Azania:Archaeological Research in Africa Kansyore

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Azania:Archaeological Research in Africa

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Kansyore fisher-foragers and transitions to food production in East Africa: the view from Wadh Lang'o, Nyanza Province, Western Kenya Mary E. Prendergast a a Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA Online publication date: 23 April 2010

To cite this Article Prendergast, Mary E.(2010) 'Kansyore fisher-foragers and transitions to food production in East Africa:

the view from Wadh Lang'o, Nyanza Province, Western Kenya', Azania:Archaeological Research in Africa, 45: 1, 83 — 111 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00672700903291765 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00672700903291765

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Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa Vol. 45, No. 1, April 2010, 83111

Kansyore fisher-foragers and transitions to food production in East Africa: the view from Wadh Lang’o, Nyanza Province, Western Kenya Mary E. Prendergast*

Downloaded By: [Prendergast, Mary] At: 18:19 23 April 2010

Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA The site of Wadh Lang’o in southern Nyanza Province (Kenya) has produced a very large faunal assemblage in association with Kansyore, Elmenteitan and Urewe ceramics. The stratigraphy of the site appears to be intact and six dates have been obtained from the sequence, making this the best opportunity to look at diachronic change in subsistence strategies in this region. The main results of the zooarchaeological analysis are presented here, with emphasis on the Kansyore component. Two important findings are discussed: first, the fish remains, when taken together with remains from other Kansyore sites and considering the behavioural traits of these fish, suggest that Kansyore riverside and lakeshore sites were occupied in distinct seasons and used together in a single settlement and subsistence system. Second, the mammalian remains suggest that while Kansyore foragers hunted a broad range of taxa, they also began to consume domesticates perhaps as early as the mid- to late-third millennium cal. BC. This suggests that occupants of late Kansyore sites were in contact with food producers, but whether the domestic animal remains are the result of exchange, or of adopting food production, remains ambiguous. Keywords: Kansyore; hunter-gatherers; fishing; pastoralism; East Africa; zooarchaeology Le site de Wadh Lang’o, au sud de la province de Nyanza (Kenya), a produit un grand ensemble faunistique en association avec poterie du style Kansyore, Elmenteitan et Urewe. La stratigraphie du site semble entie`re et six datations ont permis de dater la se´quence, en rendant ce site fondamental pour l?e´tude du changement diachronique des strate´gies de subsistance de la re´gion. Les principaux re´sultats de l?analyse zooarcheólogique sont pre´sente´s ici, avec un accent sur le composant Kansyore. Deux dećouvertes sont discuteés: la premie`re est l?e´tude du poisson. Les restes du poisson quand sont conside´re´s en conjonction avec d?autres sites de type Kansyore, sugge`re que les sites pre`s du lac et ceux forme´s pre´s des rivie`res ont e´te´ occupe´s dans des saisons diffe´rentes et ont e´te´ parties d’un syste`me saisonnier de subsistance et d’installation. La seconde dećouverte, d?apre`s l?e´tude des restes des macro-mammife`res, sugge`re que bien que les populations du Kansyore aient chasse´ une gamme tre`s grande de taxons sauvages, ils consommaient aussi des animaux domestique´s au milieu ou fin du troisie`me milleńaire av. J.-C. Ceci indique que les occupants des sites appartenant a` la phase finale du Kansyore e´taient en contact avec des producteurs. La manie`re auquel ces populations obtenaient ces animaux (ećhange, e´levage) reste encore ambigue¨.

*Email: [email protected] ISSN 0067-270X print/ISSN 1945-5534 online # 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/00672700903291765 http://www.informaworld.com


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Introduction Recent research around the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria in Nyanza Province, western Kenya, has highlighted the importance of Later Stone Age (LSA) sites sharing a ceramic tradition called Kansyore, discussed earlier by Dale and Ashley (2010). Kansyore sites are unique for several reasons: first, they usually have thick, ceramic-rich deposits, suggesting long-term and/or intensive occupations; this differs from more typical LSA settlements in eastern and southern Africa. Second, sites are in riverine or lacustrine settings and their faunal remains are usually dominated by fish, suggesting a specialised economy. Third, the ceramic tradition seems to span nearly six millennia (c. 6000 cal. BC cal. AD 500) and is found from northern Lake Victoria (Kenya/Uganda) to Lake Eyasi (Tanzania), with possible Kansyore or Kansyore-like ceramics found in southeast Sudan (Robertshaw 1982), and perhaps at Chabula Rockshelter, west of Dar es-Salaam (Thorp 1992) (see Figure 1). This date range and geographic expanse suggests a long-lasting, successful occupation. Finally, Kansyore occupations are frequently overlain by Pastoral Neolithic (PN) and then Iron Age (IA) occupations, suggesting that they preceded the local introduction of food production. More controversially, it has been suggested that Kansyore foragers either exchanged with herders or adopted herding themselves (Karega-Munene 2002). These distinctive traits suggest that Kansyore foragers living around Lake Victoria differed from most African foragers documented in the modern ethnographic record. Dale (Dale et al. 2004; Dale 2007) suggested that Kansyore foragers might have practised a moderate form of a delayed-return system, in which resources are invested to ensure a later return, through food preservation and storage, among other things. By contrast, most living African foragers have traditionally practised an immediate-return economy, taking and consuming whatever is available and disposing of excess. These distinct economic systems have broader implications for settlement patterns and social organisation, as discussed by Woodburn (1980, 1982). Dale’s hypothesis and the aforementioned suggestion that Kansyore foragers took on herding hinges on economic data from Kansyore sites. Yet despite the relevance of zooarchaeological data to these questions, very few are available for Kansyore sites. Of more than 25 sites with unequivocal Kansyore ceramics (reviewed by Dale 2007; see also Prendergast 2008), Gogo Falls in southern Nyanza is the only one with a complete, fully published zooarchaeological study (Stewart 1991; Karega-Munene 2002), and interpretations of these data have been plagued by stratigraphic mixing. Taxonomic lists are available for a few recently-excavated sites such as Siror, Usenge 3 and the 2004 excavations at Wadh Lang’o (Dale 2007; Lane et al. 2007), but these assemblages are small (124 specimens in Kansyore horizons at Wadh Lang’o and 975 at Usenge 3), and/or have not been published with quantitative data on taxonomic distribution, age profiles or taphonomy. In the present work, a large sample from the 2001 excavations at Wadh Lang’o is presented that addresses several major questions in Kansyore studies, including the extent to which these foragers fit into the moderately delayed-return model, and whether or not they were in contact with food producers and/or took on herding themselves. The results offer confirmation of the main interpretations previously offered for Gogo Falls, as well as some surprises that enhance our knowledge of Kansyore economies.

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Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa

Figure 1. Map showing Kansyore sites across East Africa (above), and detail of the Winam Gulf in Nyanza Province (below). Notes: Open circle open-air site; closed squareshell midden; closed diamond rockshelter; closed circle/star modern city/capital. For some sites (Abindu, Rangong), attribution of ceramics to the Kansyore tradition is in doubt (see Prendergast 2008).

Site description As described by Dale and Ashley (2010), Kansyore sites are largely clustered around Lake Victoria and fall into two categories: shell middens near current or fossil shorelines, which tend to be small, shallow, and dominated by fish and shellfish remains; and open sites on the banks of the lake’s tributaries, which are larger and have deep sequences, with a high density of ceramics, lithics, and faunal remains. The latter type of site is consistently situated next to a point in the river where it bends or drops, creating rapids. This pattern suggests that these locations were selected by Kansyore foragers (and later occupants) for a specific purpose.


