ARTIFICIAL REEF RESEARCH

BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, 37(1): 11-39, 1985

ARTIFICIAL REEF RESEARCH: A REVIEW WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PRIORITIES James A. Bohnsack and David L. Sutherland ABSTRACT Artificial reef literature was critically reviewed to determine what knowledge about the biology, ecology, and economics of artificial reefs had been scientifically established and to identify and recommend future projects, areas, and methods of research. General agreement exists that artificial reefs are effective fish attractants and an important fishery management tool. Most published papers deal with building artificial reefs or are qualitative descriptive studies detailing successional changes and species observed. Conclusions were often based on little or no scientific data. Few studies used quantitative experimental methods and many lacked scientifically valid controls. Drastically different approaches to artificial reefs in terms of purpose, funding, research, materials, and size have been taken by Japan and the United States. Most marine artificial reefs in the United States are large, low budget, and haphazardly constructed from scrap materials, using volunteer labor. These reefs are usually built in deeper offshore waters for use by recreational fishermen with boats. Japan's artificial reefs, however, are designed and constructed by engineers, built of durable, non-waste, prefabricated materials, placed in scientifically selected sites in shallow and deep water, and are primarily used by commercial fishermen. In this paper, 29 recommendations are made for future studies. Improved professional publication standards and more carefully controlled studies using an experimental approach are suggested. Greater emphasis should be placed on determining optimal design, size, and placement of artificial reefs to maximize production. More attention should be given to small, shallow, nearshore artificial reefs that are accessible without a boat. Also, reefs designed for increasing larval and juvenile recruitment, survival, and growth should be considered. Improved quantitative assessment techniques are needed to describe artificial reefs, reef communities, and to monitor biotic changes. Artificial reef data bases should be maintained so that the effectiveness of various artificial reefs can be more easily assessed. The importance of fish attraction versus fish production and the relationship between standing crop and fish catch have not been adequately addressed. The economics and social impact of artificial reefs also have not been carefully examined, especially the benefits from alternative designs and approaches.

Artificial reefs have become an important and popular resource enhancement technique. Artificial reefs are thought to improve fishing by concentrating fishes and by increasing natural production of biological resources. Despite considerable enthusiasm by various government agencies, private organizations, and individuals, relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of artificial reefs. Few quantitative scientific studies have been conducted compared to qualitative assessments. Public support for artificial reef construction has been intense and considerable funds and effort are being expended by some government agencies and private organizations to construct artificial reefs, despite the general lack of fundamental knowledge concerning optimum design criteria, location, and size of reefs. In this review we examine literature on artificial reefs to determine what has been scientifically established concerning the biology, ecology, and economics of artificial reefs. Much of the available literature about artificial reefs has limited scientific value and is scattered and difficult to evaluate. By determining what hypotheses have and have not been adequately tested, we hope to direct future II

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BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985

research toward the important problems and avoid unnecessary and redundant work. This effort should result in more effective use of public and private funds, and lead to improved design, construction, and placement of artificial reefs for resource management purposes. METHODS

We critically examined 413 artificial reef references through 1983 compiled from a variety ofsources. We excluded articles that had topics only peripherally related to artificial reefs, and literature not translated to English. Fortunately, much of the important Japanese literature had either recently been translated (Vik, 1982) or reviewed and summarized (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Although the 413 references did not include all artificial reef literature, they did include almost all published scientific papers. References were coded in terms of primary focus and specific topics treated. Trends in artificial reef literature were examined by noting the number of publications printed per year and the frequency of various topics and approaches in these publications. Many references-treated a variety of broad topics superficially. Here we cite only the most important references, RESULTS

Numerical Analysis The number of publications about artificial reefs has increased greatly during the past decade (Fig. 1). Peaks in frequency of publications occur in years following major national or international meetings about artificial reefs or when volumes of translated material are published. The two most common topics among the 413 references were historical program descriptions for specific geographical areas (16%, 68), and general, non-technical popular articles of artificial reefs (16%, 68, Table 1). Other topics cited in 5% or more of the references were general artificial reef ecology (8%, 35), fish behavior around artificial reefs (8%, 32), productivity of reefs (7%, 29), recruitment of various organisms (6%, 26) and reef materials (5%,22). Most references (Table 2) were non-peer review technical reports (188). Only 31% (129) of the references occurred in peer review journals. In terms of approach, 28% (114) of the publications instructed readers how to obtain permits, select sites and materials, and construct artificial reefs and buoys. Most papers were purely descriptive studies (37%, 151). An experimental approach was used in 79 (19%) papers, although many of these lacked rigid experimental controls. Nine papers were primarily theoretical. The remaining 60 papers were non-scientific popular articles that did not provide useful scientific information but did provide insights into general public perceptions about artificial reefs. A total of 282 references presented some technical information. General Artificial Reef Descriptions and Purposes Artificial reefs are generally classified into three broad categories: bottom, midwater, and surface. We considered oil and gas platforms a fourth category because they have functionally similar characteristics to all three reef types. The purpose of most artificial reefs has been to improve fisheries by increasing the harvest of algae, lobster, other shellfish, and fishes. In the United States almost all fishery improvement reefs have been built to attract adult fishes. In Japan artificial reefs have also been built to improve spawning, recruitment, and survival of earlier life history stages (Carlisle et al., 1964; Petit, 1972; Paxton and Stevenson, 1979; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Buckley, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983; Okamoto, 1983b).

BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:

REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL

REEF RESEARCH

13

110 100 en

z

0

~

90 80 70

D

PEER REVIEW

rzl

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

60

D...

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(I)

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30

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z 20

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36-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-83

YEAR Figure I. The total number of artificial reef publications has greatly increased since the mid-1950's although the number of non-peer review publications (filled area) has grown faster than the number of peer review publications (light area).

Artificial reefs also have been used for a variety of purposes other than directly improving recreational and commercial harvest. Oil and gas platforms serve secondarily as artificial reefs. Some reefs have been built to serve as breakwaters (Clady et aI., 1979a; 1979b); control beach erosion (Raymond, 1975; Wang, 1978); prevent trawlers from using certain areas (Edmund, 1960); restrict fishermen from shipping lanes; reduce fishing pressure on other stocks (Hammond et aI., 1977); and mitigate detrimental impacts on habitat (Grant et aI., 1982; Grove, 1982). Many small reefs have been built solely to experimentally test fishery and ecological theory (Smith and Tyler, 1973; Russell et aI., 1974; Sale and Dybdahl, 1975; MoUes, 1978; Talbot et aI., 1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a; 1983b; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980; Ogden and Ebersole, 1981; Gascon and Miller, 1981; 1982). History and Program Descriptions Artificial reef construction and research have been centered primarily in Japan and the United States. The first artificial reefs in the United States were constructed in the mid-1800's (Stone, 1974), although the Japanese had begun constructing artificial reefs several hundred years earlier (Ino, 1974). Most artificial reefs in the United States have been constructed by private organizations, local governments, or private individuals with rather small budgets and little government funding (Stone, 1974; 1982). Exact expense figures are not available. Traditionally, great emphasis has been placed on using discarded scrap or waste materials and volunteer labor. These reefs have been intended primarily for recreational fishing. The Japanese have taken a quite different approach. Funded by the national

14


Table 1. Frequency of primary topics in 413 artificial reef references Topic

Frequency

General Papers Program descriptions General articles History and bibliographies

(143)

