International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 1, December 2012, 85-89 47-51 NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL READINGS IN SOUTHERN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BUDDHIST ART Priya Thakur
Assistant Professor, Department of Studies and Research in History and Archaeology, Tumkur University, Tumkur. Karnataka. 572103. Email:
[email protected] Abstract Several archaeological findings from southern part of India have brought to light new information regarding the spread and development of Buddhism in the region. Few such sites are Sannati and Rajghatta in Karnataka which has revealed archaeological remains of stupas and chaitya along with excellent specimen of sculptural art. The famous portrait of King Asoka with his name was found from Sannati village. It appears that Karnataka region also acted as a part of the spiritual bond that tied together the products of Sanchi, Bharhut, Karle, Nagarjuni Konda – an inherent naturalism visible through art and architectural medium. The paper will discuss these two sites and the findings and their implications on different historical aspects of Buddhism in the southern region. Keywords: Buddhist, art, architecture, Asoka, Sannati, Archaeology Introduction In recent decades, several archaeological findings from southern part of India have brought to light new information regarding the spread and development of Buddhism in the region. Our perception of Buddhist art has changed dramatically over the last few decades. This shift is certainly the result of a widespread acceptance of the need for sensitive, ethnographically informed discussions of the imagery. It appears that Karnataka region acted as a part of the spiritual bond that tied together the products of Sanchi, Bharhut, Karle, Nagarjuni Konda – an inherent naturalism visible through art and architectural medium. The Buddhist influence in the region started and increased with the trade and commerce as well as the shift of political power towards a more centralized structure during the rule of Mauryans and the Sātavāhanas. The Mauryan period saw the beginning of the Buddhist art in the continent characterized by triumphant execution and symbolical significance. Underneath orthodox appearance of Brahmanism and Buddhism- under royal patronage; there was a popular existence of several popular traditions which assimilated themselves with the art of the contemporary times. Both Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions appear to have been merged with the folk deities, celestial beings and the divinities of fertility popular in the region. As a result, the sculptural art of Buddhist tradition is enriched with such figures either in divine sense or simply as decorative motifs. The spatial relations between the different Buddhist sites — reveal that there are similar structures in a significant number of sites in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. These recurrences demonstrate the existence of a basic model, symbolic and abstract in nature,
that spatially organizes the whole monument and that was reproduced throughout Southern India. Archaeological Sites Buddhism opened its door to the submerged non – Aryan strata of the population and produced a marked upsurge of popular religious enthusiasm. [Mukerjee, 1984: 111] To a marked degree these characteristics are evident from excavations of the ancient settlements in the Deccan and at miscellaneous sites in Karnataka. The elementary factors, for one reason or the other - natural, strategic, political, economic, religious, commercial or social - have contributed to the growth and development of these places. The excavations have not revealed extensive and complete complexes, but yield fragmentary and disjointed evidence, which have to be supplemented by comparisons with other contemporary sites. [IAR, 1955-56:10-11 and IAR, 195758: 8] To such a type of study, it is somewhat difficult to determine features of the settlement patterns in all their aspects without contextual understanding of the complex as a whole. Burnt bricks begin to replace mud bricks to a large extent. They were generally laid on a thin layer of mud mortar in alternate rows of headers and stretchers. Drains were of rings; pots or bricks were sunk deep in the backyard of houses in the form of soak pits. Bricks were used for the construction of platforms and other structures; lime mortar was also used, mostly in the floors of houses. Plaster was of mud or lime mixed with hay and husk. Lanes and roads with houses on both sides and other features suggest that concept of urban architecture had matured in this duration. The growth of Buddhism inspired the establishment of monasteries or vihāras during the Sātavāhana period under the patronage of the rulers and the
