These include lack of time due to job and home responsibilities, transportation problems, lack of ... centers, call center, and various administrative services.
Barriers to Self-directed Learning* In A Virtual Environment Among Adult Students by Daing Zaidah Ibrahim** Abu Daud Silong, Ph.D.*** Abstract Students of higher institutions today and that of the future will mostly come from the adult working population. These are the people who want to pursue higher education for self-development, enrichment, upgrading of skills and numerous other reasons. But these adult students will have to opt for a more flexible learning because of their work and family commitments. Thus it is very difficult for them to continue their studies in the traditional universities. This opportunity to continue their studies is made easier by the establishment of the first virtual university in Malaysia, Universiti Tun Abdul Razak or in short UNITAR. It provides a virtual environment where adult can learn at their own time, pace and place. This kind of learning describes a process in which adults take the initiatives, with or without the help of others, in pursuing their own studies. However the experience of UNITAR indicates that there is some barriers for adults to be involved in self-directed learning. The obstacles adults faced in participating in the learning activities can be classified as situational, dispositional and institutional barriers. Situational barriers are those related to one's situation in life at a given time, dispositional barriers refer to one's attitude about learning and perception of a learner while institutional barriers are those erected by learning institutions. This research intends to examine the barriers related to participation in self-directed learning activities among adult students enrolled in virtual courses in UNITAR. This study is conducted using the qualitative approach where indepth interviews will be carried out with adult students who are enrolled in various undergraduate programs at UNITAR. The results of the study will reveal the major barriers faced by adults to participation in self-directed virtual learning. *Paper presented at the 14th Annual Conference of the Asian Association of Open Universities, 25-27 October 2000, Manila. ** Senior lecturer, Center for Graduate Studies, Universiti Tun Abdul Razak *** Head/Professor, Center for Graduate Studies, Universiti Tun Abdul Razak
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INTRODUCTION Some of the basic assumptions under-pinning adult education are that adults tend toward self-directedness, that adult learning needs are generated by real-life problems, and that adults wish to apply acquired knowledge and skills (Knowles, 1980).
Johnstone and Rivera (1965) carried out a survey of adult learning
activities and resulted in findings to support these assumptions. Distance and virtual education then is the most potential method for increasing participation, through the integration of learning into the lifespace of adults.
It has always been the concern of adult education to democratize education and encourage greater participation.
Distance and virtual education methods are
supposed to have the ability to overcome the barriers that prevent participation in adult education programs and thus to be self-directed. Cross (1977) stated the barriers or obstacles that deter adults from participating in organized learning activities. They are classified under three headings - situational, dispositional and institutional. Situational barriers are those related to one's situation in life at a given time. These include lack of time due to job and home responsibilities, transportation problems, lack of childcare and so on.
Dispositional barriers refer to one's
attitude about learning and perception as a learner.
This includes lack of
confidence, the feeling of too old to learn and bored with learning. Institutional barriers are those erected by learning institutions that include inconvenient schedule, compulsory attendance, restrictive locations and the like which discourage working adults from participating in educational activities.
Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) also cite institutional and situational barriers but divide the dispositional barriers into psychological obstacles (beliefs, values and perception about education or about oneself as a learner) and informational, which reflects the lack of awareness as to what educational opportunities are available.
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The purpose of this study is to explain the institutional, dispositional and situational barriers related to participation in self-directed learning activities as required by a virtual learning environment in Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR). The study explored five adult students' experience in taking virtual courses under the bachelor of Business Administration and Bachelor of Information Technology programs offered by the University.
Who Are the Adult Learners? Generally when we talk about the adult working population who are seeking higher education we will think of various different groups. Firstly there are the graduates who have already obtained their first degree and who are coming back to school. These are people who want to upgrade their qualifications, they seek knowledge and new skills and they have numerous other reasons for coming back. And most important of all they want to study part-time. They are not leaving their jobs and other commitment but they want to pursue a higher degree. According to Lifelong Learning Trends (1998), a publication of the University Continuing Education Association, out of more than two million post-baccalaureate (postgraduate) degree enrollments during 1995, an estimated 80 percent were at the master's degree level. It is estimated that two-thirds of those enrollments were part-time. Increasingly it said greater number of adults are going back to school to earn master's degree that will benefit them professionally. The value of postbaccalaureate level study is increasing every year as a greater number of new jobs require higher level knowledge and skills.