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Wadh Lang’o (GrJd9), approximately 34 km from the Winam Gulf in southern Nyanza, is a classic example of a Kansyore riverside site, located where the SonduMiriu exits the Nyakach Hills, creating strong rapids. If one considers the entire surface scatter to represent the site, then it extends over some 60,000 m2. It was discovered during a 1998 impact assessment prior to dam construction (Odede 1999; Onjala et al. 1999; Oteyo 1999). Initial fieldwork was conducted by researchers at the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) (Oteyo and Onjala 2000; Odede 2002), with assistance from the British Institute in East Africa (BIEA). In 2000, eight 1 m2 test pits were dug; in 2001, two larger trenches were excavated, results from one of which (Trench 1) are presented here. In 2004, Ashley, Odede and the BIEA led further excavations (Ashley 2005; Harvey 2005; Lane et al. 2007). The lithics from the site have been analysed by Seitsonen (2004, 2010), and the ceramics are currently under study by Odede. Trench 1 was selected for zooarchaeological analysis since it is large (25 m2), deep (3 m), stratigraphically intact and spans the longest cultural sequence, with Kansyore, Elmenteitan and Urewe horizons and a particularly deep (1.5 m) Kansyore component. Excavation took place under rescue conditions, and some procedures were less than ideal. Materials were separated by 1 m2 sub-units, and usually by 10 cm vertical spits; rarely, the spits are interrupted by an observed change in level. All sediments were passed through 2.5 mm sieves, with a 5 litre bucket of sediment floated for each spit in each square metre. Based on the high numbers of very small fish elements in the assemblage, it appears that there was an excellent level of recovery. Although most indicators including dates, field notes, the ceramic sequence, and bone refits across horizontal levels suggest that there was little to no stratigraphic disturbance in Trench 1, important features may have been missed. The reported stratigraphy, documenting just seven levels over 3.2 m, is likely to be far too coarse. By contrast, Ashley (2005, Figure 7.17) recorded 15 contexts in less than 2 m of deposit in her Unit A, and in both units she observed hearths and ash lenses that were not reported in Trench 1 (though there are evident clusters of charcoal and burned bone in the stored materials). Ashley’s (2005) stratigraphy is also sloping, suggesting that the arbitrary spits used in 2001 may have cross-cut levels. Nonetheless, her cultural sequence is identical to that of Trench 1, and she states (Ashley 2005, 262) that Kansyore and PN stratigraphy in her units was ‘intact and undisturbed.’ Radiocarbon dates from Trench 1 also suggest that the stratigraphy was intact, since they fall in clear chronological order. Pending ceramic analysis, these dates can be linked to a cultural sequence, based on field notes and cursory observations of the ceramics. Levels 3 (B80 cm below datum (hereafter abbreviated as ‘bd’) and 4 (80120 cm bd) contain Urewe and perhaps other IA ceramics; charcoal samples from 8090 cm bd and 110113cm bd produced dates of 1280945 BP (OS-57739; cal. AD 656 869) and 1420930 BP (OS-57500; cal. AD 561681), respectively. Level 5 (120147/ 152 cm bd) contains Elmenteitan (PN) ceramics; around 150 cm bd, Kansyore and Elmenteitan ceramics co-occur, and Kansyore ceramics become dominant by 190 cm bd. Charcoal from 170180 cm bd dates to 1950935 BP (OS-59768; 37 cal. BC cal. AD 126), corresponding with the end of the Kansyore as reported at Gogo Falls (Robertshaw 1991; Karega-Munene 2002), and being slightly later than the latest levels at Siror (Dale 2007). Kansyore ceramics continue to the bottom of the trench at 320 cm bd, in decreasing quantities. Three charcoal samples from this part of the sequence date to 3740935 BP (250260 cm bd; OS-59681), 3770935 BP (290300 cm bd; OS-61970), and 3850930 BP (300310 cm bd; OS-59682), giving a range of


87


24582032 cal. BC for the earliest occupation. These dates place Wadh Lang’o within the late Kansyore phase as described by Dale (2007; Dale and Ashley 2010). Unfortunately, the rapid excavation of Trench 1 led to some errors in correspondence between levels and depth below datum, particularly for Levels 6 and 7 (see Prendergast 2008 for details). After reviewing all artefact bags, the concept of ‘‘level’’ was abandoned altogether, and instead faunal remains were grouped by depth, based on agreement (where possible) between depth and ‘levels,’ and on observation of the ceramics. These groups, which here are called ‘horizons’ to avoid confusion, are (in cm bd): 250320 (Kansyore), 190250 (Kansyore), 160190 (Elmenteitan-Kansyore), 140160 (Elmenteitan), 120140 (Urewe?-Elmenteitan), and 80120 (other IA?-Urewe). Note that this is distinct from the three-horizon system used by Seitsonen (2010) for his lithic analysis of the site. The present work focuses mainly on the Kansyore horizons, with the complete faunal data presented elsewhere (Prendergast 2008). Methods Due to the large size of Trench 1, a sampling strategy was used. For the Kansyore horizons (160320 cm bd), the entire trench (25 m2) was studied. For the Elmenteitan and Urewe horizons (80160 cm bd), 13 out of 25 squares were studied (A1A5, B2, C1C5, D4, and E5). In the studied contexts, all bone and tooth specimens 2 cm in length were examined, regardless of identifiability, and any ‘highly diagnostic’ specimens B2 cm in length were also examined: these include bones of fish and other small fauna, as well as teeth, complete bones and epiphyses of all fauna. Unidentified specimens were tallied by size range in order to provide a rough estimate of fragmentation. Taxonomic identification was carried out using the reference collections at the NMK. For bovids, identification to tribe or genus was usually only possible using teeth; postcrania were frequently identified only to size class, adapting Brain’s (1981) weight-based system for southern African bovids. To differentiate sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus), very few of the traits developed using West Asian and European collections (Boessneck 1969; Payne 1969, 1985; Prummel and Frisch 1986; Rowley-Conwy 1998; Halstead et al. 2002) were found to be helpful; additionally, some traits described in these papers are shared by similarly-sized wild bovids. Size 12 bovid remains were therefore lumped for some analyses, and, when differentiating domestic and wild taxa, only those specimens (usually teeth) that could be firmly identified to taxon were used. Taxonomic data were used to show diachronic change in richness (a simple count of the number of species) and evenness (the distribution of individuals among taxa). Two diversity or evenness indices were used based on the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI). One is the Shannon (1948) index, which measures a population’s evenness by examining the number of individuals in each taxon. The formula is: H

S X

pi ln pi

i1

where H Shannon index, S number of species (richness), and pi the proportion of individuals in a species relative to the total number of individuals, expressed as ni/N, where N total number of individuals and ni number of individuals in the ‘ith’

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species. The second is Simpson’s (1949) index of dominance, which measures the extent to which a single taxon dominates a population. The formula is: D

S 2 X ni


i1

N

where D Dominance index, S number of species (richness), N total number of individuals and ni number of individuals in the ‘ith’ species. Here, evenness is expressed as a reciprocal of Simpson’s D following common procedure (Grayson 1984). For caprine remains, whenever possible, age was estimated using three criteria: tooth eruption and wear, epiphyseal fusion, and bone texture and size. Broad age classes were used: infant (B1 yr), juvenile (13 yr), adult (3 yr), and old (70% lifespan). Teeth were aged following Payne (1973) for deciduous teeth and Grant (1982) for permanent teeth. Limb epiphyses were noted as fused, fusing or unfused, and these data were correlated with age ranges following Silver (1969). Limb shafts with juvenile texture (high porosity and ‘woody’ appearance) were recorded as such, and infantile limbs were distinguished by their high porosity, small size, and lack of epiphyses. Ages for other taxa were roughly estimated, when possible, using epiphyseal fusion and tooth wear. They were assigned to the same broad age groups used for caprines. However, less precision is likely in these cases, given the lack of good reference data. Additionally, skeletal part representation was assessed using a number of indicators based on the Minimum Number of Elements (MNE), and many taphonomic variables were recorded, including weathering, burning, cortical preservation, specimen size, limb shaft circumference, breakage types, and numerous bone surface modifications. These data can be found elsewhere (Prendergast 2008) as they are outside the scope of the present work. Results The Wadh Lang’o assemblage provided a large sample from which to make interpretations about Kansyore, Elmenteitan and Urewe economies: a total of 21,000 specimens were identified (Number of Identified Specimens, NISP) from at least 785 individuals (Minimum Number of Individuals, MNI). Of these, 3565 NISP (MNI 175) came from the entirely-Kansyore horizons (190320 cm bd) and these are the focus here, though some data from the entire sequence are also presented.