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other members of the royal family. As a result it witnessed the excavation of a large number of caves in Western India as well as Northern Deccan. The earliest monasteries were probably simple dwelling-places for the monks, made of wood, rubble and mud or other perishable materials. Thus, the vihāra had a humble beginning with a building having a series of cell-like rooms set around facing an open space. The early Buddhist cave monasteries were quadrangular in shape. The vihāra had later a covered mandapa [courtyard] in the centre and with the installation of Buddha's image inside the cell in the back wall; it became a caitya-cumvihāra, serving the purpose of shrine as well. The vihāra gradually became larger, some of them being double storeyed. These vihāras and the caityas-cum-vihāras became a major centre of attraction for the pilgrims along with monks, nuns, lay worshippers and devotees coming from different parts of India as well as other countries. This further gave rise to the development of commercial and trade zones and other residential settlements around and near these regions. This phenomenon can be compared to the evolution of sacred towns, with some famous temples in the heart of the settlement, in the later period. Scholars like D.D. Kosambi [1959: 281-93] stress the significance of religious land grants in opening new areas to cultivation and settlement. A flourishing settlement of the Sātavāhana times was exposed at Vadagāon-Mādhopur. [IAR, 1971-72: 3739; also see, IAR, 1978-79: 24-25] A number of houses with flanking [side-by-side] rooms, halls, courtyards, attached wells and soakage drains built of brick suggest a well-planned urban settlement. In all, seven phases were found with upper four belonging to the Sātavāhana period [c. 100 - 300 A.D.]. Inside the structures were found circular storage granaries in addition to globular pots fixed on brick platforms. Wells were built of wedge-shaped bricks, and foundations were of pebbles, rubble and laterite murrum. Overview of the Sites From Art History Perspective The goal of Indian art historians has long been to understand the visual coherence of their monuments, to clarify their historical relationships and to comprehend their meaning. The essential priority of historical reconstruction to cultural interpretation has been difficult to maintain, and the time has come to set aside the idea that cultural interpretations can be made independent of specific historical contexts. [Mosteller 1989: 597-602] The sites to be discusses below offer the historians such examples of sculptural works which seem to provide the missing link between the sequence of development of Buddhism as religion in the region as well the Buddhist art and architecture that prospered under the patronage of powerful dynasties like the Mauryans as well as the Sātavāhanas. In the coastal tracts of Karnataka, in and around Kadiri in the South Kanara and Banavasi in the North Kanara districts, Buddhism continued even in later
medieval historical period also. Dambal and Kolivad in the Dharwar region were also famous as centres for Buddhism. An image of the Buddhist goddess Tārā was unearthed from Kolivad with a short Sanskrit epigraph on its pedestal. [Pandurang Bhatt, 1994: 177-190] The discovery of the fragments of a pillar inscription of the 3rd century B.C. from the site of Amravati, Andhra Pradesh, with its text bearing close resemblance to Asokan style and diction, fixes the upper limit but sadly do not furnish the clinching evidence in support of those who argue that the famous stūpa at this site was patronized by Asoka himself. [Sircar: 1963-64; 40] But still this pillar provides us the clear indication regarding the early chronology of this site. Buddhist art anchored the symbology of the nation and participated centrally in the construction of a visual canon of Indian art objects. This canon building leaned heavily towards sculpture, with the most prized pieces those that were thought to belong to the Mauryan Empire. [Guha-Thakurta, 1997: 89-114] Economical Implications Many scholars like Vidya Dehejia [1972: 1-85] and S. Nagaraju: [1981: 15-29] and have noted that Buddhist monastic complexes are situated along trade routes leading through the Western Ghat mountain chain, and some have suggested that monasteries thus played an active role in regional exchange. During this period, wellorganized and powerful economic organizations like guilds were coming to prominence in the socio-economic life of the region. Market centers and towns of various sizes were on the rise. The specialization of certain crafts and industries also furthered the growth of small towns, often walled and fortified for the purpose of security. Trade also spread