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ASSESSING THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON EFFECTIVE FIRE SERVICE LEADERSHIP by Mark D. Culver
THOMAS E. POULIN, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair MISTI KILL, PhD, Committee Member CHARLES PAK, PhD, Committee Member
Elizabeth Koenig, JD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University November 2015
ProQuest Number: 3739783
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ProQuest 3739783 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
© Mark D. Culver, 2015
Abstract This study was an examination of the correlation between fire officers’ emotional intelligence (EI) and their perceived leadership effectiveness. A review of the literature pointed out the need to further explore and understand the leadership effectiveness of fire officers, the levels of a fire officers’ EI, and the influence it may have on their effectiveness as a leader. Although EI has presented to be connected to leadership effectiveness, the problem is that it is not known how EI is connected to leadership effectiveness in relation to the unique leadership requirements of fire officers. Common leadership styles emerged from the literature as being transactional and transformational. The conceptual framework that guided this study was EI, as well as transactional and transformational styles of leadership. A non-experimental, quantitative design to examine the relationship between fire officers’ EI and leadership effectiveness was used, utilizing an online survey. The research question guiding this study was: What is the influence of emotional intelligence on fire officers’ leadership effectiveness? The sample consisted of 61 career fire officers in the United States. The statistical analysis indicated that EI score did not predict fire officers’ transformational or transactional leadership effectiveness.
Dedication I would like to thank my family for having patience and understanding while I was on this seemingly long journey. I would like to dedicate this to my mother Nancy J. (Steppe) Culver, who passed away before I finished this dissertation. My mother instilled in me the want to read books and be inquisitive about everything; she was a librarian and was always reading something. I know she would have been very proud of my accomplishment.
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Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge the support, and especially the sage advice of my mentor, Dr. Thomas E. Poulin. I would also like to recognize my committee members, Dr. Misti Kill and Dr. Charles Pak, thank you for taking the time to be on my committee and provide me with the necessary feedback to see me through this achievement. I would like to acknowledge my partner and best friend Dr. Candace D. Ashby, who relentlessly proof read, helped edit my work, and constantly pushed me to stay at it. A big thank you to the participating Fire Chiefs and their departments for allowing me access and permitting me to survey their fire officers, may you all stay safe, Braithreachas thar Gach Ni – Gaelic for (Brotherhood above all else).
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Table of Contents Acknowledgments
iv
List of Tables
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List of Figures
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem
1
Background of the Study
3
Statement of the Problem
6
Purpose of the Study
7
Rationale
7
Research Questions
8
Significance of the Study
9
Definition of Terms
11
Assumptions and Limitations
13
Nature of the Study
14
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to the Literature Review
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Literature Search Strategy
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Summary CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
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Overview
44
Research Design
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Sample
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Setting
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Instrumentation - Quantitative
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Data Collection
50
Data Analysis
52
Ethical Considerations
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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS Introduction
57
Preliminary Data Screening
57
Reliability
58
Descriptive Statistics
59
Results
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Conclusion
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS Overview
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Discussion of the results
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Implications
73
Limitations
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Recommendations for Future Study
77
REFERENCES
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APPENDIX A. STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK
89
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List of Tables Table 1. Cronbach's Alpha Reliability for Scores on the Subscales of the MLQ, Transformational Leadership, and Transactional Leadership
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Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages for Education, Years of Fire Service, Years as a Fire Officer, and Gender 60 Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations for EI Score, Transformational Leadership, and Transactional Leadership 62 Table 4. Results for linear regression with EI Score Predicting Transformational Leadership
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Table 5. Results for the linear regression with EI Score Predicting Transactional Leadership
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List of Figures Figure 1. Histogram of the frequency of EI scores with a reference line at the median. 61 Figure 2. Q-Q plot for the assumption of normality for Transformational Leadership predicted by EI scores.
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Figure 3. Residual scatterplot for the assumption of homoscedasticity for Transformational Leadership predicted by EQI scores.
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Figure 4. Q-Q plot for the assumption of normality for Transactional Leadership predicted by EI score.
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Figure 5. Residual scatterplot for the assumption of homoscedasticity for Transactional Leadership predicted by EI score. 67
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem This study was an examination of the correlation between fire officers’ emotional intelligence (EI) and their perceived leadership effectiveness. Researchers have used the idea of EI in the last two decades as a way to understand the functioning of emotions in public life, and EI has had significant implications especially for the areas of management, leadership, and organizational studies (Copestake, Gray, & Snowden, 2013; Hosseinzadeh, Nasiri, & Ghanbari, 2014; Walter, Cole, & Humphrey, 2011). Generally, EI can be thought of as social intelligence, involving the capacity to gauge and understand one’s own and others’ emotions and to use this understanding to guide thought and action (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Numerous researchers (Alston, 2009; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004; Mills, 2009; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Nagy, 2008; Rajah, Song, & Arvey, 2011; Ruestow, 2008; Woods, 2010) have investigated the connection between leadership and EI, because researchers are starting to view effective leadership as involving leaders’ ability to understand their own emotions and engage those of others to better motivate and inspire followers (Mayer et al., 2004). Accordingly, the development of recent theories of leadership has paralleled the growth of interest in and research on the topic of EI (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2005). Researchers have studied the connection between EI and leadership in a wide variety of areas, including health professions (Duygulu, Hicdurmaz, & Akyar, 2011; Larin et al., 2011), business (J.L. Bowen, 2013; Siegling, Nielsen, & Petrides, 2014), government (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012), human resources (Alston, 2009; Shuck & Herd, 1
2012), law enforcement (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014), the hospitality industry (Rothfelder, Ottenbacher, & Harrington, 2013), the construction industry (Sunindijo, 2012), youth leadership development (McElravy & Hastings, 2014), and education (Cherkowski, 2012; Cliffe, 2011; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Tang, Yin, & Nelson, 2010; Yamamoto, Gardiner, & Tenuto, 2013). However, few recent studies of EI and leadership effectiveness exist in the area of public safety leadership (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014), and only one (Calo, 2012) study mentions the connection of EI and leadership in fire officers. Calo (2012) posited that an increased sense of EI and a wider understanding of leadership principles were key considerations of the changing role of leadership in the fire service industry. In addition, Osborne (2012) recommended that “information about emotional intelligence skills, leadership practices, and development could be beneficial to medical and emergency personnel who encounter stressful life and work events on a daily basis, such as physicians, and includes nurses, paramedics, firefighters, and police officers” (p. 115). However, firefighter leadership is unique because it may involve extended periods of downtime living in close quarters with subordinates punctuated by intense emergency incidents, requiring quick, situation-appropriate decisions that may have life or death consequences (Waite, 2008). As a result, fire officers may share an emotional connection to subordinates through downtime bonding, teamwork, and a professional ethos that places the utmost importance on human life, and if need be, on the lives of others over and above their own (Regehr, Dimitropoulos, Bright, George, & Henderson, 2005). In addition, fire officers may be exposed to emotionally challenging emergency situations (Blau, Bentley, & Eggerichs-Purcell, 2012), and, consequently, leadership in the context 2
of such adversity and challenge, as well as leadership that prepares subordinates for such experiences, may require fire officers to first understand their own emotions and those of subordinates. However, it is not known how EI is connected to leadership effectiveness in relation to the unique leadership requirements of fire officers.
