Biological Assessment of Freshwater Ecosystems in Thailand

A Review of Biological Assessment of Freshwater Ecosystems in Thailand

Supatra Parnrong

Report submitted to Mekong River Commission – Environment Program 18th June 2002

1 MEKONG RIVER COMMISSION – ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM Terms of Reference for a Thai Consultant for a Review of Biological Assessment of Freshwater Ecosystems in Thailand 1. Title:

Thai Consultant for a Review of Biological Assessment of Freshwater Ecosystems 2. Duty Station: Hat Yai, Thailand 3. Duration: 25 March - 15 May 2002 (total of 22 working days) 4. Background and Purpose: The Environment Program has a mission to promote co-operation and collaboration among the riparian member states in the utilization, conservation, management, and maintenance of the Mekong River Basin’s environmental assets and ecological balance. The Environment Program contains one component (A2) – People and Aquatic Ecosystems – to provide timely information on trends and changes in the dynamics of aquatic habitats, thereby preventing and minimizing any harmful effects on people who depend on the basin’s aquatic productivity. In order to achieve this aim, it is necessary for management agencies to have access to information on the ecological health of aquatic ecosystems: information best obtained through biological assessment. Since there have been a number of previous research and monitoring programs on biological assessment of inland waters in the four riparian countries, the MRC, through the NMCs, has employed national consultants to review previous and continuing biological assessment activities in the four countries. They will establish which techniques have been utilised, how successful the techniques have been, and what tools and skills are presently available to support biological assessment activities. It is envisaged that the consultants’ reports will be used as input to a regional meeting to discuss which biological assessment methods should be applied, or developed, for the region. Objectives The main objective of this report is to review past and present research and monitoring activities in the biological assessment of freshwater ecosystems in Thailand. Particular attention is given to the methods used, the success of the activities, and the resources and skills available.

2 Tasks •

Compile a comprehensive listing of government agency reports, published papers, and university theses on biological assessment and monitoring of inland waters in Thailand. The listing will include author(s), date produced, journal details (where appropriate), number of pages, and where the document is held (e.g. at the library of the Ministry of Environment).

•

Review the papers, reports, and theses on biological monitoring and assessment of freshwater ecosystems in Thailand, as identified above. The review will briefly identify, possibly in tabular format, the study location and time, information about sampling (e.g. sites sampled, number of sampling occasions, number and type of samples collected, sorting methods, level of identification), information about data analyses (e.g. what indicators were calculated, what statistical methods were used), and whether the study was seen as successful.

•

Develop a list of Thai government agency staff, academics, and others with experience in, or skills relevant to, biological monitoring and assessment of Thai inland waters. Relevant skills include data analysis and/or taxonomic knowledge.

•

Produce a draft report summarizing the findings of the review, appending the tables and lists mentioned above. The draft report will be forwarded to the TNMC and MRC Secretariat for comments.

•

Produce a final report incorporating feedback from the staff of the TNMC and MRC Secretariat.

3 ABSTRACT A number of studies concerning biological assessment and monitoring have been carried out in the last ten years. The study sites include shallow streams, medium sized rivers, and reservoirs, mostly around the northern and northeastern parts of Thailand. Several biological assessment techniques have been tested, along with various physico-chemical parameters. The community structure appears to result in slightly more detailed assessments than the BMWP/ASPT scoring system (with adjustments to local fauna) because it takes into account numbers of individuals. The diversity indices system appears to be a good indicator for detecting changes of water qualities. However, the EPT index is limited by sampling technique and habitat types, while Shannon-Weiner's index requires species level identification. An indicator species is often utilised in lentic systems, where plankton is abundant and seasonal succession must be considered. Chironomid pupal exuvia, and fluctuating asymmetry techniques, have also been proposed. Although many biological assessment and monitoring studies have been carried out in Thailand, overall knowledge is fragmented due to a lack of planning and institutional collaboration. More work needs to be carried out in headwaters and deeper rivers, areas where little is known and many problems occur. Combinations of methods will be needed to assess the entire basin.

4 A REVIEW OF BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS IN THAILAND Supatra Parnrong Department of Aquatic Science, Faculty of Natural Resources Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand E-mail: [email protected] Tel/Fax: +66 7421 2845

The quality of inland water is one of the main concerns for Thailand, due to industrial development and intensive agriculture practices. The Inland Water Quality Subdivision of the Pollution Control Department (PCD) has set national standards for inland water quality to aid assessment and monitoring. However, the standards are based only on chemical and physical parameters (PCD 1995), which are sometimes inadequate for signaling or detecting environmental damage. Government agencies (e.g. PCD) and universities have attempted to use biological indicators to assess and monitor water quality; studies have been carried out in both standing (lentic) and running (lotic) waters. Unfortunately, knowledge dissemination is fragmented due to the lack of formal information exchanges and institutional collaboration. There is currently insufficient data for government agencies to set a single national standard for freshwater biomonitoring in Thailand (Simachaya, personal communication). This report reviews the papers, reports, and theses concerned with biological assessment and monitoring of freshwater ecosystems in Thailand. Keywords related to this topic include bioindicator, biological indices, biomonitoring, biological assessment, macroinvertebrates and water quality. This report has 8 sections: 1. Study Locations 2. Study Techniques 3. Pong Scores and BMWPThai 4. Conclusions 5. Relevant Studies in Table Form 6. Publications

5 7. People with Relevant Skills 8. Web Sites Acknowledgements I thank the following people for providing access to information: •

Dr Wijarn Simachaya, Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment;

•

Dr Porntip Chantaramongkol, Dr Yuwadee Peerapornpisal, Dr Siripen Trichaiyaporn, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University;

•

Dr Narumon Sangpradub, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University;

•

Khun Wipapan Nakpan, The Green World Foundation;

•

Khun Mhunin Nhuserm, สมาคมหยาดฝน, Trang Province;

•

Khun Pornsiri Tularak for gathering documents.