Fish taxonomic representation Fish remains dominate the assemblage: in the Kansyore horizons, they comprise 60% of NISP (2,145) and 77% of MNI (135). Remains of Cyprinidae (carps and barbels) predominate, being 40% of NISP and 45% of MNI in the two Kansyore horizons combined (see Table 1). Today, Barbus altianalis, Barbus neglectus and Labeo victorianus are the most abundant cyprinids in the Sondu Miriu River (Ochumba and Manyala 1992), and these are likely candidates for the taxa at Wadh Lang’o. However, whenever cyprinids were identifiable to genus, they were clearly Barbus, not Labeo. The second-most abundant group in the two Kansyore horizons is Cichlidae

250320cm Taxon Order Cypriniformes Cyprinidae (Cf. Barbus sp., barbel) Order Perciformes Cichilidae (tilapia) Order Siluriformes Bagrus sp. (catfish) Clarias sp. (catfish) Clariidae/bagridae Schilbe sp. (butter catfish) Synodontis schall (wahrindi) Small siluriformes Indeterminate Ray-Finned Fish Order Lepidosireniformes Protopterus aethiopicus (lungfish) Total

190250cm

160190cm

140160cm

120140cm

80120cm

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

380

29

480

32

2028

105

1713

117

1430

55

195

14

157

10

349

16

1197

46

595

36

870

37

712

28

3 227 20 1

1 11 1

22 151 13 70 6 18

3 5 15 3

38 232 23 17 3 5

2 6 1 5 2

2 5 7

9 185 15 1

1 5 1

1 5 6 3

23 190 11 19

3

9 136 11 19 5 5

7

1

64

121

365

203

454

148

141

17

14

3

8

1

14

3

17

3

38

3

996

69

1149

66

3878

178

2843

172

3021

109

1304

52

Notes: Total fish NISP13,191. Total fish MNI646.



Table 1a. Taxonomic distribution of fish remains at Wadh Lang’o.

89

Relative abundance of the main fish taxonomic groups at Wadh Lang’o, excluding indeterminate fish. Relative abundance using NISP

Taxon Cyprinidae Cichilidae Large silurid (Clarias/Bagridae) Small silurid (Schilbe, Synodontis, other) P. aethiopicus

250320 (n 932) (%)

190250 160190 140160 120140 (n 1028) (%) (n 3513) (%) (n 2640) (%) (n 2567) (%)

80120 (n1156) (%)

41 17 27 0

47 34 15 3

58 34 5 3

65 23 11 1

56 34 9 1

17 62 18 0

15

1

0

1

1

3

Relative abundance using MNI Taxon Cyprinidae Cichilidae Large silurid (Clarias/Bagridae) Small silurid (Schilbe, Synodontis, other) P. aethiopicus

250320 (n69) (%)

190250 (n 66) (%)

160190 (n 178) (%)

140160 (n 172) (%)

120140 (n 109) (%)

80120 (n52) (%)

42 14 17 1

48 24 9 14

59 26 5 10

68 21 5 4

50 34 7 6

27 54 11 2

25

5

1

2

3

6

M.E. Prendergast


90

Table 1b.


91


(tilapia), which comprise 24% of NISP and 19% of MNI. Likely candidates for tilapia in this area are Oreochromis esculentus or Oreochromis variabilis. Remains of Siluridae (catfish) such as Clarias, Bagrus, Synodontis and Schilbe are found in comparatively low numbers throughout the sequence, with Clarias (mudfish) being the most abundant, comprising 17% of NISP and 12% of MNI in the two Kansyore horizons. Remains of lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus, comprise 7% of NISP and 15% of MNI; they are particularly abundant in the lowermost horizon, where a minimum of 17 individuals were identified, but become scarce in overlying horizons.

Fish size estimates Knowing the approximate lengths of fish enables us roughly to estimate their ages, which in turn can be informative about seasonality. Size estimates also indicate the approximate amount of flesh available. Detailed body size data are provided by Prendergast (2008); here mean and median lengths are provided for the three main taxa that were measurable. These are Clarias (n 48) and Cichlidae (n146), the sizes of which were estimated following Van Neer and Lesur (2004); and Protopterus (n24), the size of which was estimated following Prendergast (2008). Not enough reference specimens with live-length data have been found to develop similar formulas for Cyprinidae, the most common group at Kansyore sites. It should be noted that recovery of very small fish bones was high and therefore no bias against juveniles can be supported. Clarias have a median total length (TL) of 7173 cm and average TL of 5973 cm, depending on the horizon and the element used. Based on a length-weight relationship established by Clay and Clay (1981), the average Clarias should have weighed between 1.2 and 2 kg. Rinne and Wanjala (1983) note that C. gariepinus matures at an estimated TL of approximately 50 cm, suggesting that most Clarias individuals at Wadh Lang’o should be mature adults. Cichlidae have a median TL of 3136 cm and average TL of 3037 cm, again depending on the horizon and the element used. Following Siddiqui’s (1977) lengthweight relationships, the average tilapia at Wadh Lang’o should have weighed approximately 0.30.5 kg. TL at maturity varies according to taxon and habitat but following several studies, O. esculentus and O. variabilis have been reported to mature on average at approximately. 2527 cm TL and 2228 cm TL, respectively (Graham 1929; Lowe-McConnell 1956; Greenwood 1966). This suggests that most cichlids captured at Wadh Lang’o were, like Clarias, mature adults. The median TL of lungfish is 120 cm and the mean is 121 cm with all horizons lumped. However, there is a notable difference between averages in the lower and upper parts of the site. The largest lungfish are found in the lowermost horizon, where between 280320 cm bd at least three individuals measure 160 cm. Most lungfish reach maturity at c. 8090 cm TL (Mlewa and Green 2004). In Lake Victoria, Goudswaard et al. (2002) report that 90% of the specimens in recent trawl catches were 90130 cm in length. The lungfish at Wadh Lang’o are therefore large, mature adults. Based on Mlewa and Green’s (2004) data, the average individual at Wadh Lang’o provided approximately 911 kg of meat, depending on sex and individual variation. Each individual was, therefore, an important food source, comparable in terms of nutritional value to many of the smaller mammals documented at the site.

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These results suggest that fish formed a very significant part of Kansyore (and later) diets. As a rough indicator of the flesh they provided, we can use estimated weights of the average-length clariids, lungfish and tilapia, and estimated length of cyprinids, and multiply these averages by the MNI for each taxon in the Kansyore horizons (see Table 2). Using this method there would have been at least 355 kg of fish flesh available in these horizons, plus additional flesh from 12 silurids the weight of which could not be estimated. Wadh Lang’o thus may be a mixed fisher-forager(herder?) site, but it has a serious focus on fishing.


Non-fish taxonomic representation Given the proximity of Wadh Lang’o to other Kansyore sites such as Gogo Falls and, farther afield, Siror, Usenge and Ugunja, it is not surprising that these assemblages contain similar taxa. Throughout the sequence at Wadh Lang’o there is a diversity of mammalian and reptilian taxa that are broadly indicative of a moist, mixed woodedsavanna environment (Table 3). Nile monitor, tortoise, suids, and reduncini (waterbuck, reedbuck) are typical of closed, lacustrine or riverine environments. At the same time, alcelaphini (topi/hartebeest and wildbeest) and bovini (buffalo) suggest that the site occupants had access to both open grassland and more closed bush/ woody grassland. This mosaic would match the site’s environs today, were they not heavily modified by human activities. Similar taxonomic lists and interpretations were offered by Marshall (1991) for the Elmenteitan levels at Gogo Falls and by GiffordGonzalez (in Robertshaw et al. 1983) for the shell middens in southern Nyanza. What is striking about the Wadh Lang’o assemblage, however, is that domestic caprines appear even in the lowest part of the sequence, which may date to as early as 24582032 cal. BC. At least five specimens from a minimum of two goats, and very likely more specimens that could only be identified as bovid size 12, were recovered from the bottom horizon, including the lowermost spit. Pending a full ceramic analysis, it appears that only Kansyore ceramics are found from 190320 cm bd, and Elmenteitan ceramics begin to replace them at about 170180 cm bd, with some cooccurrence immediately above and below. Mixing is certainly possible at the KansyoreElmenteitan interface, but seems unlikely to penetrate the 120 cm of exclusively Kansyore sediments. Given that there are a minimum of six definitive caprines and six likely caprines from 190320 cm bd, one may confidently argue that the Kansyore tradition at Wadh Lang’o is associated with domestic animals. Table 2.

