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2000 Foot Filled Contour ............. 51. 9. "Fish-net" Plot of the 3000 Foot Contour ..... 52. 10. Three-dimensional Representation of the Shenandoah. National Park.
CQNCENTRATION PROFILES AND MAPPING OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN

THE SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK by

ADIL N. GODREJ Thesis submitted to the Faculty cf the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE in Sanitary Engineering

APPROVED:

May, 1982 Blacksburg, Virginia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My deepest gratitude to Dr. N. me

through

delightful

graduate

academic milieu

providing

to

an

work in,

relationship ——-

wonderful personal prods,

school,

Thomas Stephens for guiding exceptionally

and

also for

thanks for

the

the timely

for accepting responsibility at critical times,

for

the monetary aid and for most other things. To Dr.

J. Martin Hughes,

my sincere appreciation for the

many worthwhile discussions --- philosophical and otherwise, for

the apt

in what

guidance

throughout,

and

for the keen

interest

I was doing.

Grateful thanks to Dr.

Boris I.

Chevone for so graciously

accepting to serve on my committee at such short notice, providing new angles to my work,

for

and for all the advice in

the days prior to serving on my committee. Thanks to Dr. upto the

John M.

penultimate

Skelly for serving on my committee

stages

of my work,

and

for all

the

other help. My colleague Widom

is

and so-to-speak

thanked

for

his

"partner-in-crime"

wonderful

and

stimulating

friendship and help with a lot of the physical work.

settled into and understand the "system".

ii

Stuart

The Department of Civil Engineering is acknowledged for the monetary assistance provided to me. The National Park Service provided

the funding for the

data-gathering flights to the Shenandoah National Park,

thus

providing me with the data—base with which to work. Finally,

my thanks to the many people

in User Services -

iii

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

....................

ii

Chapter page I.

INTRODUCTION

II.

LITERATURE REVIEW

III.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

...................· 1 .....

.

...........

7

................

18

Shenandoah National Park

............

18

Data Gathering System ............. 20 Data Display System (Existing) ......... 22 Data Display System (Developed) ........ 25

IV.

General ................... The PRECON Program .............

25 27

The SNP Program ............... SAS Programs Used to Display and Correlate Output from PRECON and SNP ........

35

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

..............

48

Output from Program PRECON ........... Output from Program SNP ............

48 55

Output from the SAS Program

..........

60

General Linear Models ............ Some General Comments on Flight Data Representations ............ Flight of August 13, 1981 .......... Flight of July 30, 1981 .......... Flight of August 10, 1981 ......... Flight of August 18, 1981 ......... Flight of August 21, 1981 .........

61

Flight of September 21,

·

1981

64 65 112 135 155 179

.......

202

Flight of September 23, 1981 ....... Flight of September 24, 1981 ....... General Comments on the Flights and the Data

225 245

Analysis V.

47

................

SUMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

265

.............

268

Summary ................... Conclusions .................

268 269

Recommendations

270

............... iv

REFERENCES

......................

272

Appendix page A.

USER'S GUIDE TO PROGRAM’PRECON

.........

275

General ................... Input and Output Units ............ Input Requirements and Formats ........ Main Arrays and Variables and Their Functions Subroutines and Their Functions .......

275 275 276 277 277

Main Program

...............

277

Function ROUND .............. Function IODDEV .............. DELETE .................. OUTLIN .................. FILLER ............._ ..... INIOUT .................. Changing the Program for Other Grid Areas . .

277 277 278 278 278 278 279

B.

SOURCE LISTING OF PROGRAM PRECON

........

280

C.

PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATIONS OF PARAMETERS IN PROGRAM SNP ............v ....

303

USER'S GUIDE FOR PROGRAM SNP

..........

306

...................

306

D.

General

Input and Output Units

............

306

Input Requirements and Format ........ Arrays and Variables and Their Functions . . . Subroutines and Their Functions ....... Main Program ...............

307 308 310 310

Integer Function BEFORE .......... Integer Function FS ............

311 311

Function ROUND

..............

Integer Function SEARCH

311

..........

311

AFTER ................... ALTO3 ................... DELETE .................. DPRHT ................... GRIDA ................... GRIDER .................. GRIDM ................... GRIDS ................... HEAD ................... INPUT ................... MEAN ...................

311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312 312 313 313

v



MEANER .................. MEANL ...................

313 313

NOXSUB

313

..................

OUT ....................

313

OUTLIN

..................

OUTPUT

313

..................

314

PARKER SOZSUB

.................. ..................

314 314

TIMES ................... TIMING ..................

314 314

UPLVL ...................

314

VRBS ................... XYROUN .................. XYSUB ...................

314 315 315

Changing the Program for Other Grid Areas

.

315

E.