Biological Studies Ecology Behavior Production Recruitment Comparison of artificial and natural reefs Fishes Invertebrates Algae and seagrasses Faunal lists

(162)

Communities

68 68 7

35 32 29 26 13 10 6

6 4 1

Design and Construction Construction materials Reef construction Reef design Permit procedures Site selection Buoys Legal aspects Currents and oceanographic factors Pollution and toxicity

(78)

Sociology and Economics Sociology and user conflicts Economics (costs and benefits)

(15) 8

Oil and Gas Platforms

(15)

22 18 13 6 6 6 3 2

2

7

government, most artificial reefs have been built primarily for commercial use and were carefully designed and constructed without using waste materials (Mottet, 1981; Sheehy, 1981; 1982b; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). In 1976, the Japanese Government began a 6-year, $700 million fishery improvement plan which earmarked about $250 million for artificial reef projects (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Approximately $65.2 million was spent on research and planning alone (Tanikawa, 1977, in Mottet, 1981). In 1982, they began a second 6-year plan with a funding commitment of$1.5 billion from which approximately $500 million will be spent on artificial reefs (Grove and Sonu, 1983). These figures only account for 50% to 70% of any particular project; the remaining funds come from local governments and organizations. Descriptions of artificial reef programs in various states and countries are too numerous to present here, though most citations can be found in bibliographies compiled by Steimle and Stone (1973), Rickards (1973), and Stanton. I Major

I Stanton, G. In Prep. Annotated bibJiography of artificial reef research and management. Horida Marine Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306.



15

REEF RESEARCH

Table 2. Frequency of source and approach to artificial reef literature Source

Peer review journals Technical reports Theses and dissertations Books Pamphlets Popular magazines Total

No.

129 188 5 23 7 19 413

Approach

Theoretical Descriptive Experimental Methods and management Popular (non-scientific) Total

No.

9 151 79 114 60

413

historical reviews and proceedings concerning artificial reef research have been done by Carlisle et al. (1964), Iversen (1968), Ino (1974), Stone (1974; 1982), Colunga and Stone (1974), Aska (1978; 1981), Mottet (1981), Sheehy (1982a), Vik (1982), and Grove and Sonu (1983). Materials and Construction Most artificial reefs in the United States are constructed from discarded materials. Almost every conceivable solid waste item has been used in artificial reef construction. Automobile tires and concrete blocks have been the most commonly used items because they are cheap, available, and easy to handle. Some other commonly used items include pipes, tile, rock, shell, barges, ships, bundled solid waste, automobiles, and other vehicles. Brush and trees have been used primarily in freshwater because they only last a short time in seawater. Recently, reefs have been made from coal ash (Woodhead et al., 1981; 1982) and from electrodeposition of elements naturally found in seawater (Hilbertz, 1981). Although some local Japanese groups build artificial reefs from stone and waste materials, the Japanese National Government does not fund construction of artificial reefs built from waste materials. Approved materials are steel reinforced or pre-stressed concrete, rubber, polyethylene concrete, and fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) (Mottet, 1981; Ogawa, 1982b; Shomomura, 1982; Sheehy, 1982a; 1982b; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Extensive literature exists on various engineering and legal aspects of building artificial reefs which is beyond the scope of this review. Reviews of artificial reef planning, construction, and siting requirements are provided by Parker et al. (1974); Prince et al. (1977); Aska (1978; 1981); Mathews (1981); Myatt (1981); Vik (1982); Buckley (1982); Kamikita (1982); Nakamura (1982a; 1982b); Nakamura et al. (1982); Sato and Yoshioka (1982); Yoshimuda and Masuzawa (1982); and Grove and Sonu (1983). Artificial Reef Ecology Recruitment and Succession. - Numerous studies have examined recruitment and succession on artificial reefs. Algae and invertebrates usually colonize new reef materials rapidly, although attaining an equilibrium community structure can take several years (Fager, 1971). A uniformity of species can exist during each season (Coe and Allen, 1937) or a successional pattern can occur where the dominant species change over time (Turner et al., 1969; Russell, 1975; Goren, 1979). Final composition and abundance of benthic organisms can depend on the composition of the substrate, the season the material was deposited, and environmental variables including water temperature, chemistry, and current patterns.

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Seeding artificial reefs with algae, oysters, clams, abalone, and sea urchins has been done frequently in Japan (Mottet, 1981). In the United States, abalone and kelp have been experimentally introduced on artificial reefs (Carlisle et al., 1964; North and Hubbs, 1968; Grove, 1982; Grant et al., 1982). In tropical waters, living corals have been transplanted to establish new reefs (Maragos, 1974; Bouchon et al., 1981). Fishes also colonize artificial reefs quite rapidly (Russell et al., 1974; Russell, 1975; Lim et al., 1976; Molles, 1978; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980). Sometimes the first fishes appear within hours after reef material is deposited (Molles, 1978; Turner et al., 1969). Fishes may remain on a reef for short or long periods of time, depending on the age and species of fish involved and the characteristics and location of the reef. Fish populations often reach maximum population sizes within a few months after reef material is placed in the environment (Turner et al., 1969; Stone et al., 1979; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980). Equilibrium community structure is usually achieved within one to a maximum of five years, although seasonal variations in the equilibrium number of species and individuals often occur and may have more influence than succession due to reef age (Nolan, 1975; Turner et al., 1969; Molles, 1978; Smith, 1978; Talbot et al., 1978; Parker et al., 1979; Prince and Maughan, 1979; Stone et al., 1979; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980; Gascon and Miller, 1981; Lukens, 1981; McIntosh, 1981; Stephens and Zerba, 1981; Gallaway and Lewbel, 1982; Kock, 1982; Murdy, 1979; Woodhead et al., 1982; Bohnsack, 1983b). This pattern of rapid colonization is surprisingly constant despite extremes in reef size from the smallest (Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980) to the largest (McIntosh, 1981). Data from several studies indicate a pattern of initial overshoot in number of species or individuals recruited to a new artificial reef with an eventual leveling off at some equilibrium level (Turner et al., 1969; Smith, 1978; Stone et al., 1979; Prince et al., 1979; Grant et al., 1982). The Japanese have developed several classification schemes for describing how fishes use artificial reefs, including horizontal and vertical use, length of occupancy, fidelity to a reef, and the part of the life cycle that uses an artificial reef (Grove and Sonu, 1983; Ogawa, 1982d). Ogawa (l982a; 1982d) provided one ofthe most useful classifications for describing behavioral patterns of fish attraction and use of artificial reefs: TYPEA, Surface and midwater fishes that show a swarming response to a reef and generally remain at some distance from the reef; TYPEB, fish that swim along the bottom and take a stationary position near a reef but usually do not remain on the reef permanently; TYPEC, bottom and other fishes that take a stationary position inside a reef or on the bottom in its vicinity. A wide variety of environmental factors and senses play an important part in attracting fishes to artificial reefs. These include current patterns; shadows; species interactions; visual cues of size, shape, color, and light; sound; touch; and pressure (Kojima, 1957; Ogawa, 1966; 1967; 1968; 1982d; Ogawa and Aoyama, 1966; Senta, 1966a; 1966b; Takemura and Ogawa, 1966a; 1966b; Helfman, 1979; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Kuroki, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983; Okamoto, 1983). The behavioral response to a particular artificial reef varies with the age and species of fish, season, and reef age and location (Kuwatani, 1982; Ogawa, 1982a; Nakamura, 1982a; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Shimizu (1981) reported the effective range of attraction for fishes was 300 m. The basic question of what attracts fish to artificial reefs remains mostly unanswered, even for the most important commercial species, despite numerous studies (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Artificial Reef Function. - Fishes use artificial reefs for shelter, feeding, spawning, and orientation (Kojima, 1956; Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Hunter and Mitch-

BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND: REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL REEF RESEARCH

17

ell, 1967; Kakimoto, 1982a; Ogawa, 1982c; 1982d; Yoshimuda, 1982). However, the ecological basis for artificial reef function is only poorly understood (Mottet, 1981; Kuwatani, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Artificial reefs function by either aggregating existing scattered individuals, or they allow secondary biomass production through increased survival and growth of new individuals because of shelter and food resources provided by the reef. Attraction is usually considered the only important factor in surface and midwater reefs (Klima and Wickham, 1971; Wickham et aI., 1973; Wickham and Russell, 1974; Hammond et aI., 1977; Myatt, 1978; Matsumoto et aI., 1981), although the relative importance of attracting versus producing fishes on bottom artificial reefs and oil and gas platforms is quite controversial (Stone, 1978; Shinn, 1974). Net fish production requires production and availability of suitable food. Rarely have the trophodynamics of artificial reefs been examined, although many studies assume food production by reef fauna and flora is an important factor (e.g., Ranasinghe, 1981; Ogawa, 1982d; Vik, 1982). The quantity of attached and affiliated organisms on bottom reefs is not correlated with the abundance of migratory species (Mottet, 1981), although predator presence has been correlated with the availability of prey fishes (Ranasinghe, 1981; Kock, 1982). Prince et al. (1975; 1976; 1979) conducted some of the more detailed studies on food production associated with freshwater artificial reefs. They found that periphyton productivity and nutrient concentration was several times greater than productivity of a littoral phytoplankton control. Periphyton of the artificial reefs recycled nutrients that otherwise would have been lost to lake bottom sediments, shortened and modified the food web to increase net production, was the most important dietary component for bluegill, and formed the basis of the food web supporting carnivorous reef fishes. Prince et al. (1979) presented a preliminary food web model of this artificial reef community. Food pathways were quantified using an index of relative importance which relied on numerical, volumetric, and frequency of Occurrence food habits data. However, direct measurements of energy flow between trophic levels were not made. Many studies reported observations of fishes feeding on artificial reefs; however, these observations were often incidental and the artificial reefs were not likely to be a mainstay in supporting fish populations (Russell, 1975; Murdy, 1979). Prince and Gotshall (1976) found that small copper rockfish fed on reef-associated organisms but the larger individuals tended to feed on organisms found away from artificial reefs. Hueckel and Slayton (1982) found the opposite pattern: medium and large fish foraged more on organisms associated with artificial reefs than did small fishes of the same species. Many gut content studies indicate that most fishes do not feed directly on artificial reefs (Randall, 1963; Kakimoto, 1982a; Russell, 1975; Gyosho, 1976b, in Mottet, 1981; Mottet, 1981; Steimle and Ogren, 1982). Most fish biomass around oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico represents species that are trophically independent from the platform (Gallaway and Lewbel, 1982). Pardue (1973), using small pools, found a linear increase in fish production when the amount of artificial substrate equalled 50 to 100% of the bottom substrate. However, Pardue and Nielsen (1979) and Wege and Anderson (1979) showed that increasing the amount of artificial substrate in larger ponds did not affect total fish production. Manges (1960) and Beguery (1974) concluded that bottom artificial reefs increased fish availability but not net productivity. Reefs do not have to produce food to attract most fishes, although they do need to be close to appropriate feeding areas (Mottet, 1981).

Area of Inj/uence.- The area around a reef where fishes are caught is termed the

18


enhanced fishing zone. General agreement existed that the effective boundary for this zone is 200 to 300 m for midwater and surface fishes and between I and 100 m for benthic fishes, depending on the species (Mottet, 1981; Kakimoto, 1982b; Ogawa, 1982c; 1982d; Yoshimuda and Fujii, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). These zones are not usually circular because fishes tend to congregate either upcurrent or downcurrent from the reef in response to lee waves, stagnation zones, and the availability of food as it arrives from up current (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Grove and Sonu (1983) reported that most catches occur within 60 m of a reef. Yoshimuda and Fujii (1982), however, reported that 48% of permanent resident fishes on a 190- by 240-m reef were caught within 370 m from the center. Kakimoto (1982b) concluded the primary effective fishing boundary was 200 m, but that a secondary effective boundary for certain species extended 400 to 800 m. Few studies have examined the effects of artificial reefs on the surrounding biota. Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded that the range of biological influence extended 120 m. Clarke et ai. (1967) found certain sand species were removed or absent near a Sealab II site, presumably because of predation. Thomas and Bromley (1968) found artificial reefs encouraged the growth of macrophytic vegetation

in fresh water. Dewees and Gotshall (1974) concluded that artificial reefs did not attract fishes from other surrounding reefs, although Fast and Pagan (1974) found fishes moved from natural reefs to artificial reefs but not vice versa. Some researchers have suggested that a separation of at least 600 m was necessary to maintain the identity between natural and artificial reefs (Yoshimuda and Masuzawa, 1982). Davis et ai. (1982) found that the density of tube-dwelling polychaetes, Diopatra spp., increased within 5 months after artificial reef construction, and the sea pen, Stylatula elongata, was eliminated within a 200-m radius of an artificial reef. They found these trends to be more pronounced for larger structures like oil platforms and bridge pilings. Comparison of Artificial Reefs with Natural Habitats.-Most studies on the effectiveness of artificial reefs have attempted to compare artificial reef communities with communities on natural reefs or in randomly chosen control areas. In almost all cases artificial reefs had higher density and biomass than randomly selected bottom control areas (Rodeheffer, 1939; Arve, 1960; Clarke et ai., 1967; Petit, 1972; Pierce, 1967; Deroche, 1973; Chapman, 1975; Alfieri, 1975; Lim et ai., 1976; Prince and Maughan, 1979; Prince et ai., 1979; Walton, 1982). Walton (1982) found about four times the density and nine times the biomass of flatfishes, and eight times the biomass and density of all fishes on artificial reefs relative to control reefs. Clarke et al. (1967) found 35 times greater biomass on artificial reefs than on open bottom areas. Only a few studies found artificial reefs had no effect (Charles, 1967; Lindenberg, 1973). Most studies comparing natural and artificial reefs have found general similarity in community structure (Randall, 1963; Buchanan, 1973; 1974; Buchanan et ai., 1974; Nolan, 1975; Russell, 1975; Lim et aI., 1976; Jones and Thompson, 1978; Molles, 1978; Smith et aI., 1979; Talbot et aI., 1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a; 1983b; Murdy, 1979; Stone et aI., 1979; Walton, 1979; Gascon and Miller, 1981). Fast and Pagan (1974) found fewer species on artificial reefs. Paxton and Stevenson (1979) and Aadland (1982) concluded that the ability to use both artificial and natural reefs depended on the species. Fish abundance and biomass on artificial reefs often greatly exceeded that found on similar sized natural reefs even though general community composition may have been similar (Rodeheffer, 1939; Moseley, 1961; Anonymous, 1968; Petit, 1972; Lim et ai., 1976). When comparing artificial and natural reefs, Turner et