Estimated fish flesh represented by remains in Kansyore horizons at Wadh Lang’o.

Taxon Cichilidae Protopterus aethiopicus Clarias sp. Cyprinidae (Cf. Barbus sp.) Total

MNI (190320 cm bd)

Average weight (kg)*

Estimated total (kg)

26 20 16 61 123

0.4 10 1.5 2 13.9

10.4 200 24 122 356.4

Notes: *Average weights for Cichlidae, Protopterus and Clarias, based on average lengths of individuals represented at Wadh Lang’o and length:weight ratios cited in text. A very approximate weight is given for Barbus in the absence of body-size data for this taxon, based on the observation that Barbus elements were almost always larger than the same element for Clarias.

Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa Table 3.

Taxonomic distribution of nonfish at Wadh Lang’o.

cm b.d.


80120

120140

140160

160190

93

Taxon

NISP

MNI

Bovid size 1 Cf. Ourebi ourebi or Gazella thomsoni Caprine (Ovis/Capra)a or BVD1-2 Cf. Ovis/Capra Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 3 Aff. Alcelaphini or Gazella granti Gazella granti (Grant’s gazelle) Alcelaphus/Damaliscus (hartebeest/topi) Bovid Size 34 Cf. Bos or Syncerus Bos taurus (cow) Syncerus caffer (African buffalo) Mammal size 5 (giraffe- or hippo-sized) Bovid or mammal size indet. Phacochoerus sp. (warthog) Homo sapiens (human) Small rodent (intrusive) Testudinae (tortoises)

2 595 58 90 2 3 45 5 3 1 27 7 1 1 1

1 12 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Total

841

23

BVD1 Aff. Madoqua sp. Caprine (Ovis/Capra)b or BVD1-2 Cf. Ovis/Capra Redunca redunca (reedbuck) Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 3 Aff. Alcelaphini or Gazella granti Alcelaphus/Damaliscus (hartebeest/topi) Bovid size 3-4 Cf. Bos taurus Bovid or mammal size indet. Suid (warthog or bushpig) Loxodonta africana (African elephant) Small rodent (intrusive) Testudinae (tortoises)

2 1463 8 68 67 9 40 36 2 1 1 2

1 14 1 2 2 1 1 1 1

Total

1699

24

Caprine (Ovis/Capra)c or BVD1-2 Cf. Ovis/Capra Redunca redunca (reedbuck) Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 3 Aff. Alcelaphini or Gazella granti Gazella granti (Grant’s gazelle) Alcelaphus/Damaliscus (hartebeest/topi) Bovid size 34 Cf. Bos or Syncerus Syncerus caffer (African buffalo) Bovid or mammal size indet. Giraffa sp. (giraffe) Suid (warthog or bushpig) Loxodonta africana (African elephant) Small snake Testudinae (tortoises) Reptile Cf. Varanus niloticus

2393 1 92 68 3 5 24 4 41 1 2 1 4 1 2

21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Total

2642

32

Caprine (Ovis/Capra)d or BVD1-2 Cf. Ovis/Capra Gazella thomsoni (Thomson’s gazelle) Redunca redunca (reedbuck) Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 3: Large Alcelaphini or Reduncini

1127 1 3 18 18

13 1 2 1

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M.E. Prendergast

Table 3 (Continued) cm b.d.

Taxon

Bovid size 34 Cf. Syncerus Syncerus caffer (African buffalo) Bovid or mammal size indet. Phacochoerus sp. (warthog) Testudinae (tortoises)


250320

MNI

8 6 22 1 2

2 1 1

1206

21

Caprine (Ovis/Capra)e or BVD1-2 Cf. Ovis/Capra Tragelaphus scriptus (bushbuck) Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 34: Cf. Bos, Kobus or Connochaetes Connochaetus taurinus (wildebeest) Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa (waterbuck) Bos taurus (cow) Bovid or mammal size indet. Phacochoerus sp. (warthog) Equus sp. (zebra) Varanus niloticus (Nile monitor)

326 1 53 58 1 1 3 75 4 1 2

8 1 1 1 2 1 1 1

Total

525

16

Bovid size 1 Cf. Sylvicapra or Raphicerus Gazella thomsoni (Thomson’s gazelle) Capra hircus (goat) Redunca redunca (reedbuck) Bovid size 12* Cf. Gazella, Redunca or Ovis/Capra Bovid or mammal size 23 (caprine-to-topi-sized; or suid) Bovid size 3 Cf. Alcelaphini or Gazella granti Gazella granti (Grant’s gazelle) Alcelaphus/Damaliscus (hartebeest/topi) Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa (waterbuck) Bovid size 34 Aff. Lg. Alcelaphini/Reduncini or Syncerus Syncerus caffer (African buffalo) Phacochoerus sp. (warthog) Cercopithecidae (Aff. C. [aethiops] pygerythrus) Small carnivore Viverridae Cf. Civettictis civetta Small canid Aff. Otocyon megalotis Medium-sized carnivore Cf. Hyenidae Thryonomys sp. (cane rat) Mammal size 1 Aff. Hyracoidea or Lg. Rodent Mammal size 1 Bovid or mammal size indet. Small reptile (monitor- or tortoise-sized) Medium-sized reptile (smaller than crocodile) Python sebae (rock python) Varanus niloticus (Nile monitor) Testudinae (tortoises)

6 6 5 4 384 116 163 2 4 6 76 8 13 2 5 1 1 2 2 1 7 54 1 1 10 4 11

1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

895 7809

24 139

Total 190250

NISP

Total Trench total

Notes: a. Of these, three individuals have been identified to C. hircus and two to O. aries. b. Of these, two individuals have been identified to C. hircus and two to O. aries. c. Of these, six individuals have been identified to C. hircus and five to O. aries. d. Of these, three individuals have been identified to C. hircus and three to O. aries. e. Of these, three individuals have been identified to C. hircus and one to O. aries.


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These were part of a broader diet that continued to include many wild terrestrial and aquatic resources through Elmenteitan and Urewe times, as has also been noted at Gogo Falls (Marshall and Stewart 1995; Karega-Munene 2002). However, there is a clear diachronic trend towards reliance on domesticates, with caprines (or size 12 bovids that are likely caprines) becoming increasingly dominant as one moves into the Elmenteitan phase (Figure 2). Using the indices discussed above, we see a reduction in species diversity beginning at 190250 cm bd, with a single taxonomic group being dominant between 190 and 120 cm bd (Figure 3). Even when potential background fauna are excluded, a similar but more muted trend is apparent.


Ages of domestic caprines There are major sample size differences for aged caprine remains, depending on the method used (Prendergast 2008, Table 7.3). Using tooth eruption and wear, 60 teeth could be identified to caprines, giving an MNI of 26 individuals. For epiphyseal fusion, a total of 394 limb epiphyses could be used, a larger sample but one that

Figure 2. Relative abundance of domestic vs. wild taxa at Wadh Lang’o, using MNI (a) and NISP (b). Note: NISP values exclude all fauna that could not be securely identified to taxon (Bovid/ Mammal Size Classes); they are therefore low and restricted to diagnostic specimens.