SOURCE LISTING OF PROGRAM SNP ..........

316

F.

SOURCE LISTING OF SAS PROGRAM USED TO DRAW PLOTS

389

VITA

.........................

403

ABSTRACT

vi

.

LIST OF TABLES

Rägä 1.

10-scan File Data .................. 21

2.

Possible Values of

3.

Possible Values of IOUT in Program SNP

4.

Cross-reference List of IOUT Usage

5.

Error Codes for Program SNP

6.

Parameters Used for General Linear Models

7.

Normal Ranges of Measured Parameters

IOUT in Program PRECCN

vii

......

33

.......

37

.........

39

.............

41

......

.......

63 266

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1.

Shenandoah National Park

2.

.............

19

Horizontal Flight Plot

..............

23

3.

Spirals Over the GSMNP

..............

24

4.

Area of the Grid in the Shenandoah National Park

5.

Rounding and Interpolation Procedures

6.

Possible Orientations of Two Consecutive Points .

.

31

7.

1500 Foot Contour Outline .............

49

8.

2000 Foot Filled Contour

51

9.

"Fish-net" Plot of the 3000 Foot Contour

.....

52

10.

Three-dimensional Representation of the Shenandoah National Park .................

54

11.

Option 10 Output for the Flight of July 30,

.

56

12.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

.

66

13.

Flight of August 13,

1981: Dew Point

.......

67

14.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

15.

Flight of August 13,

1981: NOx Concentration

.

69

16.

Flight of August 13,

1981: NO Concentration ....

70

17.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

NO2 Concentration

.

71

18.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Temperature

......

72

19.

Flight of August 13,

1981: Relative Humidity

20.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

21.

Flight of August 13,

. 28

.......

.............

SO; Concentration

Visual Range

1981 .

.

......

.

.

.

.

.

68

.

73

Ozone

.........

74

1981: Bscat

.........

75

viii

.

30

22.

23.

Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude .................. Flight of August 13,

of SOZ 24.

1981:

76

Percentage Distribution

.....................

77

Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Dew Point ..................

78

25.

Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Visual Range ................·79

26.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Percentage Distribution

of NOx ..................... 27.

Flight of August 13,

of NO 28.

1981:

of NO;

Percentage Distribution

.....................

Flight of August 13, •

.



.



1981: •





80

81

Percentage Distribution „









.













•29. Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution

of Temperature 30.

.................

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Percentage Distribution

of Relative Humidity .............. 31.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Flight of August 13, •

of

.

.

1981: .

.

.

85

Percentage Distribution

of Bscat .................... 33.

84

Percentage Distribution

of Ozone .................... 32.

83

86

Percentage Distribution „























•34. Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution

of Altitude 35.

Flight of August 13,

of SO2 36.

37.

.................. 1981:

Frequency Distribution

.....................

Flight of August 13,

1981:

88

89

Frequency Distribution

of Dew Point ..................

90

Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Visual Range ................

91

ix

38.

39.

40.

Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of NOx .....................

92

Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of NO .....................

93

Flight of August 13, of NO2

.

.

1981:

Frequency Distribution

.......,

.

.



.

.

.



.

.

.

.41. Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution

42.

43.

44.

of Temperature .................

95

Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Relative Humidity ........-......

96

Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Ozone ....................

97

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Frequency Distribution

of Bscat. 45.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

.

98

Frequency Distribution

„ „ „ „ „ „ „ • •46. „ of . . . . . . . . .

.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Altitude vs.

SO2

.

100

47.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Dew Point

101

48.

Flight of August 13, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................

102

49.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

50.

Flight of August 13,

51. 52.

Altitude vs.

.

.

.

.

.

103

1981: Altitude vs. NO

.

.

.

104

Flight of August 13,

1981: Altitude vs. NO2

.

.

.

105

Flight of August 13,

1981:

.................

106

Flight of August 13, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................

107

54.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Ozone

.

.

108

55.

Flight of August 13,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Bscat

.

.

109

56.

Flight of July 30,

.

.

113

Temperature 53.

1981:

x

NOx

Altitude vs.

SO2 Concentration

.

‘.

57.

Flight of July 30,

1981: NOx Concentration

.

114

58.

Flight of July 30,

1981: NO Concentration ....

115

59.

Flight of July 30,

1981: NO2 Concentration

.

116

60.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Ozone

.........

117

61.

Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude ................... 118

62.

Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of SO2 ..................... 119

63.

Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NOx ..................... 120

64.

Flight of July 30,

1981:

.

.

.

Percentage Distribution of

NO ...................... 65.

Flight of July 30,

NO2

1981:

121

Percentage Distribution of

.....................

122

66.

Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone .................... 123

67.

Flight of July 30, NO/NO2

1981: Percentage Distribution of

....................