6 1. Study Locations

The existing work on biological assessment and monitoring of freshwater systems in Thailand is very patchy and localized. Most studies are concentrated in the northeastern, northern, and central regions of Thailand. 1.1. Northeastern Region The Department of Biology at Khon Kaen University is the main organisation carrying out research. The principal research project, "A correlation study between freshwater benthic invertebrate fauna and environmental quality factors in Nam Pong Basin, Thailand", was funded by the TRF (Thailand Research Fund) between 1996-1998 (Sangpradub et al 1998a). The study locations were spread over several provinces in the northeastern region, including 27 sampling sites along the Pong river, Cheon river, and Chi river. The Pong river originates from a seepage spring in the Phu Kradueng National Park, running southeasterly and passing through agricultural land, industrial areas, and towns. The Cheon river originates from the Nam Nao National Park, running southeasterly past extensive agricultural land, and draining into the Pong reservoir. The Chi river joins the lower part of the Pong river system just above Mahasarakam weir. The lower Pong catchment is regulated and influenced by three dams. The sampling sites include upstream sites, downstream lowland sites, and sites showing various degrees of impact from human activities. The sampling sites are between 16°00"-17°15"N and 101°15"-103°15"E. (Sangpradub et al, 1998a; b; Inmuong et al 1996; Inmuong et al 1997; Sangpradub et al, 1997; Inmuong et al 2000). 1.2. Northern Region The studies in the northern region are mostly concentrated around Chiang Mai province. The research attempts to correlate water physico-chemical parameters to macroinvertebrates, as a tool for assessing and monitoring water qualities (Sannarm 1993; Taweeburus 1994; Thuadum 1994; Suwanrat 1996; Watchawong 1996; Guruge 1997; Mustow 1997; 1999; Kankanamge 1998). The studies consider both lotic and lentic systems, including one study of a wetland area (Roongruangwongs et al 2000). Most of the work was carried out by Chiang Mai University staff and graduate students. Mustow's Ph.D. thesis is on aquatic macroinvertebrates and environmental qualities in the Ping river system, Chiang Mai (University of London, external programme, 1997).

7

Wongkam et al (1999) utilised biological indices to assess the environmental impacts on the Mae Klang upland streams at Doi Inthanon National Park. Ten sampling sites along the Mae Klang river were sampled seasonally in 1994. Four groups of organisms (phytoplankton, bacteria, protozoa, and benthic macroinvertebrates) were used as indices for detecting the impact from various types of land-use around the sampling sites. The Rapid Biological Protocol (RBP II) has been tested at sites in Chiang Mai (Suwanrat 1996; Guruge 1997). The results indicate the potential use of RBP II to distinguish between clean and damage sites, but suggests it is less sensitive to intermediate levels of damage. Additional information, such as physico-chemical water qualities or habitat assessment, are required in order to improve the accuracy of the overall assessment (Suwanrat 1996). There have been several studies of standing water using phytoplankton as indicators for assessing water qualities in reservoirs and moats around Chiang Mai (Rahim 1994; Peerapornpisal et al 1997; Chorum 1998; Mapairoj et al 1998; Phromkatkaew et al 1998; Trichaiyaporn and Boonsai 1998; Pooarlai 1999; Wannasai 1999; Department of Biology 2001). The classification of the water qualities is derived from a PCD standard (PCD 1995).

The "Stream Detectives" (นักสืบสายนํ้า) environmental education project for school children is based around water quality monitoring. It was initiated by the Green World Foundation (a NGO), its main objective being to provide early-aged environmental education as part of the school curriculum. The project handbook was developed by the Green World Foundation, the Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED), and Thai academics. The Stream Detectives handbook is written in Thai (Kanchanawanich 1999), and has been used by various schools, with some adopting the project as part of their environmental studies curriculum (Nakpan, personal communication). The foundation has conducted a number of training courses for school teachers and other interested parties. 1.3. Central Region The Pollution Control Department (PCD), based at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, has attempted to develop biological indices to aid the detection of pollution in the Petchaburi river (PCD 2001). Nine sampling sites, including lotic, lentic, and estuarine ecosystems along the river, were sampled between 1999 and 2000. Water quality (34

8 parameters), sediments (18 parameters), nutrient flux (14 parameters), nekton, benthos, plankton, protozoa, aquatic plants, were collected and analysed. Dr Wijarn Simachaya from the PCD has submitted a proposal to DANCED to develop a standard procedure for biological monitoring in selected river basins around Thailand. The Fishery Environment Division of the Department of Fisheries has collected fauna and water quality data in several main river systems, including the Choa Phraya and the Tha Chin rivers. However, no attempt has been made to correlate or identify the biological indices for assessing water qualities (Somsiri, personal communication). 1.4. Southern Region Most of the work carried out in the southern region are ecological and diversity studies of freshwater systems. In addition, a NGO (สมาคมหยาดฝน) in Trang Province has attempted to train members of the local community and school children to assess a local stream, using the Green World Foundation technique. The technique proved too difficult to use successfully, and the program supervisor had little background in the identification of macroinvertebrates, having attended only a short training course. The participants were unable to identify unfamiliar fauna in their samples (Nhuserm, personal communication).

9 2.

Study Techniques

Biological assessment research and monitoring methods used in Thailand are derived from similar methods used elsewhere. Techniques tested upon Thai ecosystem and fauna are described here, including sampling techniques, scoring systems, community structure, the diversity indices system, indicator species, the chironomid pupal exuvia technique, and the fluctuation asymmetry method. 2.1. Sampling Techniques The choice of sampling devices depends on water levels. In shallow water, such as streams, kick nets and surbers are used, while Ekman grab, pond nets, and dredges are employed in deeper water. Both quantitative and semi-quantitative (timing) sampling techniques are utilised. Sangpradub et al (1998a) compared macroinvertebrate assemblages at Pong river through quantitative samples (using surber and grab) and semi-quantitative samples (using pond net sampling for 15 minutes on each riverbank). Very different fauna compositions were found in the two sample sets, and the quantitative samples were found to provide more realistic assessments of the water qualities. Several kinds of artificial substrate have been tested against conventional sampling devices, Ekman grab, and surber. The fauna composition was varied between each substrate and natural habitat. The artificial substrate assists the recolonisation of benthic invertebrates, especially in the rainy season (Guruge 1997). 2.2. Scoring Systems BMWP/ASPT (Biological Monitoring Working Party/Average Score Per Taxa), and SIGNAL (Stream Invertebrate Grade Number-Average Level) are well correlated to organic pollution, although SIGNAL is considered somewhat inferior because it is unrelated to DO (dissolved oxygen). The Hilsenhoff's family-level Biotic Index (HBI) is sensitive to nutrient concentrations but fails to discriminate between impacted and unimpacted sites (Sangpradub et al 1998a; b). The BMWP/ASPT technique appears to be the most popular in Thailand. Studies agree that this technique is probably the most relevant, but its scoring needs to be adjusted to suit local

