BORIAPX.doc - 1. Appendix: Discussion and Practice Answers. Chapter 1. 1. ... 9.
His theory helps us recognize (a) that learning is a social process and (b) the.
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Appendix: Discussion and Practice Answers Chapter 1 1. Survival stage—behavior management concerns; task stage—delivery of instruction; impact stage—fulfillment of learner potential. 2. Concerns theory grew out of the analysis of recorded interviews with teachers. Implications are that a teacher’s concerns change over time. For most teachers, concerns about survival or self diminish rapidly after several months of teaching. What follows is a new set of concerns about how best to help students learn. Chapter 2 1. It could temper a tendency to explain a learner’s behavior as exclusively the result of either nature or nurture and prompt an explanation that might include both. 3. The concept of permanence and the realization that changing shape doesn’t change mass. 4. Schemata are information and understandings that the child acquires from the environment and that allow coordinated actions and action sequences to occur. For example, sensorimotor: grasps a cup; preoperational: recognizes the American flag as a symbol; concrete operational: understands law of conservation of liquids; formal operational: draws logical conclusions from propositional statements. 5. Organization and adaptation are two basic cognitive processes that occur throughout a learner’s life. They allow a learner to simplify and make sense
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of new information gained as a result of experience. They also allow a learner to restore any cognitive disequilibrium that new information may create. 6. During a science lesson a child learns that the earth revolves around the sun. This child previously thought that the sun moved around the earth. As a result of the lesson the learner organizes new information about the movement of the solar system and creates a new cognitive schema to put this information into. In the process of doing this the learner adapts prior schemata or notions about planetary movement to accept these new ideas. 7. It (a) was the first theory to sketch the general principles of cognitive development and (b) showed that children think qualitatively differently at different stages of development. It (a) tends not to explain variations in the onset of specific stages, (b) does not explain how learners move from one stage to another, and (c) tends to downplay social influences on learning. 8. His metaphor is the zone of proximal development: a zone that, when stimulated by the teacher, affords the learner the greatest opportunity to respond and encompasses the range of skills or abilities bounded on one side by what the learner can do independently and on the other side by the skills a learner needs adult assistance to perform. 9. His theory helps us recognize (a) that learning is a social process and (b) the importance of assessing not just a child’s present level of functioning but also his or her potential level of learning (zone of proximal development). 10. Changes taking place in a learner are due to social experiences (Vygotsky), not altered schemata (Piaget) or the accumulation of learned intellectual skills or capabilities (Gagné). 11. The interactionist perspective holds that while children are born with certain innate abilities (LAD) that predispose them to varying degrees of language competence, this competence can be altered and enhanced by both the
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environment and the social experiences of the learner. This perspective can help explain how a learner uses certain language expressions (slang, for example) that cannot be explained by reference to an innate LAD. 12. a. Teach question-asking skills. b. Teach the use of subvocal speech. 13. In bilingual instruction the native language is taught for the first and second years of school in the same classroom where exposure to the second language takes place. Both languages are then maintained for several years, after which the learner is expected to perform entirely in the second language. Total immersion teaches only the second language. English as a second language provides instruction in both languages but in separate classrooms. Chapter 3 1. The biological approach holds that how we develop affectively is due to temperaments we inherit from our parents. The social learning approach holds that our affective development is determined largely through the learning process, in particular the process of modeling. The psychoanalytic approach holds that affective development is the result of the interplay between maturational forces, cognitive development, and experience. 2. Identical twins reared apart were more similar to one another in terms of their emotionality, adaptability, and activity level than were fraternal twins. a. Activity level. b. Adaptability. c. Emotionality. 3. He has a high activity level, has a hard time getting along with others, and becomes easily upset, which are traits inherited from his parents.