124

68.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Altitude vs.

....

125

69.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point .

126

70.

Flight of July 30,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Visual Range 127

71.

Flight of July 30,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NOx

....

128

72.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Altitude vs.

NO

....

129

73.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Altitude vs.

NO2

....

130

74.

Flight of July 30,

1981:

Temperature

131

75.

Flight of July 30, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................

132

76.

Flight of July 30,

1981:

77.

Flight of July 30,

1981: Altitude vs. xi

Altitude vs.

Altitude vs.

SO2

Ozone

.

.

.

133

Bscat .

.

.

134

78.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

NOx Concentration

79.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

NO Concentration

80.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

NO2

81.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Ozone

82.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Percentage Distribution

of Altitude 83.

84.

.

136

.

.

137

.

.

138

........

139

.

Concentration

.................

140

Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NOx .................... 141 l Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution

of NO 85.

.

....................

Flight of August 10,

of NO2

1981:

142

Percentage Distribution

....................

143

86.

Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ................... 144

87.

Flight of August 10,

of NO/NOZ

1981:

Percentage Distribution

..................

88.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Dew Point

89.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Visual

Range

....................

145 146

147

90.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NOx

.

.

.

148

91.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NO

.

.

.

149

92.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NOZ

.

.

.

150

93.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

.................

151

Flight of August 10, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................

152

95.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Ozone

.

.

153

96.

Flight of August 10,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Bscat

.

.

154

97.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

SO2 Concentration

.

.

156

Temperature 94.

xii

98.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

NOx Concentration

99.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

NO Concentration

.

.

157

.

.

158

.

.

159

........

160

.

100.

°Flight of August 18,

101.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Ozone

102.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Percentage Distribution

of Altitude 103.

.................

Flight of August 18,

of SOZ 104.

1981: NO2 Concentration

1981:

Percentage Distribution

....................

Flight of August 18,

161

1981:

162

Percentage Distribution

of NOx ....................

163

105.

Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO .................... 164

106.

Flight of August 18, of NGZ











1981: Percentage Distribution •



.

.



.











.

.



.107. Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution

of Ozone

...................

166

108.

Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NO2 .................. 167

109.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

SO2

.

168

110.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Dew Point

169

111.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Visual

Range

.

.

....................

170

112.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NOx

.

.

.

171

113.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NO

.

.

.

172

114.

Flight of August 18,

1981: Altitude vs. NO2

.

.

.

173

115.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

.................

174

Temperature 116.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Altitude vs.

Relative

Humidity ................... 117.

Flight of August 18,

1981: Altitude vs. Ozone . xiii

.

175 176

118.

Flight of August 18,

1981:

Altitude vs.

119.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

120.

Flight of August 21,

121.

Bscat

.

.

177

S0; Concentration

.

.

180

1981:

NOx Concentration

.

.

181

Flight of August 21,

1981:

NO Concentration

.

.

182

122.

Flight of August 21,

1981: N02 Concentration

.

.

183

123.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Ozone

........

184

124.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Percentage Distribution

of Altitude 125.

.................

Flight of August 21, of

SO2





.

.



.

1981: .



.

185

Percentage Distribution „





.

.

.





.



.

.126. Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution

of NOx ....................

187

127.

Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO .................... 188

128.

Flight of August 21, of NO2



.





.

1981: Percentage Distribution .

.



.



.

















•129. Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution

of Ozone ................... 130.

Flight of August 21,

of NO/NO;

1981:

190

Percentage Distribution

..................

191

131.

Flight of August 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

S02

.

192

132.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Dew Point

193

133.

Flight of August 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................

194

134.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NOx

.

.

.

195

135.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

NO

.

.

.

196

136.

Flight of August 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

N02

.

.

.

197

137.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

.................

198

Temperature

xiv

Altitude vs.

.

.

Altitude vs.

138.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Relative

Humidity ...................

199

139.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Ozone

.

.

200

140.

Flight of August 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Bscat

.

.

201

141.

Flight of September 21,

1981:

SO2 Concentration .

203

142.

Flight of September 21,

1981: NOx Concentration .

204

143.

Flight of September 21,

1981:

.

205

144.

Flight of September 21,

1981: NOZ Concentration .

206

145.

Flight of September 21,

1981: Ozone .......

207

146.

Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude ...........

208

Flight of September 21, Distribution of SO2

1981: Percentage .............

209

Flight of September 21, Distribution of NOx

1981: Percentage .............

210

Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............

211

Flight of September 21, Distribution of NO2

1981: Percentage .............

212

Flight of September 21,

1981:

147.

148.

149.

150.

151.

Distribution of Ozone

NO Concentration

Percentage

............

213

Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NO2 ............

214

153.

Flight of September 21,

215

154.

Flight of September 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point....................216

155.