Background of the Study Early Roman fire brigades were fashioned after their traditional military, in that they emulated their hierarchical rank structure and were task oriented. Similar to the Romans the fire service in the United States also modeled after their military. The paramilitary structure in the United States was taken from the Union Army sometime after the Civil War (Coleman, 1994). Fire departments were structured around the fire officer, with titles like captain or chief who controlled and directed firefighters using a top down type structure. According to Bass & Stogdill (1990), this type of system would be a strategy that would enable leaders to take full advantage, for example, of the command and control of firefighters in high stress situations. The autocratic type leadership, which has been taught to fire service leaders in the past, is important in handling emergency incidents, however may be inadequate for effectively leading subordinates during down times (Cox, 2012). Alyn’s (2010) findings indicated that firefighters are responding to emergency incidents only about five percent of the time they are on duty, which leads to the fact that a majority of their time is spent on other non-emergency duties. Considering these facts, it may be necessary to explore other avenues to enrich the development for a fire officer to be more effective.
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Transactional and transformational leadership are two major styles of leadership that researchers have studied in relation to organization and management. Transactional leadership is based on the idea that the relationship between leaders and followers is a transaction, and it traditionally involves leaders motivating followers’ self-interest in exchange for rewards for attaining goals and accomplishing tasks (Weinberger, 2009). While transactional leadership has been shown to work well for goal attainment and compliance in followers, it is not likely to produce enthusiasm in followers or motivation outside of the transactional exchange (Pillay, Viviers, & Mayer, 2013). Although the seeds of transformational leadership go back to the 1920s and the participatory and decentralized ideas of leadership forwarded by Mary Parker Follett (Graham, 1995), transformational leadership was later developed from the need for leadership that better encompassed the full range of human potential, including moral leadership and authenticity, than transactional leadership did (Yamamoto et al., 2014). Consequently, transformational leadership built on transactional leadership and emerged, in addition, from contingency theory and research on situational leadership (Yamamoto et al., 2014). Transformational leaders are those who engage their followers’ beliefs, attitudes, and values, and align these beliefs, attitudes, and values with those of the organization (Alston, Dastoor, & Sosa-Fey, 2010). These leaders guide followers toward selfdevelopment and potentially higher levels of success using inspirational, motivational, and charismatic techniques that extend beyond, but may include, the exchange-based strategies of transactional leadership (Alston et al., 2010). The overwhelming model of leadership in the fire service industry is transactional leadership, more specifically, active management-by-exception (Alyn, 2010). This means that leadership is based on a system 4
of rewards and reinforcement, and that leaders continually review subordinates’ performance to identify shortcomings and address corrections in performance (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014). Pillay et al. (2013) found significant positive correlations between EI and transformational leadership in their study of leadership styles. In addition, Cliffe (2011) found that a high level of EI has shown to help leaders lead effectively through managing emotions, developing meaningful professional relationships with subordinates, enhancing interpersonal skills, individually considering subordinates, and through charismatic and motivational leadership strategies. To date, however, only one study (Calo, 2012) exists positing that EI may be important to the leadership effectiveness of fire officers. The closet recent empirical investigation of the connection between EI and leadership among fire officers was Ramchunder and Martins’ (2014) quantitative correlational study of the connection between EI and leadership among police officers, which revealed a positive relationship between EI and transformational leadership among police officers. As emergency responders, fire officers encounter similar situations to those encountered by police leaders, and based on the results of Ramchunder and Martins’ study, EI may prove to be positively connected to transformational leadership for fire officers as well. In addition, EI may prove to be an important step in moving modern fire leadership away from embedded traditions, which prevent various leadership options to be explored (Calo, 2012).