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4. Children have demonstrated more or less aggressive behavior depending on which models they have observed. a. Maturation. b. Exposure to increasingly complex verbal and physical behavior models. c. Increasing ability to attend, recall, imitate, and be motivated. 5. He probably has observed aggressive models and has never been taught the skills necessary to get along with peers and adults. 6. The drive for identity. 7. Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority. The child must successfully respond to demands to master academic tasks, get along with others, and follow the rules. Stage 5: Identity versus role confusion. The child must establish a sense of who he is and who he hopes to be. 8. Children of divorced parents showed more signs of depression, substance abuse, and emotional and behavioral disturbance than children of intact families. Joe failed to successfully resolve the identity crisis of trust versus mistrust during the infancy stage of his life. 9. Personal-social development begins with inborn temperament. It is then influenced by child-rearing practices and modeling processes and later by the family environment, which in turn influences the child’s self-image. 10. Self-esteem contributes to a positive attitude, social ability, and adaptability, which may influence school achievement over time. 11. Vertical relationships represent the child’s attachment to parents and teachers for purposes of safety, security, and protection. Horizontal relationships represent the child’s attachment to other children for purposes of belonging, cooperation, competition, and intimacy. 12. They are intentional, voluntary behaviors intended to help another. For example, Joe might be expected to explain to another student the importance
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of handing in assignments or to follow the rules to be admitted to a sporting event. 13. How one thinks and becomes concerned about other people’s actions and feelings. Rebecca becomes concerned that Robert is embarrassed by being scolded in front of the class. 14. Level 0: “A friend is someone you like.” Level 1: “A friend is someone who thinks like you.” Level 2: “A friend is someone who helps me when I need it.” 15. Level I: A child doesn’t take an extra piece of candy when told not to because he may be seen and punished. Level II: A child doesn’t take an extra piece of candy because he knows his father would disapprove. Level III: A child doesn’t take an extra piece of candy because lunchtime is near and he doesn’t want to spoil his appetite for a healthier meal.
Chapter 4 1. a. Environment that stimulates correct and rapid performance. b. Focus on observable performance. c. Abundant opportunities for feedback and reinforcement following performance. In the ABC model, antecedents (A) in the environment elicit the desired behavior (B), which becomes strengthened when followed by appropriate consequences (C). 2. It is reinforcing a correct response after it has occurred to increase the likelihood that it will recur. Example: praising a student after a correct answer to increase the likelihood that the student will raise his or her hand again later. 3. Whether the learner possesses the prerequisites for it.
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4. Task analysis. To identify and sequence prerequisite skills. 5. The instruction should be designed to allow as few errors as possible and to increase correct responses as much as possible. 6. It is when stimuli in the environment automatically bring about the correct answer. Some examples are (a) a list of posted rules that precludes misbehavior, (b) a bell that when rung signals the class to silence, or (c) an overhead projector that when turned on elicits the attention of learners. 8. Active: writing sentences, calculating an answer, focusing a microscope. Passive: listening to a lecture, looking at an overhead projection, waiting for assistance. Students should be actively responding about 75 percent of the time. 9. a. Giving directions that focus only on the response you want. b. Allowing learners to respond actively. c. Allowing learners to produce correct answers 70 to 90 percent of the time. 10. (a) Your example should tell learners not only what was correct, but also why. (b) Your example should give the right answer, point out how to get the right answer, have learners correct the answer, or provide some extra problems. 11. Positive consequences encourage learners to continue their good efforts and motivate them to do better. Only when they actually increase the frequency of the target behavior are they positive reinforcers. 12. Your conditions should include: (a) Baseline measurement; (b) assessment of reinforcer preferences; (c) immediate, continuous reinforcement; and (d) gradual fading of extrinsic reinforcers to natural reinforcers. 13. They are reinforcers that are naturally present in the setting where the behavior occurs (for example, grades in a classroom) or represent a change in