Flight of September 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................

217

156.

Flight of September 21,

1981:

157.

Flight of September 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

152.

xv

1981: Altitude vs.

Altitude vs.

SOZ

.

NOx

.

218

NO .

.

219

158.

Flight of September 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

159.

Flight of September 21,

1981:

Temperature 160.

N02

.

220

.................

221

Flight of September 21,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Altitude vs.

Relative

Humidity ...................

222

161.

Flight of September 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

Ozone

223

162.

Flight of September 21,

1981: Altitude vs.

Bscat

224

163.

Flight of September 23,

1981:

NOx Concentration

.

226

164.

Flight of September 23,

1981:

NO Concentration

.

227

165.

Flight of September 23,

1981: NO2 Concentration .

228

166.

Flight of September 23,

1981: Ozone .......

229

167.

Flight of September 23,

1981:

Distribution of Altitude 168.

Flight of September 23,

Distribution of NOx 169.

170.

171.

172.

173.

Percentage

...........

1981:

230

Percentage

.............

231

Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............

232

Flight of September 23, Distribution of NO2

1981: Percentage .............

233

Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ............

234

Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NOZ ............

235

Flight of September 23, Point

1981: Altitude vs.

Dew

....................

236

Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................

237

175.

Flight of September 23,

1981: Altitude vs. NOx

.

238

176.

Flight of September 23,

1981:

.

239

177.

Flight of September 23,

1981: Altitude vs.

.

240

174.

xvi

Altitude vs.

NO

N02

.



178.

Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Temperature .................

241

179.

Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ................... 242

180.

Flight of September 23,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Ozone

243

181.

Flight of September 23,

1981: Altitude vs.

Bscat

244

182.

Flight of September 24,

1981: NOx Concentration .

246

183.

Flight of September 24,

1981: NO Concentration

.

247

184.

Flight of September 24,

1981: NO; Concentration .

248

185.

Flight of September 24,

1981:

Ozone .......

249

186.

Flight of September 24,

1981:

Percentage

Distribution of Altitude

187.

188.

189.

...........

250

1981: Percentage .............

251

Flight of September 24, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............

252

Flight of September 24, Distribution of NOx

Flight of September 24,

Distribution of NO; 190.

191.

1981:

253

Flight of September 24, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ............

254

Flight of September 24,

1981:

Distribution of NO/NO; 192.

193.

Percentage

.............

Percentage

............

255

Flight of September 24, 1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point ....................

256

Flight of September 24, Range

1981: Altitude vs. Visual

....................

194.

Flight of September 24,

1981:

195.

Flight of September 24,

196.

Flight of September 24,

Altitude vs.

NOx

257

.

258

1981: Altitude vs. NO .

.

259

1981:

.

260

xvii

Altitude vs.

NO;

s

197.

198.

Flight of September 24, 1981: Altitude vs. Temperature .........,....... Flight of September 24,

1981:

Altitude vs.

261

Relative

Humidity ...................

262

199.

Flight of September 24,

1981:

Altitude vs.

Ozone

263

200.

Flight of September 24,

1981: Altitude vs.

Bscat

264

xviii

A Chapter I INTRODUCTION

Areas

designated

as

Class

I

(pristine)

areas

Prevention of Significant Deterioration of the Clean Air Act,

Amendments, levels

under

(PSD)

regulations

as specified by the 1977 Clean Air Act

are of concern from the standpoint of existing

of pollution

and

existing and proposed)

the

impact

that

sources

redesignated

all national

with areas greater than 6000 acres as PSD Class order

to obtain

particular area, the

background

(both

might have on these areas. The

Clean Air Act Amendments

In

the

some

idea

of

the

I

1977

parks

areas

air quality

(1).

in

a

it is necessary to obtain an estimate of levels

existing

there.

Determining

the

background levels of pollution is not an easy task and can conceivably

monitoring network.

this

job

a

involve

is

When the

further

I

area

consequently, Aerial

extensive

ground—based

is remote

terrain

complicated

prohibitively expensive. PSD Class

fairly

and

may

and rugged,

indeed

become

The Shenandoah National Park is a

that has

remote

and

rugged

terrain,

and,

presents ground—based monitoring problems.

air

quality

monitoring

covering large areas to be monitored.

is

a

way

of

It is also conducive

to a rapid analysis of the gathered data, journeys have to be made to collect the 1

quick

since no

special

recorded data from

2

sites

various

distances. be

used

that

estimate

concentration

and

the

airborne

characterization region.

be

separated

by

considerable

Data gathered utilizing an airborne platform can to

essence,

may·

the

horizontal

vertical

Variation

concentration profile.