out to a greater distance and threw open the coastal regions; trade and communications could now extend across the seas, and the outlets of the western seaboard changed the whole character of Indian trade and commerce. Naturally, the change was identified with the expansion of towns, big and small, and the villages emerged as the centers of production. During the Sātavāhana period, the evidence attests a progressive development of villages and towns along with increasing activity in trade and commerce as overland and maritime routes to the south (daksināpatha) were being explored. [Thapar, 1984:61] There were remains of some later period inscriptions recovered from the vicinity of the sites. These records mention about excavations and erection of monasteries and chaityas and the gifts made by the donators for the maintenance and for meeting the necessary requirements of the monks residing at these monasteries. The donators include merchants, members of nobility and even non-elitists like agriculturalists, craftsmen and even women. In few cases, endowments were invested with merchants’ guilds in order to provide a perpetual income flow to the concerned monasteries. [Chakrabarti, 1995: 185-202]
Priya Thakur: New Archeological Readings in Southern India Sannati, Gulbarga Sannati village in Gulburga District is one of the most important sites of Buddhist art and architecture situated on the left bank of the river Bhīmā. This site was discovered in 1956 by K. Krishna Rao but the site became prominent only in late 1960. [Devaraj & Talwar, 1996:1-5] It has three important historical sites – two habitational and one Buddhist site with remains of two stūpas. Out of the two stūpas, first one is existing only in the form of a large circular base. More than hundred sculptures were salvaged and preserved from this site in the Government Museum at Gulbarga. The second stūpa is almost intact and undergoing excavation. It has nearly fifty two inscriptions with characters from 2nd century A.D to 3rd century A.D. and are mostly commemorative or donative in nature. [Nagaraja Rao, 1985: 41-46] Ranamandala near Sannati is Sātavāhana site as indicated from the epigraphs found there mentioning the names of the Sātavāhana rulers. Several Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic tools were collected from the vicinity. Sannati stands as a part of significant geographical region rich with Buddhist sites like Ter in Mahatrashtra and Nagarjuna Konda in Andhra Pradesh. It can also be considered as the oldest Buddhist sites in Karnataka region. The main remains at this site are distributed in an area of ten square kilometers approximately and include remains of two stūpas, three mounds, remain of fortification wall, four rock edicts and more than seventy five contemporary inscriptions. These inscriptions indicate that the slabs on which they appear, sometimes decorated with reliefs adorned these stūpas. And also show that the members of all strata of the society, from the royalty to professional dancers ( ), contributed to the meritorious act of the stūpa construction.
Buddha padas , sculptures of yaksha and four images of Buddha etc. The sculptural panels depict scenes from Jataka stories and life of Lord Buddha and portrait of many donors- in singular or as couples. More than 50 inscriptions were discovered from the excavations. The excavations conducted at the site during the field seasons 2000-01 and 2001-02 laid bare ruined remnants of a number of brick built structures like paved and sheltered passages connecting them. It also exposed part of a possible monastic complex to the north west of the main stūpa. Antiquities such as lead coins bear names of Sātavāhana king like Satakarni, Pulumavi and Yajnasri. The remains of the site can be dated from 1st cent B.C. to 3rd Cent. A.D. The most important discovery was the sculpture representing Asoka – the famous Mauryan emperor who spread the tenets of Buddhism after experiencing an epiphany on the battlefield at Kalinga, from the site of Kanganahalli. This becomes an interesting indicator to a broader dynamic of power of political ambition and religion in the southern part of India. This identification of the ruler is made on the basis of a small label inscription on the lower part of the same sculpture panel - rāya asoka in Brahmi script. The artistic representation of this panel needs to be explained in the context of its social, political, cultural as well as religious connotations. It may even be redefined in modern art historical terms with a range of alternative hypotheses. Rāya Asoka