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Statement of the Problem Fire departments responded to approximately 31 million emergencies in 2012 NFPA (2014), and leadership effectiveness has been shown to be the most important portion of the incident command system in the fire service industry (Rhodes, 2006). Consequently, the style of leadership that fire officers use in emergency settings have a notable influence on the safety of the civilians they protect and the safety of their subordinates (Pillai & Williams, 2004). However, the responsibilities of fire service leaders are unique compared to the responsibilities of leaders in other emergency service sectors. In full time career fire departments, firefighters that are assigned to the operations or suppression division routinely spend 24 hours periods living, sharing meals, and interacting with one another (Alyn, 2010). Fire officers, therefore, may experience emotional connections to subordinates through teamwork and co-habitation, as well as leadership responsibilities and challenges associated with emergency incidents (Alyn, 2010; Regehr et al., 2005). While literature exists about fire officers’ leadership effectiveness (Beaton, Johnson, Infield, Ollis, & Bond, 2001; Calo, 2012; Waite, 2007) and extensive literature covers EI and leadership (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012; Cherkowski, 2012; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Ramchunder & Martins, 2014), a paucity of research remains concerning how EI affects leadership effectiveness in fire officers. Although Calo (2012) studied the changing role of leadership in the fire service industry and posited that an increased sense of EI may be an important factor in meeting the contemporary challenges fire officers encounter, the researcher did not focus his study on EI specifically. Although EI has been shown to be connected to leadership effectiveness,
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the problem is that it is not known how EI is connected to leadership effectiveness in relation to the unique leadership requirements of fire officers. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this quantitative descriptive correlational study was to measure the correlation between fire officers’ EI and officers’ perceived leadership effectiveness, and to collect information for leadership development in fire officers. The connection between EI and leadership in fire officers is not known. Specifically, fire officers’ EI scores, as measured with the Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQi-2.0®) (BarOn, 2004), as it relates to leadership effectiveness, as measured by the Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) instrument (Bass & Avolio, 1989; Bass & Riggio, 2010) were examined in this study. Because the relationship between EI and leadership effectiveness in fire officers is not known, by collecting information on the relationship between fire officers’ EI scores and their perceptions of leadership effectiveness, it was the purpose of this study to understand how fire officer’s leadership effectiveness was affected by EI. Information from this study may have helped to fill this gap in knowledge about how EI influences leadership effectiveness in fire officers. Rationale The objective of quantitative research is investigating relationships between variables. “The philosophy of science teaches us that there is no other way of representing ‘meaning’ except in terms of relations between quantities and qualities; either way involves relations between variables” (StatSoft, 2013, p. 3). To examine the relationship between fire officers’ EI and leadership effectiveness, this study utilized a quantitative research methodology using an online survey research method and 7
correlational techniques. These techniques allowed the researcher to investigate the presence and extent of a relationship between fire officers’ EI and leadership. It seems reasonable that fire department officers should not only retain the technical knowledge, skills, and abilities to manage emergency incidents, but also have the understanding to provide emotional support to the fire crews they supervise, and the public they serve, to make intelligent decisions based on educated philosophies (Carter, 2007; Kupietz, 2010; Odom, 2011). This relates to the findings of Katz (1955) in that the effectiveness of a leader relies on three developable skills. Otherwise known as the three-skills approach to leadership. This approach consists of three basic skills, technical, human, and conceptual which should be interrelated in order to be a successful leader. Curtis, Vries, and Sheerin (2011) highlighted motivation to manage, openness, and extroversion as qualities inherent in leaders. The emphasis of this research was to explore the relationship between characteristics such as these, as conceptualized within the framework of EI, and leadership effectiveness among fire department officers. This study also added to the general body of knowledge regarding outcomes of EI and leadership. Research Questions For the purpose of this study, the following question was investigated: What was the perceived influence of emotional intelligence on fire officers’ leadership effectiveness? I expanded the research question into the following related hypotheses: H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between fire officers’ EI scores and transformational leadership effectiveness scores. 8
HA1: There is a statistically significant relationship between fire officers’ EI scores and transformational leadership effectiveness scores. H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between fire officers’ EI scores and transactional leadership effectiveness scores. HA2: There is a statistically significant relationship between fire officers’ EI scores and transactional leadership effectiveness scores. Significance of the Study By examining the influence of EI on effective fire service leadership in fire officers, the researcher sought to provide valuable information to help inform those who develop leadership programs for fire officers about leadership strategies and approaches. The connection between EI and leadership effectiveness in fire officers is not known. The information collected through this study might help fill the gap in the literature of the connection between EI and leadership effectiveness in the fire service industry. Based on the findings of recent studies that EI and leadership effectiveness are positively linked (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012; Cherkowski, 2012; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Ramchunder & Martins, 2014), a high level of EI may be connected to leadership effectiveness in fire officers through their abilities to manage emotions, develop meaningful professional relationships with subordinates, enhance interpersonal skills, and give individual consideration to subordinates. Further, Ramchunder and Martins’ (2014) quantitative study of the connection between EI and leadership among police officers revealed a positive relationship between EI and transformational leadership among police officers. As emergency responders, fire officers encounter similar situations to those encountered
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by police leaders, and based on the results of Ramchunder and Martins’ study, EI may prove to be positively connected to transformational leadership for fire officers as well. A positive connection between EI and leadership effectiveness might help to open up necessary study on leadership in the fire service industry. Calo (2012) noted the modern fire service industry is steeped in a long history of tradition and historically resistant to organizational change. Calo (2012) argued that to meet the leadership challenges of a changing and complex industry, fire officers need to possess an understanding of various leadership principles, as well as the tenets of EI. If this study reveals a positive connection exists between EI and leadership effectiveness, it might serve as an impetus for researchers to follow and conduct additional studies on leadership and EI in the field of fire service leadership. Researchers may seek to confirm these findings or to branch out into new areas of study. A positive connection between EI and leadership effectiveness might have significant practical implications as well. Those who design leadership programs and provide certification for fire officers may be able use information from this study to inform their approaches to and programs for fire service leadership, and guide the leadership training and development of fire officers. These programs would in turn help to educate fire officers about the importance of understanding various leadership styles, principles, philosophies, as well as the tenets of EI, identified as important for meeting the challenges of an evolving fire service industry (Calo, 2012).