data gathering can provide of

the

in

air quality over

a

a

In

"snapshot"

fairly

large

An examination of a series of such "snapshots" taken

on different days can be utilized to determine the ranges of background concentrations

may exist

concentration that terrain. the

determining The

such "pockets",

characterization, local

can

wind patterns

setting up of

native Vegetation and

identify "pockets"

prove

acidity

of

in

stagnation

study

effects on and

rainfall,

possible Verification of rough terrain air

the

coupled with

useful

and possible

experiments to

the

of high

due to peculiarities of

The identification of

overall

areas.

and to

the

quality models

could also be facilitated. In the past an airborne monitoring lab has been used to conduct tu sttu aerial

air quality monitoring in the Great

Smoky Mountains National Park

(2). A similar survey of the

Shenandoah National

Park was undertaken during

months

Most of

of

1981

gathered during

(3).

the flights

plotted on a time basis,

the

large

for these

the

quantities

surveys was

summer

of data

simply

and positional parameters had to be

3

inferred from the voice recordings kept during the flights. Some

selected points of

where

vertical

spirals

altitude basis, the

data were

(usually flown)

gathered at places

were

plotted

on

an

but these points had to be hand-picked from

general mass

of

data,

again using

the voice

recordings

as a reference. The manipulations that could be performed on the data were necessarily limited because a desktop computer was being used.

The mainframe computer system was being used

only to store the data for later use and free the data tapes used by the desktop computer so as to be able to allow for the

collection of

more

data.

the data stored on

knowledge,

However,

in

the

author's

the mainframe computer were

never actually used. The linear time-based plots that were generated by the desktop computer were difficult to use to come to general conclusions

about

the

spatial

parameters that were measured. (e.g.

distributions

of

the

Where "peaks" of data existed

high concentrations of SO2

above the

synthetic

fiber

~ plant at Front Royal on the northern end of the Shenandoah National

Park),

conclusions data

or where vertical

could be

(gathered in

existed) levels

of

drawn,

level

but

spirals were

flown,

the major portions

flight over

areas where no

of

some the

sources

were mainly being used to determine ranges of the the measured parameters.

Moreover,

since

no

two

4

flights took the the path

same route,

of any one

it was difficult to visualize

flight and

locate the place where a

series of measurements were taken, measurements taken in the flight.

Therefore,

and then relate these to

same general vicinity on another

although the desktop computer generated

plots were a quick method for an initial data analysis,

it

was possible that subtle Variations were going undetected. It was also

fairly obvious that much more information

could be gleaned from the large quantities of data than had been hitherto obtained. The mainframe computer is a favored choice

for

this

further

step

in

data

analysis

and

presentation for reasons of speed and ease in handling large amounts exist

of

information. data

for

analysis

efficient

Many and

packaged programs

presentation,

and

memory

requirements are not a constraint. The data gathering system had already reached a fairly high level of efficiency for the resources

that were available.

It was with

a view to

bringing the data analysis and presentation procedures on a par

with

the

undertaken. lay

down

data

gathering

system

Much needed to be done

the

groundwork

needed

that

this

and this

for

a

umre

study

was

study seeks to exhaustive

analytical procedure.

This

study

sought

to

develop

computer

mapping

procedures to illustrate the horizontal/Vertical variability

5

of pollutant concentrations as an overlay on an isometric plot of the mountainous terrain and perform some elementary analysis

of

the

altitudinal

interrelationships of the measured parameters. taken

over

the

Shenandoah

and

variations

National

and

Park

The flights surrounding

areas in the summer of 1981 were chosen to provide the data base for the study because the author was familiar with the terrain

and

the

procedures

that

were

followed in

data

gathering by reason of being an operator of the instruments. Briefly, 1.

then,

the objectives were:

To develop a three—dimensional mapping procedure to spatially display and help to

relate the

levels of

measured parameters. 2.

To

determine

ranges

the

of

background

levels

and

distributions of measured parameters. 3.

To

determine

average

of

levels

the

measured

parameters on an altitudinal basis. 4.

To correlate certain measured parameters with related measured parameters

(e.g.

relative humidity with the

coefficient of light scattering). 5.

To

identify

deviate

where

the

measured

parameters

from background levels.

The hypothesis the data,

areas

is that the

coupled with

spatial

an analysis

representation of

of the

ranges of

the

6

data,

will

help

in determining the

background

levels

of

pollutants and will establish areas of deviant concentration

levels.

Chapter

II

LITERATURE REVIEW

There

is

a

scarcity

representation research.

of

available

as

ie

information

applies

it

to

air

on

data

pollution

One of the following three categories is usually

resorted to

for graphical

representation of

air pollution

data: 1.

—-

Conventional

Two-dimensional

frequency distributions,

plots,

histograms,

and the like. 4

2.