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Figure 3. Evenness in the complete nonfish assemblage (a) and in the mammalian assemblage excluding potential background fauna (b), using ecological diversity indices developed by Shannon (1948) and Simpson (1949) (see text for details). Here, the Simpson index1-D, where D dominance as defined by Simpson.

tends to underestimate the presence of infants, since their epiphyses can be easily crushed or chewed. However, unfused infantile limb diaphyses were commonly found intact at Wadh Lang’o, and were easily distinguished from those of juveniles by their size and porosity. For this reason all limb diaphyses (n1308) were also assigned to age groups, with the understanding that beyond a certain stage of growth, there are no age-distinguishing traits in diaphyses, so most were simply classified as ‘juvenile/ adult or older.’ Together, epiphyseal and diaphyseal criteria were used to estimate the MNI in each age group, giving a minimum of 69 individuals, a much larger sample than that obtained from teeth. Not surprisingly, the different samples produced differing age profiles, though there is a high number of young caprines using any method. Comparing Figure 4a and Figure 4b, we see that teeth provide a higher MNI estimate for older individuals. Since postcrania are not informative about age beyond the time of fusion, teeth are more accurate guides to the abundance of adult and older individuals. However, the tooth data in addition to being limited by small samples likely underestimate the number of very young individuals, since their teeth are easily crushed. Using limb shafts enables far more young animals to be identified than would be seen using teeth, or even epiphyses alone: using postcranial data, infants and juveniles are 5077% of MNI. Since tooth data underestimate numbers of young individuals and postcranial data underestimate numbers of older individuals, the truth likely lies in between. However, using either method there are many young caprines throughout the sequence, and particularly in upper Kansyore and Elmenteitan horizons. The overall age profile of the site, when all horizons are combined to improve sample size (Figure 5), is remarkably similar to that documented by Mutundu (2005) for Maasai-owned caprine herds in recent times. Discussion The above results are informative about several aspects of Kansyore economies: seasonality, settlement patterns, fishing technology, and the timing and degree of use



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Figure 4. Distribution of caprines (or Cf. caprine) by major age group at Wadh Lang’o.a Note: a. This is based on (a) tooth eruption and wear; (b) epiphyseal fusion and diaphysis size/ texture.

of domestic animals. This marks the first major zooarchaeological study of an intact Kansyore site. The only other study that included quantitative taxonomic, taphonomic and ageing data on both fish and terrestrial fauna was at Gogo Falls, where the stratigraphy was disturbed and mammalian data from all horizons were sometimes lumped, blurring the results of otherwise detailed analyses. The present study largely bolsters Karega-Munene’s (2002) interpretation of the mammalian remains at Gogo Falls, as well as Stewart’s (1991) interpretation of the fish remains. Together with recently published data from Usenge 3 (Lane et al. 2007) and Siror (Dale 2007), these studies paint a picture of the economies of Kansyore fisherforager-(herders?), who appear to have taken advantage of the diverse resources of Lake Victoria and its tributaries with varying subsistence and settlement strategies over the course of the year.

Seasonality, settlement patterns and fishing strategies Fish in the Lake Victoria basin tend to follow set patterns of reproduction and mobility that are synchronised with wet and dry seasons (that is, high and low waters). Relative species abundance and estimates of fish ages at Wadh Lang’o can


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Figure 5. (a) Age distribution of caprines (by % MNI) at Wadh Lang’o, and mortality data for modern Maasai-owned caprine herds (Mutundu 2005); (b) same data separated into death by slaughter vs. natural causes; along with averaged MNIs by age group for three PN sites (Prolonged Drift, Ngamuriak and Gogo Falls), as presented by Mutundu (2005).

therefore be considered together with behavioural data for those taxa to attempt to understand how fish resources were used and when the site was occupied. A detailed review of the spawning, habitat and migratory behaviour of all fish taxa represented at all Kansyore sites was undertaken to address this issue (Prendergast 2008). Here only the details relevant to Wadh Lang’o are presented. The same approach was recently applied to the Pundo shell midden in northern Nyanza (Prendergast and Lane 2010). Barbus is by far the dominant taxon at riverside Kansyore sites (Table 4). It is the most abundant taxon at Wadh Lang’o according to both the present study and Harvey’s study of the small 2004 assemblage (Harvey 2005; Lane et al. 2007). The Gogo Falls assemblage is clearly dominated by Barbus (Stewart 1989). No quantitative data are available elsewhere, but Dale (2007, citing Cain 2001) and Mosley and Davison (1992) state that Barbus is the most abundant taxon at Siror and Ugunja, respectively, and Chapman (1967) notes that Barbus is found at Kantsyore Island.

Relative abundance of the four main fish taxonomic groups at Kansyore sites. NISP

Site and source Luanda Kanjera West Kanam East White Rock Point Pundo Gogo Falls (Kansyore levels) Wadh Lang’o/2001 (Kansyore levels) Wadh Lang’o/2004 (Kansyore levels)

Site type Midden Midden Midden Midden Midden Open/riverside Open/riverside Open/riverside

Total NISP

Protopterus (%)

Clariidae (%)

(Cf.) Cichlidae (%)

Cyprinidae (%)

2087 410 68 673 8033 NA 1885 44

55 25 54 63 19 0 8 0

26 62 27 23 8 2 19 18

19 13 19 14 73 1 27 9

0 0 0 0 0 97 46 73

MNI Site and Source* Luanda Kanjera West Kanam East White Rock Point Pundo Wadh Lang’o/2001 (Kansyore levels) Wadh Lang’o/2004 (Kansyore levels)

Site Type Midden Midden Midden Midden Midden Open/riverside Open/riverside

Total MNI

Protopterus (%)

Clariidae (%)

(Cf.) Cichlidae (%)

Cyprinidae (%)

282 57 15 97 239 123 7

64 42 67 70 25 16 0

11 44 13 16 10 13 14

25 14 20 14 64 21 43

0 0 0 0 1 50 43

Notes: Less-represented taxa, such as Bagridae, Synodontis and Schilbe, are excluded. *No MNI values given for Gogo Falls. References: Luanda, Kanjera West, Kanam East and White Rock Point: Robertshaw et al. 1983. Gogo Falls: Robertshaw 1991; Wadh Lang’o/2001: Prendergast 2008; Wadh Lang’o/2004: Lane et al. 2007.



Table 4.

99


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Stewart (1991; Marshall and Stewart 1995) initially suggested a connection between the spawning behaviour of Barbus and Gogo Falls’ location alongside river rapids. Barbus migrates far upriver to spawn, sometimes reaching up to 80 km from the lake (Whitehead 1959; Witte and de Winter 1995). It prefers to spawn in the swift, rocky, upper parts of rivers, and will choose quiet pools created by rapids or waterfalls in these areas. Spawning begins at the onset of the rainy seasons (March May and OctoberDecember), with a peak in MarchMay. Barbus is commonly found in the Sondu-Miriu River along which Wadh Lang’o is located. In fact, in recent years B. altianalis and B. neglectus have been particularly abundant in the exact spot where the site is situated, approximately 12.5 km upstream from the lake, according to Ochumba and Manyala (1992). They note that Barbus has been historically the dominant taxon in this part of the Sondu-Miriu and has only declined recently due to overfishing and habitat degradation. They recorded water flow at the Wadh Lang’o station at 0.4 m/second, the fastest point along the lower 15 km of the river. The site’s location is thus ideal for seasonal runs of Barbus. All other Kansyore open sites are also located alongside rapids in tributaries of Lake Victoria: Kantsyore Island on the Kagera, Gogo Falls on the Kuja, and Siror, Ugunja and Haa on the Nzoia. Three Kansyore surface scatters have also been identified near rapids on the Yala (Lane et al. 2006). This pattern strongly suggests that Kansyore fishers deliberately settled near rapids with this spawning season in mind, and that site occupations most likely took place at the onset of the rains. It also implies that Kansyore fishers must have been skilled in capture techniques specifically designed to take advantage of the spawning run. One likely scenario would be to build weirs across the river (at Wadh Lang’o, some 17 m across and 2 m deep). Weirs are very commonly used at points in rivers, such as rapids, over which large numbers of fish will pass; they can be made of branches, vines, reeds and fibrous plants (such as sisal and papyrus), strengthened by mud, and weighted by stones. They are designed to prevent fish from moving in one direction, and usually contain holes with baskets or nets. Fishers may also stand on platforms above the weir, or on the riverbanks, and trap fish in nets. Weirs have traditionally been used in tributaries of Winam Gulf (Dobbs 1927). Stone footings of former weirs can be seen today in the Sondu-Miriu at Wadh Lang’o (P. Lane, pers. comm.). Moving on to other taxa at Wadh Lang’o, the high number of lungfish in the lowermost Kansyore horizon is somewhat surprising, since they favour inshore lake or swamp habitats and avoid rapidly moving water (Greenwood 1966). None were documented in Ochumba and Manyala’s (1992) modern study of the SonduMiriu. It seems unlikely that large numbers of lungfish would have been present near Wadh Lang’o in the past, especially given their paucity above 250 cm bd. However, it is possible that during the Kansyore occupation of the site there was an inland swamp near the site, or that at some point the river slowed and widened to create a swampy bay. It is also possible, however, that lungfish were transported whole or in parts from the lakeshore, some 34 km away; Gogo Falls and Siror are much farther from the lake, which may explain their lack of lungfish remains. Lungfish would be well worth transporting, since they are the largest fish in East Africa, (reaching 1.6 m at Wadh Lang’o) and have no postcranial skeleton, making them almost entirely edible; today, lungfish flesh is highly valued by some communities, including the Luo (Graham 1929). Fish remains were not systematically examined for modifications at Wadh Lang’o, but cut marks on lungfish remains have been noted at Pundo



