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An Overview of Subsurface Karst Features Associated with Geological Studies in Malaysia Zeinab Bakhshipouri Mountainous Terrain Development Research Center Department of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]

Husaini Omar Mountainous Terrain Development Research Center Department of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

e-mail: [email protected]

Zenoddin B. M. Yousof Mountainous Terrain Development Research Center Department of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

e-mail: [email protected]

Vahed Ghiasi Mountainous Terrain Development Research Center Department of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper presented the karst features related to geotechnical issues. This study contains an overview of karst terrain and limestone in Malaysia. There are unalloyed karst landscapes in many parts of the world, but most of the time landscapes are formed by a multitude of processes. The intellectual capacity of the dissolution processes, that be active both at the surface and subsurface, has developed quickly in the last fully century, Karst topography is a landscape of characteristic suspension patterns often noticeable by subsurface drainages. Limestone, with its low calcium carbonate content, is easily dissolved in the acids produced by natural materials.

KEYWORDS: Karst, Limestone, Surface, Subsurface, Landscape, Malaysia.

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INTRODUCTION Limestone and other carbonate rocks (dolomite and marble) are very soluble in rainfall. Rainfall contains dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes it a strong acid known as carbonic acid (H2CO3).Views of karst, one capacity visualize copiously decked caves, perfect water springs, or spectacular tower karst landscapes. The contact of between human activity and the karst environment may direct to numerous injurious effects, also on the natural resources (environmental impacts, like water pollution), or on the human property and action (risks, like damaging sinkholes). So, the karst systems are pretense a number of engineering problems. The distinctiveness and actions of karst systems, mostly due to their insignificant and irregular subversive drainage, normally have a significant degree of improbability. Karst aquifers are characterized by a twin or constant triple porosity and permeability, all the time in further or less open fractures and conduits.

KARST The subsurface topography and karst features of limestone bedrock showed unpredictable geotechnical engineering such excavation wall collapse, rock head, difficulties in excavation and grading the ground over pinnacled rock heads; collapse of the roof over subsurface voids, subsidence of cover soil over sinkhole, difficulties in founding a structure over an irregular or pinnacled rock head, loss of water from dam reservoirs, pollution of groundwater (Xeidakis, 2004).

Subsurface Karst Associated with Geotechnical Issues in Malaysia Most of subsurface Karst features were documented and proved based upon the sit investigations including open pit mining, valleys observations, construction shafts and boreholes records throughout 150 years ago (Tan, 1986a, 1986b, 1987). In addition, the subsurface investigations and borehole logs (400 deep boreholes) that were drilled in the PETRONAS Twin Towers (Tarique Azam, 1996) the Berjaya Times Square Complex (Gue, Tan, 2001) the Pan Pacific Hotel (Mitchell, 1985) and the SriMARA Complex (Tan, Ting, Toh, 1985) showed various engineering construction problems due to Karst features and overburden thickness varies from 30m to50 m (Tan, 1988a). Geologically, the subsurface Karst features, and deformation of limestone were developed during quaternary and prior to Kenny hill deposition during Permo-Carboniferous then beneath under alluvial deposits (Chan, Hong, 1985). The intense rainfall which is approximately 2400mm/year, tropical climate and acidic groundwater factors control the subsurface karst features development (Paton, 1964). These sharp variations of pinnacled limestone bedrock and its associated problems are investigated and documented by many researchers (Tan, Batchelor, 1981; Ting, 1985; Chan, 1986; Tan, 1987; Ibrahim, Fang 1985; Tan, Komoo 1990). Furthermore, the overhangs in the limestone pinnacles found to be difficult to detect as it involves coring through the "nose" of the overhang (Tan, 1993) are presented in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: (a) Features of subsurface karstic limestone bedrock in Kuala Lumpur area (Chang and Hong, 1986). (b) Types of foundation issue associated with associated with subsurface conditions in Batu Caves, Kuala Lumpur (Douglas, 2005). It shows serious danger in engineering construction especially when underlain by clay and lubricant sediments. In the same talk, the Pan Pacific Hotel site in Kuala Lumpur is clearly example of building that located on the limestone pinnacle and overhang underlain of clay (Mitchell, 1985) However, cavities in the limestone bedrock showed construction engineering problems. It formed in various sizes at various depths and elevation based upon the fractures and faults pattern in limestone bedrocks as well as groundwater level fluctuation are presented in figure 2. The shallow cavities of less than 1m in diameter not represent geotechnical problems and could penetrate during piling constructions (Tan, 1985; Ting, 1993) While the deep cavities of diameter more than 2m could be treated by concert injection (Gue, Tan, 2001).