Data

specific



Systems

of

data

representation

developed specifically for a particular set of data. These are original computer programs and may present the

data

either

in

three-dimensional

usually

of

a

inapplicable

to

a

form.

two—dimensional Programs

proprietary data

of

nature

sets other

or

this

and

that

are

sort

may

the

a

be

one

for

which they were written. 3.

Packaged programs

where

the

data

--

has

Systems

to

be

of

data

gathered

representation

in

a

suitable for display by a packaged program usually proprietary).

nmnner (which is

Representation can be two-

three-dimensional.

7

or

8

is

There

considerable

overlap between

other two categories,

the

first

and

the

since the other categories frequently

produce output of a conventional form. Data representation of the conventional form is usually resorted

to

manually. or

boda

small

on

sets

of

data

that

can be handled

Large data sets need to be processed by either one of

represented

the

a

in

categories

other

conventional

they

before

way.

This

can

be

may

processing

utilize the computer simply to perform the mechanical of plotting the data,

task

or to perform calculations on the data

before plotting them. Examples numerous books form to

of

the

conventional

and articles.

Rutherford

show the flight path

quality monitoring.

can be

form

(4)

found

in

utilizes this

of the aircraft used in air

It is not usually necessary to have a

very precise display of the flight path taken during an air quality

survey

since

is

this

informational purposes only.

normally used Moreover,

for

general

the additional cost

that would be incurred in equipping the aircraft with the instrumentation needed

path

is

however, to be

both

for

prohibitive

a precise

and

not

to their general nature,

supported by plots

transects flown.

of the

record of

really

the

needed.

flight

Due,

displays of this type have data for the

spirals or

9

Data

used

frequently models. not

graphical

specific to

display

representations

data

generated

are

to

be

manipulated

to

further

graphical representation. Pepper and Baker (5) have

(6)

graphical

examples

of

representations graphs

three-dimensional presentation,

two of

do

and

and Meyers gt

three-dimensional

data.

Although

provide

a

good

for the entire mapped area.

possible in an airborne air quality survey.

either

enable

·

the visual

it must be kept in mind that models are able

to generate data

a model

computer

by

These data are continuous in the space domain and do

normally need

ual.

most

is to provide

This is not

The objective of

an estimate of what may exist based

purely on hypothesis or

actual data that may be

scanty.

on hypothesis

applied to

The objectives

of an air

quality survey are mainly to provide actual data from which general

inferences

can

three-dimensional graphs due

to the

model,

basic

be

drawn.

Therefore,

developed by Meyers gt gl.

assumptions made

in

Similar

--

representative,

problems

exist

with

of

and not --

prevailing

the

(6),

any air dispersion

will only at best be indicative,

probability

the

in all

conditions.

two—dimensional

concentration isopleths developed by Pepper and Baker

Data

specific

the computer

graphical representations

(5).

that utilize

(or mini—computer) mainly as a device to store

10

airborne

air

quality‘

data,

operations on the data, of the data, Rutherford

perforux

of

levels

altitude.

have been used by Stephens gt al.

(4)

and Karacostas

measured The

simplest and easily

plots

fact

provide

is

of

that

The

data

the

plane)

against types

time of

information that

gathered more

lack of spatial

and

plots

against are

consuming to generate

straightforward interpretation. from

Stephens gt

same basic output —— plots of

these

considerably

(2,3,7,8),

and Marvitz (9).

parameters

least time

the

recognized.

(plots

arithmetical

and perform the mechanical plotting

and Rutherford have the

al.

minor

the

in vertical easily

the can be

altitude-based

spirals)

subject

can

to

The time based plots suffer

information

(on

the

horizontal

and thus are considerably more difficult to read and

interpret,

since

spatial input has

to be sought

plot of the flight path and/or voice recordings. mentioned

before

(in

the

Introduction,

from the As has been

q.v.),

subtle

differences in the measured levels in different areas can go unnoticed, day

to

and the variability of the flight path from one

the next

make

it

difficult

to

locate

and

relate

portions of the flight that were over the same general area. Also,

the

capability

of

flight-gathered

information were not fully utilized.

data

to

provide

·

Karacostas

ll

and Marvitz

(9)

mainly performed

plume tracking and consequently subjected more

detailed

analysis

to

develop

airborne

their data to a

plots

of

vertical

diffusion with respect to time. Various packaged programs exist and

display

of

Most

data.

of

for the

these

manipulation

perform

·

an

interpolation/extrapolation on the data (which may be widely spaced)

to

generate

representations. graphs

of

smooth

They also Due

data.

the

surfaces

in

three-dimensional

provide two—dimensional contour to

fact

the

that

they

were

developed with the objective that they could be used in a wide variety not

of applications,

specifically

oriented

these packaged programs

towards

monitoring results.