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stimulation due to the behavior itself (for example, seeing the right answer on the display of a calculator). 14. (a) Verbal reprimands, (b) overcorrection, (c) response cost, and (d) exclusion. They would have to reduce the frequency of the targeted behavior. Chapter 5 1. To describe the unobservable workings of the mind. The mind as a computer or information-processing system. 2. Relevant learner characteristics, instructional manipulations, cognitive processes, cognitive outcomes, outcome performance. 3. Behavioral approach: Only observable outcomes and right/wrong answers are studied on simple learning tasks. Cognitive approach: Cognitive processes and outcomes and information processing are studied on complex human thinking tasks. The behavioral psychologist attempts to build a model that accounts for all learning; the cognitive psychologist limits the study of learning to complex thought processes. 4. General methods of thinking that improve learning and problem solving across a variety of subject areas that go beyond the processes naturally required for carrying out a task. 5. Rehearse: Repeat to themselves what was read or heard. Elaborate: Relate what was learned to an image or to past learning. Organize: Place information learned in related groups. 6. Setting goals, focusing their attention, reinforcing themselves, and coping with difficult problems. 8. You will need to teach them to: a. attend to the effective strategies b. attribute differences to the relative effectiveness of a particular strategy
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c. use the more effective strategy in future decision making. 9. Domain-specific knowledge is useful for learning facts, concepts, and principles in a specific area or topic, for example, how to solve an equation with two unknowns. General knowledge is useful for learning across a variety of school tasks, for example, how to spell. 10. Declarative knowledge, for example, how to add and subtract. Procedural knowledge, for example, how to tie a shoe lace. 11. (1) Relate new information to existing information. (2) Allow learners to think about information in working memory with strategies such as notetaking, discussion, practice, and comprehension monitoring. 12. They help store and retain information longer using verbal representations and images. 14. The former, revisionist view, holds that intelligence can be altered; the latter, classical view, holds it is immutable or difficult to change. Gardner believes there are seven specific areas of intelligence. Sternberg believes there is a common set of strategies that apply to all areas of learning. Both believe intelligence should only be studied in the context of important cultural problems and products. Chapter 6 1. Mr. Robbins’s lesson was heavily influenced by the behavioral science approach advocated by Lindsley and Englemann. His activities elicited practice of correct responses followed by immediate feedback in a teacherdirected lesson. Mrs. Greer’s lesson, on the other hand, followed the cognitive science
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approach advocated by Pressley, Ball, and Bruner. Her lesson focused on thought processes involving reflection, problem solving, analysis, and inquiry. 2. Constructivism is a term used by cognitive psychologists to represent an approach to teaching and learning that emphasizes the active role of the teacher and helps the learner build internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts they are learning. It encourages learners to use their experiences to actively construct understanding that makes sense to them, rather than acquiring understanding by having it “told” to them in a preorganized format. 4. For example, discovery, relationships, conflict, responsibility. It will make learners more likely to acquire meaning and understanding by being able to connect the new subject matter with what they already know. 6. Conceptual conflict results when our existing beliefs or ways of explaining things do not produce the outcomes we predict, challenging our long-established beliefs about certain events. Conceptual conflict is represented by the Piagetian process of disequilibrium discussed in Chapter 2. 8. Hint: Have your learners view the writing assignment as a problem-solving activity requiring problem exploration, planning, revising, and editing. 9. Bruner says that good teaching is helping learners discover for themselves the generalizations under which lie related concepts and facts, rather than “telling” them to the learner. Rather than teach the rules for manipulating fractions, Mrs. Greer helped her learners construct the rules for themselves. Chapter 7
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1. Intrinsic motivation is what influences learners to choose, get energized about, and persist until they accomplish a task successfully, regardless of whether it brings an immediate reward. 2. Jared began to understand that he had to do what the teacher was asking to achieve some of his own goals. 3. Such theories view the person as not making conscious choices. They see people as operating without volition—their behavior is fixed and routine. 4. a. Primary drives are forces within the individual that are triggered by biological needs, such as hunger and thirst. b. Acquired drives are learned through the process of association with some primary drive, such as desires for money, for love, or to play sports. 5. Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, self-esteem (deficiency needs); and self-actualization (growth needs). 6. a. Locus of causality (internal versus external). b. Stability (changeable and unstable versus unchangeable and stable). c. Controllability (uncontrollable versus controllable). 7. a. Luck. b. Effort. 8. a. Situational cues, for example, time-on-task. b. Prior beliefs or causal schemata, for example, “hard work pays off.” c. Self-perceptions, for example, “I can do it.” 9. a. Monitor your attributional messages. b. Focus on learning strategies. c. Refrain from ability grouping. d. Promote cooperation. e. Teach realistic goal setting. 10. a. Past experiences (for example, a good grade on an earlier assignment).
