book of proceedings

BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium “Agrosym 2015”

AGROSYM 2015

Jahorina, October 15 - 18, 2015

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“

Impressum Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Book of Proceedings Published by University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Serbia Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM - IAMB) Italy International Society of Environment and Rural Development, Japan Balkan Environmental Association, B.EN.A, Greece University of Applied Sciences Osnabrück, Germany Selçuk University, Turkey Perm State Agricultural Academy, Russia Biotehnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Montenegro Institute for Science Application in Agriculture, Serbia Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment, Serbia Institute of Forestry, Podgorica, Montenegro Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia, Serbia Agricultural Institute of Republic of Srpska - Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina Maize Research Institute „Zemun Polje“ Serbia Balkan Scientific Association of Agricultural Economics, Serbia Institute of Agricultural Economics, Serbia

Editor in Chief Dusan Kovacevic

Tehnical editors Sinisa Berjan Milan Jugovic Velibor Spalevic Noureddin Driouech Rosanna Quagliariello

Website: http://www.agrosym.rs.ba CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији Народна и универзитетска библиотека Републике Српске, Бања Лука 631(082)(0.034.2) INTERNATIONAL Scientific Agricultural Symposium "Agrosym 2015" (6 ; Jahorina) Book of proceedings [Elektronski izvor] / Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium "Agrosym 2015", Jahorina, October 15 - 18, 2015 ; [editor in chief Dušan Kovačević]. - East Sarajevo =Istočno Sarajevo : Faculty of Agriculture =Poljoprivredni fakultet, 2015. - 1 elektronski optički disk (CD-ROM) : tekst, slika ; 12 cm CD ROM čitač. - Nasl. sa nasl. ekrana. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad. Registar. ISBN 978-99976-632-2-1 COBISS.RS-ID 5461016

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium “Agrosym 2015” Jahorina, October 15-18, 2015, Bosnia and Herzegovina HONORARY COMMITTEE STEVO MIRJANIC, Minister of Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry of Republic of Srpska, Bosnia; JASMIN KOMIC, Minister of Science and Technology of Republic of Srpska, Bosnia; DANE MALESEVIC, Minister of Education and Culture of Republic of Srpska, Bosnia; RADOSLAV GRUJIC, Rector of the University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; MILICA PETROVIC, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Serbia; COSIMO LACIRIGNOLA, Director of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, (Italy) and Secretary General of the International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM), Italy; MARIO T. TABUCANON, President of the International Society of Environment and Rural Development, Japan; FOKION K. VOSNIAKOS, President of the Balkan Environmental Association (B.EN.A), Greece; BERND LEHMANN, Vice-President of the University of Applied Sciences Osnabruck, Germany; HAKKI GOKBEL, Rector of the Selcuk University, Turkey; IURII ZUBAREV, Rector of the Perm State Agricultural Academy, Russia; MIOMIR JOVANOVIC, Dean of the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Podgorica, Montenegro; SNEZANA JANKOVIC, Director of the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture, Serbia; SASA ORLOVIC, Director of the Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment, Serbia; BRANKO KOVACEVIC, President of the Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia, Serbia; VOJISLAV TRKULJA, Director of Agricultural Institute of Republic of Srpska - Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina; BRANKA KRESOVIC, Director of the Maize Research Institute “Zemun Polje”, Serbia; JONEL SUBIC, Director of the Institute of Agricultural Economics, Serbia SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE DUSAN KOVACEVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Serbia; WILLIAM MEYERS, Howard Cowden Professor of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Missouri, USA; JOHN BRAYDEN, Norwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute (NILF), Norway; STEVE QUARIE, Visiting Professor, School of Biology, Newcastle University, United Kingdom; ATEF HAMDY, Emeritus Professor, Land and Water Resources Department; IAMB, Italy: DANI SHTIENBERG, full professor, Department of Plant pathology and Weed Research, ARO, the Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel: THOMAS G. JOHNSON, University of Missouri – Columbia, USA; DIETER TRAUTZ, University of Applied Science, Germany; MACHITO MIHARA, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan; MARKUS SCHERMER, Department of Sociology, University of Innsbruk, Austria; SERGEI ELISEEV, Vice-Rector for Research and Innovations, Perm State Agricultural Academy, Russia; NOVO PRZULJ, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Banjaluka, Bosnia and Herzegovina; FOKION VOSNIAKOS, Balkan Environmental Association (B.EN.A),Greece; ADRIANO CIANI, Department of Agricultural, Foods and Environmental Sciences, Perugia University, Italy; MATTEO VITTUARI, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bologna, Italy; VELIBOR SPALEVIC, Institute of Forestry, Montenegro; REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR, Bohol Island State University, Philippines; SUDHEER KUNDUKULANGARA PULISSERY, Kerala Agricultural University, India; EPN UDAYAKUMARA, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University, Sri Lanka; VLADIMIR SMUTNÝ, full professor, Mendel University, Faculty of agronomy, Czech Republic; FRANC BAVEC, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Maribor, Slovenia; NICOLAE ISTUDOR, full professor, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania; JAN MOUDRÝ, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, South Bohemia University, Czech Republic; STEFAN TYR, full professor, Faculty of Agro-biology and Food Resources, Slovakia; NATALIJA BOGDANOV, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Serbia; SABAHUDIN BAJRAMOVIC, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia; FRANCESCO PORCELLI, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Italy; VASILIJE ISAJEV, Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade, Serbia; ELAZAR FALLIK, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani, Israel; JUNAID ALAM MEMON, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan; HIROMU OKAZAWA, Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan; MLADEN TODOROVIC, Land and Water Resources Department; IAMB, Italy; HAMID EL BILALI, Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Department. IAMB, Italy; NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH, Environmental Sciences and Organic Agriculture, IAMB, Italy; LALITA SIRIWATTANANON, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (RMUTT), Thailand; ABID HUSSAIN, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal; AMRITA GHATAK, Gujarat Institute of Development Research (GIDR), India; NASER SABAGHNIA, University of Maragheh, Iran; MÁRTA BIRKÁS, full professor, St. Istvan University, Godollo – Hungary; UDAI PRATAP SINGH, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Banaras Hindu University, India; ANDRZEJ KOWALSKI, Director of the Institute for Agricultural and Food Economy, Warzawa-Poland; YALCIN KAYA, The Director of the Plant Breeding Research Center, University of Trakya, Turkey; SANJA RADONJIC, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Montenegro; KOSANA KONSTATINOV, Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia, Serbia; SNEZANA MLADENOVIC-