Secondly there are those who are qualified to pursue higher education or to enter university but did not manage to get a place. They went to work because to study in private colleges would be costly. After working for a while they decided to get a degree but they also need to hold on to their jobs. In fact this is the only way they can keep themselves in school.
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Thirdly there are those we call the "second chance" group. These are those who were not qualified for university entrance. After high school they went to work. They later develop the desire of getting a degree and improving themselves.
Although all these group have worked and have some financial resources at their disposal, the monies are not sufficient to permit attendance on a full-time basis.
Between 1970 and 1997, the number of part-time student enrollment in American colleges and universities more than doubled, growing from just under 3 million to an estimated 6.2 million. Part-time students is defined as those who take less than 75 percent of what a given institution considers full-time credit load. In 1997, over one-third of all under-graduate level are part-time. Between 1970 and 1997, part-time enrollments increased by 125 percent, compared with 44 percent for full-time enrollments. Although not as markedly, the trend is catching up in Malaysia.
The rapid advancement of computing and telecommunication
technologies has enabled universities to move from the traditional mode to alternative modes of learning, namely the virtual university to cater for adult students who wish to study part-time.
Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR), Malaysia's First Virtual University
UNITAR was established in 1998 providing opportunities of virtual learning in supporting self-directed lifelong learning among Malaysian working adults.
The UNITAR virtual learning is a network learning environment, which supports the delivery of educational programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Presently UNITAR has 3412 students with 3,041 undergraduates and 371 graduate students enrolled in two undergraduate and 5 graduate programs. The student population includes both full-time and part-time students.
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The virtual learning model basically consists of three main elements: (1) The Virtual Online Instructional Support System (VOISS); (2) The learning materials that has been packaged for students in the forms of CD-ROMs and web-based courses; (3) The supports to virtual learning such as the virtual library, learning centers, call center, and various administrative services.
The UNITARNET and VOISS are the main backbone of the virtual learning environment. It is the university’s technology that supports the delivery of courses in the mixed mode. It is defined as a mode of delivery where “…networking is fully integrated into the curriculum. The networking activities constitute a regular part of the curriculum…” (Harassim; Hiltz; Teles; Turoff; 1997). The major features of VOISS provide various interactive learning modes such as online discussion, online tutorial, quiz, consultation and providing feedback to assignments. Discussion is performed asynchronously (not-real time) as well as synchronously (real time).
The VOISS also provide other features such as materials online, schedule, updates, assignment, announcement, FAQ, bulletin, student and instructor’s information. In essence VOISS is the main delivery mechanism for virtual learning in UNITAR. Students and instructors are given access code to connect to VOISS where they can access to the learning materials and interact with others. The instructors have access to the courses they teach and similarly students can have access to course materials and discussion related to the courses that they have registered.
Course materials are very critical element in virtual learning. These materials are packaged by a group of courseware developers. Presently, UNITAR employ about 50 staff to design and develop the learning materials. Included in the courseware group are 14 graphic designers, 13 instructional designers, 4 senior instructional designers, 10 multimedia programmers, three art directors, one audio video specialist, one audio video assistant, one video editor, one animator and one
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senior manager of instructional technology. This group will work in a team together with the academic staff who serves as the content specialist.
Presently UNITAR has about 75 academic staff mainly in the faculties of Business Administration, Information Technology and Humanity and Social Sciences. They are the content specialists in these broad areas. The academic staffs are responsible for writing the course materials. These materials are then passed to the courseware group and are converted into CD-ROMs or web-based courses. Besides writing the course materials the academic staff are responsible for “teaching” courses. Teaching in UNITAR means offering those courses online, conducting tutorial online, facilitating the face-to-face meetings, setting the examination questions and grading the courses. For purposes of meeting the quality standards provided by the Malaysian National Accreditation Board, all virtual learning must be supplemented by face-to-face interactions. A three-credit course will require 42 hours of interaction, 21 hours of which must be face-to-face meetings. In UNITAR face-to-face interactions include online tutorials as well as actual face-to-face meetings.
There are 10 learning centers established all over the country. These learning centers enrolled about 1,100 students mainly at the undergraduate level. The rest of the student population (2,315) comes from the main study center at Kelana Jaya. All online tutorials are conducted from the Kelana Jaya study center.