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b. Persuasion from teacher (for example, teacher says, “You can do it!”). c. Physiological cues (for example, rapid breathing during a test). d. Modeling (for example, seeing a classmate perform well). 11. a. Help them set goals. b. Teach them learning strategies. c. Find adults and peers to model confidence and persistence. 12. That attribution and self-efficacy theories make motivation appear too cognitive, abstract, and devoid of energy and passion. They fail to account for the needs of learners to feel competent and independent. 13. The needs, for competence, relationships, and autonomy. 15. For example, the project should emphasize the learning process, not just the product (attribution theory); the project should let learners set their own goals (self-efficacy theory); the project should help each learner become competent (self-determination theory). 17. a. Present a challenge. b. Allow for learner’s choice and control. c. Be doable within time and resource limitations. d. Require collaboration. e. Result in a product or artifact. Chapter 8 1. Developmental psychologists, such as Piaget, would account for perceptions, feelings, thoughts, and actions by the forming of schemata—or cognitive structures—mostly through the child’s interactions with the environment. Social psychologists, such as the Schmucks, would account for perceptions, feelings, thoughts, and actions by the relationships, goals, and social structure of the group(s) to which the individual belongs.
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4. Sharan and Sharan (1976); Cohen (1984, 1986); Cohen and Intele (1981); Webb (1982); Slavin (1984, 1990b). You might use cooperative learning to achieve some of your lesson objectives. 6. a. Through the unfolding of genetic and instinctual tendencies or dispositions. b. Through associations with people—parents, siblings, peers, and teachers. 7. a. Forming—acceptance and responsibilities: “What’s expected of me?” b. Storming—shared influence: “How can my voice be heard?” c. Norming—how work gets done: “Who do I go to for help?” d. Performing—freedom, control, self-regulation: “What things can I do independently of the teacher?” 8. Distancing: “Why do I gotta do this stuff?” Centering: “What’s in it for me if I do it?” 9. Your examples should have in common that a. they were probably unspoken and unwritten, and b. not to follow them would bring social disapproval. 10. Expert power: by being in command of your subject matter. Referent power: by being trustworthy, fair, and concerned about your students. Legitimate power: by being invested with authority by the school district. Reward power: by dispensing reinforcements. Coercive power: by dispensing punishment. New teachers should work toward expert and referent power. 11. (a) On the basis of what you read, hear, or see, you expect certain behavior; (b) you look for this behavior more; (c) your students become aware that you expect this behavior to occur and behave accordingly; and (d) you find what you are looking for.
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12. Every teacher showed some bias by favoring one student classification over another. 13. a. Orient group members to appropriate social interactions. b. Create group identification and cohesiveness. c. Promote academic achievement and positive relationships. 15. a. Create a list of norms. b. Conduct a discussion about class norms. c. Appoint a class committee to recommend ways of improving group behavior. d. Model normative behavior. 16. Achievement: Slavin (1987, 1990b, 1991); Cohen (1985). Productivity: Kafer (1976); Reynolds (1977). 17. a. Construct a bulletin board around friendships. b. Have students write brief autobiographies. c. Form a friendship circle. d. Select pals. e. Publish a directory. f. Form heterogeneous groups. 18. a. Problems learners bring with them. b. Problems from learners who choose not to abide by classroom rules and norms. c. Problems that mutually occur during the group development process, such as distancing and centering. Chapter 9 1. a. Rosalyn standing in doorway talking. b. Carlos refusing to sit down.
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c. Adam making a face. d. Jeanne talking back to the teacher. e. Two late students slamming the door. f. Carlos and Rosalyn tapping their pencils. g. Tina and Joan making bobbing movements. 2. a. Everyone must be in their seats at the time of the bell. b. No talking until you are acknowledged by the teacher. c. Late students must report to the principal before coming to class. d. Disparaging, demeaning, or humiliating comments may not be made about another student. 3. You could, for example, combine a mutually agreed upon set of rules with a consistently applied system of reward and reinforcement. 5. a. Humanistic: Ginott (1972), Glasser (1990). Strong on teaching selfcontrol, weak on prevention. b. Applied behavior analysis: Cooper, Heron, and Heward (1987). Strong on stopping major disruptive behavior, weak on prevention. c. Classroom management: Kounin (1970); Emmer, Evertson, and Anderson (1980); Hunter (1982). Strong on prevention, weak on stopping major disruptive behavior. 6. Communicate that the behavior is unacceptable; accept students’ feelings; avoid use of labels; use praise only when deserved; elicit students’ cooperation; communicate displeasure with inappropriate behavior. 7. Develop rules with students; set aside an area for disruptive students; confer privately with disruptive students; remove disruptive students, but provide an opportunity for them to return. 8. a. Giving praise after a correct answer.