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ DRINIC, Maize Research Institute “Zemun Polje”, Serbia; NEBOJSA MOMIROVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Serbia; ZORAN JOVOVIC, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Montenegro; VLADIMIR VUKADINOVIC, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Osijek, Croatia; DANIJEL JUG, associate professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Osijek, Croatia; VLADO KOVACEVIC, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Osijek, Croatia; MILAN MARKOVIC, Department for Animal husbandry, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Montenegro. ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE VESNA MILIC, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; STEVAN TRBOJEVIC, Vice rector of the University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; DEJAN BOKONJIC, Vice rector of the University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; ZELJKO DOLIJANOVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Serbia; ROBERTO CAPONE, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy; ROSANNA QUAGLIARIELLO, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy; NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH, Coordinator of MAIB Alumni Network (FTN), Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy; ALEKSANDRA DESPOTOVIC, Biotechnical Faculty Podgorica, University of Montenegro, Montenegro; MILIC CUROVIC, The journal “Agriculture and Forestry”, Biotechnical Faculty Podgorica, University of Montenegro, Montenegro; SLADJAN STANKOVIC, Institute for Science Application in Agriculture, Serbia; SRDJAN STOJNIC, Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment, Serbia; OKSANA FOTINA, International Relations Center, Perm State Agricultural Academy, Russia; MORTEZA BEHZADFAR, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; ULRIKE SCHLIEPHAKE, Dipl. agr.oec., University of Applied Science, Germany; BILJANA GRUJIC, Institute of Agriculture Economics, Serbia; GORAN PERKOVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; MIRJANA RADOVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; MILAN JUGOVIC, Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia; SINISA BERJAN, Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia, secretary