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Definition of Terms The following list provides definitions of key concepts and constructs that were used for this study. Terms were defined that have multiple meanings and that needed to be operationalized for use in this study. These concepts, constructs, and terms appear below. Emotional Intelligence (EI): EI refers to the “capacity to perceive and understand emotions and the ability to use this information as part of decision-making and the management of behavior” (Copestake et al., 2013, p.1). Salovey and Mayer (1990) also refer to EI as “social intelligence” involving the capacity to gauge and understand one’s own and others’ emotions and to use this understanding to guide thought and action (p. 189). As a kind of social intelligence, EI involves the capacity to gauge and understand one’s own and others’ emotions and to use this understanding to guide thought and action (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Researchers have used EI to better understand the functioning of emotions in public life, and EI has had significant implications especially for the areas of management, leadership, and organizational studies (Copestake et al., 2013; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2014; Walter et al., 2011). Leadership Style: Leadership style is the type of leadership behavior a leader exhibits while guiding organizational members in appropriate directions (Sadeghi & Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope, 2012, p. 187). The two major leadership styles that researchers have studied in relation to the areas of management, leadership, and organizational studies are transactional leadership and transformational leadership (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012). Consequently, the leadership styles used for this study were transactional and transformational. 11
Transactional leadership: Transactional leadership is one of the major styles of leadership, stressing the exchange of tasks and rewards among leaders and followers (Bass & Avolio, 1994), and it traditionally involves leaders motivating followers’ selfinterest in exchange for rewards for attaining goals and accomplishing tasks (Weinberger, 2009). The relationship between leaders and followers is based on transaction, wherein transactional leaders develop relationships with followers based on reinforcement and exchange (Ingram & Cangemi, 2009). Transformational leadership: Transformational leadership is another major style of leadership wherein leaders guide followers toward self-development and higher levels of success using inspirational, motivational, and charismatic techniques, in addition, transformational leaders often address their followers’ beliefs, attitudes, and values, and align these beliefs, attitudes, and values with those of the organization (Alston et al., 2010). Fire Officer: Fire Officers are fire department employees with formal authority placing them in positions of leadership involving the supervision of subordinate firefighters and operational and emergency procedures (Lowe, 2000). Additionally, Fire Officers in the United States are sometimes referred to as Company Officers, whom are generally in charge of a company or crew of firefighters. These officers have different titles, however for this study the rank titles of, Lieutenant, Captain, and Battalion Chief was surveyed from full time career fire departments.
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Assumptions and Limitations A primary aspect of survey research is that it relies on respondents' self-reporting, which leads to several challenges for the methodology. Despite the diligent efforts of survey authors, respondents might misinterpret the meaning of questions or answers. Respondents may report inaccuracies through act (deception) or omission (forgetfulness) (Groves et al., 2013). Survey results may be skewed by the interest level of the respondent, in that respondents interested in the topic may devote significant time and effort to answer accurately while less interested respondents might opt out or be less diligent in indicating accurate answers (Groves et al., 2013). These limitations are of noted concern, yet survey research remains the most practical methodology for obtaining the data necessary to conduct this research. Reasonable efforts were made to mitigate the effects of these limitations. Researchers reported that web-based surveys have increased response rates over mail or fax-based alternatives, yet not all potential respondents are comfortable with the technology (Cobanoglu, Warde, & Moreo, 2001). The data collection method for this study was an online survey. Numerous methodological assumptions exist for this study. It was assumed that the survey questions and possible answers would be readable and that all fire officers were able to answer the survey questions. It was further assumed that the questions administered in the survey meant the same to all of the participants and that the prospective participants had access to the Internet and a computer. It assumed that all participants would offer truthful answers, including verification of the inclusion criteria. In addition, it was assumed that the EQi-2.0® would accurately portray the variables that might influence 13
leadership style and effectiveness (Bar-On, 2004). The final assumption concerned the validity of the Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), in that it would accurately measure the transactional and transformational dimensions to evaluate the leadership effectiveness (Bass & Avolio, 2014; Bass & Riggio, 2010). Surveys were administered to fire service personnel who are the rank of Lieutenant, Captain, and Battalion Chief; however, other fire departments throughout the United States may have different titles for their supervising officers. Furthermore, the examination of firefighters within the United States provides empirical evidence of one particular factor of leadership style within public safety. This study is also limited to the fire officers’ perceptions of their leadership style and their objective evaluation. Emergency management, crisis responders, police officers, trauma units, paramedics and any other first response personnel are excluded from the study. The paucity of academic articles focusing on EI and leadership in fire officers limit this study, and it was intended that this research would increase the number of academic articles available to inform industry professionals about development of leadership training procedures and programs. Finally, because of time constraints, limited funds, and the scope of this investigation, this study was not redesigned to address these limitations. Nature of the Study Quantitative correlational research designs involve either the identification of characteristics in an observed phenomenon or the exploration of possible correlations between two or more variables (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). The design of this proposed study assisted in identifying possible relationships between the variables of EI and 14
leadership effectiveness. Testing the hypotheses was necessary to determine whether a connection exists between fire officers’ EI and their perceived leadership effectiveness. The Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQi-2.0®) measured the fire officers’ levels of EI (Bar-On, 1997, 2004). The Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) instrument measured officers’ leadership effectiveness (Bass & Avolio, 2014; Bass & Riggio, 2010). The current study should suggest that correlations exist between fire officers' EI and leadership effectiveness. The conceptual framework for this study comprised EI, as well as transactional and transformational styles of leadership. Copestake et al. (2013) defined EI “as the capacity to perceive and understand emotions and the ability to use this information as part of decision-making and the management of behavior” (p. 1), and Goleman (1998) stated that one’s emotional quotient (EQ) was more important than his or her intelligence quotient (IQ). Still, a substantial amount of research suggests that EI affords the foundation for leadership proficiencies (Connelly & Ruark, 2010; Mayer, et al., 2004; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Weinberger, 2009), and the development of the philosophy of leadership has paralleled the growth in interest and research on the topic of EI (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2005). Dulewicz and Higgs (1999) defined EI as “being aware of, and managing one’s own feelings and emotions; being sensitive to, and influencing others; sustaining one’s motivation; and balancing one’s motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious, and ethical behavior” (p. 2). Researchers further defined EI as “a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal, and social abilities, which influence one’s overall ability to actively and effectively cope with demands and pressures” (Bar-On & Parker, 2000, p. 3). 15
