a Belgian speaks to a Congolese, he says "tu" to him because he does not consider this thing, etc ... but ..... Because when they don't like you, they don't tell you.
Appendix A. Overview of overarching themes, categories and subcategories, with sample quotes (n = number of participants that mention the category/subcategory at least once) Part 1: Collective memories of colonialism and present-day consequences 1. Collective memories 1.1. Negative memories of
1.1.1. Dehumanization of the Congolese. “We were exhibited in 1897, here, at Tervuren. Bananas were thrown at us. We were really
colonialism
enslaved people” (I04) (n = 18) 1.1.2. Attack to the physical and psychological integrity of the Congolese and restriction of freedom. “They misbehaved [Belgians] against the Congolese. Because what was done before was really genocide. For working, people were treated like beasts, people were hit to work, their hands were cut off.” (I12); “He [the colonizer] has abused, whipped, and exploited the Congolese people. It is mostly negative consequences, which until now have remained in the minds of the Congolese and I think that it stirred up a kind of feeling of rancour and somehow, Congolese would like to avenge themselves.” (I30) (n = 34) 1.1.3. Abuse of power. “And the control system, the control system. To control people down to the family level. Even at the level of priests. The colonial trinity: the administrator, the Church, and the economic operator. One talks about a problem with the priest and, the next day, the colonial administrator is aware of it and swoops in the city to arrest people. Even though it was something at the confession’s level. People had to avoid saying anything or they risked to be sanctioned.” (I14) (n = 19) 1.1.4. Exploitation of the Congolese and of the country’s natural resources. “I have read some books about the Congolese litigation, I know there are a lot of goods that Belgians took: works of art, mineral resources, many things that came to Belgium, so that Belgium is also built with Congo’s wealth. All these things that were taken during the colonial time.” (I32) (n = 28) 1.1.5. Differentiation policies. “The Congolese Prime Minister, hem, who delivered a speech on the day of Independence, the day of the official transfer of power to the Congolese, at the ceremony. King Baudouin was in Kinshasa (…). He [the Congolese Prime Minister, Patrice Lumumba] said: “to a Congolese, they say tu [French informal you] and to a Belgian they say vous [French formal you]”. So when a Belgian speaks to a Congolese, he says "tu" to him because he does not consider this thing, etc ... but if he talked to a Belgian, he used
the respectful “vous”, etc. So this is in fact an image to put some emphasis on (...) [the] lack of consideration that the Belgian had for the Congolese.” (I40) (n = 33) 1.1.6. Bad behaviours of Belgians. “I don’t know if all the Belgians were like that but, for the majority, the Congolese people was a lazy people, who cannot do anything, not intelligent. It was insults – “macaque” – even until the 1960’s. It’s even one of the reasons why the population requested independence.” (I29) (n = 32) 1.2. Positive memories of
1.2.1. Improvement of health/sanitary conditions. “There is also a positive side. In my municipality, there has been the construction of
colonialism
hospitals, the aspect of education; my country is now filled with more intellectuals.” (I14) (n = 18) 1.2.2. Contribution of religion. “Of course they also brought religion, Christianity." (I09) (n = 3) 1.2.3. Contribution of knowledge. “[Before the 1950’s] schools were built for the children of the colonials … That's how Congolese children have also benefited from this infrastructure for education!” (I23) (n = 34) 1.2.4. Development of infrastructures. “There has been a shipbuilding that began, uh, lasted for years, that crossed all the Congo." (I42) (n = 21) 1.2.5. Contribution to the quality of life. “At the social level, people had a more or less decent life. Paradoxically, they lived better than today, because it is not surprising today to hear senior people saying that, at the time of colonization, they lived even better than today. It is very sad to have to make this analysis 50 years after independence. Unfortunately, the assessment is there.” (I16) (n = 12) 1.2.6. Contribution to order. “They lived well. Even if they had no political power, yet many things were orderly. Someone who left the village, who came to Kinshasa for example, had to register, to go to the municipality to declare their arrival. That's what we do here [in Belgium], when you change address. You see, it was done at that time.” (I20) (n = 22) 1.2.7. Economical contribution. “One must be honest, colonization brought economic development. This is important to the point where, at the time of independence, the level of Congo's economy was like Canada. So colonization brought a lot economically, but the fact is that, sometimes, you imagine, when dealing with a human being, that bringing him material comfort is enough. But if the person for whom we want improvements at the economic and social levels doesn’t feel respected, you can build him castles, he will not be happy.” (I26) (n = 5) 1.2.8. Other positive things. “Lots of things. I would say all we have in the Congo.” (I29) (n = 22)
2. Lack of recognition of
“Forgiveness is one thing, but considering the suffering of the other is another one, I think. I think that, today, the reflection must be there,
prejudice towards the
in considering the suffering of the other. Accepting that a Congolese, well yes, he experiences difficulties evolving in Belgium because of
Congolese (present day).