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b. Sending a student (who was bored with your lesson) to the library, which results in his avoiding classwork that he did not want to do. c. Specifically praising a student for good work after every third or fourth assignment. d. Sounds, sights, people, or materials that can trigger a reaction; for example, a math worksheet, the principal, the sound of the final bell. 10. The more effective managers tended to emphasize group cohesiveness and communicated well-worked-out rules and routines during the first weeks of school. The less effective classroom managers did not have well-worked-out rules and routines, were ineffective monitors of student behavior, failed to deliver rewards and reprimands consistently, and used vague or unclear disciplinary messages. 12. a. Figure 9.3: High task orientation, mostly teacher-initiated interchanges, unsolicited student responses discouraged. b. Figure 9.4: Students have a say in establishing limits of their behavior, student spontaneity and risk-taking behavior allowed, teacher acts as moderator or participant. 13. Engaged learning time is the actual time students are actively involved in learning the lesson content. Allocated time is the time you plan for, or allocate to, the lesson. 14. Beginning class routine, ending class routine, getting-help-from-the-teacher routine, use of room routine. 15. Strategies that stop misbehavior without disrupting the flow of a lesson. Anticipation: student squirms in seat; deflection: teacher moves closer to student; reaction: if student doesn’t stop, teachers removes privilege of going to the learning center for a day.
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Chapter 10 1. To identify precise learning outcomes and bind classroom activities together into a coherent sequence that makes sense to learners. 3. Verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, motor skills. 5. Memorization, concepts, principles, problem solving. Mental operations lower in the hierarchy are required for the successful completion of operations at higher levels in the hierarchy. 7. Knowledge: recalling, memorizing. Comprehension: translating, restating, summarizing. Application: using information in a new and different context. Analysis: comparing and contrasting, differentiating, inferring. Synthesis: combining parts in new or unique ways. Evaluation: making value judgments and decisions, supporting, justifying. 9. Direct (or didactic), indirect (or inquiry), and self-directed (or self-regulated). Your patterns should involve the teaching skills of structuring, modeling, coaching, and fading. 10. She had a lesson that included rules, routines, expectations for student behavior, and a classroom management plan. Ms. Freeman used the indirect instructional method, which included some elements of structuring, modeling, coaching, and fading. 11. a. Gaining attention. b. Informing the learner of the objective. c. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning. d. Presenting stimulus material. e. Guiding learning. f. Eliciting the desired behavior.
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g. Providing feedback. h. Enhancing retention. i. Promoting transfer. 12. a. Structuring: review, anticipatory set, and objectives and purpose. b. Modeling: input, modeling, and checking for understanding. c. Coaching: guided practice and closure. d. Fading: independent practice. 13. a. Psychophysical, for example, vary intensity of your voice. b. Emotional, for example, use a word in the student’s native language. c. Discrepancy, for example, introduce a contradiction or mistake. d. Commanding stimuli, for example, point out what should be attended to. 14. a. Attention. b. Retention. c. Production. d. Motivation. 15. a. Focus learner attention. b. Stress value of demonstration. c. Talk conversationally. d. Make steps simple and obvious. e. Help learners remember. 16. a. Prompt fading gradually reduces the length and frequency of physical or verbal cues given to learners to help them attain a correct response. For example, using fewer words and shorter explanations. b. Reinforcer fading gradually reduces or transfers the motivation for performing a skill from extrinsic reinforcers to intrinsic reinforcers. For example, reduce use of stickers or tokens so learner can develop natural satisfaction for performing correctly.
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17. It should (a) emphasize the mastery of prerequisite tasks, (b) be similar to performance in the real world, (c) contain a variety of examples, (d) vary the context in which the performance is expected, and (e) promote self-direction by allowing the use of personal examples. 18. The use in new and different contexts of facts, rules, and action sequences; concepts, patterns, and abstractions; and strategies for learning. 19. a. Emphasize mastery. b. Have real-world similarity. c. Provide variety. d. Offer flexibility. e. Promote self-direction. Chapter 11 1. How do you teach, for example, one child to understand Marx’s theory of class struggle while teaching another, in the same class, the correct spelling for “wuz”? 2. a. The ability to learn academic subjects, deal with abstractions, and solve problems; for example, measure performance with a paper-and-pencil test using context-free problems. b. The ability to withstand stress and distraction; to be motivated, emotionally stable, interested in learning, and socially competent; and to display grace and balance. For example, measure performance in a social setting using real-world problems. 3. Some educators feel it deprives certain individuals access to learning opportunities from which they can benefit. 4. a. Psychological attributes or traits can be measured indirectly. b. Repeated observations will overcome imprecision in observation.