101

(Prendergast and Lane 2010), suggesting that separation of the head and body was common. Lungfish are most easily caught while breeding during the wet season or aestivating during the dry season. In the wet season, the adult male will build a nest and guard the eggs, usually in an area of matted papyrus at the lake’s edge (Goudswaard et al. 2002). In the dry season, both sexes will aestivate, burrowing into the mud for up to eight months, when fishers can easily detect the burrow and spear the fish (Brelsford 1946; Stewart 1989). This would suggest that Kansyore fishers used spears or harpoons when targeting lungfish at the lakeshore, and may have done so in either season. Although no direct evidence of such tools has been found at Wadh Lang’o, Seitsonen (2004, 74) suggests that hafting microliths was possible. Bone points have been found at a number of Kansyore sites, including Gogo Falls (Robertshaw 1991), Siror (Dale 2007), some shell middens (Robertshaw et al. 1983) and Pundo (Lane et al. 2006). Other taxa at Wadh Lang’o might be most easily captured in the rainy season. Cichlids and Clarias are abundant in Kansyore horizons according to both the 2001 and 2004 studies, though they are only minimally represented in the Kansyore levels at Gogo Falls (Stewart 1991). At Siror and Ugunja, these taxa are mentioned as present (Mosley and Davison 1992; Dale 2007). Like lungfish, tilapia and especially Clarias can survive at shallow depths and in low-oxygen conditions (Jubb 1967; Stewart 1989). In lakes, they tend to favour inshore habitats and breed in papyrus stands at the lake margins, where they are vulnerable to predation (Stewart 1989). These taxa, as well as Schilbe, then spawn upriver during the rainy season (Whitehead 1959; Hopson and Hopson 1982; Witte and de Winter 1995). Citing data from the Nile Valley, Van Neer (2004) notes that both tilapia and Clarias prefer to spawn in shallow pools created in the margins of a flooding river, where they are vulnerable to capture as the dry season begins and waters recede; the same logic is likely to apply to Schilbe, though comparable behavioural data were not found. But fish caught in this situation should be smaller than those represented at Wadh Lang’o: Van Neer et al. (2000) report that along the Nile, most tilapia caught in residual pools are juveniles, c. B1012 cm in total length after their first growth season, and still B25 cm in their second year. As shown earlier, most tilapia and Clarias at Wadh Lang’o are adults. This suggests that technology must have existed to capture these taxa in the main river channel. Stewart (1989), citing an extensive review of ethnographic data, notes that tilapia can be caught in high waters using nets and weirs. It thus seems probable the same nets and weirs designed to catch Barbus would also catch tilapia, Clarias, and Schilbe as they moved upriver to spawn. In contrast with the riverside sites, not a single shell midden has any cyprinid remains, with the exception of a negligible number at Pundo. Rather, all but one (Kanjera West) of the southern Nyanza shell middens are dominated by lungfish, followed by moderate numbers of Perciformes (Cichlidae) and Clarias (Robertshaw et al. 1983). Pundo also has high numbers of lungfish, but unlike its counterparts across the gulf is dominated by tilapia (Prendergast and Lane 2010). In sum, all shell middens have high numbers of lungfish, Clarias and tilapia, and no Cyprinidae, the opposite of riverside sites. These differences between site types have implications for their seasons of occupation. Lungfish, as described above, are easily captured in the papyrus stands at the lakeshore while breeding in the wet season, but are especially vulnerable while


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aestivating during the dry season. Tilapia also nest in the same environment. Both Clarias and tilapia are vulnerable during the dry season when they return from tributaries to spend most of their time in shallow waters close to the lakeshore. Thus the three main taxa identified in the shell middens in addition to the shellfish represented there are particularly easy prey during the dry seasons. Conversely, the main taxa identified at Wadh Lang’o, Gogo Falls, Siror and Ugunja all spawn upriver at the onset of rains. A bimodal pattern of movement thus seems likely for Kansyore fishers, in which shell middens were occupied during the dry season, and riverside sites in the rainy season. This has been suggested elsewhere based on the data from Pundo (Prendergast and Lane 2010). Riverside sites are much larger and have higher artefact densities than shell middens: ceramic sherd densities at Siror and Gogo Falls range from 9652842 sherds/m3, whereas at Kanam, Kanjera West and White Rock Point, densities are just 33138 sherds/m3 (see Prendergast 2008, Table 8.1 for details and references). Lithic densities are also higher at the riverside sites in most cases (Seitsonen 2010). It therefore seems possible that these sites were occupied on a multi-seasonal or even year-round basis, whereas the shell middens were used as temporary (dry-season) fishing and shellfish collection camps, perhaps by only a fraction of the population. Since the riverside sites would be created at the same location (rapids) every time, whereas many spots along the lakeshore would suffice for fishing and shellfish collection, it seems logical that the lakeshore middens would be smaller and might represent single occupations.1 This would also explain why some riverside sites, such as Siror, Gogo Falls and Wadh Lang’o, have long chronologies spanning several millennia, whereas most lakeshore middens give dates clustering within a century or two, or have occupations widely separated in time (bearing in mind the limited number of good radiocarbon dates for Kansyore sites, discussed by Dale and Ashley 2010). A seasonal round is thus proposed for the Kansyore period in which riverside sites were occupied at least in the wet season if not longer, with trips to the lakeshore primarily in the dry season for fishing. This seems to be supported by Seitsonen’s (2010) analysis of lithic technology from several Kansyore sites, which shows that the diversity of tool types is higher suggesting a wider range of activities at riverside sites. Regular round-trip journeys between tributaries and the lakeshore could explain the lungfish in Kansyore horizons at Wadh Lang’o, as well as the presence of some lacustrine shells (personal observations). Lacustrine shells are scarce in the Kansyore horizon at Gogo Falls (Robertshaw 1991) and are not reported from Siror (Dale 2007). From Wadh Lang’o, one could walk to the lake in an hour, but from these other sites (2025 km away), the journey would be much longer. Such seasonal movements between rivers and lake have been documented ethnographically, such as by Boulenger (1901) in the Congo Basin. Stewart (1989) notes that during the rainy season, sailing out onto a lake is dangerous and commonly avoided in many fishing communities. Lake fish also tend to be thinner during the rainy season, that is the beginning of the breeding season. Moving camp upstream is thus a practical alternative. Dobbs (1927, 99) wrote that in the Winam Gulf, the high water months ‘are not good fishing months, and during these months the natives entirely give up fishing in the lake. . .and confine themselves. . .to catching fish in the river weirs.’ It seems that this patterns of movement have roots deep in the past.