10 fauna. Sangpradub et al (1998a; b) found that grouping by sampling sites based on water qualities mostly agrees with the grouping by BMWP. However, when BMWP was compared with a grouping based on taxa richness, there was considerable disagreement: BMWP is unsuitable for Pong fauna, (too high or too low scores) since some taxa in BMWP are unknown in Thailand and some Thai fauna are unknown in the UK. For example, Corydalidae and Helicosychidae are not on the BMWP listing, and Capniidae is unknown in Thailand (Mustow 1997; Sangpradub et al 1998a; b). 2.3. Community Structure Sangpradub et al (1998a; b) have also analysed the Pong river data set using community structure and composition. They divided the benthic invertebrates into 5 groups corresponding to 5 levels of water qualities (Q1 to Q5). Group 1 contains the most sensitive taxa, while group 5 has the least sensitive (Table 2.1). Table 2.1.

Groupings of macroinvertebrates based on their sensitivity to pollution: group 1 are the most sensitive taxa, group 5 are the least sensitive taxa.

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

All Plecoptera

Caseless caddis

Baetidae

Caenidae

Chironomidae

All cased caddis

(except Ecnomidae)

Ephemeridae

Dipseudopsidae

Oligochaeta

Leptoceridae

Ecnomidae

Hydropsychidae

Coenagrionidae

Elmidae

Chaboridae

Libellulidae

Ceratopogonidae

(except Leptoceridae)

Hydropsychidae

Heptageniidae

Dipseudopsidae

Corydalidae

Leptophlebiidae Sialidae Gyrinidae Psephenidae

Palaemonidae Polycentropodidae Viviparidae

Micromiidae Cordulegastridae Gomphidae Simuliidae Tipulidae

The proportions of each group are used as an indicator of the quality of the water. For example, the very good water quality site (Q1) should have the highest proportion of fauna

11 from group 1, the poorest water quality site should have most of its fauna in group 4 or 5. This approach is called the "Q index". The quality levels are shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2.

Q index and water quality. Indices

Water quality

Q1

Very good

Q2

Good

Q3

Average

Q4

Poor

Q5

Very poor

The Pong and Q indices are closely related, and provide similar classification of sites (Sangpradub et al 1998a; b). They are sensitivity to organic pollution: DO (dissolved oxygen); and BOD (biochemical oxygen demand). The community structure provides slightly more accuracy than the Scoring system because the calculation takes into account the number of individuals. The Q index requires identification at the family level, but Sangpradub (1999) has proposed the Benthos clock, a simplified version of the Q index, which requires identification only at the order level. A Benthos clock consists of 2 circles on top of each other: the outer circle is for water quality, the inner one for the benthos groups. Position 1, 3 and 5 are marked at the north, east and south of the clock, while 2 and 4 are in between (Fig. 2.1).

12

1 2

3

4 5 Fig. 2.1.

Benthos clock (Sangpradub 1999).

Table 2.3.

Relationships between a position on the Benthos clock, fauna groups, and water quality. Position

Fauna groups

Water quality

1

Stone flies, Mayflies

Very good

2

Cased caddisflies, Caseless caddisflies

Good

3

Odonata, Decapoda (shrimps, crabs)

Average

4

Chironomidae, Oligochaeta

Poor

5

None

Very poor

A position is determined by the number of fauna in each group. This technique provides a rough assessment only, due to the very low identification level.

13 2.4. Diversity Indices Systems The systems include various fundamental indices, richness measures, and diversity indices (e.g. Simpson’s, Margaref’s, Shannon’s and Hurlbert’s PIE). The richness measures involve the number of individuals, species richness, family richness, and EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) taxa richness. In some cases, chironomid is also used. The richness measures, both at species and family levels, are superior to other techniques in assessing water quality changes (Sangpradub et al 1998a). The EPT has a good correlation with water quality and also reflects the health of the system (Sangpradub et al 1998a); consequently, it is often used. The sampling method and habitat characteristics are its two main limitations, which can lead to very different results (Sangpradub et al 1998a). The sampling techniques may need adjusting, and only certain habitat types are covered (Suwanrat 1996; Sangpradub et al 1998a; b). The diversity index, the Shannon-Weiner index, is a better measure of water quality changes than other indices, but identification at species level is required (Sangpradub et al 1998a). 2.5. Indicator Species A specific taxa is often utilised as an indicator for pollution - the most common one is the coliform bacteria (PCD 1995). Phytoplankton is often used as an indicator species in standing water (lentic systems), where plankton is abundant. Several species of phytoplankton have significantly high correlation to water quality and are being recommended for biomonitoring of water pollution (Thanompongchart 1995; Vongyara 1996; Rahim 1997; Mapairoj et al 1998; Trichaiyaporn and Boonsai. 1998; Waiyaka 1998; Promkatkaew et al 1998; Proongkiat 1999; Sirirattanawarangkul and Trichaiyaporn 2001). A number of studies combined coliform bacteria and phytoplankton (Chorum 1998; Wannasai 1999; Pooarlai 1999; Panuvanitchakorn 2000; Manopiaw 2001; Chaunanta 2002). Microcystis aeruginosa has been proposed as an indicator of eutrophication of lakes (Peerapornpisal et al 1996; Somdee 1998). However, the applicability of phytoplankton is limited because of its succession due to seasonal environmental changes. In lotic systems, Chaibu (2000) and Laudee (2002) attempted to use caddisflies at both their nymphal and adult stages as water quality indicators. They identified sensitive species and tolerant species of Trichoptera based on samples collected around Chiang Mai. The application of this technique is limited because the species are restricted to a particular environment, and high sampling effort is required.

