Sep 29, 2014 - lists the production of metal nanoparticles from plant extracts. ..... reducing and stabilizing the platinum nanoparticles (Song et al. 2010). In.
17 Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials Dhanasekar Naresh Niranjan, Jayakumar Pathma, Raman Gurusamy and Natarajan Sakthivel CONTENTS 17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 427 17.2 Bionanomaterials ....................................................................................... 429 17.2.1 Silver ................................................................................................ 429 17.2.1.1 Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials Using Fungi............... 429 17.2.1.2 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles................................................................. 433 17.2.1.3 Plant Extracts-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles...................................................................434 17.2.2 Gold.................................................................................................. 436 17.2.2.1 Biosynthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Fungi ...... 437 17.2.2.2 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles ..............................................................438 17.2.2.3 Plant Extracts-Mediated Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles................................................................... 438 17.2.3 Platinum .......................................................................................... 439 17.2.4 Zinc Oxide.......................................................................................440 17.2.5 Calcium Carbonate ........................................................................440 17.2.6 Copper and Its Oxides................................................................... 441 17.2.7 Iron ...................................................................................................442 17.2.8 Other Metals ...................................................................................443 17.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................444 References.............................................................................................................444
17.1 Introduction The greener and biologically inspired approaches in material science, nanoscience and bionanoscience are becoming increasingly popular due to the cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness (Anastas 2012, Anastas and Horvath, 2012; Oxana et al. 2013). The prefix nano derived from the Greek word nanos meaning ‘dwarf’ has gained tremendous interest in the field 427
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of physics, chemistry, material science and other biomedical sciences. The foremost concept of nanotechnology was understood from the famous lecture of Richard Feynman at the American Institute of Technology in 1959. Nanoparticles are widely classified into two types, namely, organic and inorganic. Inorganic nanoparticles include iron; noble metals such as silver, gold and platinum; and semiconductor nanoparticles such as TiO2 and ZnO2, while organic nanoparticles include carbon nanoparticles. Generally, two different modes, namely, bottom-up and top-down approaches, are employed for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Although the top-down technique involves the breakdown of larger-sized materials into nanosized compounds, the bottom-up method is generally employed for the chemical and biological routes for the nanoparticle synthesis, which usually involves the union of one or more small molecules into molecular structures, resulting in nanometre range. Nevertheless, the synthesis of nanoparticles with a diverse range of chemical compositions, sizes, shapes and controlled monodispersity is one of the challenging aspects in the field of nanotechnology since the physical, chemical, optical and electronic properties of the nanoscopic materials depend on the size and shape of the nanoparticle (Eustis et al. 2006). Although physical and chemical procedures such as ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, microwave treatment, aerosol treatment, laser ablation, ultrasonic fields and photochemical reduction form the primary route of synthesis of nanoparticles, their high expense and the release of toxic and hazardous by-products restrict their use in the field of biomedical sciences. Hence, researchers in the field of material sciences and bionanosciences turned their attention towards biological approaches. Moreover, biological methods are safe, cost-effective, sustainable and eco-friendly which results in better control over size, production, shape and crystallinity. Various biophysical and optical techniques such as UV-Vis spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are commonly employed to characterise both inorganic and organic nanoparticles. UV-Vis spectroscopy forms the basic and primary mode of the detection of nanoparticles, whose wavelength lies between 300 and 800 nm (Feldheim and Foss 2002). The absorbance measurements in the wavelength ranges of 400–450 nm and 500–550 nm are typical for silver and gold nanoparticles, respectively (Huang and Yang 2004; Shankar et al. 2004). SEM and TEM give possible information regarding the size and shape of the nanoparticles produced (Schaffer et al. 2009). FT-IR spectroscopy helps in identifying the possible functional groups present on the surface of the nanoparticle and the crystalline nature of the material was confirmed from XRD (Chithrani et al. 2006). This chapter describes the recent developments made towards the biological approaches on the synthesis of nanomaterials.