103

The fish data appear to support the idea that Kansyore site occupants had a relatively complex, perhaps moderately delayed-return economic system as suggested by Dale (2007; Dale et al. 2004). First, the theorised patterns of movement between river and lakeshore are consistent with the idea of a system in which mobility is reduced and non-random, designed to take advantage of rich and predictable resources, in contrast with high-mobility immediate-return foraging groups. The density of debris at riverside Kansyore sites, with large numbers of ceramics, suggests that long-term occupation is probable, in contrast with short-term camps of immediate-return foragers, which typically have few material remains. There also appears to be a clear specialisation in one resource fish and in theory, specialised (but perishable) tools such as weirs, nets and spears or harpoons should have existed to take advantage of that resource. Finally, given that fish represent a rich but only seasonally available resource, one might speculate that some system of preservation and storage may have been possible, consistent with theoretical expectations for delayed-return societies. However, thus far no direct evidence of storage has been recovered. Kansyore ceramics tend to have open forms: bowls are common at both Siror and Wadh Lang’o (Ashley 2005; Dale 2007), which would be inappropriate for storage, though perhaps appropriate for salting fish or carrying salt for that purpose. Smoking and sun-drying are difficult to detect archaeologically, since fleshed bones would show no signs of burning or exposure. Fish are often smoked or dried whole, so skeletal part profiles and cut marks (or lack thereof) could be ambiguous as well. Although surface modifications were systematically sought on mammalian bone, they were not sought on fish bones at Wadh Lang’o unless the specimens were very large or modifications were very obvious. This might be a fruitful area for future research, so long as taphonomic data are combined with ethnoarchaeological or experimental data that clearly differentiate indicators of preparation for storage from those of immediate consumption (see discussion of the problem in Belcher 1998; Zohar et al. 2001).

Introduction of domesticates to the Kansyore diet It is commonly assumed that Kansyore sites represent Later Stone Age huntergatherers, living in an area that would later be occupied by (Elmenteitan) pastoralists. Previous arguments for intensive use of domesticates during the Kansyore at Gogo Falls (Karega-Munene 2002) were dismissed because the site lacked stratigraphic integrity (Robertshaw 1991). However, as noted by Dale and Ashley (2010; see also Lane et al. 2007), a growing body of evidence suggests that the occupants of some late Kansyore sites were in contact with herding communities. Domesticates have now been identified in both the 2001 and 2004 excavations at Wadh Lang’o, as well as at Usenge 3 (see Table 5). It is important to note that these are all multi-component sites, with overlying PN and/or IA deposits, meaning that the possibility of downward movement of domesticates can never be completely excluded. No single-component Kansyore site, such as Siror, has produced remains of domestic taxa. Excavation and recording methods at Wadh Lang’o in 2001 were less than ideal, but cursory examination of the ceramics, attempts to refit faunal remains, and consistency in dates suggest that there is minimal vertical dispersion in Trench 1. Ideally, one should directly date bones that can be securely attributed to

M.E. Prendergast


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Table 5.

Details of Kansyore sites with remains of domestic animals. Ovis/Capra Multicomponent?

Site 1

Known mixing?

Level

Dates (calibrated)

NISP (%)

MNI (%)

NISP (%)

MNI (%)

313 (16)

36 (20)

564 (28)

44 (24)

2 (3)

1 (3)

Yes

Yes

All mixed

2016 BCAD 136

Usenge 32

Yes

No

‘Kansyore’

16871393 BC

Wadh Lang’o/20013

Yes

No

190320cm bd 24582032 BC

27 (23)

10 (25)

Wadh Lang’o/20042

Yes

No

‘K’

41 (54)

3 (17)

Gogo Falls

Bos taurus

48 BCAD 126

0

0

3 (3)

2 (5)

0

0

Reference Karega-Mu˜ nene 2002 Lane et al. 2007; Mire n.d. Prendergast 2008; present work Harvey 2005; Lane et al. 2007

Notes: 1. For Gogo Falls, none of the quantitative faunal data are clearly separated by depth and cultural affililation. Therefore NISP and MNI values lump Kansyore, Elementeitan and Urewe levels. Only nonfish, nonhuman NISP and MNI identified to taxon were included (excluding bovid size classes), giving a total NISP of 2009, and a total MNI of 182. Bovid size classes were excluded from MNI counts since it was unclear if these were double-counting the individuals assigned to specific bovid taxa. 2. For Usenge 3 and the Wadh Lang’o 2004 assemblage, only nonfish, nonhuman, securely-identified NISP and MNI values are used (any bovid size classes or general ‘‘antelope’’ are excluded). For Wadh Lang’o/2004, NISP76, MNI18. For Usenge 3, NISP79, MNI33. 3. Wadh Lang’o 2001 assemblage includes only nonfish, nonhuman NISP and MNI securely identified to taxon (excluding specimens identified to mammal/bovid size classes). NISP for 190320cm bd118, and MNI 40.



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domesticates in Kansyore sites, but collagen preservation has historically been poor in this area. It thus appears that domesticates, specifically caprines, appear at the beginning of the late Kansyore phase as defined for Siror by Dale and Ashley (2010), perhaps as early as c. 2450 cal. BC, and become increasingly important to the late Kansyore way of life, at least at a few sites. In levels at Wadh Lang’o and Usenge 3 dating to c. 24501350 cal. BC, caprines form a relatively minor part of a subsistence system that is otherwise reliant on hunting and fishing. But by c. cal. AD 50150, at the end of the Kansyore period, caprines are a major component of the diet at Wadh Lang’o and perhaps at Gogo Falls (the latter being complicated by stratigraphic disturbance, difficulties correlating dated samples with remains of domesticates, and lumping of levels in the presentation of some faunal data). As Dale and Ashley point out, this marks a major change in Kansyore subsistence and may suggest contact with foodproducers, coinciding with some changes in ceramic decor. Other aspects of the Kansyore, such as lithic technology, remain largely unchanged (Seitsonen 2010), which argues against the possibility of a major population shift and suggests that changes come from interactions with neighbours. The faunal remains are, unfortunately, ambiguous in this respect and fail to answer the perennial question whenever domesticates and wild fauna co-occur: is this a case of hunter-gatherers adopting food production, or merely exchanging with pastoralists? Mutundu (1999, 2010) addresses this question and suggests a number of faunal indicators that might be used to address this issue, namely the diversity and types of wild taxa, the ratio of small to large stock and the age profiles of domesticates. First, Mutundu argues that the diversity of fauna consumed by huntergatherers who are experimenting with food production will be greater than that of pastoralists who are hunting to amplify their diet and reduce risk; the types of fauna will also be distinct. There should be high taxonomic diversity, including nonungulates, in an assemblage created by a group that primarily forages. As seen in Table 3 and Figure 3, the diversity of wild fauna is high in Kansyore horizons compared to overlying horizons, and the assemblage includes a number of taxa that in recent times have been taboo among pastoralists, such as carnivores, reptiles and primates. It may be that some of these are background fauna, but cut marks on nonungulates suggest that this is not always the case (Prendergast 2008). Age profiles also can theoretically distinguish between managed herds and occasional acquisition of livestock, but there are some problems with this approach. As noted earlier, most caprines at Wadh Lang’o are quite young. This is consistent with some theoretical expectations for managed herds, in which only those adults needed for breeding and/or milk production will be kept, and thus the bulk of slaughtered animals will be young and usually male (Payne 1973; Hesse 1982). However, in Mutundu’s (2005) study, intentional slaughter accounted for only 26% of caprine mortality, with the remaining dying mainly from drought or disease. Most intentionally slaughtered animals in this case were older juveniles or adults, whereas natural causes strongly affected infants and juveniles. Thus, the Wadh Lang’o assemblage gives a caprine age profile resembling modern Maasai herds, but does not clearly point to a specific strategy. The fact that infants and juveniles are dominant could signify that these were vulnerable to natural deaths, or that they were intentionally slaughtered, but, as Mutundu (2010) notes, this pattern could also result from the fact that these are the individuals most likely to be exchanged out by