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FOREWORD

Agriculture production increased significantly in the second half of the past century as a result of intensification through increasing external inputs first of all energy and agrochemicals per unit of land. To meet the challenges of increasing food demand, ways should be found to improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of the agricultural and forestry systems. Industrial agricultural system has led to irretrievably changes in the landscape diversity, soil quality, environment integrity, and natural resource base. This has resulted in major questions worldwide in relation to the sustainability of agricultural production systems. At the field level, the optimization of resource use efficiency is a key to issue to achive the different goals with respect to food supply, income and protection of the environment. The most significant damage to natural ecosystems and the environment as a whole is caused by habitat conversion and corresponding climate change, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions, soil erosion and degradation, and pollution from fertilizers and pesticides. Concepts in plant protection have changed in past decades from exclusion or destruction of pest to pest management. Serious problems with pesticides, rapid development of pest resistance, environmental effects of pesticides, and high costs led to the development of new approaches and techniques in pest management based on improved knowledge of pest dynamics and their natural enemies, and the interaction between the pest and the crop. Many of the papers included in the present Proceedings identify a number of approaches and market-based inventives that would encourage producers to achieve entirely new levels of performance, and as a result raise the awareness of governments, and other stakeholders in the agrofood system. Some governments, too are experimenting very innovative approaches to support or encourage sustainable agriculture. One of the goals of the sustainable agriculture movement is to create farming systems that mitigate or eliminate environmental harms associated with industrial agriculture. That aim can be realized only with adapted agricultural practices to the different agroecological conditions (cf. different regional characteristics, soil types, adapted cultivars for low-input or organic production). For our conditions it is important for the conservation of the ecological environment to develop organic production. The result reported here will be also significant in the dissemination of knowledge to the wider audience about the importance of agriculture and food science, one of the most important strategic scientific areas of the European and many national research strategies. The 6th International Scientific Agriculture Symposium “Agrosym 2015” made an important contribution to the agriculture practice in different areas. During the four-day symposium (15-18 October 2015), approximately 750 papers were presented to more than 800 participants representing more than 70 countries. The symposium was made possible through the commitment and contributions of a wide range of partners and cosponsors. We were encouraged by symposium success. This publication comprises an edited selection of the many papers submitted to the symposium. It remains only for me to thank all those who have helped to make this Symposium such a great success. Much appreciation is due to the authors and reviewers of all papers submitted and presented at the symposium, as well as to all symposium participants whose ideas and contributions ensured rich and lively discussion during the various sessions. East Sarajevo, 03. October 2014. Dušan Kovačević, PhD Editor in Chief

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CONTENTS KEYNOTE PAPERS ........................................................................................................................................... 29 TOWARDS A NEW PARADIGM OF INNOVATION IN THE BIOECONOMY JOHN M. BRYDEN................................................................................................................................................. 30 150 YEARS OF THE GENIUS OF GENETICS NOVO PRŽULJ, DRAGAN PEROVIĆ, YUEMING YAN, MILAN MIROSAVLJEVIĆ, BRANKA GOVEDARICA, TANJA KRMPOT, SLAĐANA PETRONIĆ .............................................................................................................. 40 FEEDING THE WORLD IN 2050: FOOD AVAILABILITY VS FOOD ACCESS WILLIAM H. MEYERS, KATERYNA G. SCHROEDER .......................................................................................... 48 HOW TO REDUCE SOIL EROSION – REQUESTS OF LEGISLATION AND EXPERIENCES WITH CONSERVATION TILLAGE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC VLADIMIR SMUTNY, LUBOMIR NEUDERT, VOJTECH LUKAS, TAMARA DRYSLOVA, BLANKA PROCHAZKOVA ................................................................................................................................................. 59 AGROECONOMIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE FUNCTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES SNEŽANA JANKOVIĆ, NEBOJŠA NOVKOVIĆ, ZORICA VASILJEVIĆ ................................................................ 69 PLANT PRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 78 EVALUATION OF ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF TWO ALGERIAN DRY DATE PALM (PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA L.) FRUITS ADEL LEKBIR, OURIDA ALLOUI LOMBARKIA, RADHIA FERHAT, YASSINE NOUI, NAIMA SAADA, FATMA EZAHRA SALHI, SALIMA BAISSISSE, MOUHAMED ABDEDDAIM .................................................................... 79 PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES OF DURUM WHEAT (TR.DURUM DESF.) TO LOW TEMPERATURES FAOUZIA DEHBI, HAMENA BOUZERZOUR, ABDELHAMID MEKHLOUF, ABDERRAHMANE HANNACHI ....... 86 EFFECT OF REGULATED DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON GROWTH AND WATER REGIME OF POTATO MIRJANA MOJEVIC, SLAVISA DJORDJEVIC, ZORICA JOVANOVIC, RADMILA STIKIC ................................. 95 BIOLOGICAL AND POMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTIVARS AND SELECTIONS OF APRICOTS FROM NOVI SAD (SERBIA) GROWN IN BANJA LUKA (BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA) NADA ZAVIŠIĆ, ŽELJKO ROSIĆ ......................................................................................................................... 103 USE OF SPENT MUSHROOM SUBSTRATE FOR GROWING GERANIUM (PELARGONIUM PELTATUM L.) AND SURFINIA (PETUNIA HYBRIDA JUSS.) SEEDLINGS SVJETLANA ZELJKOVIĆ, NADA PARAĐIKOVIĆ, UROŠ ŠUŠAK, MONIKA TKALEC .................................... 109 APPLICATION EFFECT OF MICROBIOLOGICAL FERTILIZER ON PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FRENCH BEAN (PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. SSP. VULGARIS) VEDRANA KOMLEN, ALMA RAHIMIĆ, AIDA ŠUKALIĆ, ALEKSANDRA ŠUPLJEGLAV JUKIĆ .................... 115 TECHNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK WINE VARIETIES IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE TREBINJE (BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA) VINEYARD TIJANA BANJANIN, MIRKO KULINA ................................................................................................................ 119 EXAMINATION OF VIGOR OF DOMESTIC GENOTYPES BIRDSFOOT TREFOIL (LOTUS CORNICULATUS L.) VOJO RADIĆ, ĐORĐE GATARIĆ, ILIJA KOMLJENOVIĆ ................................................................................. 125 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL PHENOLS AND ANTIOXIDATIVE ACTIVITY OF RED SWEET AND HOT PEPPER ZILHA ASIMOVIC, DRAGANA RAJIC, LEJLA CENGIC, SEVAL MUMINOVIC, LUTVIJA KARIC, SELMA CORBO ................................................................................................................................................................ 131

