the spatial representativeness of the dynamics recorded in hydraulic systems. This information should be complemented with an archaeological and spatial study of settlement pattern and paleodemography, which are intertwined with the temporality of water systems (Berger et al., 2007; Wilkinson and Rayne, 2010). Finally, this approach allows us to discuss the complex dynamics of anthropised environments (versus anthroposystems) and the vulnerability and stability of communities to hydro-climatic constraints (Fig. 1).

3. Identification, characterization and study of water systems in the field 3.1. Identification of fossil networks and spatial organization Identifying fossil networks and their spatial organisation is the first step to reconstructing the history of water systems. The latter are structured around main streams in valleys or smaller lateral hydrosystems (sources, small tributaries, intermittent streams). Based on the available data and depending on the environment in which the systems are built, three main methods can be determined: historical analysis, field survey, and photo interpretation/ remote sensing, all of which have been used to map, for the last century, the extensive Hohokam irrigation system in central Arizona (Fig. 2). 3.1.1. Landscape regression analysis and field survey Modern activity such as urbanization and land levelling, or natural dynamics like alluvial aggradation in floodplains, bury deeply hydraulic structures and so reduce the chances of encountering them in the field and thus limiting the ability to map them. In the Phoenix basin, the scarce vegetation favoured the visibility of hydraulic networks prior to this intense modern activity. Therefore, historic sources such as cartography, parcel plans or even paintings, drawn by locals inhabitants, administrators, government officials and geographers based on surficial evidence (Goodwin, 1887; Bandelier, 1890; Patrick, 1903; Turney, 1929; Midvale, 1966)

Fig. 2. Mapping and identification of prehistoric hydraulic structures based on field survey and aerial pictures. a) Map of Prehistoric Hohokam irrigation systems along the lower Salt River in the semi-arid Phoenix basin (Arizona) used between the 2nd to the 15th century A.D. (after Turney, 1929); b) Relict portion of the prehistoric Santan Canal, North Branch, facing northwest. Photo courtesy of the Gila River Indian Community-Cultural Resources Management Program, Sacaton, Arizona. c) Hohokam irrigation systems along the lower Salt River (Phoenix, Arizona) mapped after more than 20 years of CRM archaeology (based on Howard and Huckleberry, 1991) and location of the four principal sites mentioned in this paper; d) Aerial view of two Hohokam Prehistoric canals and their berms just east of Sky harbour airport in 2009 (Phoenix, Arizona) (Google Earth, 2014).


(Fig. 2a), are useful tools to identify their location. Structures can also be encountered directly in the field thanks to preserved berms or residual stone alignments, which are sometimes the unique traces of past hydraulic systems (e.g. Miles et al., 2010) (Fig. 2b). Topographic and geophysical surveys can help identify hydraulic structures based on electric or magnetic differences provided by soils and walls (Sternberg and McGill, 1995). Pedological studies can also be used as tracers of past irrigation. This is the case where soil series composed of organic and fine textured soils follow broadly the alignment of irrigation canals (Dart, 1986) as a result of repeated dredging, flooding or bankwash (Huckleberry, 1997). Lastly, the extensive mapping of fossil networks can also be provided by rescue or programmed excavations (e.g. Howard and Huckleberry, 1991) (Fig. 2c). 3.1.2. Photo interpretation/remote sensing to detect ancient networks Aerial photos and topographic maps have traditionally provided qualitative means of understanding ancient human use of water from a spatial perspective. Some preserved Hohokam canals are visible because they form darker lines often flanked on each side by alignments corresponding to their berms formed during the structure's excavation or dredging (Fig. 2d) (Judd, 1931; Masse, 1981). More recently, satellite imagery has allowed for the identification and mapping of water systems on larger scales and in contexts where aerial photography is strongly limited. Medium to High Resolution satellite images such as Skylab images (e.g. Ebert and Lyons, 1980) and Landsat data (Showalter, 1993) have contributed to spreading satellite data for mapping water systems in the American Southwest as they provided a low cost alternative

589

to aerial imagery. However the use of Very High Resolution satellite imagery, such as IKONOS (1999), QuickBird (2001), and SPOT (1985) have not been used in this area as a result of intense urbanisation but could provide relevant results in less modified zones. LIDAR (early 2000's) is also a very promising tool to identify preserved archaeological structures and land-use traces through microtopographical variability (Wienhold, 2013). The extraction of Digital Elevation Models (DEM) combined with synoptic views and the multispectral properties of the data allows for a whole new range of possibilities to study water systems (Massini et al., 2011). 3.2. The geoarchaeological method 3.2.1. Principle, tools and first interpretations Once mapped, hydraulic structures can be located using a GPS, and their profile studied by digging backhoe trenches perpendicular to their alignment (Fig. 3a). The first step requires recognizing them and the second step involves describing their fill using specific markers: texture, sorting, colour, structure, stratigraphic boundaries as well as eco- and artefacts types and density. Secondly, it is necessary to describe the adjacent natural stratigraphy and compare this local dynamic with the pedo-sedimentary deposits encountered in the canal. First interpretations on the systems function and environmental dynamics can be formulated based on regular open-channel hydraulics (e.g. Chanson, 2004), sediment transport in natural streams and ecological dynamics. However, specific considerations and consequent methods must be taken into account to understand the sediment characteristics and origin, the function of the water systems and to define sampling strategy.

Fig. 3. Excavation and discrimination between natural channels and hydraulic structures (lower Salt River Valley, Phoenix, Arizona e Phoenix Sky Train® project U:9:28. Site location is mentioned Fig. 2c, n 1). a) Backhoes trenches dug perpendicular to canal alignments; b) Distinction between natural channels and anthropic structures based on their profile and longitudinal morphology. Canal sizes depend on the type of canal and its location (primary, secondary or tertiary canal). Natural channels such as gullies usually have similar sizes, but channels are much larger if they correspond to main stream ones; c) Trapezoidal irrigation canal filled with laminated silts and sands; d) Irregular-shaped natural intermittent channel filled with coarse weakly-sorted gravels.

590


3.2.2. Discrimination between anthropic features and natural channels Depending on their geomorphic location, channels and hydraulic structures can be observed simultaneously. Their profile can resemble one another if hydraulic structures are earthen made and do not contain bank improvements, such as walls or stones. Looking at their alignment (in the case of networks), shape, fill and maintenance will allow for their distinction. The first discriminating element is the reverse dendritic structure observed in the landscape between a natural river system and a water system, mainly irrigation systems (Berger and Jung, 1996) (Fig. 2a and c). Channels often present sinuous alignments (meander type) and morphological irregularity (dyssimetric profile from a bank to another) due to the equilibrium between slope, sediment load and flow, while hydraulic structures generally have a straight alignment, follow contour lines (parallel or perpendicularly) and present a triangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or circular shape (Fig. 3b, c and d). However, even if initial shapes can be preserved, cleaning practices or high energy events (e.g. floods) followed by bank deepening or undercutting can change initial designs. If structures are localized (e.g. reservoirs) multiple trenching should allow to spatially delimitate their limits and discriminate them from natural features. The fill of hydraulic structures depends on many parameters in which their geographical location (proximity to headworks and river), rank level in the network (main, secondary or tertiary canal...) and function (drainage, irrigation, etc.) appear predominant. Other events such as headgate control, stability of the hydraulic structures and lateral concentrated runoff should also be taken into account. In Hohokam irrigation canals for instance, deposits are often laminated (with positive graded bedding) and finer than channel deposits as a result of rhythmic in and out flow and/or upstream headworks control (Fig. 4). These structures contain archaeological artefacts. Channels are usually filled with massive coarser deposits occasionally cross-stratified (Fig. 3d). However, this signature cannot be generalized to all water systems. This is the reason why hydraulic structures should also be discriminated from natural channels based on stratigraphic unconformities which correspond to dredging events (Fig. 4a and b). Dredging is generally vertical and leads to the removal of sediments not normally eroded by natural events. 3.2.3. Origin of the deposits and their significance 3.2.3.1. Human or natural signature?. When discussing the environmental significance of sediments in hydraulic structures, one must not forget that they are man-made constructions. First of all, they are integrated in a hierarchised system, separated by headworks, which operate as filters. Secondly they are maintained