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Figure 2: The irregular surface of limestone and subsurface floaters that associated with geotechnical engineering problems. Sinkholes are the common features in the limestone bedrock formed due to buried cavities development. The construction problems of sinkholes come from sudden and unpredictable occurrence such as earth subsidence and earth collapse led to swallowing parts of highways and houses reported during the last decades e.g. Serdang Lama in Kuala Lumpur (Shu, 1986) and K.L.C. C. PETRONAS Twin Towers project are good examples areas effected of sinkholes (Tarique Azam, 1996). These geotechnical problems not only associated with limestone bedrock, but also extend to reach Kenny hill formation (residual soil and met sediments). In the same context, the fine sediments (clay) have unique features of the fractured limestone called slumped zone (Chan, Hon, 1985; Ting, 1985; Tan, Ch'ng, 1986; Tarique Azam, 1996) There were few cases of sinkhole incidents in Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding areas. The latest one occurred near Jalan Cheras (Sin Chew Daily, 2004) due to tunnel excavation and a sinkhole measuring 3m diameter and 1.5m deep occurred in 1995 at Jalan Lidcole as shown in figure 2. This phenomenon happens in the Malaysia due to subsoil excavation, the dense urbanization development and high rate of ex-mining operations is presented in figure 2. Cavities could develop in the zone of ground water table fluctuation especially during January and March where the rain fall declines. While in deeper zones below groundwater table fluctuation no cavities encountered during construction excavation. Sunway quarries are good examples prove this believe although there are deep opencast ex-mining locations. The hydraulic pressure of rainwater carried of infilling sediments and dry tree leaves inside the shallow cavities can increase the cavities dissolution and led to sinkholes formation (Tan, 2001). The interaction between limestone (matter) and acidic rainfall and ground water (agents) take long time between 50 -100 years compared to life of human structures. For these reasons, future collapse after

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constructions is minor and no danger of future building collapse. The most common collapses were occurred during roads and building constructions (Sebela, 1999; Jennings, 1966).

Karst Features and Limestone in Malaysia In Malaysia, the geophysical technique was used successfully to delineate the subsurface fractures, faults cavities in different locations. Geology map overlaid Bouguer anomalies map of the Batu Caves, Malaysia is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Geology map overlaid Bouguer anomalies map of the Batu Caves, Malaysia (Jamaludin, 1995) (Jamaludin, 1995) did their best to detect the cavities of the upper surface of the limestone bedrock using integration of resistivity, gravity methods for the areas in Batu Caves, Kepong and Jinjang (north), Gombak (east), and Setapak and Sentul (south). They concluded that the areas underlain by many cavities and cut by number of faults northeast-southwest (NE-SW), west northwest (WNW) and north west-south east (NW-SE) trend. Geologically these cavities may coincide with faults trend and bedding plans of limestone bedrock are shown in Figures 3 and 4.