Three distinct, yet overlapping ways of approaching EI have emerged in EI scholarship. EI based on traits or trait EI, concerns interrelated emotional dispositions, and self-perceptions that can be measured through self-reporting and other reporting techniques (Copestake et al., 2013; Walter et al., 2011). EI based on ability, or ability EI, concerns interrelated emotional abilities that are best measured by performance tests (Copestake et al., 2013; Walter et al., 2011). The third approach, which is a mixed approach, combines elements of both approaches and includes most socio-emotional abilities and dispositions except those that are strictly cognitive (Walter et al., 2011). This mixed approach owes much to the work Goleman (1998) who developed the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), and introduced factors into the instrument, such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy. Like the ECI, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQI) is a self-report instrument used for mixed approaches when assessing for interpersonal skills, individual emotional states, and how one handles stress, adaptability, and mood (Bar-On, 1997). Bar-On and Parker (2000) definition of EI and the mixed approach to EI seems well suited to the study of fire officers’ EI and their leadership effectiveness. Testing the hypotheses was necessary in order to conclude that an association exists between fire officers’ EI and their leadership effectiveness. The conceptual framework for this study was grounded on transformational and transactional theories (Bass & Stogdill, 1990; Bass & Riggio, 2010; Deluga, 1990; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012). The relevant review of literature was focused on four key areas: theoretical rationale for examining EI, the link between EI and leadership effectiveness, effective leadership practices within the fire service, and implications for fire service leaders, in conjunction 16
with the theoretical perspective on EI (Boyatzis, 2009; Goleman, 1998; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008). Transactional leadership emphasizes exchanges of tasks and rewards among leaders, colleagues, and followers; conversely, leaders using transformational methods tend to get followers to perform at a higher level than followers believed they could (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Brymer & Gray, 2006; Bullock, 2008; Gavan O'Shea, Foti, Hauenstein, & Bycio, 2009; Laohavichien, Fredendall, & Cantrell, 2009). The Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) instrument, leveraging the model of transactional and transformational leadership dimensions to evaluate the leadership effectiveness (Bass & Avolio, 2014; Bass & Riggio, 2010), measured the officers’ level of leadership effectiveness. According to Jones (2012), EI changes throughout one's lifetime along with the participants other demographic variables such as age education and years of service. Jones cited Collins (2001) who examined the effect of EI as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. Collins concluded that EI might not play a direct role in leadership effectiveness; however, the researcher found that “it is possible that other variables may have an impact on the construct measurement” (p. 27). Organization of the Remainder of the Study This chapter introduced the study and outlined the purpose, significance, method, and research design of the study. Chapter 2 will contain current peer reviewed literature on EI, leadership styles, and leadership effectiveness, with an eye toward studies using methods and instruments similar to the ones used for this study (e.g., the Bar-On EQi and the MLQ). Chapter 3 will go into depth on the methodological approach and research 17
design used in this study, including sampling design, procedures, measures, data collection procedures, data analysis, and limitations of methodology. Chapter 4 will present the study results and outline data collection methodology and data analysis information. To conclude, Chapter 5 will present the findings of the study in relation to the research literature, and discuss theoretical and practical implications, as well as offer recommendations for future research. References and appendices will follow.
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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to the Literature Review Perhaps the only aspect of life people have a modicum of control over is how they respond to life experiences, their emotions, and how one chooses to manage their emotions and respond to the emotions of others will significantly influence one’s life experiences (Ingram & Cangemi, 2009). The idea of Emotional Intelligence (EI) emerged within the last two decades, largely from the work of Goleman (1998), and has had significant effect on and implications for the areas of management, leadership, and organizational studies (Copestake et al., 2013; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2014; Walter et al., 2011). The general idea is that the better one understands their own emotions and those of others, the more likely they are to be successful, or become a successful leader (Cliffe, 2011). For this proposed study, the relationship between EI and leadership styles among career fire officers was examined. The purpose of this quantitative descriptive correlational study was to understand how fire officer’s leadership effectiveness is affected by EI. Researchers have studied EI in relation to leadership in a wide range of areas, from business (J.L. Bowen, 2013; Siegling et al., 2014) to youth leadership development (McElravy & Hastings, 2014) to education (Cherkowski, 2012; Cliffe, 2011; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Tang et al., 2010; Yamamoto et al., 2013). Yet, researchers have not yet explicitly explored the connection between EI and leadership 19
among fire officers. In his state of the field article, however, Calo (2012) posited that an increased sense of EI and a wider understanding of leadership principles were key considerations of the changing role of leadership in the fire service industry. Fire officers may be exposed to affectively challenging emergency situations that involve destruction, injury, and struggles for survival of victims and sometimes responders (Blau et al., 2012). Consequently, leadership in the context of such adversity and challenge, as well as leadership that prepare followers for such experiences, may require fire officers to engage and manage, actively and effectively, their own and others’ emotions. It seems that a high level of EI would well serve fire officers in gauging and understanding their own and other’s emotions and in using this understanding to guide their thoughts and actions to be effective leaders. Furthermore, participation and cooperation in harrowing, lifethreatening experiences, as well as situations of leaders and subordinates living together on 24-hour work schedules, may build tight and lasting emotional bonds among firefighters and between firefighters and their leaders (Blau et al., 2012). Such a close and unique working environment necessitates investigation into the connection of EI to leadership effectiveness in fire officers. In addition, because of the emphasis on developing meaningful professional relationships with subordinates and motivation through collective action, transformational leadership may come to be seen as a better fit for fire officers than traditional transactional models based on a system of rewards and reinforcement through individual achievement.