structures, often cleaned and restructured, a frequent human practice in active sedimentary systems which partly removes sedimentary archives. For instance, fine-textured deposits, indicating low flow, can result from water shortage, drainage, strong flow against which communities are protecting themselves using headworks, voluntary management of the system, or could even be due to the structure's location at the terminal part of an irrigation system, where the flow is highly reduced (Fig. 5). Therefore, it is necessary to replace the structure studied within its network, understand its function, and reconstruct the general paleohydrological context. Moreover, frequent dredging or deepening of banks, that remove initial phases of the fill, require the study of numerous profiles of a similar structure (at least 2) or multiple structures to obtain more complete sedimentary sequences. 3.2.3.2. Active or post-abandonment deposits?. When studying water systems, it is necessary to understand if the sedimentary fill of a hydraulic structure is contemporaneous to its use or corresponds to post-abandonment deposits. Chronocultural or stratigraphic correlations between dated hydraulic structures and adjacent human occupation usually indicates that both features are contemporaneous. However, in continuously occupied areas or when structures are not linked to any archaeological sites, this question can be a real challenge. Unfortunately, there are no specific criteria that can help distinguish between active and postabandonment deposits as multiple processes can lead to similar signatures on the field (e.g. weakly-sorted structureless deposits could correspond to alluvium or post-abandonment slopewash; Huckleberry, 1999; Huckleberry et al., 2012). However, the study of these deposits at a microscopic scale can help discriminate some of these dynamics. Because hydraulic structures are cleaned however, their fill usually corresponds to the last periods of use, even if some preserved and older deposits can be encountered at their base or laterally. 3.2.3.3. Controlled flow or flooding events?. This discrimination can be complex. In Hohokam irrigation structures for instance, controlled sedimentation is normally composed of well-sorted sediments with occasional traces of graded laminations (sandy deposits implying strong flow, and clayey sediments indicating low flow to water stagnation) (Fig. 4). It is often considered that coarser and weakly-sorted deposits associated or not to traces of erosion result from uncontrolled sedimentation. Flood deposits in semiarid environments are often sandy, massive and composed of rounded to angular soil aggregates originating from regional soil erosion and local bank erosion. The thickness of flood deposits depends on how close the studied structure is from the event itself and if the latter corresponds to a single flood (a major centennial

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic identification of canal dredging and removal of previous sedimentary information (Purdue, 2011). a) Canal System 12, lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona (Fig. 2c, n 3); b) Riverview at Dobson, lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona (Fig. 2c, n 4).


591

Fig. 5. Example of the significance and origin of deposits in hydraulic structures (lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona e Phoenix Sky Train® project U:9:28 e Fig. 2c n 1) (Purdue, 2011; Henderson, 2013). a) Location of the hydraulic structure studied (Canal 1) and trenches 1 and 2 dug perpendicular to its alignment; b) View from the east of Trench 1 and description of the environmental dynamics encountered; c) Stratigraphic description of Trench 1. Canal 1 truncates active intermittent channels from nearby alluvial cones (see US 7, 11, 12, 13); d) Stratigraphic description of Canal 1 in trench 2, downstream of its intersection with intermittent streams. The canal is filled with blocky clay indicating reduced to non-existent flow. This does not provide information on the river discharge, but on local hydro-sedimentary dynamics which highlights the importance of studying multiple crosscuts of hydraulic structures to understand the significance and origin of the deposits. As a remark, in Henderson, 2013, Trench 1 ¼ DA Trench 18, Trench 2 ¼ DA Trench 11 and Canal 1 ¼ DA Canal 3.

592


Fig. 6. Origin and significance of controlled and uncontrolled flow in irrigation systems. Pedo-sedimentary signatures of flooding events can provide information on the evolution of the hydrosystem and its impact on human communities when high resolution chronology is provided and correlated to hydro-climatic data.

event could destroy headworks or damage parts of the canal banks) or a durable evolution of the river system (by aggradation, incision or/and widening events) making hydraulic systems inoperative (Fig. 6). Some features can be completely buried under flood deposits. Dating both the evolution of the hydrosystem and changes along hydraulic networks will provide information on the origin of deposition and on the adaptability of communities to hydroclimatic constraints. The study of historic hydraulic structures has been useful in central Arizona in identifying such dynamics (Huckleberry, 1999; Purdue, 2011). 3.2.3.4. Erosion and runoff water supply. Hydraulic structures located on sloped areas or piedmonts are subject to torrential activity and gullying. Runoff water can be channelled but concentrated rainfall events and gullying can have a destructive impact. In the American Southwest, gullies overlapped linear networks, creating a local interruption of their route or burying them, while modifying the morphology and fill of the hydraulic structures (Fig. 5). By combining photo interpretation studies, field observations and laboratory analysis, specifically looking at morphological, petrographical, sedimentological and magnetic criteria, it is possible to discriminate fluvial longitudinal sediment supply from local lateral sediment supply and discuss the voluntary diversion of local runoff water (Table 1). 3.2.3.5. Signature of abandonment. The depression created by abandoned hydraulic structures favours the accumulation of diverse sediments. Fluvial water contributes to the deposition of

fine particles and the in-situ development of vegetation in the upper part of the structure (shrubs and herbaceous plants) as a result of greater local moisture (e.g. Berger, 2000). In Hohokam canals, these deposits usually present a prismatic to polyhedral structure, characteristic of frequent wettingedrying cycles (Purdue, 2011) (Fig. 7a). Other signatures, such as deposits originating from the slopewash of berms, can also be encountered. They are composed of weakly-sorted and mottled deposits from previous episodes of fill (e.g. Huckleberry et al., 2012). Abandonment deposits in hydraulic structures located on sloped areas or piedmonts can also be composed of similar deposits (Fig. 7b). Some hydraulic structures can also be filled with eolian deposits (Woodson et al., 2007). While it can be difficult to attribute the occurrence of eolian deposits to climatic periods, this sediment supply generally results from the removal of deposited fluvial sediments during phases of landscape stability (Wright et al., 2011).

3.2.4. Identification and characterization of human management Transversal crosscuts of hydraulic features enable us to identify their shape, usually linked to their function and providing different means of efficiency. Studying these evolutions can highlight useful information on technological skills. For instance, the best crosssections for hydraulic structures, such as unlined canals or ditches, are parabolic ones (Mironenko et al., 1984). As this shape provides a nearly constant hydraulic radius, they are stable against lateral sliding of slopes and fluctuating flows while trapezoidal shapes are easier to build but their slopes are sensitive to eroding ~e s, 2005). To measure canal efficiency, it is also velocities (Montan

Table 1 Sedimentary distinction between erosion processes and runoff-water channelling. Event

Field data

Criteria of differentiation Particle type

Particle morphology

Sorting

Sediment transport

Gullying/lateral erosion

Berms braking and sloping; heterogeneous deposits; proximity with detrital cones or geological outcrops Proximity with detrital cones or geological outcrops/coarse deposits associated to torrential processes Canal widening and irregular profiles

Mix between local and regional deposits, soil aggregates, charcoals Local minerals enrichment, presence of soil aggregates with coarse charcoals Regional sediment origin, angular-shaped soil aggregates locally reworked

Contrasted sized-particles, rounded to angular-shaped particles Homogeneous sized particles, rounded to angular-shaped particles Angular

Weak

No sedimentary signature, uniform flow

Average

No sedimentary signature, uniform flow

Weak to average depending on the degree of berm erosion

Graded to uniform sedimentation

Runoff water channelling Berm erosion (flooding)


593

Fig. 7. Characterization of abandonment deposits (Purdue, 2011). a) Dark brown clay indicating eutrophication of the hydraulic network (lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona e Phoenix Sky Train® project U:9:28 e Fig. 2c, n 1); b) Terminal gravelly deposits as a result of reactivated lateral intermittent streams from local alluvial cones that mark the end of the canal use (lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona, La Lomita e Fig. 2c, n 2). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

possible to calculate velocity, discharge and critical flow (e.g. Mabry, 2008) or even model channel hydraulics (e.g. Ertsen, 2010; Ertsen et al., 2014). It is also possible to estimate to what extent communities maintained their systems (and indirectly measure their stability) by dating deposits on the side of the hydraulic structures which correspond to old clean-out deposits, therefore providing archives of ancient canal maintenance. While Turney at the end of the 1920's noticed that numerous Hohokam canals in the Phoenix basin had large preserved berms on their side corresponding to clean-out deposits, many of these sedimentary archives were levelled and destroyed at the beginning and during the 20th century, prior to being studied and dated. Estimating the amount of times hydraulic features were cleaned has also proven efficient (Purdue, 2011) but needs to be used with precaution as one cleaning event can remove past ones (cf. section 4.1). Hohokam hydraulic structures can also record other traces of human management easily observable in the field: 1 e charcoals or ashes due to burning events to remove vegetation within the structures (e.g. phreatophytes) or as part of land maintenance (Fig. 8a), 2 e stones, earth walls or fine material on the sides and

bottom of the feature to protect it from erosion (e.g. Doyel and Elson, 1985) (Fig. 8b); 3 e bevelled bottom surfaces to reduce/increase velocity. 3.3. Taphonomic processes and importance of geomorphic location 3.3.1. Preservation of hydraulic structures Hydraulic structures can be difficult to observe and study due to post-abandonment natural and/or anthropic processes (Brochier, 1991; Berger and Jung, 1996, 1999). Their preservation is highly dependent on their location in the landscape and associated processes (Fig. 9). On stable geomorphic units (e.g. Pleistocene terraces) where pedological processes dominate, hydraulic structures are generally close to the surface. However agricultural practices or wash-out erosion, dominant in the American Southwest since the last century, might have eroded the upper part of their fill when the structures are located on terrace scarps (Haury, 1976). In alluvial plains, lower Holocene terraces or alluvial cones, hydraulic structures can be buried and well-preserved under overbank deposits if regular accretion occurs. However, they might also be frequently

Fig. 8. Signatures of human activity in hydraulic structures (Purdue, 2011). a) Lens of ashes pointed by the arrow as a result of a burning event to destroy the vegetation which reduces flow velocity. The microphotograph shows mixed flaky burnt organic matter with particles of micrite calcium carbonate (ashes) indicating in situ burning (XPL) (lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona e Phoenix Sky Train® project U:9:28, e Fig. 2c n 1); b) Macro- and microphotographs of a bank protection structure composed of fine silt mixed with grounded calcrete to limit lateral erosion (lower Salt River valley, Phoenix, Arizona e Canal System 12, Fig. 2c, n 3) (NPL). Plane polarized light (PPL), crossed polarized light (XPL).