14 2.6. Chironomid Pupal Exuvia Technique This technique was first examined in Thailand for its suitability in deep rivers and canals when other techniques, such as kick sampling for benthic macroinvertebrates, can not be used (Mustow 1997; Mustow et al 1997). The researchers compared the assemblages of chironomids exuvia from 7 sites around the inflow of an organically polluted region. Three sites were on a polluted canal, and four on the Ping river, two above and two below the inflow. The exuvia were collected using a long-handled net (250 µm) swept across the water surface near accumulated flotsam, and repeated for about 60 m along the bank. The physicochemical parameters of the water were measured to aid correlation back to the biological data. The technique clearly distinguished the poor water quality sites, and suggested the possibility of distinguishing moderately impacted sites. High levels of identification, at least to the generic level, and large size samples are the main disadvantages of this technique. 2.7. The Fluctuating Asymmetry Method Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is a minor morphological deviation from normal symmetry (the differences between left and right sides) (Utayopas 1996). The fluctuating asymmetry of six meristic and three morphometric characters were examined in three species of fish (Table 2.4) inhabiting polluted and unpolluted bodies of waters around Prathum Thani Province (Utayopas 2001a). The results showed FA present in most characters but the degree varied between sites, characters, and fish species. The FA in E. metallicus were observed to be high in all characters, especially in brachiostegal rays from the most polluted site. It was suggested that FA was present due to environmental stress on feeding behavior and high metabolic rates. Significantly high levels of FA were also found in the otholith width and premaxilla length of E. metallicus in lime orchard ditches exhibiting high levels of insecticide accumulation (Utayopas 2001b). The high levels of FA found in E. metallicus were in very high polluted sites, so its application is doubtful as an indicator of pending environmental damage.

15 Table 2.4.

Species of fish and characters used in the studies of fluctuating asymmetry under environmental stress.

Fish species

Characters

Reference

Esomus metallicus Trichopsis vittatus Trichogaster trichopterus

Meristic characters:

Utayopas (2001a; b)

-

Number of dorsal ribs

-

Number of ventral ribs

-

Number of rays of pectoral fins

-

Number of rays of pelvic fins

-

Number of brachiostegal rays

-

Number of spines on preopercle bone

Morphometric characters: -

The length of the saccular otolith

-

The width of the saccular otolith

-

The widest width of the premaxilla bone

16 3. Pong Scores and BMWP

Thai

3.1. Scoring Systems BMWP is a suitable technique for the biological assessment of water quality in Thailand (Mustow 1997; Sangpradub et al 1998a; b). However, some adjustments must be made to make it better suit our fauna. Mustow (1997) has proposed BMWPThai, with modifications motivated by samples taken from the Ping river, Chiang Mai. Sangpradub et al (1998a; b) have proposed Pong Scores, based on data from the Pong river. In both systems, the most tolerant taxa found at every sampling site is given low scores, for example, Oligochaeta and Chironomidae. Although Chironomidae are found at all the sites, there are fewer at the sites with very poor water quality, as compared to Oligochaeta. Therefore, scores of 1 and 2 were given to Oligochaeta and Chironomidae respectively. Other scores were assigned to taxa according to their sensitivity to water quality. The modifications of BMWP scores to create BMWPThai and Pong Scores are both based on study site data. Both versions utilise the same criteria in assigning scores to each family. Although the two sites are fairly close to each other, there are differences in the scores assigned to some families. For instance, Corydalidae scores 10 in Pong Scores but only 4 in BMWPThai (see the details in Table 3.1). Table 3.1.

Comparison of scores between BMWP, Pong Scores, and BMWPThai for benthic macroinvertebrate taxa, "-" indicates "unknown". BMWP

Pong Scores

BMWPThai

Chrysomellidae

5

-

5

Clambidae

5

-

-

Curculionidae

5

5

5

Dryopidae

5

-

5

Dytiscidae

5

5

5

Elmidae

5

6

-

Gyrinidae

5

7

5

Haliplidae

5

-

5

Coleoptera

17 Table 3.1.

(cont.). BMWP

Pong Scores

BMWPThai

Helodidae

5

-

5

Hydropphilidae

5

5

5

Hygrobiidae

5

-

-

Psephenidae

-

7

5

Athericidae

-

7

-

Ceratopogonidae

-

3

-

Chaoboridae

-

3

-

Chironomidae

2

2

2

Simuliidae

5

8

5

Tipulidae

5

7

5

Baetidae

4

5

4

Caenidae

7

4

7

Ephemerellidae

10

-

10

Ephemeridae

10

6

10

Heptageniidae

10

10

10

Leptophlebiidae

10

10

10

Nemouridae

7

-

7

Potamanthidae

10

5

10

Siphlonuridae

10

8

4

Belostomatidae

-

5

-

Corixidae

5

5

5

Gerridae

5

5

5

Hydrometridae

5

-

5

Mesovelidae

5

-

5

Naucoridae

5

5

5

Nepidae

5

5

5

Notonectidae

5

-

5

Diptera

Ephemeroptera

Hemiptera

18 Table 3.1.

(cont.). BMWP

Pong Scores

BMWPThai

5

-

5

Corydalidae

-

10

4

Sialidae

4

7

4

-

5

-

Aeshnidae

8

-

6

Agriidae

8

-

6

Chlorocyphidae

-

-

6

Coengrionidae

6

2

6

Coenagriidae

-

-

6

Cordulegastridae

8

7

6

Corduliidae

8

-

6

Gomphidae

8

8

6

Lestidae

8

8

6

Libellulidae

8

6

6

Macromiidae

-

8

6

Platyenemididae

6

6

6

Protoneuridae

-

-

3

Capniidae

10

-

-

Chloroperlidae

10

-

-

Leuctridae

10

-

10

Nemouridae

7

10

-

Perlidae

10

10

10

Perlodidae

10

10

10

Planaridae

5

-

-

Taeniopterygidae

10

-

-

Pleidae Megaloptera

Pyralidae Pyralidae Odonata

Plecoptera

19 Table 3.1.

(cont.). BMWP

Pong Scores

BMWPThai

Beraeidae

10

-

-

Brachycentridae

10

10

10

Calamoceratidae

-

9

-

Dipseudopsidae

-

4

-

Ecnomidae

-

4

-

10

10

10

Helicosychidae

-

10

-

Hydropsychidae

5

6

5

Hydroptilidae

6

8

6

Lepidostomatidae

10

10

10

Leptoceridae

10

7

10

Limnephilidae

10

-

7

Molannidae

10

10

10

Odontoceridae

10

10

10

Philopotamidae

8

10

8

Phryganeidae

10

-

10

Polycentropodidae

7

4

7

Psychomyiidae

8

10

8

Rhyacophilidae

7

-

7

Sericostomatidae

10

-

-

Asellidae

3

-

-

Astacidae (crayfish)

