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Jun 30, 2008 - JOHN A. PARNELL1, Ting YU2, ALEXANDER Nai-Chi CHEN3, Qing TIAN4. (1. School ... in the United States and Taiwan. ... programs both in Mainland China and Taiwan. ... written rules and procedures, and are less tolerant.
第2卷 第1期 2008 年 6 月 30 日

澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology

Vol.2 No.1 June 30 , 2008

49

Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools JOHN A. PARNELL1, Ting YU2, ALEXANDER Nai-Chi CHEN3, Qing TIAN4 (1. School of Business, University of North Carolina at Pembroke, Pembroke, North Carolina, US) (2. School of Finance and Economics, Ling Tung University, Taichung, Taiwan,China) (3. Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China) (4. Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China) Abstract: Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence in job tenure. Many of the problems associated with foreign joint ventures in Asia over the past two decades have been concerned with employee motivation and retention. The purpose of this research is to examine whether there are significant differences in work value among business students in the United States and Taiwan. The American business students were found to be concerned more with competence and growth than Taiwanese business students, but no differences were found along comfort and security, and status and independence. Key words: Work values; American culture; Chinese culture; China; Taiwan.

美國和台灣商學院學生的工作價值評估 JOHN A. PARNELL1,余 霆2,陳迺驥3,田 青4 (1. 北卡羅萊納大學彭布魯克分校商學院,彭布魯克,北卡羅來納州,美國) (2. 嶺東科技大學財經學院,臺中,臺灣;3. 澳門科技大學,澳門) (4. 澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門) 摘要:工作價值被認為是影響職業發展過程的關鍵變數並對員工工作的長久性產生影響。過去 二十多年來在亞洲的外國企業發現了許多有關於員工工作動機和留住員工之問題。此研究目的在 於檢驗美國和台灣商學院學生中是否存在明顯的工作價值差異性。研究成果顯示,美國商學院學 生相較台灣學生更關注於職業具有的競爭性與發展前景。在工作價值所包含的舒適性和安全性, 以及工作中的地位和獨立性這兩種工作價值方面,美國和台灣的學生之間並沒有差異。 關鍵詞:工作價值;美國文化;中國文化;中國;台灣

00 Introduction Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence on job tenure[1-2]. Indeed, many of the

problems associated with foreign joint ventures in China over the past two decades have been concerned with motivation and retention for both employees and managers [3-8]. Western firm success in China depends on improvements in these areas and requires

收稿日期:2007-06-08;修回日期:2008-06-10 通訊作者:田青,女,助理教授,主要研究興趣為商業理論、人力資源。E-mail: [email protected]

50

2008,2(1)

an understanding of the differences in work values

developed by Bond (1987) among managers in the

between managers and workers in China and those in

USA, Mainland China and Hongkong, with only

the West. The situation is the same in areas such as

Confucian dynamism as the only non-matching

Taiwan where the nature of work values is assumed to

dimension [18]. Recent evidence also suggests that

be similar to those in the Chinese mainland, but is not

Chinese workers in some industries give high

[9]

always the case .

importance to such matters as high earnings and

Given the shortage of managers in emerging

pleasant working conditions[19] like Westerns, and to

regions of Asia and scarce research focusing on

other extrinsic work values as well[20]. Study of Elizur

work values among Taiwan Chinese and Americans,

noted that Taiwanese managers’ cultural values reflect

examining the work values of Taiwan Chinese is

a Western influence on traditional Chinese values[21].

important for multinational corporations wishing to

In this regard, our study adopted Manhardt’s

implement more effective international management

three dimensions of work values to measure the job

programs both in Mainland China and Taiwan.

orientation differences based on different cultures:

In addition, understanding how national culture

working environment, competence and growth,

may influence people’s perception of work value

and status and independence. The first dimension,

becomes important as business organizations adopt an

working conditions—including job security, ample

international perspective. While examining the work

leisure time off the job and comfortable working

values of American and Taiwan business students

conditions—were considered as physiological and

from a comparative perspective, this study also

safety needs in Maslow’s [22] five needs taxonomy

attempts to ask whether such situations as economic

and as extrinsic factor leading to job dissatisfaction

prosperity and globalization might mitigate the impact

in Herzberg’s two-factor theory [23] . The second

of national cultures on work values.