REEF RESEARCH

19

aI. (1969) found two to three times the biomass; Fast (1974) and Fast and Pagan (1974) found twice the individuals and seven to eight times the biomass; Russell (1975) found 10 to 14 times the biomass; and Smith et aI. (1979) found six times the number of individuals on artificial reefs. Walton (1979) found 16 times the density but the same biomass when he compared artificial reefs to control reefs. A few studies found less biomass, abundance, or fishing success on artificial reefs for lobster (Scarratt, 1968) and fishes (Charles, 1967; Lindenberg, 1973). Murdy (1979) found larger fishes on natural reefs versus tire reefs, presumably because more cover was available. The cross-sectional area of fish schools has been correlated with the cross-sectional area of a reef (Yoshimuda and Fujii, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Artificial reefs with a bulk volume between 2,500 and 130,000 m3 maintained larger schools of fish (volumetrically) than natural reefs of the same size. Smaller reefs have also shown significantly greater fish density than the same sized natural reefs (Bohnsack, 1979; Talbot et aI., 1978). A common explanation for greater biomass and density of fishes on artificial reefs versus natural reefs is that artificial reefs are more complex and provide more cover than natural reefs (Smith et aI., 1979). However, Randall (1963) and Russell (1975) attributed artificial reef success to position in the surrounding habitat. Fishing Effectiveness Artificial reef effectiveness has usually been measured in terms of either increased fish abundance or fishing success at the artificial reef site. Many studies report greater fishing effort and catches at artificial reefs than at control sites (Rodeheffer, 1939; Moseley, 1961; Turner et aI., 1969; Buchanan, 1973; Wickham et aI., 1973; Crumpton and Wilbur, 1974; Fast, 1974; Myatt, 1978). Paxton and Stevenson (1979) concluded that catch from artificial reefs varied depending on the species. Wilbur (1978) found decreased fishing success at reefs in the year after construction. Buchanan (1974) and Buchanan et aI. (1974) found greater fishing effort being expended on artificial reefs, but catch per unit effort declined with time. Liao and Cupka (1979) reported overfishing on artificial reefs relative to natural reefs. Mottet (1981) reported that fish production from Japanese reefs was greatly influenced by the fishing method and depended primarily on the number of fish migrating through the area. Angling generally produced the lowest catches; trawling and seining produced the best results. The important commercial species were migratory. Increased biomass from permanent residents was only a minor contribution to increased catch. Buckley (1982) found that transient fishes accounted for 67.4% and 59.5% of the total catch for the first 2 years after reef construction. Grove and Sonu (1983) and Mottet (1981) concluded that the evidence for increased fish production from Japanese artificial reefs is circumstantial and far from being conclusive, despite the great investment in artificial reef building. Evidence supporting increased fish production was mostly based on opinion polls and comparisons of gross regional catches before and after building artificial reefs. In 1983, the Japanese began an intensive 3-year monitoring program to collect the necessary data for showing production effects from specific artificial reefs (Grove and Sonu, 1983). The program will monitor 30 reef projects and will involve 10 fully equipped research vessels. Huntsman (1981) reviewed the theoretical basis for fishery yields from artificial reefs and concluded that bottom artificial reefs increased recreational fishing opportunities for reef fishes but were not practical for sustained commercial use.

20


Reef fish were easy to over-exploit because of their low mobility, low natural mortality, and slow growth rates. Similarly, surface and midwater artificial reefs concentrate pelagic fishes, making them easier to exploit (Wickham et al., 1973). The effect of this exploitation on populations of highly mobile pelagic species, however, has not been documented. Reef Failures.-Many artificial reefs have failed, Reefs have been destroyed by storms (Breuer, 1963), destroyed by corrosion in as little as 4 years (Stevens, 1963), and disappeared into mud (Mathews, 1978). Artificial reef materials have damaged fishing nets (Harrington, 1972; Mauermann, 1974; Laitin, 1983; Skupien, 1983) and corals and sea grass beds (Mathews, 1978) because materials had been deposited in the wrong place or had shifted. Some reefs have not improved total population numbers (Rounsefell, 1972; Walton, 1979; Wege and Anderson, 1979), biomass (Pardue and Nielsen, 1979), or fishing success for certain species (Charles, 1967; Clady et al., 1979b). Lindenberg (1973) reported the failure of an artificial reef to concentrate fish in eutrophic waters. Wege and Anderson (1979) found that artificial reefs resulted in increased growth rates and improved fishing success for bass, but did not increase total population size and could potentially lead to overfishing. Murdy (1979) found that a tire reef did not improve standing stock primarily because ofthe reefs close proximity to a natural reef. We suspect that many additional failures have occurred but not been reported because artificial reefs were not monitored after their construction and because of a bias against reporting negative results in the literature. Optimum Design and Placement Numerous parameters involving artificial reef design and placement have been indicated as biologically important to the success of artificial reefs (Risk, 1981; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Optimum ranges exist for each parameter where effectiveness is maximized. Below we discuss some of these factors. Area Covered. - The volume and area of a reef (the amount of reef material deposited and the amount of bottom area covered) are important design considerations (Ogawa and Onoda, 1966; Ogawa and Takemura, 1966a; 1966b; Smith, 1972; Huntsman, 1981; Walton, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Yoshimuda(1982) found attractiveness generally increased with greater reef size although some small reefs could be very productive as well. Rounsefell (1972) suggested that artificial reefs should be at least 200,000 ft3 (5,700 m3) to maintain self-sustaining fish populations. Russell (1975) theorized reasons for the existence of optimum sized reefs for certain species. Some suggested optimum reef sizes were a maximum of 200,000 ft3 (5,700 m3) in California (Turner et al., 1969); 2 to 3 acres (0.8 to 1.2 ha) in New York (Jensen, 1975); and 2,000 m3 (71,000 ft3) in Japan (Ogawa et al., 1977). Ogawa et al. (1977) noted that production increased directly with reef size from 400 m3 to a maximum size of 4,000 m3. Japanese researchers have suggested that artificial reefs should optimally be placed in a hierarchal arrangement where many blocks (or unit modules) form a set, 10 to 20 sets are clustered in a group, and several clustered groups compose a reef complex (Ogawa, 1982c; Ohshima, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Different terms have been used for these levels depending on the translation. The optimum size for individual blocks has not been determined. In practice, most blocks vary between I and 5 m3 but may reach 60 m3. Fabricated unit modules range from 100 to 250 m3. The minimum effective size for a reef set is considered to be 400 m3. Optimum recommended sizes are 800 to 1,000 m3 for a set, 8,000 to 10,000