8

-

-

Atyidae

-

-

8

Gammaridae

6

-

-

Corophiidae

6

-

-

Trichoptera

Goeridae

Others

20 Table 3.1.

(cont.). BMWP

Pong Scores

BMWPThai

Ancylidae

6

-

6

Unionidae

6

-

6

Lymnaeidae

3

3

3

Neritidae

6

-

6

Palaemonidae

-

6

8

Physidae

3

-

-

Planonbidae

3

2

3

Viviparidae

6

5

6

Valvatidae

3

-

-

Hydrobiidae

3

-

3

Sphaeriidae

3

-

3

Corbiculidae

-

-

3

Plannariidae (triclads)

5

-

5

Dendrocoelidae

5

-

-

Piscicolidae (leeches)

4

-

4

Glossiphoniidae

3

-

3

Hirudidae

3

-

3

Erpobdellidae

3

-

3

Thiaridae

-

-

3

Oligochaeta

1

1

1

21 3.2. Pong Biotic Index The Pong biotic index is calculated by dividing total scores by the number of families present. The indices ranges from 1 to 10, where 10 indicates very good water quality and 1 is very poor (Table 3.2). Table 3.2.

Pong Biotic Index and water quality. Indices

Water quality

6.5-10

Very good

5.6-6.4

Good

4.6-5.5

Above average

3.6-4.5

Average

2.6-3.5

Poor

1-2.5

Very poor

The Pong scoring system has been tested at several sites near the Pong river, including in the Phu Kradung, Nam Nao, and Phu Pan national parks. The results correspond to groupings based on physical and chemical parameters. The Pong scoring system and Pong index have been used in a series of training courses organised by the Environmental Health Centre Region 6 (Ministry of Public Health) and Khon Kaen University. Although the system requires only a family level of identification, it is still considered too complicated for untrained local personnel.

22 4. Conclusions •

Quantitative or semi-quantitative sampling techniques permit more realistic assessments than qualitative sampling.

•

Identification of fauna to the family level seems to be sufficient for biological monitoring and assessment of freshwater ecosystems in Thailand, considering the time and cost.

•

Community composition is a good approach for assessing water quality, because it takes into account the taxa and number of individuals present.

•

The BMWP/ASPT scoring system works reasonably well, but its scores must be adjusted to suit local fauna.

•

A good indicator should highlight threatened environments, not just report on damage which has already occurred.

•

The Stream Detective's approach should not be used as a serious monitoring procedure, due to its inaccuracies and interpretation difficulties. It is intended as a tool for educational purposes only.

•

Studies, taken individually, have failed to convince the necessary authorities that action is necessary.

•

Although most studies have been carried out in shallow waters, they are fragmented, varied in time and design. It is difficult to make comparisons between such research. Studies need to be conducted which utilise the same experimental designs and techniques.

•

The applicability of studies of shallow waters to lowland rivers is limited, and more work needs to be carried out in deeper water. There is a lack of knowledge about techniques and methods applicable to lowland rivers, where many of the problems occur.

•

In order to study the diverse ecosystems in the entire basin, a combination of methods needs to be applied. Each method is only applicable to a specific environment.

23 5. Relevant Studies in Table Form Table 5.1.

Summary of some studies on biological assessment and monitoring in Thailand. Studies are grouped by geography: Northeastern region; Northern region; Central region.

5.1.1. Northeastern Region Study

Study

Sampling

No.

Sampling

No.

Types of

Sorting

Location

Period

Devices

Sites

Occasions

Samples/

Samples

Methods

Site

Collected

Pong,

10/1995-

S, K, P, G

27

6

6

BM, WPC

Cheon, Chi

8/1996

(bimonthly)

Si (500 µm),

ID Level

Indicators

Statistics Utilised

Assessment

Reference

of Success Lowest

E/Mi

Basins

EPT, (Coleoptera,

Univariate,

+ve, need

Odonata, Diptera,

multivariate

adjustment

Olichaeta, and

(TWINSPAN,

Decapoda),

SSH), Pearson-

BMWP/ASPT,

product moment

Sangpradub et al 1998 (a)

SIGNAL, HBI, diversity indices Cheon Basin

Pong Basin

10/1995-

S, K, P, G

6

8/1996

2/1996

6

6

BM, WPC

(bimonthly)

S, K, P, G

21

1

Si (500 µm),

Lowest

E/Mi

6

BM, WPC

Si (500 µm), E/Mi

Lowest

EPT, Coleoptera,

Univar,iate,

+ve, need

Odonata, Diptera,

Multivariate

adjustment

Oligochaeta, and

(Classification,

Decapoda)

Ordination)

BMWP/ASPT, Pong score, Community structure

Notes:

Study Location: CM = Chiang Mai Sampling Devices:S = Surber; K = Kick net; P = Pond net; G = Ekman Grab; D = Dredge, Sw = Sweep net Types of Samples Collected: BM = Benthic macroinvertebrates; WPC = Water physico-chemical, SMV = Submerged marginal vegetation Sorting Methods: Si = sieving; E = Eye; Mi = Microscope Assessment: +ve = positive results “-“ = information not found

-

Sangpradub et al 1997

+ve, need

Sangpradub et al 1998 (b)

adjustment

(in Thai)

24 5.1.2. Northern Region Study

Study

Sampling

No.