594


eroded as a result of gullying or flooding. Closer to the headworks, much of the sedimentary information can be removed because of continuous occupation and regular canal maintenance. When postabandonment soil development occurs, the upper part of these structures might be eroded. 3.3.2. The issue of equifinality The equifinality of environmental processes (Valentine and Dalrymple, 1976; Pawluk, 1978; Kemp et al., 1993) can frequently lead to misinterpretations. Indeed, environmental features may have various origins and it is challenging to discriminate between syn-, post-depositional and post-abandonment processes (Fig. 10). Syn- and post-depositional signatures are preserved when sediments regularly alternate and are not disturbed by erosion or biological dynamics. On the other hand, the observation of similar signatures on a complete profile could indicate post-abandonment disturbance. This has to be taken into account when extrapolating to larger environmental dynamics. 4. Chronology and paleoenvironmental study of water systems

consequence of hydrological processes. This will provide information on the long-term evolution of the hydrosystem. Irrigation channel networks are often dated using adjacent archaeological sites, which provide indirect information on their chronology of use but not on their history. Dating hydraulic structures is complex, mainly because sediments are not always preserved and don't automatically contain organic datable material. When possible, a date processed at the bottom of the feature can allow for an estimate of its construction date despite the fact that these basal sediments are posterior to its construction. Dates obtained in the upper part of the fill indicate with more confidence when the structure was abandoned. This ideal situation is recorded when a structure is continuously used or when post-depositional processes have not impacted the upper part of the feature. In this last context, the last period of canal use can be estimated by dating the base of the ultimate structure in function (Fig. 11). Human activity however often alters this interpretation. Indeed, a hydraulic structure can be used for centuries but its fill might record only a decade of sedimentation and use if the last dredging destroyed all prior deposits (Fig. 11). Multiplying trenches to try and identify previous traces of hydraulic structures should be conducted to prevent misinterpretations.

4.1. Chronology 4.1.1. Aims, strategy and limits The aim of the chronological study of hydraulic structures is 1) to know when water systems were built, cleaned and abandoned, 2) to examine changes in water management through time, 3) to correlate contemporaneous features based on the assumption that identical signatures within canals in different locations are a direct

4.1.2. Absolute and relative dating Radiocarbon dating is traditionally used to date hydraulic structures. However some limits have to be taken into account. First, charcoals can originate from older or more recent horizons by means of pedoturbation processes, maintenance and bermbreaking (Berger and Jung, 1999). Sediments reworked by undermining or cleaning episodes can also disturb charcoal assemblages

Fig. 9. Differential preservation of hydraulic structures based on their geomorphic location and the hydrosedimentary processes associated (based on Berger and Jung, 1999).


595

Fig. 10. Equifinality of environmental processes. a) Homogeneity of soil structure; b) Homogeneity of crystalline features.

and lead to erroneous radiocarbon dates. Also, they might have been transported a long distance or result from “old wood” in semiarid environments (Schiffer, 1982). Therefore, choosing isolated charcoals is not optimal and should be the last solution adopted. Charcoal beds or lenses, which reflect instantaneous fire events close to or within the structure itself, should be prioritized (Berger, 2008). The lack of organic datable material has favoured the development of OSL dating (Aitken, 1985) which provides high resolution dates in shortly-used structures (Berger et al., 2004; Huckleberry and Rittenour, 2013). However, this technique still needs refinement, mainly in the sampling strategy (Berger et al., 2003, 2008) but also as a result of sediment reworking within the canal. Often however, the only way of dating hydraulic structures is relative dating (dating of related structures, ceramic dating, and chronostratigraphy) (Watkins et al., 2011). In the Hohokam world, canals are earthern made, and no man-made and datable protecting structures have been encountered, such as brick walls or lime plaster. However, these structures are often buried or cover pithouses, which provide a precise chronological framework. Secondly, hydraulic structures located nearby archaeological sites, potentially used as dumping grounds, can contain sherds or sometimes complete pots fallen or thrown in the canal by the neighbouring

communities. They will be considered in primary position in that case and provide a reliable date. Unfortunately, sherds can be also identified in secondary position in which case they are not directly linked to the period of canal use. They originate from lateral water circulation or berm breaking, and then will provide a terminus post-quem date. In that situation, their external aspect can help understand the context (altered and rounded sherds indicating secondary position). A structure's age can also be estimated based on pedo-sedimentary correlations when the local chronostratigraphic context allows it (Fig. 12). Once the hydraulic structures are dated, dates can be compiled and plotted into frequency histograms of calibrated age ranges, using various bin sizes. This method called the Cumulative Probability Difference Functions (CPDF) of 14C ages was first used and discussed for synthesizing radiocarbon database series of past fluvial dynamics (Macklin et al., 2006; Hoffmann et al., 2008) or to characterize the temporal dynamics of human societies at regional, micro-regional or local (in-site) scales (Gkiasta et al., 2003; Shennan and Edinborough, 2007; Williams, 2012). Similarly, we can add absolute (14C, OSL) and chronocultural dates with their incertitude forks by using excel macros or Oxcal to see shifts in the use of hydraulic systems at a micro-regional or regional scale

596


Fig. 11. Chronology and sedimentary gaps in hydraulic structures: impact of human activity.

(Fig. 13). The canal CPDF curve built can also be compared to cultural or population changes (Fig. 13) as well as environmental shifts.

4.2. Paleo-ecological, sedimentological and paleo-pedological studies 4.2.1. A multi-proxy approach Interdisciplinary studies in hydraulic structures allow for a complete and precise reconstruction of environments (Berger, 2000, 2008). Not all proxies presented below need to be studied but their preferential preservation should convince researchers to pursue a large panel of analyses. Botanical studies conducted in Hohokam canal fills in the American Southwest, such as charcoal and paleoethnobotanical analyses, allow for the reconstruction of the natural, cultivated and/ or burnt vegetation cover, locally to regionally (eg. Miksicek, 1987; Miksicek, 1989; Miksicek and Gasser, 1989). Palynology records events of land clearance and human impact on the landscape but also the seasonality and dynamics of water flow (MacLaughlin, 1976; Fish, 1987; Adams et al., 2002). The main tree and grass cover can also be estimated thanks to the study of phytoliths. The latter have also helped in identifying irrigation practices in other areas (Rosen and Weiner, 1994; Madella et al., 2009). Ostracodes

have proven to be good palaeo-ecological markers of water systems (Turpen and Angell, 1971; Delorme, 1989; Bodergat et al., 1993). Their study provides information on water salinity, quality, rhythm in sedimentation, and saturation conditions (Palacios-Fest, 1994; Smith, 1995; Palacios-Fest et al., 2001; Bayman et al., 2004). This analysis can be complemented by mollusc studies to reconstruct the vegetation organization at a local scale (in canals or ditches or along them when hedges are present) (Vokes and Miksicek, 1987). Non pollinic microfossils, such as microscopic unicellular algae (diatoms), can also be very useful as they are good indicators of hygrometry as well as water temperature and quality (Battarbee, 1988). Traditional soil analyses include grain size analysis, size parameters, morphology, mineral magnetic analysis, surface texture and sediment fabric to better describe sedimentary fills and depositional processes (e.g. Huckleberry, 1991, 1999; Miles et al., 2010; Purdue, 2011). This approach can be refined with microscopic analysis, rarely conducted in hydraulic contexts in general (Courty, 1990; Leroyer and Krier, 1991; Berger, 2000; Kemp et al., 2006; Purdue et al., 2010, 2011; Gilliland, 2011). By focussing on a certain amount of features representative of past active processes within the hydraulic network and that prove resistant to time alteration (Table 2), micromorphology can help better identify and understand sedimentological, pedological, pedo-climatic and


597

Fig. 12. Building a regional chronostratigraphy of hydraulic structures in fluvial contexts.