To ensure smooth running of the virtual learning, UNITAR has also established the virtual library, the call center and other administrative supports. The virtual library includes many electronic publications such as journal, books and other publications. Presently UNITAR has subscribed to various electronic journal and databases. It also has set the physical resource center at all study centers. Most of the administrative services are available online. This includes the process of application, registration, record keeping and other administrative supports. Figure 1 summarizes the main components of UNITAR virtual learning model.
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The network team and the software team support the virtual learning environment. The network team is responsible for establishing, maintaining and upgrading the network system while the software team is responsible for designing, maintaining and upgrading the VOISS and other software requirements necessary for the conduct of virtual learning.
Virtual learning is a distance mode of learning. It emphasizes both individualized and group learning. Keegan (1999) identified four major groups of learners visa-vis: (1) Group-based distance education for full-time students; (2) Group-based distance education for part-time students; (3) individual-based distance education with pre-prepared materials; and (4) individual-based distance education without pre-prepared materials.
A significant proportion of UNITAR’s students, are part-time students. Almost all the part-time students are working adults. Due to their work and personal commitments, they are not able to come to regular classes in traditional campuses. The virtual learning offered by UNITAR provides the flexibility that enables them to continue their studies. What the students need is an Internet connection from their offices or homes. Once they are registered as students in UNITAR, they will be able to access to the learning materials and resources. For undergraduates they are also provided with CD-ROMs for them to take home and learn anywhere convenient to them.
Self-directed Learning in a Virtual Environment
The thrust of virtual learning is on self-directed learning. The learning materials made available to students provide the students with this opportunity. Selfdirected learning is defined by Knowles as (Abu Daud Silong, Daing Zaidah Ibrahim and Azizan Asmuni, 1999):
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In its broadest meaning self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. The body of theory and practice on which self-directed learning is based is called "andragogy". Andragogy is defined as the art and science of helping adults learn (Knowles, 1975). There are several assumptions about self-directed learning. Here the human being is assumed to grow in capacity and need to be selfdirecting as an essential component of maturing. The learner's experience become an increasing rich resource for learning which should be exploited along with the resources of experts. Self-directed learning assumes that individuals become ready to learn what is required to perform their evolving life tasks or to cope more adequately with their life problems. Each individual therefore has a different pattern of readiness. Learning orientation is task or problem centered, and therefore learning experiences should be organized as tasks-accomplishing or problem-solving learning projects.
Self-directed learning also assume that
learners are motivated by internal incentives, such as self-esteem, the desire to achieve, the urge to grow, the satisfaction of accomplishment, the need to know something specific and curiosity.
In any kind of environment, all the more in a virtual environment, self-directed learning requires certain amount of independence and maturity. This therefore favors working adults who posses certain level of motivation, in spite of barriers faced, to strive on towards completion of their studies.
METHODOLOGY
In order to answer the research question, this study asked the question "what" are the barriers faced, preventing self-directed learning in a virtual environment. The
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qualitative methodology was used and specifically the basic descriptive method was chosen to allow the researcher to understand the problems as experienced by the adult learners.
Purposive sampling was carried out to select the adult learners and semistructured interviews was used for data collection.
The respondents granted
permission for the researcher to record the interview which was useful for data analysis. Data was also triangulated with documents available to the researcher. Data analysis was simultaneously conducted during data collection by reading and reading over the data. This was followed by organizing the data, generating categories and sub-categories and coding them.
FINDINGS
The data revealed that adult students faced several barriers to being self-directed in carrying out their learning in a virtual environment. Although they did not prevent or stopped these students from participating in the program, these barriers had prevented active learning that was required in the virtual system and environment of the university. The data that emerged can be divided into three main categories as in the research questions: situational; institutional and dispositional.
They are further divided unto several sub-categories and is
discussed as below:-
Institutional barriers
The data revealed that there were several barriers erected by the institution itself, UNITAR, that became a hindrance to learning and becoming self-directed in a virtual environment.