REEF RESEARCH

21

m3 for a group, and 80,000 to 100,000 m3 for a reef complex. Reef complexes in Japan vary between 600 x 600 m (360,000 m2) and 5,000 x 10,500 m (52,500,000 m2). Vertical Relief -Conflicting reports exist on the importance of reef height or relief (Miyazaki and Sawada, 1978; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Some studies indicated height as an important consideration while others minimized its importance. Higo and Nagashima (1978) found height was not an important variable for stone reefs, although a minimum height was necessary for concrete reefs. Greater vertical relief apparently supported more fishes on small experimental reefs (Molles, 1978; Walton, 1979). Ogawa (1967) found certain species were attracted by the height of reefs while others were equally attracted by increased horizontal size. Height was not always a critical factor on large reefs. Ogawa (1982c) noted some reefs had been built up to 10 m high but suggested that 3 to 4 m was sufficient. Fujii (1973, in Ogawa, 1982d) and Gyosho (1976a, in Mottet, 1981) concluded that reef height was not important in depths less than 40 m but became more important in depths greater than 40 m. Reefs with greater vertical relief were more effective in deep water. In shallower waters there was little apparent difference between reefs 1 to 2 m high versus 3 to 4 m high in attracting fishes (Ogawa, 1982d; Mottet, 1981). Fujii (1982) recommended an aspect ratio (reef height/water depth) of 0.1 although little evidence apparently exists to support this recommendation (Mottet, 1981). Yoshimuda and Fujii (1982) and Ogawa (1982c) reviewed reef height and design and concluded that the effectiveness of height depended on the species; spreading material over a larger area was more important for bottom fishes than increasing height. Grove and Sonu (1983) discussed conflicting Japanese studies and decided that conclusions were not definitive, but suggested that height was probably more important to migratory fishes than sedentary demersal fishes and that horizontal spread was probably more important to demersal fish than to migratory midwater or surface fishes. Mottet (1981) concluded reef height was important but probably not as important as total area and complexity. The profile of a reef may be more important than actual height. Reefs with nearly vertical sides are considered best because they increase turbulent flow, producing attractive sounds and creating stagnation zones and lee waves (Nakamura, 1982a; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Gyosho (1976b, in Mottet, 1981) concluded that attraction of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) was almost directly proportional to vertical angle. Fujii (1982) suggested a slope angle of 90° was best for yellowtail. Complexity. - Complexity is important for artificial reef success (Ogawa and Takemura, 1966a; 1966b; Higo and Nagashima, 1978; Higo and Tabata, 1979; Smith et aI., 1979; Walton, 1979; Higo et al., 1980). Complexity includes design, spatial arrangement, number of chambers and openings, and the amount of interstitial space. Chang et al. (1977a) suggested that the most complex reefs were the best. A mathematical model by Crowder and Cooper (1979), however, predicted that fish maximize their feeding efficiency and growth at intermediate levels of structural complexity. The size and number of internal spaces has been correlated with the size and number of certain fishes on artificial reefs (Higo et al., 1980; Buckley, 1982). However, Russell et al. (1974), Molles (1978), Talbot et al. (1978), and Gascon and Miller (1981) found hole size was not an important factor influencing fish composition or size. Void space on most Japanese reefs is generally greater than

22


70% and can be as high as 98% or more (Mottet, 1981). Ogawa (1982c) noted that mid water and bottom fish do not inhabit reef interiors if chambers are too large, and suggested that artificial reefs built from several types of material were superior to reefs built from one type of material. Chambers with openings 2 m or greater were considered too large; the best size opening was between 0.15 and 1.5 m (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Fishes may avoid enclosed chambers with only one opening (Shinn, 1974; Mathews).2 Lobsters are known to prefer shelters with secondary escape exits (Cobb, 1971; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Vertical panels on artificial reefs have been found to be more effective at attracting fishes than skeletal members. Horizontal and diagonal skeletal members are more effective than vertical members (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Attraction probably occurs because these elements create shadows (Grove and Sonu, 1983), which are known to be preferred resting locations (Helfman, 1979). Texture. - The texture and composition of reef material can influence the composition and abundance of benthic organisms, although materials are usually selected based on availability and durability. Whether specific materials are best suited for particular organisms has not been determined (Sato and Yoshioka, 1982). In general, uneven surfaces with cracks, crevices, and holes increase benthic diversity and biomass (Kensler and Crisp, 1965; Higo and Nagashima, 1978; Hirose and Uchida, 1979). Grove and Sonu (1983) reported surface roughness was especially important for abalone, and sharp edges may be more effective for attachment of seaweeds and kelp. Schuhmacher (1974) found that corals did not generally settle on non-calcarious substrates such as metal. Spatial Arrangement and Orientation.-Spatial arrangement and orientation are important considerations in the design of artificial reefs (Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Nakamura (1982a) suggested artificial reefs should be oriented perpendicular to prevailing currents and fish migratory pathways. Turner et al. (1969) suggested leaving 50 to 60 ft (15-18 m) diameter open spaces in artificial reefs. Suggested spacing for Japanese artificial reefs was a few meters between individual blocks, 50 to 150 m between sets, 300 to 500 m between groups, and 3 km for reef complexes (Ogawa, 1982c; Grove and Sonu, 1983). However, experimental testing of spacing distances has not been conducted (Ogawa, 1982a). Mottet (1981) noted that the Japanese attempted to place reefs far enough apart to avoid overlapping the enhanced fishing zones around individual reefs. Location.-Ogawa (1982d) and Kuwatani (1982) concluded that the site chosen for an artificial reef was more important than reef design. Oceanographic conditions, including wave direction and force, as well as tidal and oceanic currents, influence the design success of artificial reefs (Kojima, 1960; Hamashima et al., 1969; Okamoto et al., 1979; Katoh and Itosu, 1980; McAllister, 1981; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Nakamura (1982a) suggested that artificial reefs should be placed in areas with current turbulence: areas of upwelling, downwelling, ascending currents, and vortex currents. On the continental shelf, reefs should be placed along the front line of internal waves and perpendicular to currents. Nakamura (1982a) also noted that temperature gradients and topography greatly influenced reef success. Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded that reefs were best placed on gently sloping or relatively flat profile areas, on either side of a ridge, or in proximity to a shoreward encroachment of an underwater valley. Distance from shore (Wickham et al., 1973) and depth (Fujimura and Kami, 1958; Walton, , Mathews, H. Pers. Comm. SI. Petersburg Junior College, Clearwater, Florida.



REEF RESEARCH

23

1979) were important although Manges (1960) and Smith et al. (1980) concluded that the placement of reefs with regard to physiographic features was more important than depth, spacing, bottom type, or slope. Hueckel and Buckley (1982) based their reef site selection criteria on a combination of physical parameters and a biological index. Success of an artificial reef often depends on the productivity and availability of benthic food resources in the surrounding habitat (Randall, 1963; Hirose et ai., 1977; Huntsman, 1981). Artificial reefs isolated from natural reefs have been found to be the most effective (Rodeheffer, 1945; Ogawa and Onoda, 1966; Vasey, 1971; Chang et ai., 1977a; 1977b; Miyazaka and Sawada, 1978a, in Mottet, 1981; Higo et ai., 1980; Bohnsack, 1979; Murdy, 1979; Yoshimuda and Masuzawa, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Japanese specialists recommended spacing artificial reefs 600 to 1,000 m from natural reefs to minimize fish interaction between reefs (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Other Factors. -Other factors influencing the success of artificial reefs include natural mortality (Huntsman, 1981) and reef age (Walton, 1979), and changes in ontogenic requirements of fishes (Kuwatani, 1982). Midwater and Surface Attractors. -Fish attraction to midwater and surface reefs was related to several design factors. Hunter and Mitchell (1967) found that threedimensional structures were more effective than two-dimensional structures. Wickham (1972) and Wickham etal. (1973) reported thatthe numbers and species of fish attracted to structures were related to the number of structures, distance offshore, and water depth. Wickham and Russell (1974) noted no significant differences in numbers of fishes attracted to structures of different sizes and colors. However, Hunter and Mitchell (1967) reported more fishes under larger structures, and Klima and Wickham (1971) concluded that attraction was related to the visibility of the structure. Smith et al. (1980) found greater success in freshwater near points of land than near coves. Socio- Economics Comparatively

