第2卷 第1期 2008 年 6 月 30 日
澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology
Vol.2 No.1 June 30 , 2008
49
Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools JOHN A. PARNELL1, Ting YU2, ALEXANDER Nai-Chi CHEN3, Qing TIAN4 (1. School of Business, University of North Carolina at Pembroke, Pembroke, North Carolina, US) (2. School of Finance and Economics, Ling Tung University, Taichung, Taiwan,China) (3. Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China) (4. Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China) Abstract: Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence in job tenure. Many of the problems associated with foreign joint ventures in Asia over the past two decades have been concerned with employee motivation and retention. The purpose of this research is to examine whether there are significant differences in work value among business students in the United States and Taiwan. The American business students were found to be concerned more with competence and growth than Taiwanese business students, but no differences were found along comfort and security, and status and independence. Key words: Work values; American culture; Chinese culture; China; Taiwan.
美國和台灣商學院學生的工作價值評估 JOHN A. PARNELL1,余 霆2,陳迺驥3,田 青4 (1. 北卡羅萊納大學彭布魯克分校商學院,彭布魯克,北卡羅來納州,美國) (2. 嶺東科技大學財經學院,臺中,臺灣;3. 澳門科技大學,澳門) (4. 澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門) 摘要:工作價值被認為是影響職業發展過程的關鍵變數並對員工工作的長久性產生影響。過去 二十多年來在亞洲的外國企業發現了許多有關於員工工作動機和留住員工之問題。此研究目的在 於檢驗美國和台灣商學院學生中是否存在明顯的工作價值差異性。研究成果顯示,美國商學院學 生相較台灣學生更關注於職業具有的競爭性與發展前景。在工作價值所包含的舒適性和安全性, 以及工作中的地位和獨立性這兩種工作價值方面,美國和台灣的學生之間並沒有差異。 關鍵詞:工作價值;美國文化;中國文化;中國;台灣
00 Introduction Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence on job tenure[1-2]. Indeed, many of the
problems associated with foreign joint ventures in China over the past two decades have been concerned with motivation and retention for both employees and managers [3-8]. Western firm success in China depends on improvements in these areas and requires
收稿日期:2007-06-08;修回日期:2008-06-10 通訊作者:田青,女,助理教授,主要研究興趣為商業理論、人力資源。E-mail:
[email protected]
50
2008,2(1)
an understanding of the differences in work values
developed by Bond (1987) among managers in the
between managers and workers in China and those in
USA, Mainland China and Hongkong, with only
the West. The situation is the same in areas such as
Confucian dynamism as the only non-matching
Taiwan where the nature of work values is assumed to
dimension [18]. Recent evidence also suggests that
be similar to those in the Chinese mainland, but is not
Chinese workers in some industries give high
[9]
always the case .
importance to such matters as high earnings and
Given the shortage of managers in emerging
pleasant working conditions[19] like Westerns, and to
regions of Asia and scarce research focusing on
other extrinsic work values as well[20]. Study of Elizur
work values among Taiwan Chinese and Americans,
noted that Taiwanese managers’ cultural values reflect
examining the work values of Taiwan Chinese is
a Western influence on traditional Chinese values[21].
important for multinational corporations wishing to
In this regard, our study adopted Manhardt’s
implement more effective international management
three dimensions of work values to measure the job
programs both in Mainland China and Taiwan.
orientation differences based on different cultures:
In addition, understanding how national culture
working environment, competence and growth,
may influence people’s perception of work value
and status and independence. The first dimension,
becomes important as business organizations adopt an
working conditions—including job security, ample
international perspective. While examining the work
leisure time off the job and comfortable working
values of American and Taiwan business students
conditions—were considered as physiological and
from a comparative perspective, this study also
safety needs in Maslow’s [22] five needs taxonomy
attempts to ask whether such situations as economic
and as extrinsic factor leading to job dissatisfaction
prosperity and globalization might mitigate the impact
in Herzberg’s two-factor theory [23] . The second
of national cultures on work values.