These data are divided and discussed in various sub-
categories.
a) Technology
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Learning
technologies
are
composed
of
hardware,
software
and
telecommunication lines. According to Harasim, Hiltz, Teles and Turoff (1997) the technologies that support learning networks are simple and straight forward to use. They must suit the learning objectives and budget. Students find that the online tutorial (OLT), which is featured in the VOISS, are not very encouraging. One student said that he avoided participating in the OLT whenever he could. This was because of the frequent problems faced like not being able to hear clearly what the lecturers were talking about or not being able to see what were being written by lecturers on the screen of their computers. The problem he said was attributed to the separation of software between audio and virtual classroom. The Rendezvous-alike capability and the Real Audio (sound system) should be combined, calling for an integrated software system. Not attending OLT means that students are missing several hours of interaction. In a three-credit course which has 42 hours of interaction, eight hours are taken by the OLT. The OLT is also part of the mandatory 21 hours of face-to-face meetings as set by the Ministry of Education for virtual learning. Missing the OLT also means that the student will have to do more of self-study. The OLT was supposed to be an opportunity to interact with lecturers and fellow students. However incidents of server down during OLT or before it could begin had deterred some students from joining in.
One student related his experience as:
Whenever I face a problem, for example I cannot hear or see, I will try to locate it. Usually I find that there is net congestion or the decoder is not on. I did try to attend OLT from home, through dial up, but I have problems with TM Net, I cannot connect to Real Audio. b) Delivery
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It has been said that teaching in a virtual setting is a shift of emphasis and a change in role.
It requires technical as well as communication skills.
The
provision of adequate and effective facilities to support the environment and the extensive Internet communication tools argues well for communicating through network infrastructure.
However, there is another part beside the computer-
mediated communication skills that is required in teaching in virtual environment. As in the case of UNITAR, eight hours of interaction is actually devoted to faceto-face meetings with the students in the classroom.
Although virtual and
network learning enables students to assume much of the responsibility for their learning, nevertheless it does not eradicate certain expectations they have of the lecturer.
Students expect lecturers to be the "expert" giving feed-backs,
explanations when required and sharing their experiences with students. Although lecturers are really only the facilitators of this form of learning, the traditional expectation of a teacher still remains among the participants.
During the actual face-to-face meetings students expect lecturers to deliver some content of the topic discussed. One of the students said:
Firstly in the face-to-face meetings, I find that some lecturers are not fluent in English. They seemed to be having problems expressing themselves. You see, we students also demand a lot from our lecturers. We want them to give some answers to our questions and problems. For example, my Business Mathematics class. In a course like this a lecturer's command of the language is important so that we are able to understand a difficult subject such as this. They must be able to express fluently. You can't be reading from the learning resources for subjects like this. Sometimes I feel they are just trying to cover the topic. Another experience I have is with my Principles of Management class. I found out we cannot discuss more that just what is stated in the textbook. I cannot ask questions that I seek answer and feedback. I think lecturers must have some experience in the area they are teaching, it helps a lot. Yes, we can do self-study but they must be able to share with us certain things that they know.
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The student however stated that he admired the honesty of some lecturers who just said "I do not know" to some of their questions.
c) Courseware
Learning in a virtual environment will accommodate the fast learners or the weak students with a set of materials that they can go through at their own pace (Khairuddin, 1998). In UNITAR the web-based courses are made available to be accessed by students. However, going through the materials as the students said was not interesting. Most of the courseware are described as "unattractive" with "dull presentation of information". Participants of the study said that some of the courseware contain typographical error. While resources on the web are supposed to individualize the students' pace of learning, lecturers sometimes do not use the resources they put on the web. Instead students are asked to use textbooks as their reference.
Participants feel that resources on the web should be the main
reference. As one student described his predicament in his accounting course:
Lecturers should use the learning resources they put on the web. Text books have different approaches although the outcome is the same. There must be uniformity, to make things easier in the methods we use. We have to decide which system we want and use one resource.
d) Lack of Computers
One category that emerged from the findings is the lack of computers at the learning centers which has deterred students from actively participating in the learning activities. There are students who do not have such facilities in their homes and are dependent on the facilities provided at the learning centers to log on for on-line tutorials, to do their assignments and to access learning materials,
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announcements and assignments from lecturers. One of the students described his problem:
I seldom come to the learning centers to use the computers because they are always occupied. Sometimes when there is an on-line tutorial being conducted, I could see two or three students sharing a computer. How can you learn and follow the tutorial this way. I know that some students just log on so that the lecturers have their names for attendance when actually they are not participating in the tutorial. How can you participate if you are sharing the computer with one or two others. Sometimes the headphones are not working, how can you participate. You just log on so that the lecturer thinks you are participating. Although participants feel that owing a personal computer is very important in virtual learning, there are those who could not afford to do so. For these people accessibility to learning resources and activities should be made possible by facilities provided by the university.