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EFFECT OF THE DATE OF APPLICATION OF HERBICIDES ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF COMMON WINTER WHEAT EMIL PENCHEV, ZORNITSA PETROVA ............................................................................................................. 137 RESEARCH ON SOME GRAIN QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF TURKISH AND ITALIAN RICE VARIETIES GROWN IN BULGARIA IVANKA TOROMANOVA, TONYA GEORGIEVA .............................................................................................. 142 RESEARCH THE SUITABILITY OF THE LAND FOR GROWTH OF BERRIES AND MEDICAL PLANTS: RECOMMENDABLE FERTILIZATION RATES NEDIALKA YORDANOVA, NIKOLAY MINEV, MLADEN ALMALIEV, KRASIMIR TRENDAFILOV, VIOLETA VALCHEVA, STEFKA TODOROVA .................................................................................................................. 148 POLYMORPHISM OF HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT GLUTENINS IN WHEAT ADVANCED LINES ORIGINATED FROM CROSSES WITH D-GENOME DERIVED SYNTHETICS SONYA DONEVA, DIANA YORDANOVA, NADIA DASKALOVA, PENKO SPETSOV..................................... 156 INVESTIGATION ON THE RESISTANCE OF COMMON WINTER WHEAT LINES TO NATURAL INFECTION OF P. STRIIFORMIS VANYA IVANOVA .............................................................................................................................................. 162 NEW COMMON WINTER WHEAT LINES WITH RESISTANCE TO LEAF RUST (P. TRITICINA) VANYA IVANOVA .............................................................................................................................................. 169 THE ROLE OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN WINTER WHEAT UNDER DROUGHT STRESS IRENA BARÁNYIOVÁ, KAREL KLEM ............................................................................................................... 176 EFFECT OF SOME CITRUS ROOTSTOCKS ON YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF TWO MANDARIN VARIETIES SOBHY MOHAMED KHALIFA, ASHRAF EZZAT HAMDY .................................................................................... 182 EFFECTS OF WATER DEFICIT ON GROWTH PARAMETERS OF TWO POPULATIONS OF LOTUS CORNICULATUS MARIA KARATASSIOU, PANAGIOTA KOSTOPOULOU, ZOI PARISSI, MARTHA LAZARIDOU ................... 191 DOUBLED HAPLOID LINE PRODUCTION IN DURUM WHEAT: PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS THEANO B. LAZARIDOU, IOANNIS N. XYNIAS ................................................................................................ 197 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT STRAINS OF AGROBACTERIUM RHIZOGENES AND EXPLANTS AGE ON INDUCTION OF HAIRY ROOTS AND PRODUCTION OF HYOSCYAMINE AND SCOPOLAMINE IN HYOSCYAMUS RETICULATUS ZAHRA ZEINALI, BAHMAN HOSSEINI, ESMAEIL REZAEI ............................................................................... 203 THE EFFECT OF FARM SLOPE AND APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT FERTILIZER SOURCES ON WHEAT YIELD JALAL JALILIAN ................................................................................................................................................. 209 EFFECT OF ACHENES PRE-HYDRATION IN SOLUTION OF SILICA NANOPARTICLES ON EARLY GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L.) MOHSEN JANMOHAMMADI, NASER SABAGHNIA ........................................................................................ 214 DROUGHT TOLERANCE IN SOME CHICKPEA (CICER ARIETINUM L.) GENOTYPES UNDER DIFFERENT IRRIGATION REGIMES MOKHTAR PASANDI, MOHSEN JANMOHAMMADI, NASER SABAGHNIA.................................................... 220 PRODUCTION OF FLAVONOIDS IN HAIRY ROOT CULTURES OF TEUCRIUM POLIUM USING FUSARIUM GRAMINEARUM EXTRACT AS ELICITOR