dimension, competence and growth, includes such
11 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses
items as feeling of accomplishments, autonomy, creativity provided by the job, self-actualization, and
The term “work values” has been used
achievement. This dimension relates to job satisfaction
interchangeably with term such as “work goals”
according to Herzberg’s intrinsic rewards, including
[10-11]
. Work values have been
such characteristics of work are autonomy, creativity,
identified as qualities of people’s desire from their
and responsibility. The third dimension, status and
work and are the values that individuals believe should
independence, refers to career success factors such as
be satisfied as a result of their participation in the
esteem, salary and upward striving, factors related to
work role. They guide individuals’ work achievement,
extrinsic motivating factors[23]. Extrinsic work values
responsibility, their life and wealthy expectations and
are in the form of rewards such as salary, opportunity
also influence individuals’ work commitment and job
for promotion and extrinsic social conditions, such as
and “job orientations”
[12-14]
satisfaction
. As such, work values are identified as
supervisory relationship[24].
critical determinants in job development and retention.
An individual’s attitudes and values are all,
Measuring work values across cultures has
to a large extent, shaped by culture. To clarify the
been an arduous task. Some researchers suggest that
differences between America and Taiwan, we will
Western notions of motivation and work values may
refer to Hofstede’s[25] cultural dimensions (see table
not be applicable in China[15]and Chinese applications
1). Where countries differ on one or more of these
of western survey instruments such as scales utilized
dimensions, work value of the members of these
in the present study might have their limitations or
cultures may be expected to differ.
restrictions
[16-17]
. However, significant differences
were found in values using the Chinese Value Survey
JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools
51
Table 1 Cultypol typology: Taiwan vs. U.S. Country
Power Distance
Individualism
Masculinity
Uncertainty avoidance
Confucian Dynamism
Score
Score
Score
Score
Score
Score
Taiwan
58
20
45
69
87
U. S.
40
91
62
46
29
Source: Hofstede, 1991. 1111 Work Environment On Hofstede’s Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)
individual achievement rather than emphasizing
dimension, America has a low index value and Taiwan
personal achievement is recognized culturally
has a high index value. In a society of low uncertainty
with rewards for competing within the groups. In
avoidance such as the United States, people feel less
American value systems, greater emphasis is placed
threatened by ambiguity. They are more willing to
on competition and achievement. In more collectivist
take more risks in life and realize that the future is
societies such as Taiwan, however, people are more
unpredictable. Individuals within a high UA culture
likely to see themselves as benefiting from the group
like Taiwan are more concerned with security in
and are recognized for sacrificing personal interest
life, however, preferring clear hierarchical structures
for collective goals[28]. These differences suggest that
in organizations. They also feel a greater need for
Americans tend to think of themselves as “I” and tend
written rules and procedures, and are less tolerant
to classify themselves and each other by individual
of deviations from standard practices. In high UA
characteristics, rather than by group membership.
countries, various rules and norms that reduce this
Individualists believe that the self is the basic unit of
uncertainty are to be expected. Its members prefer
survival and have high needs for autonomy[29].
the interests of the group[27]. In American societies,
rules and long-term stable situations. Furthermore,
According to the scales measuring work value
Taiwanese students appear to have a stronger need
by Manhardt[11], Americans are more likely to choose
for task simplicity and predictability, which is not
a job that requires originality and creativity, satisfies
surprising considering the fact that Taiwanese culture
aesthetic interests and permits people to develop their
has a much greater tendency to avoid uncertainty than
own methods of doing the work. High individualistic
American culture[26]. This suggests that in a culture of
groups manifest greater assertiveness in meeting
high level of uncertainty avoidance such as Taiwan,
personal objectives and need, such as the desire to
people are more likely to work in an organization with
actualize one’s gifts and abilities[27]. The dimension of
clear-cut rules and procedures to follow. They tend to
intrinsic rewards contains items related to autonomy
accept such jobs permit a regular routine in time and
and self-actualization[26]. Employees in individualistic
place of work. Thus, we propose:
cultures like the United States tend to emphasize
H1: Taiwanese students will place a greater
individual career success and the satisfaction of the
emphasis than American students on comfort and
intrinsic need for self-actualization, while employees
security.
in collectivistic cultures, such as Taiwan, tend to focus
1111 Self-actualization In comparison to Taiwan, America culture
more on work atmosphere or environments [26][30-32].
is strong in individualism (see table 1). The
H2: American students will place a greater
individualism–collectivism cultural dimension is
emphasis than Taiwanese students on competence and
used to measure the extent to which a culture values
growth.