dimension, competence and growth, includes such

11 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

items as feeling of accomplishments, autonomy, creativity provided by the job, self-actualization, and

The term “work values” has been used

achievement. This dimension relates to job satisfaction

interchangeably with term such as “work goals”

according to Herzberg’s intrinsic rewards, including

[10-11]

. Work values have been

such characteristics of work are autonomy, creativity,

identified as qualities of people’s desire from their

and responsibility. The third dimension, status and

work and are the values that individuals believe should

independence, refers to career success factors such as

be satisfied as a result of their participation in the

esteem, salary and upward striving, factors related to

work role. They guide individuals’ work achievement,

extrinsic motivating factors[23]. Extrinsic work values

responsibility, their life and wealthy expectations and

are in the form of rewards such as salary, opportunity

also influence individuals’ work commitment and job

for promotion and extrinsic social conditions, such as

and “job orientations”

[12-14]

satisfaction

. As such, work values are identified as

supervisory relationship[24].

critical determinants in job development and retention.

An individual’s attitudes and values are all,

Measuring work values across cultures has

to a large extent, shaped by culture. To clarify the

been an arduous task. Some researchers suggest that

differences between America and Taiwan, we will

Western notions of motivation and work values may

refer to Hofstede’s[25] cultural dimensions (see table

not be applicable in China[15]and Chinese applications

1). Where countries differ on one or more of these

of western survey instruments such as scales utilized

dimensions, work value of the members of these

in the present study might have their limitations or

cultures may be expected to differ.

restrictions

[16-17]

. However, significant differences

were found in values using the Chinese Value Survey

JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools

51

Table 1 Cultypol typology: Taiwan vs. U.S. Country

Power Distance

Individualism

Masculinity

Uncertainty avoidance

Confucian Dynamism

Score

Score

Score

Score

Score

Score

Taiwan

58

20

45

69

87

U. S.

40

91

62

46

29

Source: Hofstede, 1991. 1111 Work Environment On Hofstede’s Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

individual achievement rather than emphasizing

dimension, America has a low index value and Taiwan

personal achievement is recognized culturally

has a high index value. In a society of low uncertainty

with rewards for competing within the groups. In

avoidance such as the United States, people feel less

American value systems, greater emphasis is placed

threatened by ambiguity. They are more willing to

on competition and achievement. In more collectivist

take more risks in life and realize that the future is

societies such as Taiwan, however, people are more

unpredictable. Individuals within a high UA culture

likely to see themselves as benefiting from the group

like Taiwan are more concerned with security in

and are recognized for sacrificing personal interest

life, however, preferring clear hierarchical structures

for collective goals[28]. These differences suggest that

in organizations. They also feel a greater need for

Americans tend to think of themselves as “I” and tend

written rules and procedures, and are less tolerant

to classify themselves and each other by individual

of deviations from standard practices. In high UA

characteristics, rather than by group membership.

countries, various rules and norms that reduce this

Individualists believe that the self is the basic unit of

uncertainty are to be expected. Its members prefer

survival and have high needs for autonomy[29].

the interests of the group[27]. In American societies,

rules and long-term stable situations. Furthermore,

According to the scales measuring work value

Taiwanese students appear to have a stronger need

by Manhardt[11], Americans are more likely to choose

for task simplicity and predictability, which is not

a job that requires originality and creativity, satisfies

surprising considering the fact that Taiwanese culture

aesthetic interests and permits people to develop their

has a much greater tendency to avoid uncertainty than

own methods of doing the work. High individualistic

American culture[26]. This suggests that in a culture of

groups manifest greater assertiveness in meeting

high level of uncertainty avoidance such as Taiwan,

personal objectives and need, such as the desire to

people are more likely to work in an organization with

actualize one’s gifts and abilities[27]. The dimension of

clear-cut rules and procedures to follow. They tend to

intrinsic rewards contains items related to autonomy

accept such jobs permit a regular routine in time and

and self-actualization[26]. Employees in individualistic

place of work. Thus, we propose:

cultures like the United States tend to emphasize

H1: Taiwanese students will place a greater

individual career success and the satisfaction of the

emphasis than American students on comfort and

intrinsic need for self-actualization, while employees

security.

in collectivistic cultures, such as Taiwan, tend to focus

1111 Self-actualization In comparison to Taiwan, America culture

more on work atmosphere or environments [26][30-32].

is strong in individualism (see table 1). The

H2: American students will place a greater

individualism–collectivism cultural dimension is

emphasis than Taiwanese students on competence and

used to measure the extent to which a culture values

growth.