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MARYAM KHEZRI, MORAD JAFARI, REZA DARVISHZADEH ........................................................................ 226 THE EFFECT OF FOLIAR FERTILIZATION ON THE CHEMICAL CONTENT OF KERNELS OF FERANJEZ ALMOND CULTIVAR GROWN IN VALANDOVO MARINA TODOR STOJANOVA, VLADIMIR IVANOVSKI, SILVANA MANASIEVSKA-SIMIK, IGOR IVANOVSKI, LJUBICA KARAKASHOVA ......................................................................................................... 233 THE EFFECT OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON MORPHOGENESIS IN TISSUE CULTURE OF SOME AGRICULTURE SPECIES LILJANA KOLEVA GUDEVA, FIDANKA TRAJKOVA ....................................................................................... 238 ANALYSIS OF FERITILITY ON THE MERLOT CLONES (VITIS VINIFERA L.), BY APPLYING THE METHOD OF CORRELATION VIOLETA DIMOVSKA, FIDANKA ILIEVA, NATAŠA GUNOVA, VESNA GUNOVA .......................................... 245 MINERAL CONTENT OF GREEN VEGETABLES COMMONLY USED IN MONTENEGRIAN NUTRITION IVANA MILAŠEVIĆ, LJUBICA IVANOVIĆ, DIJANA ĐUROVIĆ, ANA TOPALOVIĆ, MIRKO KNEŽEVIĆ, BOBAN MUGOŠA ................................................................................................................................................ 250 USE OF PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ANTIOXIDANT PRODUCTION IN VEGETABLES LJUBICA IVANOVIĆ, IVANA MILAŠEVIĆ, DIJANA ĐUROVIĆ, ANA TOPALOVIĆ, MIRKO KNEŽEVIĆ, BOBAN MUGOŠA ................................................................................................................................................ 254 EFFECT OF MICROBIOLOGICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS ON MONTENEGRIN RED WINES QUALITY SANJA ŠUĆUR, VESNA MARAŠ, VESNA KODŽULOVIĆ, JOVANA RAIČEVIĆ, ANITA GAZIVODA, MILENA MUGOŠA, ANA SAVOVIĆ, TATJANA KOŠMERL ............................................................................................ 260 COEFFICIENT SURFACE SPRAYED PLANTS: POTENTIAL TOOL OF EFFICIENCY PLANT SPRAYING KATARZYNA DEREŃ, ANTONI SZEWCZYK, BEATA CIENIAWSKA, TOMASZ KLIMZA ................................ 267 RESULTS REGARDING THE BIOMASS YIELD AT TRITICALE UNDER DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS LENUŢA IULIANA EPURE, VIOREL ION, ADRIAN GHEORGHE BASA, MARIN DUMBRAVA, DORU GABRIEL EPURE, GEORGETA TEMOCICO ........................................................................................................................ 273 MORPHOLOGICAL PLANT PROPERTIES OF SWEET CORN CULTIVATED WITH DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES FERENC OROSZ ................................................................................................................................................... 279 BIOMASS YIELD AT MAIZE UNDER DIFFERENT SOWING AND GROWING CONDITIONS VIOREL ION, ADRIAN GHEORGHE BASA, GEORGETA DICU, MARIN DUMBRAVA, LENUTA IULIANA EPURE, DANIEL STATE .................................................................................................................................................... 285 ANALYSIS OF THE YIELD COMPONENTS AT MAIZE UNDER THE SPECIFIC CONDITIONS FROM SOUTH ROMANIAN MARIN DUMBRAVA, ADRIAN GHEORGHE BASA, VIOREL ION, IONELA DOBRIN ......................................... 291 INFLUENCE OF SPRING AGROTECHNICAL CARE TECHNIQUES ON FESCUE LAWN GRASS STAND QUALITY IANA V. SUBBOTINA, IURII N. ZUBAREV ....................................................................................................... 296 AGROECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF FIELD CROP ROTATIONS IN PERM REGION SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ANTONINA KOSOLAPOVA, MARINA VASBIEVA, ECATERINA MITROFANOVA, DENIS FOMIN, VENERA YAMALTDINOVA, IGOR TETERLEV .............................................................................................................. 300 YIELD AND CARRYING CAPACITY OF PEA – BARLEY AGROPHYTOCENOSIS DEPENDING ON SEEDING RATE OF COMPONENTS AND DOSES NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER IN THE MIDDLE PREDURALIE REGION, RUSSIA