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c. Ability is best measured as a quantity as opposed to a process. d. Measurement of ability can be relative rather than absolute. 5. Individual versus group ability tests: the former are given in a one-to-one format and are orally delivered, the latter are given in group settings and are paper-and-pencil tests. General versus multiple ability tests: the former measure a single underlying trait and assign a single score that measures that trait, the latter measure multiple traits and assign individual scores that measure those traits. 6. To develop a test that (a) was consistent with a general (unidimensional) theory of intelligence, (b) was practical to use in a one-to-one assessment format, and (c) accurately separated learners who needed special instruction from those who did not. 7. The learner’s raw score indicates an age-equivalent score of 6.5, or 6 years, 5 months. Overall, this learner is performing below students of his or her age. 8. By correlating the scores of the same learners taken on one occasion with their scores on another occasion. About +.80 or higher. 9. Scores on the test from a group of learners would be correlated with the scores from the same learners on an achievement test after a program of instruction. It should be at about +.50 to +.80 or higher. 10. About 25 percent. Motivation, health, social skills, quality of teaching, prior knowledge, emotional well-being, family support. 12. Their lack of (a) instructional validity, (b) behavioral definition, and (c) sampling specificity. 13. The former is more useful for improving instruction and learning, the latter is more useful for labeling and classifying learners. 14. You might require the test to (a) measure learning as both process and product, (b) focus on learning abilities that can be improved, (c) measure
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learning in a group as well as in an individual context, and (d) exhibit instructional validity. 15. Studies by Slavin (1987, 1990a, 1991), Fogelman (1983), Kerchoff (1986), and Gamoran (1992) indicate the lack of educational benefits of tracking. The personal testimonies of some teachers, parents, and students, however, argue for the benefits of tracking. Chapter 12 1. a. The manner in which he weighted grades did not reflect the emphasis desired. b. His tests were primarily based on a single format using the written word. c. His essay format was not appropriate for the level he was testing. 3. For example, (1) using a variety of testing techniques, including performance assessments; (2) using test items that provide the opportunity for justifications and revisions to gain insight into each learner’s line of reasoning, and awarding partial credit where appropriate. 4. It is only a sample of students’ behavior that estimates their true levels of performance and progress. 5. (1) A test of subtraction; (2) a test of multiplication and division; (3) a test involving principles of trigonometry. 6. Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it says it measures—and what you want it to measure. It would not represent what you wanted it to measure. 7. They (a) test over content areas they didn’t teach, (b) place more emphasis on certain content areas in the test than was actually taught, and (c) ask questions in a manner that requires students to use intellectual skills that were not taught in class.
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9. a. Place your goals and objectives in front of you as you write test items. b. Ask yourself what thought process or intellectual skill is needed to answer each test item. c. Determine whether your objectives include the needed thought process or skill. 10. It must pose a specific problem for which the student recalls information, organizes it in a suitable manner, derives a defensible conclusion, and expresses it within specified guidelines. 12. 3∞30=90 students; 90∞150=13,500 words per question; 13,500∞2=27,000 words total. At a reading rate of about 300 words per minute, it would take 90 minutes, or about an hour and a half, not counting time for writing comments and corrections and recording grades. 14. Validity is the degree to which a test measures the traits, abilities, or skills for which it was intended. Reliability is the degree to which the test dependably or consistently measures that trait, ability, or skill. The use of an unreliable test would mean your students’ scores would not be consistent, if they were retested. 15. a. Write test instructions and questions in simple language. b. Write enough questions to cover all the content. c. Allow the students sufficient time to take the test. d. Make the test conditions comfortable. e. Follow a test blueprint. f. Prepare restricted response questions that have clearly identifiable right and wrong answers. 16. A norm-referenced grade is determined by use of a relative standard established by the naturally occurring distribution of scores in a class (for example, percentage of students receiving a particular grade or higher). A