The data,

preprocessed before

they

depicting

air

are

quality

therefore, have usually to be

can be used by

these

packaged

programs.

The

report

Graphics

and

Spatial

Graduate School Control more

than a

research.

of

of Design)

decade,

(of

to the

(since

still

Laboratory

the

Analysis

Administration

dealing with

air

(lO,ll)

the

Harvard

Computer

University's

National Air Pollution

defunct) most

computer mapping as

for

is

perhaps,

after

exhaustive work done

applied to

air pollution

Several case studies of areas that had "sufficient

quality,

emission,

and

related

socio-economic

and

12

meteorological

-—

data

spatially

(10) were performed.

region"

general—purpose programs, developed in

1963

and improved

at the

1967

and

1968).

1968),

The

and were called SYMAP

and

(developed

at

the Laboratory

in

and GRID

(developed

at

the

in

"is a

surface which

interpolation procedure

values of points intermediate

Laboratory

generalized procedure

intuitively reasonable

a weighted

Institute

SYMVU

specified values at specified data points" uses

(initially

Laboratory for Computer Graphics

SYMAP program an

producing

the

Programs used in the study were

at Northwestern Technological

Analysis),

Spatial

over

distributed.

to

for

takes

(ll). The program to

compute

the

data points and generate

printer plots. The SYMVU program uses a procedure similar to that used by SYMAP, advantage

of

and generates plotter output.

providing

specified area

different

oblique

views

The GRID program is also

(11).

It has the of

any

similar to

SYMAP and produces printer plots, but uses data collected on the basis of geographic grid cells (ll). is capable plots.

of producing two-,

Although

the

advanced

and

the

quality,

the

output

general

trends

points.

interpolation

maps

and

three-

that

are

should be represents

The combined system

and four-dimensional

techniques

generated

used true

only values

are

as

are of

fairly a

high

indicating

only

at

data

This caution has to be applied to all map output

13

generated by interpolation procedures, the

map

in reflecting

the

directly related to the

actual

and the accuracy of

trends

in the

fineness of the

spatial

data

is

grid over

which the data were collected. Bengtson (12)

(13)

and Jermoluk

have utilized packaged

programs to display data generated by computer models. Both authors

utilized

Program)

package

Products,

GPCP

the (14)

developed

to display

Inc.,

(General by

Contouring

Purpose

Computer

California

two-dimensional

yet the results are radically different.

isopleth maps,

The maps given by

Bengtson seem composed mainly of regular geometrical shapes (rectangles,

circles,

triangles)

while

those

by

given

Jermoluk have more irregular shapes that look like contours. Since the interpolation procedure for producing these maps is the

same

in both cases,

it

can be concluded

that any

differences of a general nature are due to differences in the modeling procedures.

packaged programs that the

data,

However,

that are not

by the time

subjected to two

stages

using the model to

tailored to the model,

it is

to

generate data

generate

interpolation

do

not

its

in map

of interpolation

second when the packaged program

points

the main drawback of using

output.

usually use

to be

form, -—

is

has been

the first when

plotted,

and the

interpolates between data

The the

two same

stages formula

of for

14

performing the

interpolation,

interpreting the

it

is possible

and care must be

results in a

that

correct manner.

data

the

after

the

taken

In

first

in

some cases

stage

of

interpolation (the modeling stage) will bear little relation to the data after the second stage (the mapping stage). This may

result in

erroneous

interpreted properly, faith

anything

5:1

conclusions if

the

maps are

not

because "many people place unwarranted

produced

by

a

computer"

(11).

The

alternative is to use a packaged display program that will not perform any further interpolations on the data supplied to

the

it,

and will

just plot

the

"actual"

data points

(where

data points may have been interpolated by a

"actual"

model). This will usually lead to a less impressive display but a more faithful one. Jermoluk (13) has also utilized the SURFACE II Graphics System

(15)

developed by

the Kansas

present data in three·dimensional diagrams.

The

topographic utilized for and other SURFACE

SURFACE II

maps,

but,

Survey

suitable

for producing

conditions,

displaying spatially distributed air

system

is

The

that

to

form as perspective block

system was developed

under

forms of data.

II

Geological

can be quality

general drawbacks of using the of

two

stage

interpolation

mentioned earlier. Near a source of air pollution, where the concentration gradient

is quite

steep,

the

plots produced

15

are

fairly good.

However,

displaying background

lead

bad

to

computer runs. one

least

system is not suitable for

levels of measured air

since these do not have will

the

quality data

steep concentration gradients and

displays

and

prohibitively

expensive

is because the system searches for at

This

elevated

point,

which

may

be

not

found

in



background level data.