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SERGEY L. ELISEEV, EVGENII A. RENEV, IULIIA A. RENEVA ........................................................................ 305 BREEDING AND PROPAGATION OF GARDEN ROSES IN NIKITA BOTANICAL GARDENS YURIJ PLUGATAR, ZINAIDA KLYMENKO, SVETLANA PLUGATAR .............................................................. 311 FLOWERING AND POLLEN GERMINATION OF SOME PEAR CULTIVARS ALEKSANDAR RADOVIĆ, DRAGAN NIKOLIĆ, VERA RAKONJAC, ČEDO OPARNICA, IVANA BAKIĆ ......... 316 POLLEN GERMINATION AND POLLEN TUBE GROWTH IN VITRO IN QUINCE CULTIVARS ALEKSANDAR RADOVIĆ, DRAGAN NIKOLIĆ, DRAGAN MILATOVIĆ, VERA RAKONJAC, GORDAN ZEC ... 321 EXTRACTION OF NATURAL COLOURANTS FROM THE GRAPESKIN OF CABERNET SAUVIGNON ANA KALUŠEVIĆ, MILE VELJOVIĆ, STEVA LEVIĆ, ALEKSANDAR PETROVIĆ, VERICA ĐORĐEVIĆ, VIKTOR NEDOVIĆ............................................................................................................................................................ 327 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF MODE OF ACTION OF BRASSINOSTEROIDS IN MAIZE HADI WAISI, BOGDAN NIKOLIĆ, VESNA DRAGIĆEVIĆ, BOJANA ŠAPONJIĆ, VLADAN JOVANOVIĆ, JELENA TRIFKOVIĆ, DUŠANKA MILOJKOVIĆ-OPSENICA......................................................................................... 332 THE IMPACT OF THE CUTTING OF RED CLOVER ON THE POLLINATORS VISITATION BOJAN ANĐELKOVIĆ, GORAN JEVTIĆ, MIĆA MLADENOVIĆ, ZORAN LUGIĆ, MIRJANA PETROVIĆ, MILOMIR BLAGOJEVIĆ, VALENTINA PEŠEVA ................................................................................................. 340 THE EFFECT OF WATER STRESS ON SOYBEAN YIELD AND WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN A TEMPERATE CLIMATE BRANKA KRESOVIĆ, ANGELINA TAPANAROVA, BOŠKO GAJIĆ, BORIVOJ PEJIĆ, ZORICA TOMIĆ, ZORICA SREDOJEVIĆ, DRAGAN VUJOVIĆ .................................................................................................................... 344 COMPARATIVE ANALISYS OF PARAMETERS FERTILITY OF THE FORMS OF GRAPEVINE CULTIVAR TRAMINER IN THE SUBREGION OF NIŠ (SERBIA) BRATISLAV ĆIRKOVIĆ, DRAGOLJUB ŽUNIĆ, NEBOJŠA DELETIĆ, DUŠICA ĆIRKOVIĆ, SAŠA MATIJAŠEVIĆ2, DRAGAN JANKOVIĆ, ZORAN JOVANOVIĆ ...................................................................................................... 350 THE EFFECT OF FOLIAR APPLICATION OF COBALT ON THE FORAGE YIELD OF RED CLOVER IN THE COMBINED FORAGE-SEED PRODUCTION DALIBOR TOMIĆ, VLADETA STEVOVIĆ, DRAGAN ĐUROVIĆ, ĐORĐE LAZAREVIĆ, JASMINA KNEŽEVIĆ 356 EFFECT OF FERTILIZATION AND MULCHING ON YIELD OF PEPPER DARINKA BOGDANOVIĆ, ŽARKO ILIN, RANKO ČABILOVSKI ...................................................................... 362 HARVEST INDEX AND COMPONENTS OF YIELD IN WINTER WHEAT CULTIVARS (TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.) DESIMIR KNEZEVIC, DANIJELA KONDIC, SRETENKA SRDIC, ALEKSANDAR PAUNOVIC, MILOMIRKA MADIC368 GERMINATION OF MAIZE HYBRIDS SEED STORED AFTER HARVEST DESIMIR KNEZEVIC, NIKOLA STEVANOVIC, VESELINKA ZECEVIC, MILICA ZELENIKA, MIRELA MATKOVIC ........................................................................................................................................................ 373 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON POLLEN GERMINATION AND POLLEN TUBE GROWTH OF PLUM CULTIVARS DRAGAN MILATOVIĆ, DRAGAN NIKOLIĆ, MIRJANA RADOVIĆ .................................................................... 378 PHENOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS, YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF INTRODUCED APRICOT CULTIVARS IN THE REGION OF BELGRADE (SERBIA) DRAGAN MILATOVIĆ, DEJAN ĐUROVIĆ, GORDAN ZEC ................................................................................. 383 THE IMPACT OF ALFALFA CUTTING TERM ON NUMBER OF PLANTS DRAGAN TERZIĆ, SAVO VUČKOVIĆ, RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ, BORA DINIĆ, JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ, DRAGOSLAV ĐOKIĆ, TANJA VASIĆ ................................................................................................................... 389