In 1989, Archaeological Survey of India discovered fragments of No. XII and XIV Major Rock Edicts and separate edicts no. I and II of Asoka near a language and the script of these fragments are closer to the Yerragudi version of Major Rock Edict found earlier from the same region. [Velhuthat, 1999: 1081-89] The geographical extent of the Mauryan claims to supremacy is truly impressive. However, if these rather overstated territorial claims, particularly under its most famous ruler, Asoka, were indeed justified in terms of actual control, this would mean that the earliest South Asian Empire was also the largest and most tightly integrated. [Schwartzberg, 1992: 165] Kanganahalli Kanganahalli is a small village near Sannati. In the past, this site was subjected to excavation in 1994-95, 1996-97, 1997-98 and 2001-02. The excavations revealed remains of a massive stūpa, many brick built structures in the form of chaitya griha and votive stūpas along with several members of the stūpa –like fragments of sculptured veneering slabs, members of railings, pillars, capitals,
In the said panel, there are five human figures – two are shown in the central foreground. The male figure is dominantly depicted standing alongside a female figure and appear to be looking at each other. This central figure is identified with the king Asoka posing with his queen. The royal couple is surrounded with a small entourage consisting of two female chowri bearers – one is standing on the side of the queen and the other one is in the background of the panel. The female figure on the side of the king is holding a long extended chhatra or umbrella over the king and the queen. The king’s form represents a dynamic realism, majestic aloofness and dignity but still the plastic treatment cannot escape observer’s eye. The
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headdresses of the royal couple and their maids are similar to the human figures depicted in panels from other sites. This representation of the female members of the royalty yet again illustrate that the feminine portraits are not, at least to tally, representative of the social realities of the time, particularly since the texts tend to be the predominant world view of the upper strata of the contemporary society – that appears to be a major inspiration for most of the sculptors from this period.
of red earth, generally contained a small coin like "clay tablet", with the impression of Buddha on it. A small inscription, most probably a prayer has been written in 4 th or 5th century Brāhmī Sanskrit characters on the one side of these coins. Sadly over the years there had been a steady pilferage of valuable coins and artifacts from the excavated area, which had also been dug up at random by local villagers looking for mud to be used in agricultural as well house construction.
The question posed by this panel is that whether the king ever personally visited this part of India. If he visited the region, whether it was a political- diplomatic expedition or a religious pilgrimage to the local monasteries? Such questions can be answered only if we can find some inscriptional evidence to his claim. But still the presence of a personal portrait of the Mauryan king if seen together with the fact that the personal name of the same king also appears in the Maski edict from nearby district indicates to the political importance of this region in the political affairs of those times. The label inscription not only helps in correctly identifying the above-discussed image but also facilitate determination of the degree of the correspondence between the plastic representations of the royalty and the available textual or literary descriptions of their personality.
Discussion
Rajaghatta, Bangalore
Indian Archaeological Review [IAR], 1955-56, pp. 10-11; IAR, 1957-58, p. 8. IAR, 1971-72, pp. 37-39; also see IAR 1978- 1979, pp. 2425. Chakrabarti DK. 1995. Buddhist sites across South Asia as influenced by political and economic forces, in World Archaeology. 27[2]: 185-202. Dehejia Vidya. 1972. Early Buddhist Rock Temples: A Chronological Study. London: Thames/ Hudson: 185. Devaraj, D.V. & Talwar, H.T. 1996. Interim Report on the Excavation at Sannati, 1993-95, Mysore: Prasaranga: 1-5. Dutt, A.K. 1944. The Asian City: Processes of development, Characteristics and Planning. London: Kluwer Academic Publications: 35-36. Guha-Thakurta, Tapati [1997] ‘Marking Independence: The Ritual of a National Art Exhibition’, in Journal of Arts and Ideas. Vol. 30-31: 89-114. Hegde, R. 2000. ‘Sealings in Buddhist Votive Stūpas from Rajaghatta’ in Studies in Indian Epigraphy. Vol. 26: 71-74. Kosambi, D.D. 1959. ‘Indian Feudal Trade Characters’ in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. No. 2: 281-93. Mosteller, J.F. 1989. ‘The Future of Indian Art History’ in Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol.109 [4]: 597-602 Mukerjee, R.K. 1984. The Culture and Art of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publications: 111.