Fig. 13. Frequency histogram of 83 calibrated age ranges obtained from 71 Hohokam irrigation canals in the lower Salt River valley (Phoenix, Arizona) using a 50-year bin size (e.g. One date framed between 900 and 1000 AD will count for 1 between 900 and 950 AD, and 1 between 950 and 1000 AD). Dating was obtained both from rescue archaeology projects or processed at the “Centre de Datation par le Radiocarbone” in Lyon by means of the annual CNRS ARTEMIS tenders (see Purdue, 2011 for more details). This cumulative probability difference functions (CPDF) of 14C ages reveals two peaks of hydraulic activity (Xth and XIIIth c. AD). Population estimates (Doelle, 1995, 2000) were obtained by classifying Hohokam sites by size and attributing a population to each class based on archaeological data from the most-representative and well-excavated sites. Thanks to archaeological surveys and statistical extrapolations, Doelle then attempted to estimate missing sites. Recent work by Nelson et al., 2010 allowed to update the database and precise the estimates. The dotted section of the lign represents a period for which data is lacking. Correlating the population curve to the temporality of canal systems highlights the link between major canal construction/abandonment and population increase/decrease. However, temporary periods of canal abandonment (e.g. phase 3) can still occur during periods of population increase, implying probable issues and conflicts over water, as well as the probable need to diversify subsistence strategies.

598


Table 2 Example of topical inquiries, marker differentiation and interpretation of the fill of hydraulic structures both on the field and for micromorphological analysis.

Sedimentology

Topical inquiry

Type of data

Marker differentiation

Possible interpretation

Flow intensity

Texture

Sand Silt Clay

Sediment transport

Sediment sorting and composition

Positively graded

High fluvial discharge (Fig. 14a) Average fluvial discharge Water stagnation (when coupled with coarser sediments in a graded bedding sequence) and/or low water circulation (Fig. 14f) Rhythmic sedimentation, gradual rise and fall of the water level (anthropic or climatic signal) (intermittent flow) does not imply flooding (Fig. 14b) Balance between discharge and sediment supply Flooding episodes with turbulent flow, or brutal increase/decrease in water level, or bioturbation Berm braking or local water diversion (Fig. 14c) Fast sedimentation Fast sedimentation with high suspended load Permanent hydromorphic conditions (Fig. 14d) Wetting and drying cycles High bioturbation and soil moisture, reduced sedimentation (Fig. 14e) Wetting and drying cycles, water stagnation, bacteria activity (Fig. 14f) Scarce vegetation, canal drying out, increased sensibility to erosion Intensity of the fire regime Regional fire signal, effect of bioturbation, granulometric sorting, possible arrival by air circulation (Fig. 14g) Local fire In situ fire (Fig. 8a) Possible burnt ligneous trees fragments Possible gramineae vegetation

Homogeneous: uniform grain size and fabric Heterogeneous: weak sorting þ soil aggregates Local Pedology

Biological activity and sedimentation rate

Microstructure

Simple grain Massive to vughy Vughy Blocky/columnar Channel/granular

Water presence or absence

Ecology

Fire regime

Oxidation/reduction

Impregnation, sesquioxide nodules

Pedological crusts

Structural or depositional crusts

Charcoal Origin

% Microcharcoal (125 mm) Ashes Quadrangular to semi-elongated fragments with vascular canals Fine homogenous elongated fragments Subrounded to rounded shapes

Fauna

Shells

Ostracode shape

Vegetation cover

Organic matter Origin of the organic matter

% Fresh/print Humic debris beds/lens Subrounded soil aggregates fragments Microparticles

ecological dynamics and environments as well as anthropic signatures (Fig. 14). Selected markers can be qualitatively, semiquantitatively (Harden, 1982; Bullock et al., 1985; Dorronsoro, 1994) or quantitatively described (point-counting: Eswaran, 1968; Murphy and Kemp, 1987; Amonette, 1994, or image analysis).

4.2.2. Necessity of building references To better understand the significance of paleoenvironmental proxies, their origin and preferential degree of preservation, it is necessary to build multiple references (Brewer, 1972; Courty, 1990) on various materials. Systematic sampling in stratigraphic units belonging to modern hydraulic structures and natural deposits, for which the climatic, hydrological, ecological and human processes involved are known based on textual qualitative and quantitative archives (e.g. temperature, rainfall, discharge, vegetation

Allochthonous origin by fluvial transport (Fig. 14g) Specific water temperature and salinity (Fig. 14 h) Vegetation cover (in situ to regional) In situ vegetation (Fig. 14i) Erosion and deposition of decayed plant matter (local to regional) (Fig. 14 j) Soil erosion Weak (or sparse?) vegetation cover

assemblages, etc.), should be conducted for interdisciplinary studies (e.g. in the Phoenix basin: Adams et al., 2002 for pollen and micro-invertebrates analyses; Huckleberry, 1999a for the identification of flood deposits; Purdue, 2011 for various soil processes). These specific references will help comprehend (1) how a hydraulic system records its proximal environment, (2) human reactions and adaptations to natural hazards and risks, such as the phreatic (hydromorphy, soil salinisation), erosion and flooding risks (Huckleberry, 1999a; Graybill et al., 2006).

4.2.3. Sampling strategy There are various sampling strategies to tackle different questions (Fig. 15). When diachronic trends are meant to be reconstructed, sampling is usually systematic. However, some hydraulic structures contain numerous stratigraphic units and systematic


599

Fig. 14. Microphotographs of some environmental markers identified in irrigation canal fills (Phoenix, Arizona): plane polarized light (PPL), crossed polarized light (XPL); (a) Wellsorted basaltic coarse sand, pellicular to bridged grain structure (XPl); (b) Clayey silts/sands with positive graded bedding (PPL); (c) Post-abandonment polygenic medium sand with numerous eroded and rolled soil aggregates (XPL); (d) Vughy microstructure indicating permanent hydromorphic conditions provoking the breakdown of an initial microaggregated structure (XPL); (e) Crumb microstructure in a large channel as a result of biological activity (PPL); (f) Clay with an angular blocky structure and impregnation of iron and manganese oxides indicating wetting and drying cycles; (g) Layer of rounded to semi-elongated microcharcoals (PPL); (h) Transversal crosscut of a well-preserved ostracode carbonate valve (lateral view) (XPL); (i) Transversal crosscut of a calcium carbonate characeae stem as a result of in situ vegetation growth in a humid environment (XPL).

discontinuous sampling can also be conducted (Courty et al., 1989). For paleo-ecological studies, bulk sediment (5/10 L) should be sampled in major stratigraphic units, sieved (2 mm, 1 mm, 500 mm, 250 mm) and sorted under the binocular magnifier to separate ecofacts (molluscs, ostracodes, charcoals, seeds and other macroremains, insects, CaCO3 rhizoliths and nodules, gypsum crystals,

ironemanganese nodules...). Some of this sediment will be preserved for more specific analyses such as diatoms, phytoliths or grain size studies. Specific sampling should be processed for pollen, better preserved in finer, hydromorphic or organic deposits, despite the fact that they can be altered by frequent wettingedrying and abrasion processes (Stahl, 2006). Micromorphological samples are

Fig. 15. Sampling strategy with a focus on micromorphological sampling and the use of plaster bands to protect the samples and keep their orientation.

600


carved into the profile, in each stratigraphic unit or between two of them, protected by plaster bands and wrapped in manila paper (Fig. 15).

4.3. Data analysis, interpretation and visual representation The approach adopted takes into account multiple spatial scales (microscopic, local to regional) and temporal ones (short-term to century-long). Considering these interlocking scales, it is necessary to systematize the study of hydraulic structures to obtain a longterm socio-environmental history of water systems. The paleoenvironmental data obtained for each stratigraphic/microstratigraphic unit makes up a large database out of which it is possible to create a typology. To classify multi-proxy environmental trends, multivariate statistical analyses are required (Principal Component Analysis, Factorial Analysis, Multi Component Analysis, and Hierarchical Ascendant Classification). They can be conducted on numerous markers based on the initial question (ecological, sedimentological, pedological) (Fig. 16), and interpreted using current or historical well-documented references. It is then possible to compare and combine synchronous episodes of fill based on similar pedo-sedimentary assemblages at the scale of the irrigation systems, between different hydraulic systems and sometimes at a regional scale (Huckleberry, 1991; Berger, 2000, 2008; Purdue, 2011). Sedimentary signatures observed in canals are considered as a partial image of the regional fluvial system dynamics whose fluctuations will have an impact on both the sediment load in the water and the potential divertible water supply (Fig. 6). Sedimentary

signatures are also filtered by human activity upstream of each irrigation system. It is this balance between hydrogeomorphological dynamics and anthropogenic control (or not) of hydraulic networks that we aim to reconstruct based on the multi-proxy approach presented in this paper. The graphic and diachronic representation of the results obtained is difficult but this can be done using bloc-diagrams (Michelin, 2000) (e.g. Fig. 6). The latter are a four dimensional representation of visible landscapes and integrate topography, soil cover, hydrology and chronology. They can be obtained using a DEM and the software ArcScene and provide a very pedagogic way of visualizing the evolution of water systems through time at various scales.