The aspect

of vertical

concentration profiles

of air

pollutants has been addressed by several researchers. has

(16)

compiled the results

of eleven studies

profiles performed near urban areas, basic

types

of

vertical

ozone

meteorological conditions. a well mixed air mass, with height.

due

to

Near

scavenging

meteorological

the then

surface,

of ozone

and has developed six

profiles

These profiles

based

on

indicate that for

the concentrations are nearly uniform surface

the

and

the levels

reaction

conditions

lead

decrease

processes.

to

More

somewhat

stable

low concentrations

increasing to a height of 0.5 to 1.0 km,

decreasing

to

Ludwig

a

constant

concentration lay in the 50 to

level.

100 ppb

The

near

and

average

(parts per billion

v/v)

range. However,

all the studies reported were performed

near

urban

and

levels will

centers,

be

it

is

expected

lower in pristine areas.

that

the

general

The profiles may

also not duplicate those derived for urban areas,

specially

16

stable

during

significant centers,

conditions,

amount

of photochemical

and

Netherlands.

concentrations monitors), 0.7 km,

(17)

Guicherit

measurements (vertical The

usually

there

is

activity near

urban

performed

several

airborne

spirals) of ozone over several areas It

were

was

low

found

that

(determined

by

ground

level

ground

level

increasing with height to a height of from 0.5 to

and then decreasing to a constant level.

Rutherford (4)

reports similar trends (decreasing to a

constant level)

over an altitude of about 1.5 km,

those

reports

ppb.

a

and much is not expected in pristine areas.

Dop

in

since

altitudes

high

concentrations

of

but below

about

240

The flights were spirals and transects flown over field

burns,

and,

among other possible factors,

the

introduction

of smoke into the chemiluminescent ozone monitor could have led to incorrect readings. bscat and dew point.

Other data were reported on NOx,

Above the

smoke level these generally

tended to decrease. Stephens gt al. ozone

trends

(2,7,8)

similar

to

those

generally

lower

performed

in national park

scattering

and

and Lubkert (18) have reported

concentrations

SO2

levels

mentioned since

areas.

have

above

their

but

studies

The coefficient of

been

reported by

at were light

these

researchers to be generally decreasing with altitude.

P

17

Gloria gt al.

(19)

found

the

increasing

and

then

decreasing trends

in the ozone data in studies performed in

various

California.

parts

of

decrease with height.

downwind of

Bscat

Wolff gt gl.

urban "plumes"

was (20)

and found

also

found

conducted

to

studies

ozone concentrations

remaining fairly constant with height,

though

possibly be due to the urban "plumes".

Only in one case

flight over New Brunswick) then decreasing trend.

these could (a

do they report an increasing and

Similar

trends

(though not

the

same

concentrations) would be expected from the data gathered in the survey of the Shenandoah National Park in the 1981, which is the object of the present study.

summer of

Chapter III SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

This chapter will give a short description of the Park and the

data

and

gathering

previously,

analysis

system

that

existed

and then describe the data analysis

system that

was developed.

SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PA;; The Shanandoah National Park extends from Front Royal in the north to Waynesboro

in

the south

in northern Virginia,

is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Piedmont on

the east

which flows the

west.

from the

south fork of

To the west

of the

parallel to the Park, Washington National

The Park separates the

Shenandoah Valley

(through

the Shenandoah River)

Shenandoah Valley,

and

to

the

running

is Massanutten Mountain and the George

Park.

The

approximately 30° from north, long.

and

axis

of

the

Park

is

tilted

and the Park is about 70 miles

Most of the area surrounding the Park is at an average

elevation of

1000 feet above

portions of the feet above msl.

mean sea level

Park itself rise to heights Figure l

(msl),

of over 4000

shows the area of the Park.

18

while

19

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PROGRAMThe OUTPUT FBQM SNP

program mainly

additionally, identify

flight of

performs and

means

parameters.

provides

July 30,

miscellaneous

highest

Figure 11

card-image

points

output,

computations in

the

and, to

measured

shows the option 10 printout for the

1981.

This

is typical

output produced by program SNP. files were read in (i.e.

of the

printed

The printout shows that 224

the entire flight),

that no cut—off

levels were used for calculations of the means for which the cut—off option is valid,

gives the means and the number of

values used to

these,

calculate

and the highest values

of

the parameters.

All the three means calculated for each parameter have the same numerical value because no cut-off levels were used and none

of the

exception is $02.

measured values A look at

calculate the means

were over

100.

The

sole

the number of values used to

shows that

there were 12 observations

that were over a level of 100 ppb. These 12 observations had the effect of shifting the mean upward by as much as 3.12 ppb in spite of the fact that there were This

indicates that

most

of the

value and the 7.36 ppb mean

1042 observations.

observations have a

low

(for the 100 ppb cut-off level)

could possibly also be biased upwards. An examination of the S02

averages

by

altitude

levels

indicates

that

high

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