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Figure 4: Bedrock map of Batu Cave, Malaysia The same technique utilized in Brookland Estate, Bangting, Selangor, showed vast amount of fresh water in the alluvium deposits influenced of sea water intrusion which indicates to high sets of intersected fractures and faults (Ramli, 1997). Six anomalies were detected; five of them could be due to cavities at 1 m from the bed rock surface with heights of 2.5m to 3.5m and one could be due to pinnacle of height 1.6m above the limestone bedrock (Ghazali, 1996) here changes in the height indicate to the area controlled by set of faults. With underground streams and sinkholes were providing by drilling nine shallow holes. In the same study area, six sinkholes with 10 feet in diameter and 3 feet in depth were delineated in east side of Serdang Lama Area. Other sinkhole was unknown diameter near the Kuala Lumpur-Seremban high way. Small sinkholes with a diameter of about 4 feet at depth 2feet and large sinkholes with diameter of 25 feet and depth of 9 feet were documented as well as underground streams. In the Kuala Lumpur – Seremban highway near tool Plaza was investigated using seismic refraction and resistivity profiling. Unfortunately, the first technique not successes to delineate sinkholes due to the layer above the water table is unsaturated san which having great absorption coefficient preventing energy penetration. The resistivity profiling results show localized anomalies due to presence of weak zones in the sedimentary layers which indicate to sinkholes near Tool Plaza and some voids in the study area (Azhari, 1987). A seismic refraction survey was conduct to delineate the peat layer, marine clay and bedrock as part of the foundation of the proposed Kuala Lumpur airport area, Sepang, Selangor. This study, showed the thickness of peaty and marine deposits increase from east to west. It reaches to 10m for peat layer and 30m for marine clay. The depth of weathered bedrock varied for 35m to 40m. This technique could not delineate the weathered gravel layer due to insufficient seismic velocity contrast with the adjacent layers (Seng, 1992).

LIMESTONE Weathering is the breakdown of rock by physical, chemical or biological processes. Limestone areas are weathered when rainwater, which contains a weak carbonic acid, reacts with limestone. When it rains

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limestone is dissolved. Rainwater erodes the joints and bedding planes. In doing this karst scenery is created. In the shape of the different parts of limestone area that this area is swallow holes is where rivers flow down into the rock. Swallow holes either by the constant chemical attack of the water on the joints in the limestone, or by the collapse of a cavern below.

Figure 5: The numbers represent: Swallow 2. Impermeable 3. Bedding Plane 4. Stalactite 5. Stalagmite 6. Joint 7. Resurgence 8. Limestone

Limestone Process Limestone, with its low calcium carbonate content, is easily dissolved in the acids produced by natural materials. Limestone is a natural, sedimentary rock. This means it was shaped from the remainder of petite shells and micro-skeletons deposited on the sea bed. They were condensed to shape solid rock. Limestone is the ended up of calcium carbonate and reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Limestone is shaped in layers - called bed linen planes. These bed linen planes contain vertical cracks called joints. Joints and bed linen planes make the rock porous. Limestone and other carbonate rocks (dolomite and marble) are very soluble in rainfall. Rainfall contains dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes it a strong acid known as carbonic acid (H2CO3). It becomes even more acidic as it percolates from side to side soil, because there is moreover carbon dioxide in gaps in the soil – up to 100 eras more than in the atmosphere. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca (HCO3)2 (limestone + water + carbon dioxide = calcium bicarbonate)

Limestone Formation in Malaysia Peninsula The surface limestone in Malaysian peninsular is cropped out in different features and shapes depending upon the rate and direction of differential chemical erosion by rain fall. Karst of tropical areas is usually in outstanding (upright) hills with hemispheroidal. It developed from globate to cone then tower karst. They have been documented as a distinctive landscape for many years such as haystacks, and karsthill (Jennings, 1985). The highest percent of limestone hills in Malaysia peninsular deposited and cropped out in the states of Kelantan, Perak, Pahang, Kedah and Perlis. In Terengganu, Selangor and Negeri

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Sembilan have only a few hills, while Johor has a few surfaces out crops limestone near Gunung Semeluang. Most territories, including Selangor, Johor and Kuala Lumpur, have significant quantities of limestone bed rock (Kan Yaw Chong, 2001). Limestone hills are characteristic by steep-sided, with sub vertical to suspended cliffs; the base of limestone hills also frequently exhibit deep horizontal notches or undercuts due to dissolution by streams, groundwater or swamp water . However, it extend to subsurface along the western belt of Malaysian peninsular to include the Langkawi island south Perlis and north Keda, Kinta Valley, Perak and Kuala Lumpur, Selangor is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: The distribution of limestone (red color) in Malaysian Peninsular (Geosciences department, Malaysia).