Sampling

No.

Types of

Sorting

Location

Period

Devices

Sites

Occasions

Samples/

Samples

Methods

Site

Collected

CM

4/1991-

P, K, G

8

6

6-10

BM, SMV,

3/1992

Mi

ID Level

Indicators

Statistics Utilised

Assessment

Reference

of Success Family

BMWP/ASPT

Multivariate

+ve

Sannarm 1993

+ve

Thaudum 1994

+ve, need

Suwanrat 1996

(DECORANA,

WPC

TWINSPAN) CM

1992

P

21

3

3

BM, WPC

Mi

Family

Biotic (TBI, CBI),

Family

RBP II (Taxa

-

Saprobic indices CM

5/1995,

K, P

12

2

-

BM, WPC

10/1995

Si, Mi, MG,

ANOVA

adjustment

richness, FBI,

sub

EPT, EPT/Chironomida e abundances, dominant family, similarity/loss CM

5/1995,

S, G

12

2

2

BM, WPC

Si, Mi

Family

CM

1997

Habitat

Cluster

+ve

Watcharawong 1996

ANOVA

+ve, need

Guruge 1997

assessment

10/1995 S, G,

10

2

-

BM, WPC

Mi

Family

RBP II

adjustment.

artificial substrate CM

1990-

K (3 min),

BMWP/ASPT/

Multivariate

+ve, need

1993

P (10 min),

Chironomid pupal

analysis

adjustment,

D

exuvial technique

23

7

5-8

BM, WPC

Mi

Family

Mustow 1997

require taxonomic skill

CM

19921993

S

7

3

Along 60

Chironomid

m

s exuvia,

Mi

Genera

Chironomid pupal

Diversity,

+ve, require

exuvial technique

similarity indices

taxonomic

WPC Notes:


skill

Mustow et al 1997

25 5.1.2. Northern Region (cont.) Study

Study

Sampling

No.

Sampling

No.

Types of

Sorting

Location

Period

Devices

Sites

Occasions

Samples/

Samples

Methods

Site

Collected

CM

1997

G

7

2

2 (grab)

BM, WPC,

Lampang

Mi

ID Level

Indicators

Statistics Utilised

Assessment

Reference

of Success Family

Multimetrics

Cluster

+ve, need adjustment

BMWP, FBI,

Sediment

Kankanamge 1998

ASPT, community loss, ratio of EPT to chironomids CM

12/1990-

K, P, D, Sw

23

1992

Approx. 4 month

BM, WPC

Mi

Diversity indices,

Canonical

community

correspondence

structure

analysis

Species,

Indicator species,

Family

BMWP/ASPT

Species

Indicator species

Family

6-8

interval CM

1994

Various

10

3 (seasonal)

vary

Plankton,

Mi

Bacteria,

+ve

Mutow 1999

Cluster analysis

+ve

Wongkam et al 1999

Univariate,

+ve

Chaibu 2000

+ve

Luadee 2002

+ve,

Rahim 1994

+ve

Vongyara 1996

Protozoa, BM CM

9/1997 -

Light traps

12

12

8/ 1998

1

Adults

trap/site/

(Trichoptera),

multivariate

month

WPC

(Ordination,

E, Mi

TWINSPAN) CM

3-10

Light traps

20

3

2000

1

Adults (EPT),

trap/site/s

WPC

E, Mi

eason CM

1993

-

-

14

-

(2/month)

Species,

Indicator species

Multivariate

Family

(Trichoptera)

(TWINSPAN, ssh

(E) Phyto-

Mi

Species

mds) Indicator species

Factor analysis, Cluster analysis

plankton, WPC

CM

6/1995-

Sedimenta-

3/1996

tion

8

2/month

-

Phytoplankton,

Mi

Species

Species diversity index

WPC Notes:


-

26 5.1.3. Central Region Study

Study

Sampling

No.

Sampling

No.

Types of

Sorting

Location

Period

Devices

Sites

Occasions

Samples/

Samples

Methods

Site

Collected

Long

6

1

Ayuthaya,

-

Prathum

handle

Thani,

sweep net

-

Fish

-

ID Level

Indicators

Statistics Utilised

Assessment

Reference

of Success Fluctuating

ANOVA, multiple

asymmetry

comparison

Fluctuating

Multiple

asymmetry

comparison

Species,

Sum of species,

Classification

family

diversity index,

ordination

-

+ve

Utayopas 2001a

+ve

Utayopas 2001b

+ve

PCD 2001

Uthaithani Singburi

-

Long

2

1

-

Fish

-

-

handle sweep net Petchaburi

12/1999 -

River

8/2000

various

9

3

vary

PCD 2001

various

Eveness index, Notes:


27 6.

Publications

Chaibu, P. 2000. Potential use of Trichoptera as water pollution biomonitoring in Ping River, Chiang Mai. Ph.D thesis, Chiang Mai University. Chaunanta, J. 2002. Water quality of AngKaew Reservoir, Chiang Mai University in 2001. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Chorum, M. 1998. Biological analysis of water quality using phytoplankton and coliformbacteria in Ang Kaew Reservoir, Chiang Mai University 1996-1997. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Department of Biology, Chiang Mai University. 2001. Survey and monitoring of toxic algae in the raw water resources for water supplies. Research report submitted to the Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Science Technology and Environments, Bangkok. 3 vols. (in Thai with English Abstract). Guruge, W. A. W. P. 1997. Substrate preferences of macroinvertebrates and use of artificial substrate as a sampling method for water quality assessment. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Inmuong, Y., N. Sangpradub and U. Inmoung. 1996. Biological method as a tool for water pollution monitoring in Thailand. Report submitted to the WHO, Southeast Asia region. Inmuong, Y., N. Sangpradub and U. Inmoung. 1997. River Water Quality: A New Assessment Method by Integrating Physicochemical and Biological Variables with Multivariate Analyses. Health, Ministry of Public Health. 20(1): 15-30. Inmuong, Y., N. Sangpradub, B. Kaewsong. 2000. Community-based monitoring system on Environmental health in the Pong River. Department of Health, Ministry of Public Health. (in Thai). Kanchanawanich, S. 1999. "Stream Detectives" package. Green World Foundation. Bangkok. 5 books. (in Thai). Kankanamge, R. W. 1998. Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators for assessing water pollution at Mae Moh lignite power plant and mine. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Luadee, P. 2002. Biodiversity of some aquatic insects from Chiang Dao watershed, Chiang Mai Province for environmental bioassessment. Ph.D. thesis, Chiang Mai University.