racism, because of colonialism.” (I08) (n = 21)
3. Present-day consequences of colonialism 3.1. Negative consequences for
3.1.1. Cultural loss. “At the anthropological level, we lost a lot, we are completely lost, completely caught between two civilizations. We
the Congolese
don’t know who we are anymore. I wonder how long it will take to recover that! And as things progress, we are in the process of engulfing again … it will take centuries, in my opinion, to recover it all!” (I40) (n = 8) 3.1.2. Present day negative situation of the Congo. “I think there was less war than today. Today we see that Africa is endless wars. Not dictatorships, but somehow, we can also say that it is an importation, a remote consequence of colonialism. That is why, overall, I think it is difficult to say that the positive aspect is that civilization was brought to us.” (I16). (n = 22) 3.1.3. Lack of preparation and dependence of the Congolese. “The fact that we were colonized made the Congolese feel somehow dependent on the Belgians. When one says dependent, one says that we let ourselves, somehow, underestimate ourselves compared with the Belgians. Let me explain, the Belgian comes, he finds you home, he imposes on you his way of acting, he imposes a lot of stuff on you, and you evolve in his own ways to conceive things, and then he goes and you had nobody else to show you, to teach you how you can do things. Somehow, when the Belgian leaves, you feel as if abandoned (...) and since you have to keep going on the track on which the Belgian put you, thus you will always have to resort to him, in a certain way.” (I30); “Why didn’t they [the Belgians] develop a policy that could guarantee the socio-economic welfare of the Congo and why didn’t they think about the training of the elite at that time for the Congo, right after their departure? Colonizers, even today, because I think it was Belgium who did it. [We have] the same administrative architecture in Congo, but unfortunately it doesn’t work anymore because it doesn’t seem to have taken into account the people's culture. This attitude makes them guilty of not taking responsibility in preparing the future of the Congo.” (I01) (n = 19) 3.1.4. Belgian neo-colonialism. “They themselves, they said that before independence equals after independence. So that means that even if you take the independence, we will continue to colonize as before independence. And that's what happened. We are not really ... we're still colonized.” (I13) (n = 28) 3.1.5. Other negative consequences. “I would not say that it [Belgium] is responsible for all its [Congo’s] suffering, but in part. I don’t like
to talk with “ifs”, but I think it would have been different if Belgium hadn’t colonized the Congo and that’s it. (I11) (n = 11) 3.2. Negative consequences for
3.2.1. Too many Congolese immigrants in Belgium. “Belgium, with this paternalistic attitude, failed to empower the Congolese. So, shortly
Belgians
after independence, the Belgians didn’t even want the Congolese to come here. But when the Congolese who were in Belgium discovered other realities, there were migration flows to Belgium. Precisely because they were not prepared to be home. Consequently, all the infrastructures they had built were destroyed. People have finally realized that there was nothing consistent and they had to take the path of immigration. Now, in Belgium, the Congo is the third country with the most immigration, after Morocco and Turkey. Belgium has somewhat failed because it failed to empower the Congo.” (I01) (n = 7) 3.2.2. Negative image of Belgium. “There were some countries that didn’t accept that Belgium could rule the Congo and benefit like that. Thus Belgium was fought by England. Much has been written about colonization. They messed Belgians on that. It has laid bare all that the Belgians did in the Congo, that's negative.” (I02) (n = 10) 3.2.3. Other negative consequences for Belgium. “And there are still negative things for the Belgians, despite all they have done in the Congo, there was looting, several nationalizations of Belgian assets.” (I02) (n = 15)
3.3. Positive consequences for
3.3.1. Psychological attributes as legacy of colonization. “And a certain family structure. Because we saw that families were much more
the Congolese
united, united, and there was less polygamy. There were also a lot of single parent families. It was common to have two, four, five, six women in the Mobutu era.” (I03) (n = 6) 3.3.2. Social and material contributions. “Already through this… there was a bridge created intellectually, those who would come over to study here, uh, complete major studies and then go back, bring to the country [Congo] something intellectual, at the medical level, the school level, the social level, bring things from outside to the Congo … These people… they brought the Congo a little forth! This is what I find positive, this exchange … The bridge between Belgium and the Congo.” (I42) (n = 32) 3.3.3. Openness to the outside world. “Colonization brought an openness to the world, because the Belgians were there, there is a certain openness.” (I26) (n = 10) 3.3.4. Other positive consequences. “So people lived in distinct groups, even if today there are roads that pass, but it didn’t stop people from living in small groups. I think that colonization brought these groups together, groups that would never have reconciled! Yes, I think that contact always brings a… well, most it’s contact with the outside but it is also a contact with uh, ourselves, inside.” (I37) (n = 3)