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Literature Search Strategy In this chapter, the researcher examined pertinent peer reviewed research literature relating to EI and leadership effectiveness. Primarily, the focus was on litera ture current within five years (2009-2014), unless it is necessary to refer to foundational works, which may fall outside of this five-year window. Comprehensive content and subject searches were conducted under several general headings, including leadership, emotional intelligence, and firefighter emotional intelligence. In addition, key terms and phrases, such as leadership effectiveness, leadership styles, leadership models, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, emotional intelligence characteristics, and effective leadership styles, were used to search the following databases: Academic Search Premier and Business Source Premier. Academic Search Premier is a mega-, multi-disciplinary indexing, and abstracting tool that allows for searches of other databases, and provides full-text articles for over 4,600 journals, including full-text articles for over 3,900 peer-reviewed titles. Academic Search Premier allows for searching databases in a variety of fields, including those of sociology, psychology, business, and science, among others, while Business Source Premier searches business databases exclusively. A search using Google Scholar also returned references to articles used for this review. Finally, the titles of several additional studies were obtained by referring to the bibliographies of key studies on EI and leadership. The aim of this literature review is to summarize, evaluate, discuss, and synthesize previous research on EI and leadership. This study investigated the application of EI as an ongoing personnel development tool in the area related to leadership issues of fire officers. The current study measured fire officers’ EI as it 21
correlates to transactional and transformational leadership styles. This chapter will introduce the idea of EI and modern leadership styles (focusing on transactional and transformational leadership) and then review current studies that have examined the connection between EI and leadership, and end by discussing their connections to the proposed study. Emotional Intelligence Although Goleman (1995) popularized EI, it was Howard Gardner’s 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences that set the theoretical groundwork for EI. Gardner (1983) believed that IQ failed to explain the range of individuals’ cognitive abilities. Gardner (1983) posited that areas of intelligence included musical, visual, verbal, logical, bodily naturalistic, and existential domains, suggesting that individuals may be intelligent in different ways beyond those recognized by traditional measures of intelligence (e.g., the Intelligence Quotient; IQ). In addition, Gardner (1983) posited that individuals possess both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the feelings and emotions of others) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the feelings and emotions of the self). Working from these ideas, Goleman (1998) theorized emotional intelligence as a specific kind of intelligence involving inter- and intrapersonal dimensions that included “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships” (p. 317). Since then, the idea of EI has had significant effect on and implications for the areas of management, leadership, and organizational studies (Copestake et al., 2013; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2014; Walter et al., 2011). EI has affected these areas of study so 22
much so that one scholar observed that leadership literature is experiencing an “affective revolution” (Walter et al., 2011, p. 45). Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined EI as kind of “social intelligence” involving the capacity to gauge and understand one’s own and others’ emotions and to use this understanding to guide thought and action (p. 189). However, it was Goleman (1995) who popularized EI and stated that one’s Emotional Quotient (EQ) was more important than their IQ. Goleman (1998) went on to characterize EI as the “sine qua non” of leadership (p. 93). Goleman believed that the higher individuals’ progress in an organization’s hierarchy, the more important EI becomes for effective leadership (Goleman, 1998). Generally defined in relation to leadership and management, EI is “the capacity to perceive and understand emotions and the ability to use this information as part of decision-making and the management of behavior” (Copestake et al., 2013, p. 1). For all its popularity, however, EI is not without its controversy and criticisms. Walter et al. (2011), for example, argued that EI cannot be a form of intelligence because it is too broadly defined and that its empirical connection to leadership is weak and often contradictory. In addition, in a quantitative correlational study on EI, leadership style, and perceived leadership effectiveness, Weinberger (2009) found no significant relationships between EI and transactional or transformational leadership, and recommended more work on defining EI and better determining its uniqueness and relevance as a construct in studying leadership. Three Approaches to Measuring EI Goleman (1998) defined EI as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves 23
and in our relationships” (p. 317). Three distinct, yet overlapping ways of approaching EI have emerged in EI scholarship. All three approaches are based to some degree on the work of Goleman (1998) and Salovey and Mayer (1990), and involve perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions (Sadri, 2012). EI based on traits or trait EI, concerns interrelated emotional dispositions, and self-perceptions that can be measured through self-reporting and other reporting techniques (Copestake et al., 2013; Walter et al., 2011). EI based on ability, or ability EI, concerns interrelated emotional abilities that are best measured by performance tests (Copestake et al., 2013; Walter et al., 2011). The third approach, which is a mixed approach, combines elements of both approaches and includes most socio/emotional abilities and dispositions except those that are strictly cognitive (Walter et al., 2011). The Mixed Approach to Measuring EI The mixed approach owes much to the work Goleman (1998) who developed the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), and introduced factors into the instrument, such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy. Like the ECI, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQI) is a self-report instrument used for mixed approaches when assessing for interpersonal skills, individual emotional states, handling stress, adaptability, and mood (Bar-On, 1997). Bar-On and Parker (2000) defined EI as “a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal, and social abilities, which influence one’s overall ability to actively and effectively cope with demands and pressures” (p. 3). Bar-On and Parker (2000) definition of EI and the mixed approach to EI seems well suited to the study of fire officers’ EI and their leadership effectiveness. Research 24
has shown that the level of EI of physicians, nurses, teachers, and probation officers was similar to EI levels observed in workers representing other human service professions, yet EI was higher in workers of uniformed professions (Ogińska-Bulik, 2005). More specifically, fire officers may be exposed to and should be prepared for emotionally taxing emergency situations that involve destruction, injury, and struggles for survival of victims and sometimes responders (Blau et al., 2012). Consequently, leadership involving the potential of such adversity and challenge, along with living together with subordinates and co-workers for 24 hours at a time, as well as preparing followers for these encounters, may require fire officers to engage and manage, actively and effectively, a range of emotions associated with downtime interaction and high stress emergency incidents. Leadership Effectiveness and EI There is a considerable body of research suggesting that EI provides the basis for leadership effectiveness (Alston, 2009; Mayer et al., 2004; Mills, 2009; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Nagy, 2008; Rajah et al., 2011; Ruestow, 2008; Woods, 2010), and, consequently, the development of recent theories of leadership has paralleled the growth of interest in and research on the topic of EI (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2005). Gardner (2000) defined leadership effectiveness as “the process of persuasion or example by which an individual induces a group to pursue objectives, shared by the leader and his or her followers” (p. 3). Additionally, Musa (2010) described leadership effectiveness as the “process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task” (p. 1). According to Ramchunder and Martins (2014), leadership effectiveness involves the accomplishment of objectives 25