28 Manopiaw, K. 2001. Water quality in Huai Tung Tao Reservoir, Chiang Mai in JuneSeptember 2000. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Mapairoj, P. S. Trichaiyaporn, and T. Proongkiat. 1998. Abstract presented at the Fifth Asian Fisheries Forum, 11-14 November 1998 at Lotus Hotel Pang Suan Kaew, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Mustow, S. E. 1997. Aquatic macroinvertebrates and environmental quality of rivers in Northern Thailand. Ph.D. Thesis (external programme), University of London. UK. Mustow, S. E. 1999. Lotic macroinvertebrate assemblages in Northern Thailand: altitudinal and longitudinal distribution and the effects of pollution. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam. Soc. 47: 225-252. Mustow, S. E., R. S. Wilson and G. Sannarm. 1997. Chironomid assemblages in two Thai watercourses in relation to water quality. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam. Soc. 45: 53-64. Panuvanitchakorn, N. 2000. Water quality in Huai Tung Tao Reservoir, Chiang Mai in 1999. M.Sc. thesis, Biology, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). PCD. 1995. Water quality criteria and standards in Thailand. Pollution Control Department. Ministry of Science Technology and Environments. Bangkok. (in Thai). PCD. 2001. Study and development of biological indices for pollution in Petchaburi River. Pollution Control Department. Ministry of Science Technology and Environments. Bangkok. 2 vols. (in Thai). Peerapornpisal, Y., T. Somdee, W. Sonthichai, and E. Rott. 1996. Water quality, distribution and primary productivity of phytoplankton in the reservoir of Mae Kunag Udomtara Dam, Chiang Mai. Research report. Chiang Mai University. Peerapornpisal, Y., S. Promkatkaew, C. Chaiaubon and M. Chorum. 1997. Study of water quality in Ang Kaew Reservoir, Chiang Mai University using planktons as bioindicator. Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Pooarlai, P. 1999. Analysis of water quality using phytoplankton and coliform bacteria as indicator in Huai Tung Thao reservoir, Chiang Mai Province. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Promkatkaew, S., W. Roongruangwongs, Y. Peerapornpisal, K. Ruangrit, and S. Subhasri. 1998. Water quality of the River Ping after passing through Chiang Mai City. Department of Biology, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract).

29 Proongkiat, T. 1999. Diversity of phytoplankton and water quality in the reservoir of Mae Ngat Somboonchol Dam. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Rahim, S. 1997. Biomonitoring of water pollution of Chiang Mai moat. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Roongruangwongs, W., P. Asnachinda, and W. Sonthichai. 2000. Benthic macroinvertebrate density and water quality of some main wetlands in Chiang Mai - Lamphun Basin. Chiang Mai Journal of Science 27 (2): 102-113. Sangpradub, N. 1999. "Benthos clock" the other alternative for water quality monitoring for local communities. Journal of Science, Khon Kaen University. 27 (4): 279-287. (in Thai). Sangpradub, N., Y. Inmuong, C. Hanjavanit and U. Inmoung. 1997. Effect of headwater degradation on water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate community in Northeast Thailand. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrology and Water Resources for Research and Development in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 17-19 December 1997, Nhong Kai, Thailand, pp 161-179. Sangpradub, N., Y. Inmuong, C. Hanjavanit and U. Inmoung. 1998a. A correlation study between freshwater benthic macroinvertebrate fauna and environmental quality factors in Nam Pong Basin. Research report submitted to TRF (Thailand Research Fund). Sangpradub, N., Y. Inmuong, C. Hanjavanit and U. Inmoung. 1998b. Biotic indices for biological classification of water quality in the Pong catchment using benthic macroinvertebrate. Journal of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen University, 26(4): 289-304. (in Thai). Sannarm, G. 1993. Biological surveillance using macroinvertebrate communities of the quality of the Mae Kwuang river the Northern Region Industrial Estate. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Sirirattanawarangkul, W. and S. Trichaiyaporn. 2001. The influence of pH, BOD, and COD on the distribution of phytoplankton in the Mae Kha Canal, Chiang Mai, 1999. Abstract presented at the 7th International Phycological Congress, Thessaloniki, Greece, 18-25 August 2001. Somdee, T. 1998. Distribution of Microcystis aeruginosa Kütz, in the reservoir of Mae Kuang Udomtara Dam, 1996-1997. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract).

30 Suwanrat, P. 1996. Qualitative survey of macroinvertebrates in running waters to test rapid bioassessment techniques for water quality. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Thanompongchart, T. 1995. Thee relationship between water quality and species composition and abundance of phytoplankton in Chiang Mai Moat. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University Thaweeburus, P. 1994. Biomonitoring techniques to assess water loss at the old Mae Ping dam and water quality of the Mae Ping River. Chiang Mai: MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. Trichaiyaporn, S. and K. Boonsai. 1998. Water quality and algae composition monitoring in Chiang Mai moat. Abstract presented at the Fifth Asian Fisheries Forum, 11-14 November 1998 at Lotus Hotel Pang Suan Kaew, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Thuadum, Y. 1994. Use of macroinvertebrate communities to assess water quality classes in Doi Inthanon and Ping River by biotic and saprobic indices. MSc. thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Utayopas, P. 1996. Fluctuating asymmetry: a potential indicator for environmental monitoring in Thailand. Thammasat International Journal of Science and Technology 1 (1): 55-61. Utayopas, P. 2001a. Fluctuation asymmetry in fishes inhabiting polluted and unpolluted bodies of water in Thailand. Thammasat International Journal of Science and Technology 16 (2): 10-20. Utayopas, P. 2001b. Fluctuation asymmetry in the flying barb (Esomus mettallicus), the striped croaking gourami (Trichopsis vittatus) and the three-spot gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus) when exposed to insecticide residues in the lime orchard. Thammasat International Journal of Science and Technology 16 (2): 21-26. Vongyara, T. 1996. Diversity of phytoplankton and water quality in Chiang Mai moat in 1995. MSc. Thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Waiyaka, P. 1998. Diversity of phytoplankton and benthic algae in Mae Sa stream, Doi Sutep-Pui National Park, Altitude 600-1,075 m. MSc. Thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Wannasai, Y. 1999. Analysis of water quality using phytoplankton and coliform bacteria as indicator in Huai Mae Yen reservoir, Chiang Mai. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract). Watchawong, O. 1996. Quantitative survey and habitat assessment of macroinvertebrates to assess water quality in running waters. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University.