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LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF INCORPORATION OF CROP RESIDUES AND INCREASING DOSES OF NITROGEN ON THE MAIZE YIELD DRAGANA LATKOVIĆ, BRANKO MARINKOVIĆ, JOVAN CRNOBARAC, JANOŠ BERENJI, VLADIMIR SIKORA, GORAN JAĆIMOVIĆ........................................................................................................................... 395 MINERAL NUTRITION USE EFFICIENCY OF WINTER WHEAT DEPENDING ON THE INTENSITY OF FERTILIZATION GORAN JAĆIMOVIĆ, VLADIMIR AĆIN, NIKOLA HRISTOV, BRANKO MARINKOVIĆ, JOVAN CRNOBARAC, DRAGANA LATKOVIĆ ........................................................................................................................................ 401 INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF GROWING ON QUALITATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN GORDANA DOZET, VOJIN ĐUKIĆ, MARIJA CVIJANOVIĆ, NENAD ĐURIĆ, LJILJANA KOSTADINOVIĆ, SNEŽANA JAKŠIĆ, GORICA CVIJANOVIĆ ......................................................................................................... 407 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CROP SEQUENCES AND THEIR INFLUENCES ON MAIZE GROWING PARAMETERS AND YIELD IGOR SPASOJEVIC, MILENA SIMIC, DUSAN KOVACEVIC, VESNA DRAGICEVIC, MILAN BRANKOV, ZELJKO DOLIJANOVIC ...................................................................................................................................... 413 PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF PLUM FRUIT AT PHYSIOLOGICAL AND HARVEST MATURITY IVAN GLIŠIĆ, TOMO MILOŠEVIĆ, RADMILA ILIĆ ............................................................................................ 418 BIOLOGICAL AND POMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PROMISING PLUM HYBRIDS CREATED AT THE FRUIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE‒ČAČAK, SERBIA IVANA GLIŠIĆ, DRAGAN MILATOVIĆ, NEBOJŠA MILOŠEVIĆ, MILAN LUKIĆ .............................................. 424 EFFECTS OF SUBSURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION ON PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEVEN POTATO CULTIVARS JASMINA OLJAČA, ZORAN BROĆIĆ, NEBOJŠA MOMIROVIĆ, IVANA MOMČILOVIĆ, DOBRIVOJ POŠTIĆ, DANIJEL PANTELIĆ ............................................................................................................................................ 430 EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZERS ON LEAF BIOMASS PRODUCTION OF ENERGY CROPS (MISCANTHUS X GIGANTEUS) JELA IKANOVIĆ, SNEŽANA JANKOVIĆ, BRANKA KRESOVIĆ, VERA POPOVIĆ, GORDANA DRAŽIĆ, SVETO RAKIĆ, LJUBIŠA ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJUBIŠA KOLARIĆ .......................................................................................... 436 CHROMIUM (CR) CONTENT IN THE ABOVEGROUND PORTIONS AND KERNEL OF DIFFERENT SMALL GRAIN CULTIVARS JELENA MILIVOJEVIĆ, VERA ĐEKIĆ, MIODRAG JELIĆ, ZORAN SIMIĆ .......................................................... 444 THE ROLE OF BIOFERTILIZATION IN IMPROVING APPLE PRODUCTION MARIJANA PEŠAKOVIĆ, JELENA TOMIĆ, RADE MILETIĆ, MILAN LUKIĆ, ŽAKLINA KARAKLAJIĆ-STAJIĆ450 VARIATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAITS OF MAIZE HYBRID SEED OVER GROWING LOCATIONS MARIJENKA TABAKOVIĆ, SNEŽANA V. JOVANOVIĆ, RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ, RATIBOR ŠTRBANOVIĆ, VERA POPOVIĆ .................................................................................................................................................. 456 SOME MORPHOLOGICAL AND PRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF WINTER RYE DEPENDING ON TILLAGE DEPTH MILAN BIBERDŽIĆ, NEBOJŠA DELETIĆ, SAŠA BARAĆ, SLAVIŠA STOJKOVIĆ, DRAGOLJUB BEKOVIĆ, DANIJELA PRODANOVIĆ, DRAGANA LALEVIĆ ............................................................................................... 461 POMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND YIELD OF INTRODUCED APPLE CULTIVARS IN THE REGION OF WESTERN SERBIA MILAN LUKIĆ, SLAĐANA MARIĆ ...................................................................................................................... 466 GRAIN YIELD AND STABILITY PARAMETERS FOR ZP MAIZE HYBRIDS GROWN IN CENTRAL SERBIA AND VOJVODINA DURING 2014