through cooperative actions that depend on the influence of leaders on followers. However, what constitutes leadership effectiveness is dependent on context and the type of leadership that should be applied to achieve particular outcomes or consequences. Mayer et al., (2004) argued to be a more effective leader generally, leaders require EI to better understand their own emotions and engage those of others. For Goleman (1998), EI is crucial for leadership effectiveness because it allows for recognizing the emotions of self and others and using that knowledge to motivate others and manage emotions in dealings with others. However, transactional and transformational leadership are two styles of leadership that researchers have studied extensively in relation to leadership effectiveness, and each has its own strengths in relation to leadership effectiveness. Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership is a style of leadership based on a relationship between leaders and followers that is a transaction, and transactional leadership effectiveness traditionally involves the ability of leaders the motivate followers’ self-interest in exchange for rewards for attaining goals and accomplishing tasks (Weinberger, 2009). This transactional relationship between leaders and followers is based on contingent reward (e.g., economic compensation or organizational advancement for completing tasks), and transactional leadership effectiveness often hinges on a clear and well-defined system for contingent compensation (Harms & Crede, 2010). Transactional leadership has been found to be effective in situations in which tasks and projects need to be carried out in traditional, specific, or clearly delineated ways (Harms & Crede, 2010). Transactional leadership has also been found to be effective for maintenance of 26
organizational compliance, stability, and keeping the status quo (Harms & Crede, 2010). However, recent quantitative studies (Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Weinberger, 2009) found no significant link between EI and transactional leadership. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership goes back to Burns (1978) who defined it generally as a relationship between leaders and followers wherein they “raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation” (p. 20) in situations wherein inspirational or visionary change may be necessary. Bass (1985) further refined transformational leadership as the process through which leaders inspired and motivated people based on collective purposes. Transformational leaders are effective when they address their followers’ beliefs, attitudes, and values, and align these beliefs, attitudes, and values with those of the organization (Alston et al., 2010). Transformational leadership effectiveness is based on the ability of leaders to guide followers toward self-development and higher levels of success through inspirational, motivational, and charismatic techniques (Alston et al., 2010). Effective transformational leaders are concerned with a follower’s intellectual stimulation, while leading through charisma, inspiration, and motivation (Bromley & Kirschner-Bromley, 2007). Transformational leaders seek to motivate and inspire followers, whereas transactional leaders develop relationships with followers based on reinforcement and exchange (Ingram & Cangemi, 2009). Avolio (1999) noted that these leadership styles are not mutually exclusive and that effective leaders may display each of these styles to varying degrees at different times as situations warrant. Despite the much-touted influence of EI on transformational leadership effectiveness, findings remain mixed on the connection between EI and transformational leadership. While 27
Mirza and Redzuan (2012) found a significant positive link between EI and transformational leadership, Weinberger (2009) found no significant connection between EI and transformational leadership. In their meta-analytic review, Harms and Crede (2010) concluded that while the claims of the influence of EI on transformational leadership effectiveness may be overstated, EI might contribute to transformational leadership effectiveness at some level. The overwhelming model of leadership in the fire service is transactional leadership, more specifically, active management-by-exception (Alyn, 2010). This means that leadership is based on rewards and reinforcement, and that leaders continually review subordinates’ performance to identify shortcomings and address corrections in performance (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014). One of the fire service’s organizational challenges is the lack of formal leadership training (Lowe, 2000). Another organizational challenge in some fire departments include the current breakdown of communications between leaders and subordinates, because of several existing organizational layers between the fire chief and the workforce (Lowe, 2000). The purpose of this quantitative, descriptive, correlational study was to examine if EI affects fire officer’s leadership effectiveness. To do this, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), which has proven to be a valid and reliable instrument in measuring leadership across a range of organizations (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012; Ramchunder & Martins, 2014) was used. The MLQ includes subscales that measure attributes, behaviors, and both active and passive management-by-exception leadership styles. This information gathered will offer direction for effective leadership strategies as well as practical implications for leadership development in the fire service. 28
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership For the past few years, researchers have studied the connection between EI and leadership in relation to management and leader positions in a wide variety of areas, including health professions (Duygulu et al., 2011; Larin et al., 2011), business (J.L. Bowen, 2013; Siegling et al., 2014), government (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012), human resources (Alston, 2009; Shuck & Herd, 2012), law enforcement (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014), the hospitality industry (Rothfelder et al., 2013), the construction industry (Sunindijo, 2012), youth leadership development (McElravy & Hastings, 2014), and education (Cherkowski, 2012; Cliffe, 2011; Mirza & Redzuan, 2012; Tang et al., 2010; Yamamoto et al., 2013). In addition, researchers have studied EI and leadership in relation to a number of constructs and variables, such as job performance (Adebayo & Lagos, 2012), job satisfaction (Rothfelder et al., 2013), employee engagement (Shuck & Herd, 2012), self-awareness (Bratton, Dodd, & Brown, 2011), issues of fairness (Bacha & Walker, 2012), gender (Lopez-Zafra, Garcia-Retamero, & Pilar Berrios Martos, 2012), business growth (Yitshaki, 2012), and teamwork (Mitchell et al., 2014; Wang & Huang, 2009). Recent research on EI and leadership also includes a meta-analysis (Harms & Crede, 2010) and two critical overviews (Rajah et al., 2011; Walter et al., 2011). The closet recent examination of the connection between EI and leadership to EI and leadership among fire officers was Ramchunder and Martins’ (2014) quantitative correlational study of the connection between EI and leadership among police officers. Ramchunder and Martins (2014) explored the relationship between EI, self-efficacy, and leadership effectiveness via questionnaire of 107 police personnel in commanding positions in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. Ramchunder and Martins 29