31 Wongkam, W., S. Bowornsombat, Y. Peerapornpisal, W. Sonthichai, A. Rojanapaiboon, P. Chantaramongkol, and W. Roongreungwong. 1999. Water resources assessment using biological indices to study the environmental impact to the Mae Klang upland streams at Doi Inthanon national park. Research report, Chiang Mai University. (in Thai with English Abstract).

32 7.

People with Relevant Skills 7.1.

Northeastern Region

Name Boonsoong, Boosatein

Address

Position

Department of Biology, Faculty of

Research

Science, Khon Kaen University,

assistant

Experience / skill Aquatic insects taxonomy

Khon Kaen 40002 Department Tel: 043 342908 Chaiyapa, Wilailuk

Khon Kaen University, Nhong Kai

Lecturer

Campus, Nhong Kai 43000 E-mail:

Aquatic insect taxonomy (Trichoptera)

[email protected]

Hanjavanit, Chutima


(Ph.D.)

Science, Khon Kaen University,

Assoc. Prof.

Aquatic insects taxonomy / biological monitoring

Khon Kaen 40002 Department Tel: 043 342908 E-mail : Inmoung, Uraiwan

[email protected]

Faculty of Public Health, Khon

Asst. Prof.

Water quality

Lecturer

Water quality

Lecturer

Aquatic insect Taxonomy

Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002 Tel: 043 344377 E-mail: [email protected] Inmoung, Yunyong (Ph.D.)

Faculty of Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Mahasarakarm University, Mahasarakarm 44000 Tel: 043 754321-40 Ext. 2409

Phaphong, Alonggorn

Rajabhat Institute, Ubonratchatani, Ubonratchatani, 34000

(Ephemeroptera)

Institute Tel: 045 262423-5 Sangpradub, Narumon


(Ph.D.)

Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002 Department Tel: 043 342908 E-mail: [email protected]

Asst. Prof.


33 7.2.

Northern Region

Name Chaibu, Prachuab (Ph.D.)

Address Department of Fisheries Technology,

Position Lecturer

Faculty of Agriculture Production,

Experience / skill Aquatic insect taxonomy, biological assessment

Maejo University, Chiang Mai E-mail: [email protected] Chantamongkol, Porntip


(Ph.D.)

Science, Chaing Mai University,

Lecturer


Chiang Mai 50200 Tel: 053 943350 Ext. 1907 E-mail: [email protected] Peerapornpisal, Yuwadee


(Ph.D.)

Science, Chaing Mai University,

Assoc. Prof.

Algae taxonomy

Asst. Prof.

Algae taxonomy

Chiang Mai 50200 Tel: 053 943350 Ext. 1506 E-mail: [email protected] Traichaiyaporn, Siripen


(Ph.D.)

Science, Chaing Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200 Tel: 053 943346-61 Ext. 1104 E-mail: [email protected]

34 7.3.

Central Region

Name

Address

Position

Experience / skill

Kanjanavanit, Soranarat

Green World Foundation,

Secretary

Environmental education,

(Ph.D.)

394/46 - 48 Maharaj Road,

General

Stream Detectives

Pollution Control Department,

Chief of

Water quality (chemical)

Ministry of Science, Tecnology and

Inland Water

Environment, 92 Soi Phaholyothin 7,

Quality

Phaholyothin Road, Phayathai,

Subdivision

Prabarommaharajawang, Bangkok 10200 Foundation Tel: 02 6222250-2 E-mail: [email protected] Simachaya, Wijarn (Ph.D.)

Bangkok 10400 Tel: 02 2982270 E-mail: [email protected] Somsiri, Jaruwan

Fishery Environment Division,

Director of

Department of Fisheries, Kaset

Inland

Klang, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900

Fisheries

Division Tel: 02 5798691

Environment

Fishery environment

Center Utayopas, Poranee (PhD)

Department of Biotechnology,

Lecturer

Fluctuating asymmetry

Prof.

Plankton taxonomy

Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Prathum Thani 12121 Faculty Tel: 02 516 1092 Wongratana, Ladda

Department of Fishery Biology, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900. Faculty Tel: 02 5791202

35 7.4.

Southern Region

Name Laudee, Pongsak (PhD)

Address Prince of Songkla University,

Position Lecturer

Suratthanee Campus, Surat Thani

Experience / skill Aquatic insect taxonomy, biological assessment

84100 E-mail: [email protected] Parnrong, Supatra (PhD)

Department of Aquatic Science,

Asst. Prof.

Faculty of Natural Resources,

Aquatic insect taxonomy, water quality

Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112 Tel: 074 212845 E-mail: [email protected] Wattanasit, Supareok


Assoc. Prof.

Aquatic insect taxonomy

Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112 Tel: 074 288530

8.

Web Sites

Department of Biology, Khon Kaen University. 2002. Wetlab: Freshwater Biomonitoring Studies, http://www.geocities.com/Baja/7765, (available at 04/2002). Green World Foundation. 2002. Green World Foundation, http://www.greenworld.or.th, (available at 04/2002). Kudnamsai. 2002. Sustainable Nam Pong Watershed Conservation and Management Project for Quality of Life, http://www.thai.net/kudnamsai/index.html, (available at 04/2002). Pangfan, 2002. Stream watch , http://www.pangfan.org/index.html, (available at 04/2002).