3.4. Positive consequences for
3.4.1. Economic profit. “Well, the mines, the mines, the roads that were built. Antwerp is the diamond capital. All that came from the
the Belgians
Congo.” (I03) (n = 41) 3.4.1. Economic profit. “Well, the mines, the mines, the roads that were built. Antwerp is the diamond capital. All that came from the Congo.” (I03) (n = 9) 3.4.2. Important political position internationally. When participants state that Belgium gained an important international position in international politics due to colonialism. Example: “The international recognition, the weight of Belgium is bigger than its size. Belgium is a small country but, internationally, it is much more listened to because of its colonial past.” (I20) (n = ) 3.4.3. Other positive consequences. “Belgians know very well the Congolese, because they exploited a lot their geography, their history. All that is Congolese art, fauna and flora, the Congolese were very rich. And the Belgians took advantage of that to the maximum.” (I02) (n = 6) Part 2: Acculturation strategies of Congolese immigrants
4. Acculturation strategies 4.1. Maintenance of Congolese
4.1.1. Values. “I find myself there [in church] in family, when we share ideas, when someone has a problem, we hold him, we pray
culture (n = 43)
together and we share. I think that gives us a lot of moral and spiritual support. In the Congo, I was in a church that was quite similar, I went as a child and I got used to it.” (I35) 4.1.2. Beliefs. “I belong to a religious congregation as well: Charismatic Renewal with a catholic basis, the Kristu Bolingo. I also rub shoulders with a lot of people there, but I’m not a girl that goes out every week.” (I03) 4.1.3. Knowledge. “[I feel] Congolese because it’s people whom I can easily understand, it doesn’t matter where they come from, who they are, in fact, we share the same history of the Congo in Belgium, we share something.” (I37) 4.1.4. Attitudes. “A Congolese is an ambitious person in its own way, quite dreamy. It is not bad to dream, it’s not necessarily negative. The problem is when the dream is too distant from reality, then it can be a problem. Persistent, resourceful, enterprising…” (I16) 4.1.5. Behaviors. “I live in Belgium but my connections… I keep my connections with the Congo.” (I01) 4.1.6. Identity. “I have a business and to have more freedom of circulation, I took my [Belgian] nationality. But it’s not from the heart. I have my heart in the Congo, even after 25 years. I spent all my youth in the Congo. I came to Belgium for a specific reason, to study. But
afterwards they told me not to go back, it wasn’t stable in the Congo.” (I10) 4.2. Non-maintenance of
4.2.3. Knowledge. “I really don’t have an idea, I did not research it, I just know that the Belgians went to the Congo to colonize the
Congolese culture (n = 40)
Congolese, but really, I do not know the dates. How the Belgians went, how they mistreated us, that’s what my mom used to say, how they made our ancestors suffer, but I don’t really know much about it.” (I17) 4.2.4. Attitudes. “Rules have to be respected, there are instructions, punctuality, etc. Those are things that are perfectly suitable, I do not feel forced, so that’s not a problem.” (I34) 4.2.5. Behaviors. “I do not really have friends, a friendship with the Congolese, no… Though my husband is Congolese… I would rather say, how to put it, friendly, not superficial, but it is not a deep friendship like great friends, no.” (I31)
4.3. Adoption of the Belgian
4.3.5. Behaviors. “Currently, I behave like a Belgian” (I12)
culture (n = 43)
4.3.6. Identity. “I feel more Belgian because I live here. All my life, I want to spend it here, in Belgium. This is normal, I feel more Belgian, but my origin is Congolese” (I17)
4.4. Non-adoption of Belgian
4.4.1. Values. “I can say that it is hard, everything is hard, they have a behavior… It’s not really ill-will, [they are] too withdrawn, they
culture (n = 42)
don’t want to open up to people, it’s how they are” (I13) 4.4.4. Attitudes. “I find them a bit hypocritical. Because when they don’t like you, they don’t tell you. They pretend they love you, but they don’t like you” (I06) 4.4.5. Behaviors. “So I am withdrawn, I think to myself that I have nothing to do with the Belgians, I make an effort, I finish my degree, I know that work is difficult in our own country… But I noticed that in my own country, Belgians have easier access to work than myself, but I say to myself that I have to fight and I will find it. I have to go back or to another African country.” (I37) 4.4.6. Identity. “We have Belgian papers, but we are not Belgians” (I07)