few studies have examined

in detail the sociological and eco-

nomic aspects of artificial reefs, although artificial reefs are usually considered an economic asset to nearby communities (Buchanan, 1973; 1974; Buchanan et aI., 1974; Hanni, 1978). Economic analysis is usually limited to reporting the cost of particular reef projects. The economics of various alternative strategies for building artificial reefs have generally not been reported. Carlisle et ai. (1964) and Duffy (1974) compared costs of various materials in California and concluded quarry rock was the most cost-effective material. Buchanan (1973) found that an artificial reef off Murrell's Inlet, South Carolina, was responsible for a 16% increase in the number of private boat anglers in the marine sport fishery and a 10% increase in the gross expenditures by private boat anglers. Hanni (1978) concluded that expenses for one Florida artificial reef program were justified based on cost-benefit ratios. Ditton (1981) and Graefe (1981) concluded that costs of fuel discouraged use of artificial reefs far away from home ports. Also, the distance traveled away from a home port was directly related to boat size for reasons of safety. Ditton (1981) and Graefe (1981) noted the lack of available data and presented sociological and economic factors needing consideration. The major needs were to document who benefits from artificial reefs and how they benefit. Graefe (1981) suggested that data are lacking because of the great expense, length of time, and difficulty in conducting sociological and economic research on artificial reefs.

24


Gyosho (1976a, in Mottet, 1981), Mottet (1981), and Ohshima (1982) discussed the economics of Japanese reefs. Expenses between 1976 and 1982 averaged $45,500 for each of 2,200 "regular sized" reefs with volumes less than 2,500 m3, $545,000 for each of 352 larger reefs, and $2,150,000 for each of 107 enhanced fishing grounds which had total volumes averaging about 50,000 m3 (Mottet, 1981). The average Japanese artificial reef cost 4,700 yen/m3 ($20.43) and produced a catch of 20 kg/m3 for average sized reefs and 16 kg/m3 for large reefs. Assuming fish prices at 400 yen/kg, reefs returned between 6,000 and 8,000 yen/ m3/year, which offset the cost of the reef within 1 year. Despite the above figures, Mottet (1981) and Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded that the economic and biological data justifying some of the Japanese projects were grossly inadequate. Mottet (1981) noted that if the catch is primarily migrating fish then the increased catch in one community may mean fewer fish can be caught somewhere else. Real economic gains occur only when artificial reefs enable capture of fishes that could not have been caught elsewhere for the same or less cost. Artificial reefs can be economic assets when fish are concentrated, resulting in less use aflabar and fuel, and lower risk. Huntsman (1981) suggested that artificial reefs had limited potential for commercial use because the expense and time necessary to build artificial reefs meant that only small areas could be covered. The area covered would be insignificant relative to the abundance of natural reef habitat. Obviously, considerable savings can be realized by building reefs out of scrap or waste materials (Prince and Maughan, 1978). The Japanese, however, have rejected using these materials because of their low stability and low durability, and have decided that building specially designed reefs with manufactured components oflasting materials was probably more economical in the long run (Mottet, 1981). Mottet (1981) and Sheehy (1981; 1982b) noted that although scrap materials may be inexpensive or free, their limited design flexibility and the expense of handling, proper preparation, and transportation may make building welldesigned fabricated units more economical. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDA nONS

The artificial reef programs in Japan and the United States have had quite different approaches to funding, construction, and conducting research. Philosophically, reef programs in the United States appear to be in a "hunter-andgatherer" phase and are directed mainly toward harvesting present resources, whereas Japan's artificial reef programs represent an "agrarian phase" and are directed more toward habitat manipulation. We speculate that cultural attitudes about ocean resources have contributed to these great differences. Americans seem to consider ocean resources as essentially free and unlimited and are therefore reluctant to spend money for research and management. Conversely, the Japanese have a more businesslike approach to ocean resources. Artificial reefs are considered to be an investment. The absolute amount of money spent is not as important as the potential economic and political return on the investment. Politics in both countries appears to have overriding importance. Mottet (1982) and Grove and Sonu (1983) noted that Japan seemed determined to increase its fisheries production, regardless of cost, so it would be less susceptible to foreign manipulation. Preliminary results often did not appear to justify expenses for some projects despite intense research efforts. In the United States there is similar intense political support for building artificial reefs, especially if public expenses are kept to a minimum. This usually means publicity is high while research efforts


REVIEW OF ARTIRCIAL

REEF RESEARCH

25

are nil. We are concerned that the warning by Turner et al. (1969) still holds true today: "Without basing a reefs construction upon proper scientific [principles], it becomes at best a temporary high relief area of questionable value, or at worst an ocean junk pile whose major value has been as a promotional gimmick publicizing a special interest group." We found that the quality of much of the reviewed artificial reefliterature was poor in terms of scientific merit. The literature was often filled with speculation with little or no facts. Below are criticisms of artificial reef research and suggestions for its improvement; order does not imply priority. General Recommendations

and Criticisms of Past Research

Conduct More Carefully Controlled Experimental Studies.-Most scientific research has been purely descriptive with no attempt to scientifically test hypotheses. Descriptive studies have limited usefulness because they do not lend themselves to definitive conclusions and may perpetuate unsubstantiated or biased observations. Often a little additional effort or expense would produce a much better study providing considerably more useful information. Many studies attempting to use an experimental approach lacked replication and suitable controls, apparently because of oversight and budget and time constraints. Collect More Quantitative Data.-Every published artificial reef paper should include a minimum of specific information about the reef studied, including depth, volume, size, design, reef composition, amount of material, distance offshore, surrounding bottom type, and date deposited. Much of this information could easily be collected as part of the permitting process. In addition, artificial reefs should be monitored long enough after their construction to determine their effectiveness and to collect baseline data. Due to inadequate long-term monitoring, critical knowledge about why artificial reefs work or do not work is lacking. Technical (though unpublishable) information about specific artificial reefs could be archived in central accessible locations for later use by researchers. Publish in Reputable Peer Review Scientific Journals.- Valuable information has been collected that is unavailable and useless because it was either not published or appeared only in technical reports that were difficult to obtain. Information in technical reports is often preliminary, faulty, inconclusive, or subject to interpretation. Clearly State Assumptions and Critically Examine Conclusions.-Many conclusions in the artificial reef literature are questionable because of unstated or insupportable assumptions, untested or faulty logic, and a lack of supporting data. For example, some papers claimed that artificial reefs increased net production by increasing recruitment. These conclusions were often based on incidental observations of recruits at artificial reefs. The assumptions are that the artificial reef habitat is a limiting factor, that new recruits would not have found other suitable habitat, and that survival is high. The possibility that a species may go through a "bottleneck" stage or be limited at some other point in the life cycle is often ignored. Usually no data are available showing that observed recruits do survive or are numerically significant in the population. Another common assumption is that artificial reefs increase adult population size which, in turn, will increase spawning and larval recruitment. Increased fishing efficiency at artificial reefs can actually decrease adult populations, especially for species which are strongly aggregated (Wege and Anderson, 1979). Also, it is not