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17.2 Bionanomaterials 17.2.1 Silver 17.2.1.1 Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials Using Fungi The generation of large biomass, easy handling, bioavailability, high metal tolerance and accumulation, mineral solubilising activity and less time consumption make fungi extremely superior over other microbes. Moreover, fungi are fastidious organisms and can be cultivated with ease. In addition, the fungal biomass can withstand flow pressure, agitation and other conditions in bioreactors or other chambers compared to plant materials and bacteria. In recent years, fungi such as Epicoccum nigrum (Sheikhloo et al. 2011), Alternaria alternata (Sarkar et al. 2012), Penicillium sp. (Du et al. 2011), Penicillium rugulosum (Mishra et al. 2012), Penicillium purpurogenum NPMF (Nayak et al. 2011), Phoma macrostoma (Sheikhloo et al. 2012), Rhizopus oryzae Q1 (Das 2012), Rhizopus stolonifer (Binupriya et al. 2010b), Trichoderma asperellum (Mukherjee et al. 2008), Fusarium solani (Ingle et al. 2009) and Cylindrocladium floridanum (Narayanan and Sakthivel 2011) have been reported for the synthesis of various organic and inorganic nanoparticles (Table 17.1). 17.2.1.1.1 Intracellular Mode of Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles An enormous amount of reports are dedicated to green and eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles have been synthesised by both intracellular and extracellular modes of reduction by microbes. Nevertheless, the reduction of the size could be attributed to the nucleation of the particles inside the organism. The fungus C. floridanum was able to selectively accumulate silver on the surface of the mycelium when incubated with silver nitrate (Narayanan and Sakthivel 2011). Interestingly, the mycelia deposited >205 mg of silver when compared to the fungus Phoma sp. 3.2883, which deposited only 13.4 mg/g of the dry body mass. In addition, the size of the spherical nanoparticle was also in the range of 5–55 nm. On the other hand, the detoxificating fungus Phoma sp. 3.2883 yielded a particle size of 71.06 nm (Chen et al. 2003). In a similar manner, Aspergillus flavus has also resulted in the production of silver nanoparticles on incubation with silver ions for a period of 3 days. The fungus exhibited yeast- and mould-like morphologies on treatment with silver nitrate. However, the spectroscopic analysis shows the presence of three absorption bands corresponding to 420, 220 and 280 nm, respectively. The peak at 220 nm signifies the presence of amides and the band at 280 nm identifies tryptophan/tyrosine residues, which are the major ingredients responsible for preventing the flocculation of the synthesised nanoparticles. The diffraction study shows the presence of chitin microfibrils in the fungal matrix. TEM analysis shows the presence of spherical nanoparticles on the surface of the mycelia with an
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Fusarium oxysporum F. oxysporum F. oxysporum F. oxysporum Fusarium sp. (LB-1) Neurospora crassa N. crassa N. crassa Rhizopus oryzae Penicillium rugulosum Penicillium (SD-10) P. brevicompactum Epicoccum nigrum Alternaria alternata A. alternata
Nanoparticle
Mode/Shape
Size
Reference
Barium titanate Zirconia Silica Titania Gold Silver Gold Silver–gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Silver Gold
Extracellular/quasi-spherical Extracellular/quasi-spherical Extracellular/quasi-spherical Extracellular/spherical Intracellular Intracellular/spherical Intracellular/spherical Intracellular/spherical Intracellular Extracellular Intracellular Extracellular/spherical Both intracellular and extracellular/spherical and rod Extracellular/spherical Spherical, triangular and hexagonal
4–5 nm 3–11 nm 5–15 nm 6–13 nm 35 nm 11 nm 32 nm – 15 nm 30 nm 47 nm 25–60 nm 5–50 nm 20–60 nm 12 ± 5 nm
Bansal et al. (2006) Bansal et al. (2004) Bansal et al. (2005) Bansal et al. (2005) Gupta et al. (2011) Castro-Longoria et al. (2011) Castro-Longoria et al. (2011) Castro-Longoria et al. (2011) Das et al. (2012) Mishra et al. (2012) Gupta et al. (2011) Mishra et al. (2011) Sheikhloo et al. (2011) Gajbhiye et al. (2009) Sarkar et al. (2011)
Microbiology for Minerals, Metals, Materials and Environment
TABLE 17.1
Gold Silver Gold Silver Gold Silver Silver Silver
F. solani (USM-3799) F. semitectum Sclerotium rolfsii
Silver Silver Gold
Trichoderma asperellum T. reesei Verticillium sp. Verticillium sp.
Silver Silver Silver Gold
Intracellular/spherical, triangle and rod Extracellular/spherical Intracellular Extracellular/spherical and triangular Intracellular/nanotriangles Intracellular/ND Extracellular/spherical Extracellular/spherical, hexahedral and semi-pentagonal Extracellular/spherical Extracellular/spherical Extracellular/spherical, triangular, hexagonal, decahedral and rod Extracellular/ND Extracellular/ND Intracellular/ND Intracellular/spherical, triangular and hexagonal
100–200 1–20 nm 45 nm 5–60 nm 20–35 nm 100 nm in the case of 5 mM AgNO3 solution (Huang et al. 2011). Table 17.2 lists the production of metal nanoparticles from plant extracts. However, Kumar et al. (2012) have reported the bi-functional role (reducing and capping agent) of Terminalia chebula extract for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Kumar et al. 2013). The extract of T. chebula contains a high level of polyphenolic materials, specifically ellagic acid, which favours the reduction of Ag2+ ions to Ag0. The reducing action of gallic acid and the stabilising potential of glucose makes the synthesis much more rapid, that is, the total reaction time was 4 h. HR-TEM analysis revealed the presence of anisotrophic nature with spherical, triangular and pentagonal morphologies with a size