Kuala Lumpur Limestone Approximately 40% (236.827 Km2) of Kuala Lumpur area is underlain of unique lime stone. It has been dolomitize by chemical replacement and thermal metamorphism as well as re-crystallization by thermal solutions of Silica (SiO2) forming marble of coarse and fine crystals. The cherts, clay minerals, peat (organic matter) and iron ore are the most common impurities in the Kuala Lumpur limestone. Geologically, the outer belt of limestone/granite contact is more thermal metamorphosed into marble by granite intrusion than the inner part of limestone. Originally flat limestone plateau dissected deeply by dissolution is shown in Figure 7.

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Figure 7: Originally flat limestone plateau dissected deeply by dissolution (Ch’ng, 1984). The surface of Kuala Lumpur limestone is cropped out only in Batu Cave north of Kuala Lumpur. It rises to height about (213m) above the surrounding areas are shown in figure 8. The limestone underlies a low lying plain of Kuala Lumpur, narrowing to the south where it is overlain by Kenny hill formation, and further south near Serdang by Kajang formation. It is composed of memorized limestone with little percent of interbedded schist and phylitte (metamorphic rocks) change to infrequent in the south near Sungai. It is crystalline in natures and grey in color; although white (pure) limestone is not uncommon, it contains some impurities such as clay. This dolomatic limestone is varying from place to place with general increase of Mg CO3 towards the south based upon the distance from granitic intrusions. Most of karst underlines Kuala Lumpur is extensively developed and classified as extreme Karst class Kv (Waltham, Fookes, 2003). These Karst could classified into two types(zones) based upon their origin; the micro Karst which formed during limestone formation( I, X and XI type) and before dissolution along irregular bedding

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plains and the large scale Karst that formed in limestone formation due to high rate of differential chemical dissolution along faults, fractures and bedding plains(IV and V type). Both of them have high risk and geotechnical engineering problems are shown in Figure 8. Fractures, joints and bedding plain are pass-ways for waste groundwater and acidic rain. The weathering and chemical dissolution in fractured limestone found to be more aggressive than massive limestone (Bannister, Arbor, 1980; Ericson, Migon, Olvmo, 2004; Waltham, Bell, Culshaw, 2005). These fractures pattern in limestone could be the reason of underground streams and multi-elevation cavities formation (Sowers, 1975; Waltham, Fookes, 2003). The importance of Kuala Lumpur limestone comes from two aspects: firstly the high urbanization and development areas are underlain by lime stone bedrock. Secondly, the rock still uses in wide range in cement industry and pavement roads.

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Figure 8: Typical morphological features of karstic ground conditions within the five classes of the engineering classification of karst. These examples show horizontal bedding of the limestone; dipping bedding planes and inclined fractures add complexity to most of the features, and also create planar failures behind steep cliff faces. The dotted ornament represents any type of clastic soil or surface sediment (Waltham, Fookes, 2003).

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CONCLUSION This paper presented an overview of subsurface Karst features associated with geological studies in Malaysia. Normally Karst presents "difficult ground situation" to engineers. Is often improperly understood the by those only familiar with insoluble rock. It is relates to the engineering techniques appropriate to cavernous ground and offers guidelines towards more efficient ground investigation. An appropriate understanding of karst is essential to good practice in ground engineering. Sinkholes are the common features in the limestone bedrock formed due to buried cavities development.

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