(2014) observed that police leadership in this area was uniquely challenging, as it required a good deal of pragmatism and tact to address a population that often questioned authoritative stances. Consequently, police leaders were often required to draw on both the emotional and rational sides of human experience (Ramchunder & Martins, 2014). Based on the research literature, Ramchunder and Martins (2014) hypothesized that there was a positive relationship between EI and effective police leadership. The researchers used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), the same instrument to be used for this proposed study, and noted that the MLQ was a reliable and valid instrument to measure leadership performance across a range of organizations. Using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), Ramchunder and Martins (2014) confirmed their hypothesis and found that there was a positive relationship between EI and transformational leadership. Their practical implications included considering EI during the selection and training development of police leaders. As emergency responders, fire officers encounter similar situations to those encountered by police leaders, situations that require the unique emotional labor of dealing with affectively taxing emergency situations and guiding subordinates as well in the handling of these situations (Blau et al., 2012). Based on the results of Ramchunder and Martins’ study (2014), EI may prove to be positively connected to transformational leadership for fire officers as well. In his 2012 article, Calo addressed the state of the field of fire service leadership and observed that fire service leadership, because it has been steeped in tradition and reluctant to change, is out of step with the changing nature and needs of the contemporary fire service industry. Fire service in the United States has evolved from a service of strictly fire suppression to a more encompassing “all hazards” community protection 30
service (Calo, 2012, p. 283). Consequently, the responsibility of fire service and therefore fire service leaders is changing and becoming more complex (Calo, 2012). For Calo (2012), the most essential component now missing in the industry is a true understanding of what it means to be a leader. While the fire service is a hierarchical organization based on rank like the military, it lacks the intense emphasis on leadership training and the preparation for promotion of the military. Because of this lack of leadership training and preparation, many fire officers have not explicitly or formally studied leadership principle or models (Calo, 2012). Calo (2012) recommended that fire officers not only be functionally educated in current technologies, incident procedures, and the potentially hazardous properties of new building materials, but formally and explicitly educated in being leaders as well. This education would involve study of leadership principles, styles, and theories, as well as EI might affect the leadership effectiveness of fire officers (Calo, 2012). Calo stated that EI might serve fire officers well because they are responsible for the welfare of subordinate firefighters working in highly stressful and dangerous environments (Calo, 2012). EI and Leadership in Education In this study, the researcher sought to fill the gap in literature on EI in relation to fire officers and leadership. However, there is a large body of research literature on EI and leadership effectiveness in the business world (Nagy, 2008), and researchers have recently studied EI’s connection to leadership effectiveness in other related areas as well. In the field of education, for example, Cherkowski (2012) showed that a principal’s demonstration of EI influenced teachers’ commitment to both their work and improving their craft (Cherkowski, 2012). Cherkowski (2012) conducted a qualitative case study of 31
a small elementary school in British Colombia. Cherkowski (2012) collected data through interviews with teachers and the principal, as well as through participant journal entries, and analyzed the data for emergent themes using comparative analysis techniques. Cherkowski (2012) found that charismatic leadership traits, associated with transformational leadership, and the principal’s demonstration of care and compassion toward teachers positively affected teacher commitment to their work and their craft, confirming effective leadership. Cherkowski (2012) concluded that school leaders engaging in meaningful professional relationships with teachers was an important consideration of leadership development, and she recommended school leaders facilitate meaningful professional relationships with teachers to foster teacher commitment to ongoing professional growth. This study showed that the tenets of transformational leadership (developing meaningful professional relationship with subordinates and charismatic leadership) led to effective leadership through increased teacher commitment to the organization and their own work and supported that positive relationship between transformational leadership and EI. Researchers have also approached the study of the connection between EI and leadership in education empirically. Tang et al. (2010) sampled 50 academic leaders (principles, presidents, deans, and department chairs) in Taiwan and 50 in the United States to examine the relationship between EI and transformational leadership in a crosscultural context. Tang et al.’s (2010) comparative study did not employ either of the instruments to be used for this proposed study, but the researchers’ one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) found that EI positively and significantly affected leadership in both cultures, with enough significant differences to suggest that cultural difference mediates 32
EI and leadership. Tang et al.’s study (2010) showed that EI and leadership could be influenced by cultural contexts and by different cultural understandings of the role of emotions in leadership. Tang et al.’s study (2010) has implications for not only for considerations of the influence of cultural contexts on EI and leadership but of the possible influence of specific organizational cultures and contexts as well. In her study of EI in relation to school leadership of seven secondary school headteachers in England, Cliffe (2011) found positive correlations between EI and leadership, but warned against possible negative aspects of EI as well. Cliffe (2011) collected data using a multi-method approach, including face-to-face interviews, selfreport questionnaires, and ability-based EI measurements, indicating an approach to EI based on a mix of traits (self-reporting) and abilities (ability-based measurements). Through correlational analysis of the data, Cliffe (2011) found that participants saw that effective leadership and leadership awareness involved knowing one’s emotions, recognizing emotions in others, and managing those emotions. In addition, all participants noted that being aware of how they felt allowed them to think creatively and contributed to their roles as both motivators and leaders. For example, managing emotions kept participants calm and grounded, and allowed them to exhibit firm but creative leadership. Cliffe (2011) found that managing emotions helped with interpersonal skills and facilitated effective handling of professional relationships as well. Despite the positive effects of EI on leadership, Cliffe (2011) posited that there might be potential problems with the use of emotions in leadership as well benefits. Cliffe (2011) observed that the focus of research has concerned the EI of leaders rather than followers
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and further recommended consideration of how EI could be used manipulatively for personal or organizational gain. Researchers have looked at the connection between emotions and educational leadership styles at lower educational levels as well. For example, Mirza and Redzuan (2012) studied the relationship between principals’ EI and leadership styles (transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire) in a primary school setting. Mirza and Redzuan (2012) used a correlational cross-sectional survey design because it provided information about not only the relationship between EI and leadership but also about the magnitude of the relationship as well. The researchers used the Bar-On EQI to gather data from 268 Iranian principals. Mirza and Redzuan (2012) analyzed data using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and found a statistically significant relationship between principals’ EI and leadership styles at 99% (p