5. Conclusion This paper presents an interdisciplinary and integrated approach in socio-environmental archaeology for a research object, hydraulic structures, which are only occasionally studied in a systematic and multi-proxy way. We also present methodological and taphonomical limits to the study of water systems. Sedimentary signatures in canals are good markers of fluvial dynamics and geomorphological contexts when the profiles studied are located close to headworks and when they are not eroded by ulterior erosion. When it is not the case however, various local dynamics and human activity can alter the signal and it is then necessary to study multiple profiles on a similar alignment. The spatial multiplicity of studies is also necessary as it prevents erroneous interpretation of local signatures of fluvial and landscape change, and

Fig. 16. Example of a Multiple Component Analysis (n ¼ 84) to identify sediment sources in the lower Salt River valley (Phoenix, Arizona) based on a petrographic analysis on thin sections. Five reference samples were integrated with the data (three samples from the Salt River Basin and two from its main tributary, the Verde River). Each point represents a stratigraphic unit (SU) visible on the F1 and F2 axes. The % of variability explained by both axes reaches 78.96%. 18 SU have an unknown origin, 45 SU originate from the Salt River and 21 from the Verde River watershed.


provides a way to generalize trends identified in hydraulic systems at a micro-regional scale. Hydraulic systems have their own temporality, with phases of construction, maintenance and abandonment, which are related to the cultural and technological evolution of agrarian communities, and their capacity to react and adapt to hydrological changes. This is closely tied to the long-term availability of water and its management, as well as geomorphic and environmental change. The integrated geoarchaeological, chronological, archaeological and paleoenvironmental study of water systems represents a robust tool to better reconstruct socio-environmental dynamics in the long-term and avoid adopting a determinist vision of cultural change and potential cultural collapse. Indeed, the results obtained contribute to better understand human behaviour and evolution, such as social reorganisations (settlement, abandonment). The latter also provide relevant information on land use and the availability of resources, as well as the evolution of technical systems. In the long run, they are a solid input data for modelling (Agent based modelling) and can contribute to the debate on short-term and long term climatic change and their impact on water management (Ertsen et al., 2014). In the current framework of global change, this approach will provide illustrations of collective answers to ecological and social issues. Acknowledgements This research benefited from the financial support of the CNRS ^ te d’Azur (France) in the framework of a Ph.D. research conCo ducted at the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis (France), the CEPAM-UMR 7264 (France) and Arizona State University. This research was also supported by a grant from the Fyssen Foundation. Louise Purdue would like to thank Kathy Henderson (Desert Archaeology), Jerry Howard (Arizona Museum of Natural History) and Soil System Inc. for their help in providing field data. We finally thank the Centre de Datation par le Radiocarbone, ARTEMIS in Lyon for 14C measurements by SMA, as well as the City of Phoenix in advance of Sky Train construction. References Adams, R.M., 1981. Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central floodplain of the Euphrates. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Adams, K., Smith, S., Palacios-Fest, 2002. Pollen and Micro-invertebrates from Modern Earthen Canals and Other Fluvial Environments along the Middle Gila River, Central Arizona: Implications for Archaeological Interpretation. In: Gila River Indian Community Anthropological Research Papers 1. Sacaton. Aitken, M.J., 1985. Thermoluminescence Dating. Academic Press, London. Allchin, B., Allchin, R., 1982. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Altaweel, M., 2005. The use of ASTER satellite imagery in archaeological contexts. Archaeol. Prospect. 12, 151e166. Amonette, J., 1994. Quantitative Methods in Soil Mineralogy. Soil Science Society of America. SSSA Miscellaneous Publication. Bandelier, A.F., 1890. Final Report of Investigations Among the Indians of the Southwestern United States (Part I). In: Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America, American Series 3. Barker, G.W.W., Gilbertson, D.D., Jones, B., Mattingley, D.J. (Eds.), 1996. Farming the Desert: the UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey. UNESCO, Paris. Barker, G., Gilbertson, D., Mattingly, D., 2008. Archaeology and Desertification: the Wadi Faynan Landscape Survey, Southern Jordan. In: CBRL Levant Series, vol. 6. Oxbow Books, Oxford. Battarbee, R., 1988. The use of diatom analysis in archaeology: a review. J. Archaeol. Sci. 15, 621e644. Bayman, J.M., Palacios-Fest, M.R., Fish, S.K., Huckell, L.W., 2004. The paleoecology and archaeology of long-term water storage in a Hohokam reservoir, Southwestern Arizona, U.S.A. Geoarchaeology 19 (2), 119e140. Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Jones, J., Lohse, J., Guderjan, T., Bozarth, S., Millspaugh, S., Bhattacharya, T., 2009. A review of human and natural changes in Maya lowland wetlands over the Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev. 28, 1710e1724. Berger, G.W., Henderson, T.K., Banerjee, D., Nials, F.L., 2004. Photonic dating of prehistoric irrigation canals at Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A. Geoarchaeology 19, 1e19.

601

Berger, G.W., Murray, A.S., Havholm, K.G., 2003. Photonic dating of Holocene backbarrier coastal dunes, northern North Carolina, USA. Quat. Sci. Rev. 22, 1043e1050. Berger, G.W., Perez-Gonzalez, A., Carbonell, E., Arsuaga, J.L., De Castro, J.M.B., Ku, T.L., 2008. Luminescence chronology of cave sediments at the Atapuerca paleoanthropological site, Spain. J. Hum. Evol. 55, 300e311. s bordiers historiques et l'histoire agraire rhodanienne. Berger, J.-F., 2000. Les fosse s longue dure e 153-154, pp. 59e90. Etudes rurales. La tre o-arche ologique des re seaux hydrauliques romains de Berger, J.-F., 2008. Etude ge e du Rho ^ ne): apports a la gestion Gaule Narbonnaise (haute et moyenne valle l'histoire agraire antique. In: Hermon, E.M. (Ed.), des ressources en eau et a Integrated Water Management in Environmental History: Traditional Knowl Laval, edge and Modern Practices, International Colloquium (Universite QUEBEC, Oct. 27the29th 2006). L'Herma di Bretschneider, pp. 107e121. bault, S., 2007. Nouveau regard sur Berger, J.-F., Brocher, J.-L., Vital, J., Delhon, C., Thie l'Age du Bronze en la dynamique des paysages et l'occupation humaine a e du Rho ^ne. In: Richard, H., Mordant, C. (Eds.), Le temps, Emmoyenne valle prises et rythmes agricoles a l'Age du Bronze, Actes du 129eme congre s prises, de des CTHS (Besançon, 2004). Edition du CTHS, Paris, pp. 260e283. volution et “taphonomie” des parcellaires en Berger, J.-F., Jung, C., 1996. Fonction, e e du Rho ^ne. Un exemple d'approche inte gre e en archmoyenne valle omorphologie et en ge oarche ologie. In: Chouquer, G. (Ed.), Les formes du e paysage, tome 2. Errance, Paris, pp. 95e112. s et voirie”, lots 11-12-13-21 du TGV Berger, J.-F., Jung, C., 1999. Rapport “Fosse diterranne e, SRA Rho ^ ne-Alpes et PACA. Me Bernigaud, N., Gaucher, G., Guillon, S., Purdue, L., Berger, J.-F., 2013. Pour une histhodologie et e tude de cas (France, Etatstoire de l’hydraulique agricole, me Unis). In: Ballut, C., Fournier, P. (Eds.), Au fil de l’eau : Ressources, risques et olithique gestion du Ne a nos jours. Actes du colloque Au fil de l’eau (Clermond e des SHS, pp. 173e189. Ferrand, 2009), Collection croise Bernigaud, N., 2012. Dynamique des interactions socio-environnementales autour re et du Grand Plan (Ise re), depuis le des marais de Bourgoin-la Verpillie olithique jusqu'au XIXe sie cle (Unpublished Ph.D. doctoral in Archaeology). Ne University of Nice Sophia Antipolis.bournouf. cologique de la France rurale. In: Duby, G., Bertrand, G., 1975. Pour une histoire e Wallon, A. (Eds.), Histoire de la France rurale, T.1. Editions du Seuil, Paris, pp. 34e113. Bodergat, A.M., Charbonnel, G., Rio, M., Keyser, D., 1993. Chemical composition of Leptocythere psammophila (Crustacea Ostracoda) as influenced by winter metabolism and summer supplies. Mar. Biol. 117, 53e62. Braemer, F., Geyer, B., Castel, C., Abdulkarim, M., 2010. Conquest of new lands and water systems in the western Fertile Crescent (Central and Southern Syria). Water Hist. 2 (2), 91e114. Brewer, R., 1972. The basis of interpretation of soil micromorphological data. Geoderma 8 (2e3), 81e94. oarche ologie du monde agropastoral. In: Guilaine, J. (Ed.), Brochier, J.-E., 1991. Ge ologie agraire. A. Colin, Paris, pp. 303e322. Pour une arche Bruins, H.J., Evenari, M., Nessler, U., 1986. Rainwater-harvesting agriculture for food production in arid zones: the challenge of the African famine. Appl. Geogr. 6, 13e32. Bullock, P., Fedoroff, N., Jongerius, A., Stoops, G., Tursina, T., Babel, U., 1985. Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description. Waine Research Publications, Albrighton, Wolverhampton, U.K. ment, F., Visset, L., 2003. InBurnouf, J., Carcaud, N., Cubizolle, H., Garcin, M., Tre te s/milieux dans le bassin versant de la Loire depuis le Tarditeractions socie riode industrielle. In: Muxart, T. (Ed.), Des milieux et des glaciaire jusqu' a la pe es. Elsevier, Paris, pp. 65e77. hommes: fragments d'histoires croise Butzer, K.W., 1976. Early Irrigation in Egypt. A Study in Cultural Ecology. Universiy of Chicago Press, Chicago. Chanson, H., 2004. The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: an Introduction, second ed. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. o-babyloniens. Ann. Hist. Charpin, D., 2002. La politique hydraulique des rois pale e. Sci. Soc. 545e559, 57e anne Chaudhuri, K., 1990. Asia before Europe. Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. tude des paysages. Essai sur leurs formes et leur histoire. Chouquer, G., 2000. L'e Editions Errance, Paris. , Terres et cadastres de Chouquer, G., Favory, F., 1991. Les paysages de l'Antiquite l'Occident romain. Editions Errance, Paris. Clarke, D., Sala, R., Deom, J.-M., Meseth, E., 2005. Reconstructing irrigation at Otrar Oasis, Kazakhstan, Ad 800e1700y. Irrig. Drain. 54, 375e388. ologiques dans le nord-ouest de l'Inde. Courty, M.A., 1990. Environnements ge odynamiques au peuplement protohistorique (The se d'Etat). Contraintes ge de Bordeaux. Universite Courty, M.A., Goldberg, P., Macphail, R.I., 1989. Soils and Micromorphology in Archaeology. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Crook, D.C., Jones, R.J., Elvin, M., Shen, J., Dearing, J.A., 2008. The history of irrigation and water control in China's Erhai catchment: mitigation and adaptation to environmental change. In: Wiegandt, E. (Ed.), Mountains: Sources of Water, Sources of Knowledge. Springer, p. 382. Dart, A., 1986. Sediments accumulation along Hohokam canals. Kiva 51 (2), 63e84. Dearing, J., Battarbee, R., Dearing, J., Cromer, L., Kiefer, T. (Eds.), 2007. Past Humanclimate-ecosystem Interactions (PHAROS), vol. 15 (1). PAGES News, pp. 8e10.