Hence, we thus propose:
52
2008,2(1)
1111 Career Success The item Status and Independence is also [11]
classified by Manhardt as career success , including
questionnaire was translated into English by bilingual professionals from American and Chinese business schools.
esteem, promotion opportunities and high income,
Work values were measured via Manhardt’s
which is more a measure of career success by many
(1972) three-dimensional scale encompassing are
university graduates. The Masculinity Index measures
comfort and security, competence and growth, and
the extent to which the dominant values in a society
status and independence. A 5-point Likert scale
are masculine, such as assertiveness, high career
ranging from 5 (very important) to 1 (unimportant)
earnings, and the acquisition of money and things;
was used to evaluate the work values of American
it is also associated with caring less for others and
and Chinese business students. Per Manhardt’s (1972)
the quality of their lives, factors typically associated
work values scale, separate factor analyses were
[11 [33]
.
applied to the first five items (comfort and security),
Masculinity in Taiwan is lower than that in the United
the next nine items (competence and growth), and the
States, suggesting that American business students
final seven items (status and independence).
tend to place more emphasis on personal goals such as
2222 Sample and Data Collection Data for the present study were collected from
with the opposite feminine pole of the index
advancement and high income. In the Chinese culture, people tend to show greater concern for personal goals such as a friendly atmosphere and getting along well with managers and coworkers. As to independence, individuals in high Power Distance (PD) cultures like Taiwan are more willing to behave in accordance with their position and respect within a chain of commend, accepting orders without applying their personal ethical beliefs [25]
. In contrast, individuals in the U.S. may be more
inclined to question a superior and less likely to accept his or her questionable practices than those in Taiwan. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis to measure the subscale of Status and Independence: H3: American students will place a greater emphasis than Taiwanese students on status and
advanced undergraduate and graduate students in American and Taiwanese business schools. The target respondents were junior, senior, and postgraduate. A total of 518 business students—192 from universities in Taipei, Taiwan and 326 from four public universities across the southern and southwestern United States— were surveyed about their work values and attitudes related to their interest in international job assignments. Respondents completed the questionnaires at their universities. Eleven respondents were excluded from further analysis because they were not junior, senior, or postgraduate students.
33 Findings The average age of the respondents was 21.9
independence.
years for Taiwanese students and 24.5 years for
22 Methodology
American students. Fifty-five percent of the American
2222 Measures The 21 statements about work goals utilized in
the Taiwanese respondents. Ninety percent of the
the present study were derived from Manhardt’s (1972)
compared to 95 percent of the Taiwanese respondents.
classic work values scale and were changed only
Factor loadings for the American students support
slightly to measure job orientation of the business
the reliability of the scale with only two marginal
students from America and Taiwan[26] [34]. The survey
respondents were male, compared to 41 percent of American respondents were juniors and seniors,
items. “Provides ample leisure time off the job”
was administered in English to American students
produced a loading of .478 and “requires supervising
and in Chinese to students Taiwan. The Chinese
others ” produced a loading of .455. Coefficient alphas
JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools
53
were .651, .829, and .713 respectively (see table 2).
“permits working independently” produced a loading
Factor loadings were equally strong for the Taiwanese
of only .340, however. Coefficient alphas were .686,
students. In the status and independence subscale,
.839, and .698 respectively (see table 3).