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herders, since, for the same logic cited above, they have less value than prime-age animals. Mutundu (1999, 2010) also suggests that small stock frequently outnumber large stock at sites where foragers are just beginning to experiment with herding: sheep and goats are hardier and less expensive to acquire than cattle, and reproduce more quickly. Indeed, this appears to be the case at some key sites in Kenya: caprines are the first domesticates identified in the Rift Valley at Enkapune ya Muto (Marean 1992; Ambrose 1998) and they outnumber cattle (nine MNI vs. two MNI) at Dongodien, an early pastoralist site in Lake Turkana (Marshall et al. 1984). In both the 2001 and 2004 excavations at Wadh Lang’o, and at Usenge 3, almost all domesticates are caprines, and where these can be differentiated, they are mainly goats. Moving into Elmenteitan and Urewe horizons at Wadh Lang’o, caprines continually outnumber cattle, in contrast with some other sites. At Gogo Falls, Marshall (1991) reported that caprines (NISP 223, MNI 17) were more common than cattle (NISP 105, MNI 10) in the Elmenteitan levels, but Karega-Munene (2002) reports the opposite from his sample in which all levels are lumped, where cattle are dominant (NISP 564, MNI 44) over caprines (NISP 313, MNI 36). In either case, this is more balanced than the Wadh Lang’o assemblage. At many PN sites, cattle and caprines are found in roughly equal numbers, or cattle outnumber caprines, as at Prolonged Drift, Crescent Island, and Lemek (Gifford-Gonzalez 1998). The situation is reversed at Maasai Gorge rockshelter, Narosura, Ngamuriak, and Sambo Ngige, but again the degree of caprine dominance at Wadh Lang’o is unparalleled at these sites. Following Mutundu’s argument, it seems reasonable that the earliest domesticates in western Kenya should be small stock since they are relatively low-risk and therefore typical of foragers experimenting with stock ownership for the first time. Or it may simply be that, in an exchange relationship with local herders, it was all they could afford. Finally, as Marshall and Stewart (1995) have suggested with respect to Gogo Falls, it may be that small stock are better suited to the area’s closed vegetation and abundant tsetse fly. The continuing dominance of caprines over cattle in the Elmenteitan and Urewe levels at both Gogo Falls and Wadh Lang’o distinguishes them from contemporaneous sites in the Rift Valley and may reflect an adaptation of the pastoralist system to challenges specific to this area. In sum, while the presence of domestic taxa in Kansyore horizons as early as c. 2450 cal. BC is important, the meaning of this phenomenon is unclear. It would certainly appear based on continuities in lithic technology and raw materials and on relatively subtle changes in ceramic decor that this is a case of addition of domesticates to the diet by otherwise foraging and fishing peoples, rather than a new occupation of the site by food producers. A trickier question is whether the Kansyore site occupants were raising livestock themselves, or were obtaining them through exchange relationships. Exchange between fishers and herders is common in East Africa and might be an explanation for the appearance of domesticates in a fishdominated site: perhaps the occupants of Wadh Lang’o used their skills as fishers to barter with other groups in the rainy season when a surplus was available. If future research produces larger samples of well-dated domestic taxa from Kansyore contexts, this question might be better addressed using some of the indicators discussed here and by Mutundu (1999, 2010).



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Conclusion The zooarchaeological analysis of Wadh Lang’o in southern Nyanza has produced the largest and most complete body of faunal data for the Kansyore tradition in East Africa. Findings largely support earlier interpretations of Kansyore economies at Gogo Falls offered by Karega-Munene (2002) for the mammalian remains and by Stewart (1991) for the fish remains, but with the advantage that Wadh Lang’o appears to be stratigraphically intact, whereas Gogo Falls was not. Therefore, the discovery of remains of domestic taxa mainly caprines, but also one cow in Kansyore horizons at Wadh Lang’o is important, particularly given that wellprovenanced charcoal samples from these horizons date to as early as the mid-third millennium cal. BC. Remains of domestic caprines have also been recovered from the 2004 excavations at Wadh Lang’o and from the site of Usenge 3 in northern Nyanza, suggesting that consumption of livestock was a relatively important part of late Kansyore economies. This marks a change from earlier Kansyore economies, represented at sites such as Siror, Pundo, and the early levels at Gogo Falls, in which hunting a wide range of taxa was common. This diachronic change lends support to Dale’s (2007) argument for at least two distinct phases for the Kansyore at Siror, discussed earlier by Dale and Ashley (2010). Theoretically, this early/late Kansyore system could also be extended to other sites, though supporting data are needed in the form of detailed ceramic studies and reliable dates. The fish remains at Wadh Lang’o, when considered together with data from other Kansyore sites and the behavioural traits of the taxa represented, paint an interesting picture of Kansyore settlement and subsistence systems. The taxa represented at Wadh Lang’o, Gogo Falls, and other riverside sites tend to spawn upriver during the rainy season, and Barbus, the most abundant taxon, particularly favours swift, rocky parts of rivers where rapids form. The universal location of Kansyore riverside sites alongside rapids cannot be coincidence: the occupants were taking advantage of seasonally abundant populations of fish. Most other Kansyore sites are shell middens formed along the lakeshore (or former shorelines) of Lake Victoria and there the main taxa represented are most easily caught during the dry season, when waters are low and they congregate in shallow, deoxygenated waters at the lake’s edge. A seasonal round is thus proposed in which riverside sites are repeatedly occupied in the exact same spot during the wet season, if not longer, whereas middens were created at various points along the lakeshore as temporary dry-season camps with one main purpose: the collection and consumption of fish and shellfish. Semi-sedentism is proposed for the riverside sites based on seasonality, site size, artefact density and chronology; this would tend to support Dale’s argument that Kansyore site occupants practised a moderately delayed-return foraging strategy (Dale et al. 2004; Dale 2007), resulting in sites that differ from short-term camps created by immediate-return foragers today. These results suggest that the Kansyore tradition is unique and merits further study: first, because the intensive site occupations and predictable mobility patterns distinguish the Kansyore from many other foragers in sub-Saharan Africa’s past and present, and draw important parallels between the Kansyore and other ceramic-using fisher-foragers in North Africa (Haaland 1992, 1995; Caneva et al. 1993), which are briefly discussed by Dale and Ashley (2010) and in more detail by Dale (2007). Second, Kansyore foragers appear to have begun including domesticates in the diet

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whether through exchange or wholesale adoption of food production without major cultural or population change, which offers a contrast to other models for the adoption of food production in secondary settings. The study of the Kansyore, therefore, has much to offer to African prehistory, and to broader, global models for transitions to food production and forager-food producer relations.


Acknowledgements Excavations at Wadh Lang’o in 2001 were conducted by the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) with assistance from the British Institute in East Africa (BIEA). I would like to thank F. Odede, P. Lane, and C. Ashley for providing me with information about both the 2001 and 2004 excavations, particularly field notes and drawings from 2001. I am indebted to P. Kiura, M. Muia, P. Watene, S. Katisya, M. Njonge, D. Nyingi, M. Ogeto and all the staff of the Archaeology, Ichthyology and Osteology Departments at the NMK for their support. I thank K. Hartel of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology for access to lungfish specimens, and W. Van Neer for invaluable instruction and advice regarding identification and analysis of fish remains. Finally, I thank two anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments and suggestions. Permission to conduct research was granted by the Office of the President of the Republic of Kenya, and by Dr. I. Farah, Director General of the NMK. This formed one part of my dissertation research, which was supported by a NSF Doctoral Dissertation Grant (NSF0620262), a Wenner-Gren Dissertation Fieldwork Grant (Grant #7489), and two Harvard grants: a Graduate Society Summer Research Grant, and the Sheldon Travelling Fellowship. I thank F. Marshall, R. Meadow, P. Lane and P. Robertshaw for guidance during my research.

Note 1. An exception to this may be the Kanjera midden, which is extremely large compared to others in the region (P. Robertshaw, pers. comm.). It is thus possible that it may have resulted from either a more sedentary occupation or from a series of shorter occupations over a long time period, an issue that could only be resolved through further excavations.

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