It is a small village in Dodballapur Taluk of Bangalore Rural District. Previous reports such as the one given by B.L. Rice [2001: 70] mention the ruins at this place which were used in building forts in neighboring areas in later medieval period. Excavations at this site were carried out by the Post Graduate Department of Ancient History and Archeology of University of Mysore in 200001 and 2003-04. Rajaram Hegde [2000: 72-75] gives the details of the terracotta seals inside the votive stūpas discovered from the western part of the present village that can be traced as the remains of early historic settlements which is almost destroyed due to digging activities by the local population. These excavations revealed the remains of a Buddhist chaitya with several other artifacts such as several small terracotta votive stūpas, seals – inscribed as well as blank. A Buddhist Chaitya, having apsidal end in the interiors and square bricks on the exterior, was found in the first round of excavations there. A Buddhist Vihara was excavated in the second round. Rangaraju [2009] said that “if an archaeologist spoke of widespread existence of Buddhist art in the state besides the then popular Asokan rock edicts 30 years ago, he was bound to be laughed at. But excavations at Sannati in Gulbarga district, Chandravalli in Chitradurga district and Banavasi in Uttara Kannada have resulted in important discoveries." The prayer hall, built from mud bricks, has a ground plan having an apsidal contour inside and a rectangular one on the outer side, which is said to be unnoticed in South India. The excavations revealed hundreds of small earthen votive stūpas. The stūpas, made
The above discussed sites provide an excellent opportunity for the historians to seek the historical as well as archaeological precedents of Buddhism along with the political influence of the Mauryans, especially Asoka’s early nation-building rhetoric in the region under study. The inscriptions and the sculptures offer a new window to observe the struggle and negotiation for power that surrounded the Mauryan political history after the events of Kalinga. The artistic examples available from these places represent the influence of Buddhism and related conventions of art - both at the individual sites and across a wider region. References
Priya Thakur: New Archeological Readings in Southern India Nagaraja Rao, M.S. 1985. ‘Brāhmī Inscriptions and their Bearing on the Great Stūpa at Sannati’ in Indian Epigraphy: Its Bearing on History of Art. Asher, F.M. and Gai, G.S. (Eds.). New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies: 41-46. Nagaraju , S. 1981. Buddhist Architecture of Western India [c. 250 B.C.- c. A.D. 30]. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan: 15-29. Pandurang Bhatt, C. 1994. ‘Religious Tolerance as Reflected in the Inscription of Karnataka’ in Pandit N.R. Bhatt Felicitation Volume. Filliozat, P.S., Narang, S.P. et.al.(Eds.) Delhi; Motilal Banarasidaaa Publications Private Limited: 177-190. Poonacha, K.P. 2007. Excavations at Mahastupa, Kanaganahalli, Chitpur taluk, Gulbarga district (19972000). New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. Rangaraju, N.S. (2009). UGC-Sponsored Conference on ‘Buddhism in Coastal Karnataka’, organized by Mulki Sunder Ram Shetty College (MSRS). 25.09.2009. Rice, B.L. 2001. Mysore A Gazetteer Compiled for Government. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services [Reprint]: 67-70. Schwartzberg, Josheph. 1992. A Historical Atlas of South Asia. New York: Oxford University Press: 165. Sircar, D.C. 1963-64. ‘Fragmentary Pillar Inscription from Amravati’ in Epigraphia Indica. Vol. XXXV. 40 ff. Thapar, Romila (1984). Ancient Indian Social History. New Delhi: Orient Longman. Veluthat, Kesavan. 1999 ‘The Sannathi Inscriptions and the questions they raise’ in The Proceedings of Indian History Congress. 1081-89.