Table 2 Results of factor analyses, American students (n=326)
Item
Subscale factor loading
Comfort & Security Subscale (alpha=.651) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work
.677
Provides job security
.711
Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow
.746
Provides ample leisure time off the job
.478
Provides comfortable working conditions
.639
Eigenvalue
2.155
Percentage of Variance Explained
43.1%
Competence & Growth Subscale (alpha=.829) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people
.598
Is intellectually stimulating
.613
Requires originality and creativity
.732
Makes a social contribution by the work you do
.659
Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests
.668
Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills
.705
Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work
.634
Provides a feeling of accomplishment
.662
Provides change and variety in duties and activities
.603
Eigenvalue
3.852
Percentage of Variance Explained
42.8%
Status & Independence Subscale (alpha=.713) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility
.742
Provides the opportunity to earn a high income
.594
Requires supervising others
.455
Permits working independently
.499
Is respected by other people
.695
Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization
.706
Gives you the responsibility for taking risks
.663
Eigenvalue
2.779
Percentage of Variance Explained
39.7%
54
2008,2(1)
Table 3 Results of factor analyses, Taiwanese students (n=181) Item
Subscale factor loading
Comfort & Security (alpha=.686) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work
.609
Provides job security
.677
Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow
.578
Provides ample leisure time off the job
.740
Provides comfortable working conditions
.744
Eigenvalue
2.263
Percentage of Variance Explained
45.2%
Competence & Growth (alpha=.839) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people
.541
Is intellectually stimulating
.775
Requires originality and creativity
.704
Makes a social contribution by the work you do
.708
Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests
.539
Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills
.756
Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work
.692
Provides a feeling of accomplishment
.683
Provides change and variety in duties and activities
.650
Eigenvalue
4.119
Percentage of Variance Explained
45.8%
Status & Independence (alpha=.698) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility
.589
Provides the opportunity to earn a high income
.570
Requires supervising others
.597
Permits working independently
.340
Is respected by other people
.732
Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization
.771
Gives you the responsibility for taking risks
.589
Eigenvalue
2.620
Percentage of Variance Explained
37.4%
Table 4: Anova results
★
Scale
American Mean
Taiwanese Mean
F-value
Sig. Level
Comfort & Security
-.080
.136
5.718
.017★
Competence & Growth
-.002
.004
0.004
.948
Status & Independence
.081
-.138
5.870
.016★
p < .05
JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools
55
Factor scores were computed to serve as
measure the constraints in which Chinese employers
composite measures for the comfort and security scale
function [38] [39] . As a result, Chinese applications
and the competence and growth scale to test the first
of Western survey instruments such as the scales
two hypotheses. Results of the analysis of variance
utilized in the present study have their limitations.
test indicate significant differences in two variables—
When scales are translated or modified to address
comfort and security, and status and independence—
cultural differences—as was the case with the present
between American and Taiwanese business students
study—then direct comparisons between distinct
(see table 4). No significant differences were found
cultural groups can be difficult. Although results from
along competence and growth between American
the present study lend support to the application of a
and Taiwanese students. Hence, the first and third
given scale across languages and cultures, additional
hypotheses were supported, but the second one was
work is needed to develop and refine measurement
not.
scales that are reasonably reliable and valid for cross cultures comparison.
44 Conclusions and Future Directions
Second, additional assessments of differences
The present study supported two of Manhardt’s
between America and Taiwan along other factors can
(1972) three work value factors, comfort and
help build a framework that extends beyond work
security, and status and independence. The third
values to other factors. In addition, Chinese ethical
factor, competence and growth, was not supported.
perspectives can also be considered, especially with
These mixed findings lend credence to suggestions
regard to the numerous Chinese subcultures that
from the literature that using survey instruments for
exist, including Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong
[17]
.
Kong Chinese, Macao Chinese, Singapore Chinese
In addition, the general support for the instrument
and other oversees Chinese populations. Because
with the Taiwanese sample is promising and lends
ethical beliefs are part of the cognitive structure
support to studies that employ culturally-based scales
and personality of individuals, major changes in the
validated in the West in Eastern societies.
meditating factors through which social forces create
work values across cultures can be challenging
It was somewhat surprising to find that there
and sustain individuals’ beliefs are likely to result in
were no differences on the competence and growth
changes in ethical beliefs [40]. An examination of
between American and Taiwanese students. This
Chinese populations throughout the world provides a
finding supplements that of Chiou (2001), who noted
lens through which to assess this phenomenon.
that it may be too simplistic to categorize Taiwan
Finally, assessments that include other nations
as a collectivist society and the United States as an
would be useful, particularly emerging economies.
[35]
. Work values in Taiwan
The Western influence on organizations in emerging
may be changing because of their broad exposure to
nations enjoys some support in the literature, but
Western culture. This phenomenon is intriguing and
additional research is needed on the process by which
may explain why cultural distinctions tend to diminish
this process occurs.
individualistic society
as societies are exposed to different cultures
[36]
.
Further examination and exploration about this factor is strongly encouraged.
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