602


Delorme, L.D., 1989. Methods in Quaternary Ecology 7. Freshwater ostracodes. Geosci. Can. 16, 85e90. Doelle, W.H., 1995. Tonto Basin demography in a regional perspective. In: Elson, M.D., Stark, M.T., Gregory, D.A. (Eds.), The Roosevelt Community Development Study, New Perspectives on Tonto Basin Prehistory, Center for Desert Archaeology Anthropological Papers 15, pp. 201e226. Tucson. Doelle, W.H., 2000. Tonto Basin demography in a regional perspective. In: Dean, J.S. (Ed.), Salado, Amerind Foundation New World Studies Series 4. Dragoon, Az, pp. 81e105. Donkin, R., 1979. Agricultural Terracing in the Aboriginal New World. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Dorronsoro, C., 1994. Micromorphological index for the evaluation of soil evolution in central Spain. Geoderma 61, 237e250. Doyel, D.E., Elson, M.D. (Eds.), 1985. Hohokam Settlement and Economic Systems in the Central New River Drainage, Arizona. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology 4. Phoenix. Downing, T., McGuire, G., 1974. Irrigation's Impact on Society. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Dunning, N.P., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Beach, T., Jones, J.G., Scarborough, V., Culbert, T.P., 2002. Arising from the bajos: the evolution of a neotropical landscape and the rise of Maya civilization. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 92 (2), 267e283. Ebert, J.I., Lyons, T.R., 1980. Prehistoric irrigation canals identified from Skylab III and Landsat Imagery in Phoenix, Arizona. In: Lyons, T.R., Mathien, F.J. (Eds.), Cultural Resources Remote Sensing. Southwest Cultural Resources Center, National Park Service, Albuquerque, pp. 209e228. Ertsen, M.W., 2010. Structuring properties of irrigation systems: understanding relations between humans and hydraulics through modeling. Water Hist. 2, 165e183. Ertsen, M.W., Murphy, J., Purdue, L., Zhu, T., 2014. A journey of a thousand miles begins with one small step e human agency, hydrological processes and time in socio-hydrology. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 18, 1369e1382. Eswaran, H., 1968. Point-count analysis as applied to soil micromorphology. dologie 18, 238e252. Pe Eyre, C.J., 1994. The water regime for orchards and plantations in Pharaonic Egypt. J. Egypt. Archaeol. 80, 57e80. Fish, S.K., 1987. Pollen results from the Las Acequias-Los Muertos irrigation system and related features. In: Masse, W.B. (Ed.), Archaeological Investigations of Portions of the Las Acequias-los Muertos Irrigation System, Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 176, pp. 159e167. Tucson. te en Asie centrale des origines Francfort, H.-P., Lecomte, O., 2002. Irrigation et socie poque ache me nide. Ann. Hist. Sci. Soc. 625e663, 57e anne e. a l'e Fowler, M.J.F., Fowler, Y., 2005. Detection of archaeological crop marks on declassified CORONA KH-4B intelligence satellite photography of Southern England. Archaeol. Prospect. 12, 257e264. Fowler, M.J.F., 2002. Satellite remote sensing and archaeology: a comparative study of satellite imagery of the environs of Figsbury Ring, Wiltshire. Archaeol. Prospect. 8 (2), 55e69. Gentelle, P., 1980. Le Croissant Fertile. In: Le monde de la Bible et Terre Sainte 15, pp. 4e8. Gilliland, K., 2011. Irrigation and Persistence in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka: a Geoarchaeological Study (Ph.D. in Philosophy). School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling. Gkiasta, M., Russell, T., Shennan, S., Steele, J., 2003. Neolithic transition in Europe: the radiocarbon record revisited. Antiquity 77, 45e62. Glick, T., 1996. Irrigation and Hydraulic Technology: Medieval Spain and its Legacy, p. 288. Aldershot, Variorum. Goodwin, J., 1887. Map of Prehistoric Canals in the Salt River Valley. the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge. Goossens, R., Wulf, A., Bourgeois, J., Gheyle, W., Willems, T., 2006. Satellite imagery and archaeology: the example of CORONA in the Altai Mountains. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33 (6), 745e755. Graybill, D.A., Gregory, D.A., Funkhouser, G.S., Nials, F., 2006. Long-term streamflow reconstructions, river channel morphology, and aboriginal irrigation systems along the Salt and Gila Rivers. In: Doyel, D.E., Dean, J.S. (Eds.), Environmental Change and Human Adaptation in the Ancient American Southwest. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 69e123. Gumerman, G., 1991. Understanding the Hohokam. In: Gumerman, G.J. (Ed.), Exploring the Hohokam. Prehistoric Desert Peoples of the American Southwest. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 1e27. Harden, J., 1982. A quantitative index of soil development from field descriptions: examples from a chronosequence in central California. Geoderma 28, 1e28. Harrison, P.D., 1977. The rise of the Bajos and the fall of the Maya. In: Hammond, N. (Ed.), Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honor of Sir Eric Thompson. Academic Press, New York, pp. 469e508. Harrower, M.J., 2006. Environmental versus Social Parameters, Landscape, and the Origins of Irrigation in Southwest Arabia (Yemen) (Unpublished Ph.D.). Ohio State University. Haury, E.W., 1976. The Hohokam, Desert Farmers and Craftsmen. Excavations at Snaketown, 1964e1965. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Henderson, T.K. (Ed.), 2013. Hohokam Irrigation and Agriculture on the Western Margin of Pueblo Grande: Archaeology for the PHX Sky Train Project (Draft). Anthropological Papers No. 41. Archaeology Southwest, Tucson, Arizona. Hoffmann, T., Lang, A., Dikau, R., 2008. Holocene river activity: analysing 14C-dated fluvial and colluvial sediments from Germany. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 2031e2040.