Hence, we thus propose:

52

2008,2(1)

1111 Career Success The item Status and Independence is also [11]

classified by Manhardt as career success , including

questionnaire was translated into English by bilingual professionals from American and Chinese business schools.

esteem, promotion opportunities and high income,

Work values were measured via Manhardt’s

which is more a measure of career success by many

(1972) three-dimensional scale encompassing are

university graduates. The Masculinity Index measures

comfort and security, competence and growth, and

the extent to which the dominant values in a society

status and independence. A 5-point Likert scale

are masculine, such as assertiveness, high career

ranging from 5 (very important) to 1 (unimportant)

earnings, and the acquisition of money and things;

was used to evaluate the work values of American

it is also associated with caring less for others and

and Chinese business students. Per Manhardt’s (1972)

the quality of their lives, factors typically associated

work values scale, separate factor analyses were

[11 [33]

.

applied to the first five items (comfort and security),

Masculinity in Taiwan is lower than that in the United

the next nine items (competence and growth), and the

States, suggesting that American business students

final seven items (status and independence).

tend to place more emphasis on personal goals such as

2222 Sample and Data Collection Data for the present study were collected from

with the opposite feminine pole of the index

advancement and high income. In the Chinese culture, people tend to show greater concern for personal goals such as a friendly atmosphere and getting along well with managers and coworkers. As to independence, individuals in high Power Distance (PD) cultures like Taiwan are more willing to behave in accordance with their position and respect within a chain of commend, accepting orders without applying their personal ethical beliefs [25]

. In contrast, individuals in the U.S. may be more

inclined to question a superior and less likely to accept his or her questionable practices than those in Taiwan. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis to measure the subscale of Status and Independence: H3: American students will place a greater emphasis than Taiwanese students on status and

advanced undergraduate and graduate students in American and Taiwanese business schools. The target respondents were junior, senior, and postgraduate. A total of 518 business students—192 from universities in Taipei, Taiwan and 326 from four public universities across the southern and southwestern United States— were surveyed about their work values and attitudes related to their interest in international job assignments. Respondents completed the questionnaires at their universities. Eleven respondents were excluded from further analysis because they were not junior, senior, or postgraduate students.

33 Findings The average age of the respondents was 21.9

independence.

years for Taiwanese students and 24.5 years for

22 Methodology

American students. Fifty-five percent of the American

2222 Measures The 21 statements about work goals utilized in

the Taiwanese respondents. Ninety percent of the

the present study were derived from Manhardt’s (1972)

compared to 95 percent of the Taiwanese respondents.

classic work values scale and were changed only

Factor loadings for the American students support

slightly to measure job orientation of the business

the reliability of the scale with only two marginal

students from America and Taiwan[26] [34]. The survey

respondents were male, compared to 41 percent of American respondents were juniors and seniors,

items. “Provides ample leisure time off the job”

was administered in English to American students

produced a loading of .478 and “requires supervising

and in Chinese to students Taiwan. The Chinese

others ” produced a loading of .455. Coefficient alphas

JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools

53

were .651, .829, and .713 respectively (see table 2).

“permits working independently” produced a loading

Factor loadings were equally strong for the Taiwanese

of only .340, however. Coefficient alphas were .686,

students. In the status and independence subscale,

.839, and .698 respectively (see table 3).

Table 2 Results of factor analyses, American students (n=326)

Item

Subscale factor loading

Comfort & Security Subscale (alpha=.651) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work

.677

Provides job security

.711

Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow

.746

Provides ample leisure time off the job

.478

Provides comfortable working conditions

.639

Eigenvalue

2.155

Percentage of Variance Explained

43.1%

Competence & Growth Subscale (alpha=.829) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people

.598

Is intellectually stimulating

.613

Requires originality and creativity

.732

Makes a social contribution by the work you do

.659

Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests

.668

Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills

.705

Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work

.634

Provides a feeling of accomplishment

.662

Provides change and variety in duties and activities

.603

Eigenvalue

3.852

Percentage of Variance Explained

42.8%

Status & Independence Subscale (alpha=.713) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility

.742

Provides the opportunity to earn a high income

.594

Requires supervising others

.455

Permits working independently

.499

Is respected by other people

.695

Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization

.706

Gives you the responsibility for taking risks

.663

Eigenvalue

2.779

Percentage of Variance Explained

39.7%

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2008,2(1)

Table 3 Results of factor analyses, Taiwanese students (n=181) Item

Subscale factor loading

Comfort & Security (alpha=.686) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work

.609

Provides job security

.677

Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow

.578

Provides ample leisure time off the job

.740

Provides comfortable working conditions

.744

Eigenvalue

2.263

Percentage of Variance Explained

45.2%

Competence & Growth (alpha=.839) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people

.541

Is intellectually stimulating

.775

Requires originality and creativity

.704

Makes a social contribution by the work you do

.708

Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests

.539

Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills

.756

Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work

.692

Provides a feeling of accomplishment

.683

Provides change and variety in duties and activities

.650

Eigenvalue

4.119

Percentage of Variance Explained

45.8%

Status & Independence (alpha=.698) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility

.589

Provides the opportunity to earn a high income

.570

Requires supervising others

.597

Permits working independently

.340

Is respected by other people

.732

Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization

.771

Gives you the responsibility for taking risks

.589

Eigenvalue

2.620

Percentage of Variance Explained

37.4%

Table 4: Anova results



Scale

American Mean

Taiwanese Mean

F-value

Sig. Level

Comfort & Security

-.080

.136

5.718

.017★

Competence & Growth

-.002

.004

0.004

.948

Status & Independence

.081

-.138

5.870

.016★

p < .05

JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools

55

Factor scores were computed to serve as

measure the constraints in which Chinese employers

composite measures for the comfort and security scale

function [38] [39] . As a result, Chinese applications

and the competence and growth scale to test the first

of Western survey instruments such as the scales

two hypotheses. Results of the analysis of variance

utilized in the present study have their limitations.

test indicate significant differences in two variables—

When scales are translated or modified to address

comfort and security, and status and independence—

cultural differences—as was the case with the present

between American and Taiwanese business students

study—then direct comparisons between distinct

(see table 4). No significant differences were found

cultural groups can be difficult. Although results from

along competence and growth between American

the present study lend support to the application of a

and Taiwanese students. Hence, the first and third

given scale across languages and cultures, additional

hypotheses were supported, but the second one was

work is needed to develop and refine measurement

not.

scales that are reasonably reliable and valid for cross cultures comparison.

44 Conclusions and Future Directions

Second, additional assessments of differences

The present study supported two of Manhardt’s

between America and Taiwan along other factors can

(1972) three work value factors, comfort and

help build a framework that extends beyond work

security, and status and independence. The third

values to other factors. In addition, Chinese ethical

factor, competence and growth, was not supported.

perspectives can also be considered, especially with

These mixed findings lend credence to suggestions

regard to the numerous Chinese subcultures that

from the literature that using survey instruments for

exist, including Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong

[17]

.

Kong Chinese, Macao Chinese, Singapore Chinese

In addition, the general support for the instrument

and other oversees Chinese populations. Because

with the Taiwanese sample is promising and lends

ethical beliefs are part of the cognitive structure

support to studies that employ culturally-based scales

and personality of individuals, major changes in the

validated in the West in Eastern societies.

meditating factors through which social forces create

work values across cultures can be challenging

It was somewhat surprising to find that there

and sustain individuals’ beliefs are likely to result in

were no differences on the competence and growth

changes in ethical beliefs [40]. An examination of

between American and Taiwanese students. This

Chinese populations throughout the world provides a

finding supplements that of Chiou (2001), who noted

lens through which to assess this phenomenon.

that it may be too simplistic to categorize Taiwan

Finally, assessments that include other nations

as a collectivist society and the United States as an

would be useful, particularly emerging economies.

[35]

. Work values in Taiwan

The Western influence on organizations in emerging

may be changing because of their broad exposure to

nations enjoys some support in the literature, but

Western culture. This phenomenon is intriguing and

additional research is needed on the process by which

may explain why cultural distinctions tend to diminish

this process occurs.

individualistic society

as societies are exposed to different cultures

[36]

.

Further examination and exploration about this factor is strongly encouraged.

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