26


necessarily true that more adults increase larval recruitment, especially considering evidence indicating that, due to stochastic (chance) factors, recruitment success is often independent of adult population size (Williams and Sale, 1981; Williams, 1983). Stochastic events, like predation or variable weather and current patterns, may have a much more significant effect on recruitment. Transfer and Adapt Technical Knowledge about Artificial Reefsfrom Japan. - The expense of independently developing the Japanese reef technology in the United States would be prohibitive. Many Japanese recommendations could be used as null hypotheses for experiments (e.g., optimal reef size is 2,000 m3, reef height is not important in depths less than 40 m, and sound is important in attracting fishes to artificial reefs). Explore Engineering Advances and Improvements. -Artificial reef construction is still more an art than a science. We need effective, inexpensive, long lasting, easily handled, easily transported structures. In the United States, more attention should be given to designing and building prefabricated reefs versus dumping scrap materials. Reef designs that selectively attract or increase production of more desirable species might be preferred to those that randomly attract the surrounding biota. In the United States, soft bottom and high energy environments are not considered suitable for artificial reef sites because reef materials can disappear in the mud or be destroyed by currents and wave surge. The Japanese, however, have developed successful designs for these habitats and the United States should explore their use. In terms of new materials, the use of new technologies such as electrodeposition (Hilbertz, 1981), fiberglass (Sheehy, 1982), and coal combustion products (Woodhead et al., 1982) should be explored further. Also, greater use of obsolete oil and gas structures should be examined.

Biological Priorities Far greater advances have been made in artificial reef engineering and construction techniques than in assessing the biological basis of artificial reef function. Below we address some of the unanswered biological questions concerning artificial reefs. Use the Term "Productivity" More Carefully. -Many papers have confused standing crop, primary productivity, primary production, net productivity, and net production. Improper use of these terms has caused considerable confusion. Production refers to absolute biomass; productivity refers to the rate of biomass production. Standing crop is the amount of biomass present at a specific time. Primary production is the amount of carbon fixed by plants; net production is the amount of biomass at some trophic level. Primary productivity is the rate of carbon fixation by plants; net productivity is the rate biomass is produced at some specified trophic level (Odum, 1971). Distinguish and Measure Production and Productivity More Carefully. - Measurements of standing crop have been misused as direct measures of net productivity. In fact, a reef with low standing crop could produce more fish (net production) than a reef with high standing crop if turnover was high. High rates of immigration or production could increase the net yield much more than would be indicated by the standing crop alone.



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27

Improve Monitoring Techniques and Methods for Quantifying Data. -Improved methods are especially needed for monitoring fishes, fishing effort, and catch statistics. Better methods are also required for quantifying habitat characteristics and environmental factors. Parameters that relate to the effectiveness of reefs such as void space, profile, number of exits, configuration, complexity, and proximity to surrounding habitat have been noted, although their importance has been only rarely quantified. Determine How Artificial Reefs Attract Fishes.-Despite considerable effort, the mechanisms for attraction are still not completely understood (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Understanding these factors could lead to improved designs which would enhance the attractiveness of artificial reefs. Determine Behavior, Life Cycles, and Food Web Dynamics, Especially for Economically and Ecologically Important Species. - How various species use artificial reefs varies with their behavior, life cycle stage, and trophic level. Only limited information is available on any of these topics. Most trophic pathways, for instance, have only been assumed or examined qualitatively. Few data show the importance of food resources produced directly on a reef. Incidental observations of fishes feeding off the reef substrate are not sufficient to show that the artificial reef is a significant food resource. Estimates of primary productivity associated with reef substrate have occasionally been used to support the importance of food provided by artificial reefs. However, there are few data showing if, how, and how much primary productivity is transferred into net productivity or biomass. With the exception of Prince et al. (1979), quantitative and descriptive models of trophic dynamics were absent in the literature. Even Prince et al. (1979) measured only the relative importance offood and not the actual energy flow between trophic levels. Determine the Relative Importance of Attraction versus Production.- The relative importance of benthic reefs attracting fish biomass versus producing new fish biomass is an important controversy that has not yet been resolved. Attraction of fishes appears to be the major important factor despite claims to the contrary. The rapid speed with which colonization and equilibrium occur support the importance of attraction. The importance of production probably varies with the physical characteristics of a reef and its location. Examine Interactions of Reef Fauna with the Surrounding Habitat. - We suggest that increased fish biomass is far more likely to result from feeding in the habitats around artificial reefs than from the primary production on a reef. The possibility of increasing fish biomass by allowing fishes to forage in new areas lacking suitable reef habitat, or at least increasing the foraging efficiency in some areas, appears to have been overlooked. Mottet (1981) noted that artificial reefs do not need to provide food but they do need to be in areas where appropriate food resources occur. The so-called "barren habitat" around most reefs is often a productive food resource for many fishes. Identify and Quantify Factors Influencing Artificial Reef Success and Failure.-A problem exists in oversimplifying the factors important to artificial reef success. Many "rules of thumb" exist which have not been scientifically tested (i.e., reefs should only be placed on hard bottoms or reef height should be 10% of the water depth). Experimental studies are needed to determine which factors or combination of factors are important. Agreement on criteria that define success would be helpful.

28


BIOMASS

INCREASES

BIOMASS

ATTRACTION

LOSSES

LOSSES

Adult Immigration

Emigration

Larval

Respiration

Juvenile

Recruitment

Reproduction

Recruitment ~

GROWTH Growth from Food Resources on AR's

ARTIFICIAL REEF

~

MORTALITY Fishery

Harvest

Predation Growth from Benthic Food Resources Around AR's

Pollution Other Mortality

Growth from Plankton Food Resources Figure 2.

General model for increases and losses of fish biomass on artificial reefs.

Develop and Test Predictive Models on Artificial Reef Function.-A comprehensive theory on how artificial reefs function is one of the most often recognized needs (Kuwatani, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). The general impression we gained from most artificial reef papers is that three mechanisms influence artificial reef dynamics: recruitment by juveniles and adults, food production from the reef itself, and harvesting. Obviously, more complex and realistic models are needed for considering other possible important factors (Fig. 2). We expect that such models will vary considerably in different regions and habitats. Combine Theory, Such as Optimal Foraging Theory or Island Biogeographic Theory, with Artificial Reef Function. -Optimal foraging theory (Hughes, 1980) might be useful for explaining movement patterns and densities offishes that use artificial reefs for shelter but forage away from the reef. Island biogeographic theory (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967) might be a useful starting point for explaining community dynamics for both theoretical and applied artificial reef research. At present it has received only limited attention on a small scale (Nolan, 1975; Molles, 1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a), and may have to be modified to consider seasonal factors (Lukens, 1981). Use Large Reefsfor Experimentation. - Most theoretical work in the United States has utilized very small experimental reefs. These studies might not be applicable to larger reefs such as those in use in Japan. Explore the Use of Natural Materials for Enhancing Artificial Reefs.-Seeding algae or invertebrates on an artificial reef might greatly increase productivity. Transplanting kelp and abalone has been done with some success in temperate