e) Student Support Services
An important element of a virtual university should be the emphasis on learning support and developing a total service to students. Advice and guidance at preenrolment and early post-enrolment must be acknowledged with importance. This will permit students to successfully plan and develop a course of study. One category that emerged in this study is that the lack of support services that hinders learning. The university has a Call Center where students can call up for help especially if they are facing problems accessing the web or technical problems during on-line tutorials. However as one student puts it the Call Center’s lines "are always busy and we only get the messaging voice". Another student said that the Call Center should be able to help especially if it is an emergency like technical problems during on-line tutorials. As he said "logging on for the OLT can sometimes be difficult, with problems. I sometimes panic and without help from the Call Center it frightens me off".
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Students also find that lack of information can interfere in their learning. This is attributed to poor administrative service where students did not get adequate information for purposes of course registration and payment for courses. As one student said, "you see, we do not get enough information. When we want to register for a course, for example, we were not informed of the prerequisite to the course. This will be a waste of time for us".
Dispositional barriers
The study also revealed that there were some dispositional barriers faced by the adult students. These are discussed in the following sub-categories:
a) Age
This sub-category emerged in the findings. The adult students were between the age of 35 to 48 years old. They said that because of their age they face problems like trying to remember what they learn and trying to remember the methods of solving problems and application. These students worry because they know that they are competing with younger people. As one student described:
I worry about certain subjects like Statistics. I have not studied it before so I worry. And subjects like Mathematics. I studied Mathematics in school, and I left school long ago. I do not use Mathematics anymore. I totally forgot the applications of it. That is why I worry, because I wonder whether I can remember or not, because as you grow older, your memory is not so good. Another student described his dispositional problem as below:
I have a bad memory, this is due to my age and other problems that I have. I get tired easily and have difficulty in staying up late to do my
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assignments, read and study. taking a toll on me.
I think my age is
The participants perceived that their age has a bearing on the vigor of carrying out their learning. Although age did not stop them from participating in the learning they feel that if they are young they can be more active and will worry less.
Inhibition
This category emerged among the participants in the study. The adult students experienced a certain degree of inhibitions in undergoing the undergraduate program. This is because of their status in life. They have families, reasonable income and good jobs. Doing a first degree is not what families, relatives and friends would think they are doing. They do not tell friends and families that they are participating in a first degree program. As one student said:
If I am doing my Masters or Ph.D. I would be telling them. Because that is at a different level already. Normally people stop at their first degree, then they work. Anyway many people think that I have a degree already, and I am well off. But if I am doing my Masters that is a different level altogether, and a Ph.D, is of course better. So I don't feel shy to tell them. I can say this is something I want to do to upgrade myself. I want to avoid questions like "why are you still doing your first degree?" When I have to go to classes, I tell them I have a seminar or something … Participants do not voluntarily tell others of their participation in the program. This participation is shared only with spouses and their own children and sometimes to immediate families only.
Telling others of what they are
participating in may bring about reactions that they do not want to deal with. As one student explained:
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Maybe because I was in a good school before. People expected me to do well academically and go straight on to the university. They do not know that I did not make it the last time. I just kept quiet about it. So now, I just do this myself. You see, I am still part of the culture. If I am not, I would be telling them already what I am doing. I still inhibit that feeling…
Situational barriers There are situational barriers that emerged from the study and they come in the following sub-categories.
a) Finance
Finance emerged as a problem and a worry to the students. Although it did not stop them from participating in the program they are hoping to get some form of financial support. They have applied for study loans and are waiting for a reply. In the mean time they harbor the worry of paying for their fees.
They are
allowed to enroll and register for courses first without paying for their fees pending response from the loan application. However, the fee payment is always as one student said "at the back of my mind". Students also feel that being a virtual program, the fees charged is high. As one student said:
When I first found out about the program and knew the fees charged I just brushed it aside as too expensive for me. Yes, fees is a problem.
b)Work Commitment
Work commitment is another category that emerged from the findings. The students faced numerous problems and work commitment that prevented them from actively participating in the activities of virtual learning.