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criterion-referenced grade is determined by use of an absolute standard established by the teacher indicating the minimum levels of achievement required at various grade intervals (for example, number of items correct). Chapter 13 1. Conventional tests are given to provide data on which to base grades, to indicate how much has been learned, to facilitate decisions about instructional placement, to discuss with parents, and to help others make employment decisions. Performance assessments are given to stimulate higher-order thinking in the classroom and to simulate real-world activities. 2. An indirect measure, such as knowledge shown in a multiple-choice test, will suggest only that something has been learned. A direct measure, such as a problem-solving activity, requires that what has been learned can be applied and exhibited in the context of a real-world problem. 4. The Darwin School records percentage of words read accurately during oral reading, number of sentences read with understanding, and number of story elements that learners can talk about on their own. The West Orient School requires portfolios of poetry, essays, biographies, and self-reflections. 7. Scoring rubrics are model answers with which a learner’s performance is compared. They can be a detailed list of what an acceptable answer must contain or a sample of typical responses that would be acceptable. 8. (a) Rescoring of a sample of your learner responses by other teachers and (b) the coming together of a group of teachers during the scoring process to score a sample of learner responses together. 9. It decides whether the learner demonstrated a significant level of achievement. It is determined by matching the performance assessment to the curriculum
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guide and having teachers from other schools or school districts read the test and critique its contents. 10. There is a lack of evidence at this time concerning the generalizability of the skills measured by performance assessments; but examples in a number of states (Vermont, New York, Connecticut, and California, among others) and research (Herman, 1992) have shown that performance assessments can be scored reliably.
Chapter 14 2. REI is a partnership between regular and special educators in which learners with disabilities receive individualized services in the regular classroom without labeling or special classifications. 3. Mainstreaming places learners with disabilities in the least restrictive environment conducive to their development. PL 94-142 and PL 99-457. 4. An IEP is a road map to the kinds of services the child will receive and how they are to be delivered. It includes goals and objectives, current skill levels, and services to be provided. 5. The four environments are (a) all day in a regular class with a regular education teacher, (b) all day in a regular class with special education personnel assisting, (c) some or all of the day outside the regular class with the regular education teacher assisting, (d) some or all of the day outside the regular class with special education personnel. 6. Normalization is the principle that learners are entitled to programs that allow them to experience the respect and dignity to which any person is entitled. It represents regular school and class participation, skill and image enhancement, autonomy, and empowerment.
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7. They are used to determine the size of the discrepancy, if any, between a learner’s aptitude and achievement at a particular grade level. 8. Mike has a learning disability in one or more areas of content, such as math or reading. Other questions might be “Did Mike receive adequate prior instruction in the problem areas?” and “Was Mike’s early childhood conducive to learning the prerequisite skills?” 9. The most widely used method is based on the learner’s performance on standardized ability, achievement, and adaptive behavior tests. A score below 70 on an IQ test usually indicates mental retardation. 10. Oppositional, noncompliant, aggressive behavior; restlessness; inattention; and impulsivity. 11. You might minimize extraneous demands, closely monitor the child’s behavior, and provide high levels of feedback and reinforcement. 12. A communication disability is an impairment that involves speech or language. You would look for difficulty in producing particular sounds or vocal pitch patterns (for example, distorting or substituting one sound for another) and for a child who seldom speaks and relies almost solely on gestures to communicate. 14. Research tends to support programs and classes specifically targeted to the gifted when they are allowed to pursue accelerated programs and when a grade can be skipped and/or advanced courses taken.
Chapter 15 1. a. A subordinate position in society. b. A sense of collective identity. c. A common perception of the world around them.
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2. Culturally diverse children have ways of learning and thinking and needs for motivational, instructional, and classroom management strategies that differ from those of Anglos and that, if provided, would raise their achievement levels to be comparable to those of Anglos. 3. a. Only a small percentage of teachers are members of minorities, thus limiting minority role models. b. Textbooks have sometimes failed to communicate cultural respect and equality. c. Teachers and textbooks have sometimes failed to consider the verbal and nonverbal language patterns of minorities. d. Disproportionate numbers of minority learners have sometimes been tracked into lower-level classes. 4. All groups score below Anglo learners on measures of scholastic ability. Their dropout rates are 42, 40, and 25 percent, respectively, compared with 14 percent for Anglos. 5. Education refers to the varied and informal ways in which children learn the customs, attitudes, beliefs, values, social skills, and other behaviors required at home and in society. Schooling refers to the formal classroom in which students learn subject matter characterized by a reliance on words, explanations, and questions. Research has shown that school performance improves when the method of education used at home matches the process of schooling used in the classroom, which can negatively affect minority learners. 6. a. Social organization (for example, whole-group instruction). b. Sociolinguistics (for example, wait-time).