Howard, J.B., Huckleberry, G., 1991. The Operation and Evolution of an Irrigation System: the East Papago Canal Study. In: Soil Systems Publication in Archaeology 18. Phoenix. Hritz, C., 2004. The hidden landscape of southern Mesopotamia. Akkadica 125, 93e106. Hritz, C., Wilkinson, T.J., 2006. Using shuttle radar topography to map ancient water channels in Mesopotamia. Antiquity 80, 415e424. Hsu, C.-Y., 1980. Han Agriculture: the Formation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy (206 b.c.ea.d. 220). University of Washington Press, Seattle. Huckleberry, G., 1991. The geoarchaeology of canal system 2. In: Howard, J.B., Huckleberry, G. (Eds.), The Operation and Evolution of an Irrigation System: the East Papago Canal Study, Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology 18. Phoenix, pp. 3.1e3.75. Huckleberry, G., 1997. Rates of Holocene Soil Formation in South-Central Arizona. Arizona Geological Survey, Open File Report 97-7. Huckleberry, G., 1999a. Stratigraphic identification of destructive floods in relict canals: a case study from the Middle Gila River, Arizona. Kiva 65, 7e33. Huckleberry, G., 1999b. Assessing Hohokam canal stability through stratigraphy. J. Field Archaeol. 26, 118. Huckleberry, G., Hayashida, F., Johnson, J., 2012. New insights into the evolution of an intervalley prehistoric irrigation canal system, north coastal Peru. Geoarchaeology 27, 492e520. Huckleberry, G., Rittenour, T., 2013. Combining radiocarbon and single-grain optically stimulated luminescence methods to accurately date pre-ceramic irrigation canals, Tucson, Arizona. J. Archaeol. Sci. 41, 156e170. Hunt, E., Hunt, R.C., 1973. Irrigation, conflict, and politics: a Mexican case. In: Downing, T., MacGuire, G. (Eds.), Irrigation's Impact on Society. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 129e157. Hunt, R.C., Hunt, E., 1976. Canal irrigation and local social organization. Curr. Anthropol. 17 (3), 389e411. Jacob, J.S., 1995. Archaeological pedology in the Maya lowlands. In: Collins, M.E. (Ed.), Pedological Perspectives in Archaeological Research. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication 44, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 51e79. Jones, R.E., Isserlin, B.S.J., Karastathis, V., Paramarinopoulos, S.P., Syrides, G.E., Uren, J., Balatsas, I., Kapopoulos, C., Maniatis, Y., Facorellis, G., 2000. Exploration of the Canal of Xerxes, Northern Greece: the role of geophysical and other technique. Archaeol. Prospect. 7, 147e170. Judd, N., 1931. Arizona's Prehistoric Canals from the Air. In: Exploration and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930, Washington D.C., pp. 157e168. Kamash, Z., 2012. Irrigation technology, society and environment in the Roman Near East. J. Arid Environ. 86, 65e74. Keay, S., Earl, G., Hay, S., Kay, S., Ogden, J., Strutt, K., 2009. The role of integrated geophysical survey methods in the assessment of archaeological landscapes: the case of Portus. Archaeol. Prospect. 16 (3), 154e166. Kemp, R., Branch, N., Silva, B., Meddens, F., Williams, A., Kendall, A., Vivanco, C., 2006. Pedosedimentary, cultural and environmental significance of paleosols within pre-hispanic agricultural terraces in the southern Peruvian Andes. Quat. Int. 158, 13e22. Kemp, R.A., Whiteman, C.A., Rose, J., 1993. Palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic significance of the valley farm and Barham soils in eastern England. Quat. Sci. Rev. 12, 833e848. Lees, S., 1973. Sociopolitical Aspects of Canal Irrigation in the Valley of Oaxaca. University of Michigan, Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, Ann Harbor. s: Leroyer, C., Krier, V., 1991. Etudes environnementales des remplissages de fosse sultats micromorphologiques et palynologiques expe rimentaux. premiers re ologie expe rimentale. In: La Terre: l'os et la pierre, la maison et les Arche champs, Tome 2. Editions Errance, Paris, pp. 228e235. ve ^que, C., Muxart, T., Abbadie, L., Weil, A., Van Der Leeuw, S., 2003. L'anthroLe me: entite structurelle et fonctionnelle des interactions socie te sposyste v e ^que, C., van Der Leeuw, S. (Eds.), Quelles Natures Soulonsmilieux. In: Le nous? Elsevier, Paris, pp. 110e129. Mabry, J.B. (Ed.), 2008. Las Capas: Early Irrigation and Sedentism in a Southwestern Floodplain. Center for Desert Archaeology. Anthropological Paper 28. Macklin, M.G., Benito, G., Gregory, K., Johnstone, E., Lewin, J., Michczynska, D., Soja, R., Starkel, L., Thorndycraft, V.R., 2006. Past hydrological events reflected in the Holocene fluvial record of Europe. Catena 66, 145e154. MacLaughlin, D., 1976. Report on analysis of pollen samples from Hohokam irrigation canal sites AZ U:9:2, AZ U:9:28, and AZ U:9:26. In: Masse, R. (Ed.), The Hohokam Expressway, a Study of Prehistoric Irrigation in the Salt River Valley, Arizona. Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson, pp. 66e69. Madella, M., Jones, M.K., Echlin, P., Powers-Jones, A., Moore, M., 2009. Plant water availability and analytical microscopy of phytoliths: implications for ancient irrigation in arid zones. Quat. Int. 193 (1e2), 32e40. tat en Egypte Manning, J.G., 2002. Irrigation et e antique. Ann. Hist. Sci. Soc. me anne e. 611e623, 2002/3, 57e me d'irrigation Marcolongo, B., Morandi Bonacossi, D.M., 1997. L'abandon du syste e du wadi Bayhan (Ye men): analyse ge o-arche ologique. qatabanite dans la valle C. R. Acad. Sci. e Ser. IIA e Earth Planet. Sci. 325 (1), 79e86. Masse, B., 1981. Prehistoric irrigation systems in the Salt River Valley, Arizona. Science 214 (4519), 408e415. Massini, N., Coluzzi, R., Lasaponara, R., 2011. On the Airborne Lidar Contribution in Archaeology: from site identification to landscape investigation. In: Wang, Chau-Chang (Ed.), Laser Scanning, Theory and Applications. InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-205-0.

L.E. Purdue, J.-F. Berger / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 586e603 mes institutionnels de l'eau en Egypte Menu, B. (Ed.), 1994. Les proble ancienne et me diterrane enne. Proceedings of the AIDEA Vogüe conference dans l'antiquite que d'e tude-110. Institut français d'arche ologie orientale, Le (1992), Bibliothe Caire. de compre hension des repre senMichelin, Y., 2000. Le bloc-diagramme: une cle thode tations du paysage chez les agriculteurs ? Mise au point d'une me ^te pre alable a une gestion concerte e du paysage en Artense (Massif d'enque central français). Cybergeo e Eur. J. Geogr. (Online), URL: http://cybergeo. revues.org/1992. Midvale, F., 1966. The Prehistoric Irrigation of the Salt River Valley, fourth ed. Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe. Miksicek, C.H., 1987. Wood charcoal and seeds. In: Masse, W.B. (Ed.), Archaeological Investigations of Portions of the Las Acequias-Los Muertos Irrigation System, Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 176. University Of Arizona, Tucson, pp. 169e175. Miksicek, C.H., 1989. Snails, seeds, and charcoal: biological remains from La Cuenca Del Sedimento. In: Henderson, T.K. (Ed.), Prehistoric Agricultural Activities on the Lehi-Mesa Terrace: Excavations at La Cuenca Del Sedimento. Northland Research, Flagstaff, pp. 222e242. Miksicek, C.H., Gasser, R.E., 1989. Hohokam plant use at Las Colinas: the flotation evidence. In: Graybill, D.A., Gregory, D.A., Nials, F.L., Fish, S.K., Miksicek, C.H., Gasser, R.E., Szuter, C.R. (Eds.), The 1982e1984 Excavations at Las Colinas, Environmental Subsistence. Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 162, vol. V. University Of Arizona, Tucson, pp. 95e115. Miles, W.D., Wright, D.K., Woodson, M.K., 2010. Hohokam irrigated fields near Upper Santan village on the Gila River. J. Ariz. Archaeol. 1, 20e32. Mironenko, A.P., Willardson, L.S., Jenab, S.A., 1984. Parabolic canal design and analysis. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE 110 (2), 241e246. Mitchell, W., 1973. The hydraulic hypothesis. A reappraisal. Curr. Anthropol. 14, 532e534. ~e s, J.L., 2005. Hydraulic Canals: Design, Construction, Regulation and Montan Maintenance. CRC Press, U.K. tres Morin, R.B., 1987. Des terres sans hommes aux hommes sans terres: les parame volution de mographique dans l'Indoame rique (Mexique-Pe rou). agraires de l'e mographique. In: Fauve-Chamoux, A. (Ed.), Evolution agraire et croissance de ge, pp. 75e87. Ordina Editions, Lie te antique dans les bassesMouton, M., 2004. Irrigation et formation de la socie men: un essai de mode le. Syria 81, 81e104. terres du Ye Murphy, C., Kemp, R., 1987. Micromorphology and the argillic horizon-a reappraisal. doroff, N., Bresson, L., Courty, M. (Eds.), Soil Micromorphology. AFES, Paris, In: Fe pp. 257e261. Nabhan, G.P., 1986. Papago Indian desert agriculture and water control in the Sonoran Desert, 1697e1934. Appl. Geogr. 6, 43e59. Nelson, M.C., Kintigh, K., Abbott, D.R., Anderies, J.M., 2010. The cross-scale interplay between social and biophysical context and the vulnerability of irrigationdependent societies: archaeology's long-term perspective. Ecol. Soc. 15 (3), 31. Netting, R., 1974. The system nobody knows: village irrigation in the Swiss Alps. In: Downing, T.E., McGuire, G. (Eds.), Irrigation's Impact on Society, pp. 67e75. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 25, Tucson. Orengo, H., Miro i Alaix, C., 2013. Reconsidering the water system of Roman Barcino (Barcelona) from supply to discharge. Water Hist. 5, 243e266. Orengo, H., Ejarque, A., Albiach, R., 2014. Water management and land-use practices from the Iron-Age to the Roman period in Eastern Iberia. J. Archaeol. Sci. 49, 265e275. Ortloff, C.E., 2009. Water Engineering in the Ancient World. Oxford University Press. Ortloff, C.R., Feldman, R.A., Moseley, M., 1985. Hydraulic engineering and historical aspects of the Pre-Columbian Intravalley canal systems of the Moche Valley, Peru. J. Field Archaeol. 12, 77e98. Palacios-Fest, M.R., 1994. Nonmarine ostracode shell chemistry from ancient Hohokam irrigation canals in central Arizona: a paleohydrochemical tool for the interpretation of prehistoric human occupation of the western United States. Geoarchaeology 9, 1e29. Palacios-Fest, M.R., Mabry, J.B., Nials, F., Holmlund, J.P., Miksa, E., Davis, O.K., 2001. Early irrigation systems in southeastern Arizona: the ostracode perspective. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 14 (5), 541e555. Patrick, H., 1903. The Ancient Canal Systems and Pueblos of the Salt River Valley, Arizona. In: Bulletin of the Phoenix Free Museum 1. Phoenix, p. 20. Pawluk, S., 1978. The pedogenic profile in the stratigraphic section. In: Mahaney, W.C. (Ed.), Quaternary Soils, Geo Abstracts, Norwich, pp. 61e75. Pope, K., Dahlin, B., 1989. Ancient Maya wetland agriculture: new insights from ecological and remote sensing research. J. Field Archaeol. 16, 87e106. Pournelle, J.R., 2003. The littoral foundation of the Uruk State: using satellite photography toward a new understanding of the 5th/4th millennium BCE landscapes in the Warka Survey Area, Iraq. In: Gheorghiu, D. (Ed.), Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Hydrostrategies, BAR International Series 1123. Oxford Archeopress, Oxford, pp. 5e23. Powlesland, D.J., Lyall, J., Hopkinson, D., Donoghue, D.N.M., Beck, M., Harte, A., Stott, D., 2006. Beneath the sand e remote sensing, archaeology, aggregates and sustainability: a case study from Heslerton, the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, UK. Archaeol. Prospect. 13, 291e299.