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One student related his experience and said:
Every now and then, I have problems coming to class because of my work. The OLTs are held from 6 p.m to 8 p.m. My working hours are from 11 a.m. to 7 p.m. So how can I attend OLT?" I just have to miss them. The student said he faced a tough time working and studying. Eventhough his office hours end at 7.00 p.m. he usually stayed longer to finish his work. By the time he gets home he would be tired. But the demand of his studies, with the assignments and readings to do, require him to stay up until late at night. This means he has to sacrifice sleep and rest. The face-to-face sessions are held during weekends and this means they also have to sacrifice the rest that they should get during weekends. As he described it, "it's a tough life".
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
It is indicated that adults who participate in a learning program like the undergraduate program in this study have a certain degree of maturity and "readiness" . They embarked on the program because the virtual mode enables them to earn a degree without having to leave their jobs and other commitments. To them virtual and part-time learning suits their present life situations. The barriers faced will not totally stop them from participating in the program. However, barriers such as the institutional, situational and dispositional faced do prevent them from actively participating in the learning process. Being adults they will some how continue learning to meet the requirements of the program. They turn to for more self-study if they cannot follow the on-line tutorials and if they find the face-to-face meetings not fulfilling their needs. They minimize other barriers by putting in more effort and sacrificing rest and leisure. It is also the task of the provider of such programs to assist learners to minimize barriers as
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those indicated in the study. Problems with technology has to be looked into and facilitation at face-to-face meetings has to be improved. Lecturers have to acquire the ability to organize and promote student participation and discussion. This means that lecturers have to be content experts, having experience and are able to share the experiences with students.
In a formal program that leads to a
certification such as the undergraduate program in this study, self-directed learning cannot be used as an excuse to leave the students alone. Their questions needs to be discussed and answered. If self-directed learners recognize that there are occasions in which they will need to be taught, they will enter into this taughtlearning situations in a searching, probing frame of mind and will exploit them as resources for learning without losing their self-directedness (Knowles, 1975). Lecturers are to provide them with these resources.
The study also indicated that the adult students possess the readiness to learn. Learning will take place more quickly if we want to learn and are ready to learn Moss (1987). All the participants of the study echoed their readiness for learning saying that they "have been scouting around for a program like this," and "UNITAR has created something innovative for adults". Other comments that infer readiness to engage in this kind of learning include "I have always wanted to study for a degree and this flexibility is most welcomed" and " I've been looking for a learning mode that suits my present situation, I even explored those provided in Hong Kong and New York, somehow they cannot provide the flexibility as this one by UNITAR". Providing a flexible program for a group of self directed and ready to learn students does not relieve an institution of the responsibility of minimizing barriers.
The provision of good technological support, good
presentation materials, good learning experiences, enriching facilitation and proper management of other support system is crucial.
The situational and dispositional barriers as indicated in this study are perceived by the adult students as something that can be overcome by their own
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resourcefulness, their desire for self-actualization, urge to grow and need for esteem.
References
Brockettt, R.G., and Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-direction in adult learning perspective on theory, research and practice. New York: Routledge. Cheren, A. (1983). The concept of autonomy: A philosophical discussion. Adult Education Quarterly, 34, 38-47. Cross, K.P. (1979). Adult Learner: Characteristics, Needs and Interests. In R.E. Peterson and Associates (eds), Lifelong Learning In America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darkenwald, G.C., and Merriam, S.B. (1982). Adult Education: Foundation of Practices. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. Harasim, L., Hiltz, S.R., Teles, L., & Turoff, M. (1997). Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and Learning Online. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Johnstone, J.W.C., and Rivera, R.J. (1965). Volunteers for Learning. Chicago: Aldine. Keegan,D. (1999). Distance Education Models at the Dawn of the Third Millenium. Proceedings, 13th Annual Conference Asian Association of Open Universities, 14-17th October 1999, Beijing. Knowles, M.S (1975). Self-directed Learning: Teachers. Chicago: Follet Publishing Company.
A Guide for Learners and
Knowles, M.S (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Chicago: Association Press. Moss, G. (1987). The Trainers Handbook. Singapore: Singapore Institute of Management.
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