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c. Learning style (for example, preference for a certain type of emotional environment). d. Cognitive style (for example, field-independence/ dependence). 7. Field-dependent: holistic/visual, global. They focus on the whole picture and rely more on external sources of information. Field-independent: verbal/analytical. They focus on the parts and rely more on internal sources of information. 8. According to some research, Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, and African Americans tend to be more field-dependent than Anglo-Americans and Asian Americans. The cautions are these: a. Perpetuating stereotypes. b. Large within-group differences. c. Difficulty in matching instruction to many different learning styles. d. Directing the focus away from expert instruction. 9. a. Learner-subject relationships. b. Teacher-subject matter relationships. c. Teacher-learner relationships. 10. Much of the research has studied only middle-class Anglo children and girls rather than boys. You should be cautious in generalizing gender research to other groups. 12. For example, using only masculine terms, using stereotyped personalities or occupations, ignoring the accomplishments of one gender or incompletely representing them, and failing to integrate the accomplishments of one sex into the larger picture. 13. This stereotype has prevailed because of parents’ stereotypes about female math ability, mothers’ belief about the difficulty of math, and perceived value
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of math to the student. Research by Eccles and colleagues (1982, 1983, 1986) has found that these factors—not inherited abilities— account for much of the difference in male/female scores on math ability tests. 14. For example, correcting boys from across the room but speaking privately to girls, giving different career advice to girls than to boys, correcting boys more often than girls for making mathematics mistakes, calling on girls more than boys during a poetry lesson. Chapter 16 1. (1) Create a classroom newsletter in which you issue a call for help; (2) train them to accomplish the tasks you would like them to perform. 2. Improved (a) learner achievement, (b) attitudes toward school, (c) classroom conduct, and (d) parent and teacher morale. 3. Opportunities for school and family involvement such as parent-teacher conferences, home visits, participation by teachers in community events, and newsletters. 4. Parents want schools to do what is best for their child, but the school’s primary responsibility is to groups of children. 5. An ecosystem is a system made of subsystems that must coexist and are mutually dependent on each other. For example, the learner must coexist with and is dependent on the school, family, and peer group systems. 6. (a) The state and national political system that influences school standards, (b) the legislative system that influences funding for schools, (c) the economic system that employs family members, and (d) the social service system that cares for families in need.
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7. The parent and family may be undergoing stress at home due to divorce or separation, financial crisis, a change in job, or problems outside the family that may be momentarily capturing the parent’s attention. 8. These are the relationships between forces outside the school-family relationship that can cause the parent to act in a certain way. For example, a job offer in another city may create sibling concerns about giving up the stability of their existing peer relationships, which in turn may capture the exclusive attention of the father in this example. 9. She would point to the fact that some minority parents may not be proficient in the English language, may espouse different values than the cultural majority, or may not understand how the school system works. 10. Provide bilingual student guides for parents who need them and/or provide classroom visitation instructions in Spanish. Exhibit student work that shows the relationship between the African American culture and the community. 11. These authors suggest that teachers a. view the family from a systems-ecological perspective. b. acknowledge changes in the American family. c. use a parent empowerment model instead of a deficit model. d. recognize equally the needs of mother and father or the unique needs of single parents when involving parents. e. take into account the possible presence of familial and economic crises. f. offer a variety of possible school-family linkages that provide for different degrees of school participation. 12. Activities can involve parents as (a) information receivers (e.g., notes home), (b) learners and home tutors (e.g., parenting skills classes), (c) volunteers and teacher aids (e.g., tutoring), and (d) active decision makers in running the school (e.g., parent advisory council).
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13. A proactive conference would inform the parent about the child’s success and the possible reasons improvement might be necessary. A reactive conference would blame the parent or child for the inappropriate behavior. 14. For example, “When Mark acts out I really get upset because I have to stop what I’m doing and spend precious time getting the class back on track.”