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water. Transplanting live corals might be a tremendously effective although presently overlooked technique in suitable tropical habitats (Maragos, 1974). Explore the Idea of Building Reefs to Improve Recruitment, Growth and Spawning.-Building reefs in the United States to improve larval recruitment may be more economical and more effective for increasing net production and catch rates than building fishing reefs primarily designed to attract adults. Eventually we could have reefs that increase harvest (fishing reefs), those that increase recruitment (recruitment reefs), and those that improve growth of juvenile fishes (production reefs). Build Different Types of Fishing Reefs. - Many marine artificial reef programs have catered only to boaters by building reefs offshore in deep water. Shallow water artificial reefs built in conjunction with fishing piers are needed for shorebased fishermen. These should be effective, able to withstand turbulent water, and be minimum navigation hazards. Besides recreational reefs, reefs constructed primarily for commercial use should be considered. Such reefs could be very successful, especially iflocated in areas away from urban centers. Buckley (1982) suggested designing reefs with features that control removal and prevent overfishing. Very complex reefs could provide refugia from overharvesting. Socio-Economic Priorities Examine Alternative Artificial Reef Strategies. - Particular attention should be given to examining the economics of long-term versus short-term strategies and the economics of building prefabricated versus waste material reefs. Presumed savings by present strategies could be examples of false economy. Determine Optimum Reef Size, Design, Density, and Configuration for Particular Habitats. - This research should include economic, social, and biological factors. We find it incredible that some programs spend hundreds of thousands of dollars building reefs without spending anything on research or monitoring the status of reefs over time. Proper research should show how to balance costs and benefits. Even when using waste materials it would be important to know, for example, whether grouping materials in several small reefs would be more effective than one large reef. Document Direct and Indirect Economic and Social Benefits. - Documenting only the direct economic benefits of.artificial reefs is not likely to be very realistic. This kind of approach fails to consider indirect benefits; these are not easily translated into dollar values and are consequently often ignored. Social and indirect economic benefits can exceed the actual dollar value of the catch, especially in the United States where hook and line fishing, a relatively inefficient harvesting technique, is prevalent. Socio-economic analyses must be able to properly evaluate abstract concepts such as user satisfaction. The aesthetic value of fishing could be more important than the actual dollar value of the catch. People who never use artificial reefs may receive indirect benefits or may benefit merely because they appreciate the opportunity offered by their presence. Management Priorities Most of our critical comments have centered on scientific investigations. However, much of the blame for the lack of progress in understanding artificial reef

30


function and management rests with the administrators and managers who determine research and funding priorities. Unfortunately, a naive (and usually unstated) attitude exists among some managers: they know artificial reefs work; they do not need to know how they work. In fact, knowing how artificial reefs function is crucial for devising appropriate management strategies. For example, if reefs primarily concentrate individuals already present in the environment, then artificial reefs could increase the danger of overexploiting some limited stocks (Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, 1980; Gallaway, 1981). However, if reefs increase production, then harvests could be increased through habitat improvement. Therefore, not only do managers need to know if artificial reefs work, they must know how they work and their relative effectiveness. Increase Research Funding.-Inadequate research funding in the United States appears to be the major problem for advancing artificial reef knowledge. We realize that this conclusion is often invoked as the major problem in any area of study. However, we truly think that funding for artificial reef research has approached a crisis, in part because of the cost but also because of the mistaken belief that additional scientific research is unnecessary or that nothing useful will develop. As McIntosh (1981) noted, most artificial reef funds are spent on construction and installation. Research, which could lead to intelligent management decisions, has not been adequately funded. Develop Comprehensive Plans for Artificial Reef Development and Deployment.Greater emphasis should be placed on developing a theoretical foundation for building and managing artificial reefs based on professional input. Too much emphasis is often given to amateur input especially in deciding where and where not to build reefs. Some programs appear to continually build reefs without having a well defined objective or end point. Examine Sources of Information More Critically with Increased Emphasis on Education and Awareness.-Managers should be more critical in examining scientific research and other sources of information on artificial reefs. We have found that newspaper articles and unpublished papers (progress reports, technical reports, manuscripts, newsletters) are often given the same consideration as legitimate, peer-reviewed, scientific publications. Many managers and agencies do not understand the scientific process, an important part of which is the peer review system where work is closely scrutinized by other scientists in the same field. Theories are not accepted as fact until carefully tested and evaluated. Without this review process, there is a greater danger of accepting incorrect or insupportable conclusions. While the peer review process is not completely infallible, it does remove considerable potential error. Establish Experimental Artificial Reef Research Zones. - The complex and timeconsuming permitting process is a major factor discouraging some artificial reef research, especially at academic institutions where publishing pressures demand speedy results (Dammann, 1974). Designating areas where experimental reefs could be installed, monitored, altered, and removed ifnecessary would circumvent many of the problems facing researchers. The rapid rate at which new artificial reefs are being constructed (Seaman, 1982) could pose a problem for future research in that suitable experimental artificial reef sites may be exhausted, especially near large urban centers where facilities for research are often located. Off Miami, Florida, for example, large areas of suitable bottom have already been used. In these zones, local governments could hold long-term blanket permits



REEF RESEARCH

31

(with broad restrictions) so that large-scale experimental research could be facilitated. Reduce User Conflicts. -Conflicts often arise between divers and fishermen, sport and commercial fishing, and different fishing methods, such as gill netting and hook and line fishing. Even among divers, conflicts arise between consumptive and non-consumptive uses, such as spearfishing versus photography and underwater observation. Possible strategies to explore include the use of different types of reefs and color coded buoys for designated uses. For example, certain reefs could be designed primarily for spearfishing while others are designed for other more aesthetic diving activities. Instead of concentrating reef materials at one site, multiple reefs could be used to dilute user concentration and reduce conflicts. Conduct Legal Studies on Liabilities and Property Rights Associated with Artificial Ree.fs.-Many management problems are a result ofa poorly defined and understood legal basis for artificial reefs. Little has been done to anticipate and resolve legal problems. CONCLUSIONS

Artificial reefs have become a tremendously popular habitat enhancement technique even though relatively little experimental research has been done on artificial reef biology. We caution, however, against prematurely embracing a habitat enhancement technique that is poorly or incompletely understood. Perhaps too much effort has been expended in building artificial reefs and not enough in research. As noted earlier, not all artificial reefs have increased fish harvest or productivity. In many areas, managers have the mistaken belief that they can proceed with large-scale programs without research. Decisions are often made based on political expediency, absolute cost, materials readily available, navigational considerations, or solid waste disposal problems, without considering biological, economic, or social effects. The potential exists for major mistakes which could be difficult, costly, or impossible to correct. Numerous studies of artificial reefs have qualitatively described succession, compared artificial reefs with natural habitats, and established that artificial reefs can be very effective at attracting and concentrating fishes. Priority should not be given to further redundant qualitative and descriptive studies. High priority should be given to experimental and quantitative studies designed to test predictive models to determine causes of phenomena associated with artificial reefs. Research is still needed to develop a comprehensive theory on artificial reef operation and management and to further optimize reef design, size, and location. Japanese efforts in particular have provided a basis for further applied research; however, their results and recommendations need independent testing and confirmation elsewhere. In conclusion, we believe that artificial reefs offer tremendous potential for habitat enhancement. We hope that artificial reef technology will eventually be employed within an integrated management strategy for ultimately improving fishery resources. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank G. Beardsley, E. Prince, L. Pulos, D. Stone of the National Marine Fisheries Service; R. Buckley and G. Hueckel of the State of Washington Department of Fisheries; G. Stanton of Florida State University; J. Halusky, B. Lindberg, and W. Seaman of the Florida Sea Grant Reef Science

32


Advisory Committee, and S. Bannerot of the University of Miami for their contributions and critical comments. This article was developed under the auspices of the Florida Sea Grant College Program with support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Sea Grant, U.S. Department of Commerce, Grant No. NA80AA-D-00038. The U,S. Government is authorized to produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation that may appear hereon. LITERATURE

CITED

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