603

Price, B., 1971. Prehispanic irrigation agriculture in nuclear America. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 6 (3), 3e60. Purdue, 2011. Dynamique des paysages agraires et gestion de l'eau dans le bassin sertique de Phoenix, Arizona de la Pre histoire a l'e poque moderne semi-de (Unpublished Ph.D. doctoral in Archaeology). University of Nice Sophia Antipolis. Purdue, L.E., Miles, W., Woodson, K., Darling, A., Berger, J.-F., 2010. Micromorphological study of irrigation canal sediments: landscape evolution and hydraulic management in the middle Gila River valley (Phoenix Basin, Arizona) during the Hohokam occupation. Quat. Int. 216, 129e144. Raikes, R.L., 1964. The ancient gabarbands of Baluchistan. East West 15, 26e35. Raikes, R.L., 1965. The Mohenjodaro floods. Antiquity 39, 196e203. Raikes, R.L., 1984. Water, Weather and Prehistory, second ed. Humanities Press, New York. Rosen, A.M., Weiner, S., 1994. Identifying ancient irrigation: a new method using opaline phytoliths from Emmer Wheat. J. Archaeol. Sci. 21, 125e132. Sanders, W.T., 1982. Introduction, a Reconstruction of a Classic Period Landscape in the Teotihuacin Valley: Report to the National Science Foundation, 1e19. Manuscript on file. Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University. Schiffer, M.B., 1982. Hohokam chronology: an essay on history and method. In: McGuire, R.H., Schiffer, M.B. (Eds.), Hohokam and Patayan: Prehistory of Southwestern Arizona. Academic Press, New York, pp. 299e344. Sanders, W.T., Price, B.J., 1968. Mesoamerica: the Evolution of a Civilization. Random House, New York. Service, E.R., 1975. Origins of the State and Civilization: the Process of Cultural Evolution. W.W. Norton, New York. Shennan, S., Edinborough, K., 2007. Prehistoric population history: from the Late Glacial to the Late Neolithic in Central and Northern Europe. J. Archaeol. Sci. 34 (8), 1339e1345. Showalter, P.M., 1993. A thematic mapper analysis of the prehistoric Hohokam Canal System, Phoenix, Arizona. J. Field Archaeol. 20 (1), 91e96. Smith, M.R., 1995. Continental ostracode record in the Scottsdale System. In: Doyel, D.E. (Ed.), Archaeological Excavation at Pueblo Blanco, The Mcdot Alma School Road Project, vol. 2. Archaeological Consulting Service Ltd, Tucson, pp. 363e392 (woodson). Stahl, P.W., 2006. Microvertebrate synecology and anthropogenic footprints in the e, W., Erickson, C. (Eds.), Time and Complexity in forested neotropics. In: Bale Historical Ecology: Studies from the Neotropical Lowlands. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 127e149. Sternberg, B.K., McGill, J.W., 1995. Archaeology studies in southern Arizona using ground-penetrating radar. J. Appl. Geophys. 33, 209e225. Turney, O.A., 1929. Prehistoric irrigation. Ariz. Hist. Rev. 2: 2-52, 3: 9-45, 4: 33e73. Turpen, J.B., Angell, R.W., 1971. Aspects of moulting and calcification in the ostracode Heterocypris. Biol. Bull. Mar. Biol. Lab. 140, 331e338. Valentine, K.W.G., Dalrymple, J.B., 1976. Quaternary buried paleosols: a critical review. Quat. Res. 6, 208e222. ^rib. Preliminary results Vogt, B., 2004. Towards a new dating of the great dam of Ma of the 2002 fieldwork of the German Institute of Archaeology. Proc. Semin. Arab. Stud. 34, 377e388. Vokes, A.W., Miksicek, C.W., 1987. Snails, clams, and canals: an analysis on nonmarine molluscan remains. In: Masse, W.B. (Ed.), Archaeological Investigations of Portions of the Las Acequias- Los Muertos Irrigation System, Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 176. University of Arizona, Tucson, pp. 177e187. Waters, M.R., 2000. Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American southwest. Geoarchaeology 15, 537e557. Watkins, C.N., Rice, G.E., Steinbach, E., 2011. Dating Hohokam canals: a methodological case study. J. Ariz. Archaeol. 1 (2), 162e168. Will, P.E., 1989. Techniques et organisation en chine: l'exemple de l'irrigation et de poque impe riale. In: Les Cahiers du Centre de la protection hydraulique a l'e Recherches Historiques 4 (online). http://ccrh.revues.org/index2904.html. Wittfogel, K.A., 1957. Oriental despotism. A Study of Total Power. Yale University Press, New Haven. Wienhold, M.L., 2013. Prehistoric land use and hydrology: a multi-scalar spatial analysis in Central Arizona. J. Archaeol. Sci. 20 (2), 850e859. Wilkinson, T.J., 1998. Water and human settlement in the Balikh Valley, Syria: Investigations from 1992e1995. J. Field Archaeol. 25 (1), 63e87. Wilkinson, T.J., 2003. Hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems of Sumer. In: Crawford, H. (Ed.), The Sumerian World. Routledge, London, New York, pp. 33e54. Wilkinson, T.J., Rayne, L., 2010. Hydraulic landscapes and imperial power in the Near East. Water Hist. 2, 115e144. Williams, A.N., 2012. The use of summed radiocarbon probability distributions in archaeology: a review of methods. J. Archaeol. Sci. 39 (3), 578e589. Woodson, M.K., Ravesloot, J.C., Boley, M.J., Forman, S.L., 2007. Chronology. In: Ravesloot, J.C., Woodson, M.K., Boley, M.J. (Eds.), Testing and Data Recovery, SFPP, LP, East Line Expansion Project, Arizona Portion: Cochise, Pima, Pinal, and Maricopa Counties. William Self Associates, Inc, Tucson, Arizona, pp. 10.11e10.29. WSA Technical Report No. 2007-04. Wright, D.K., Forman, S.L., Waters, M.R., Ravesloot, J.C., 2011. Holocene eolian activation as a proxy for broad-scale landscape change on the Gila River Indian Community, Arizona. Quat. Res. 76, 10e21.