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ MILAN STEVANOVIĆ, JOVAN PAVLOV, NENAD DELIĆ, ZORAN ČAMDŽIJA, MILOŠ CREVAR, NIKOLA GRČIĆ, SNEŽANA MLADENOVIĆ-DRINIĆ ...................................................................................................... 473 OPTIMIZATION OF HERBS EXTRACTION FOR SOFT DRINK PRODUCTION MILE VELJOVIĆ, ANA KALUŠEVIĆ, ANA SALEVIĆ, MARIJANA STAMENKOVIĆ-ĐOKOVIĆ, PREDRAG VUKOSAVLJEVIĆ, BRANKO BUGARSKI, VIKTOR NEDOVIĆ ....................................................................... 478 EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZER ON GRAIN WEIGHT PER SPIKE IN TRITICALE UNDER CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL SERBIA MILOMIRKA MADIĆ, DRAGAN ĐUROVIĆ, ALEKSANDAR PAUNOVIĆ, MIODRAG JELIĆ, DESIMIR KNEŽEVIĆ, BRANKA GOVEDARICA .................................................................................................................................... 483 DETECTION OF EPISTASIS FOR PLANT HEIGHT IN HEXAPLOID WHEAT (TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.) USING GENERATION MEAN ANALYSIS NATAŠA LJUBIČIĆ, SOFIJA PETROVIĆ, MIODRAG DIMITRIJEVIĆ, NIKOLA HRISTOV ................................ 488 THE INHERITANCE OF PLANT HEIGHT IN HEXAPLOID WHEAT (TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.) NATAŠA LJUBIČIĆ, SOFIJA PETROVIĆ, MIODRAG DIMITRIJEVIĆ, NIKOLA HRISTOV ................................ 494 THE EFFECT OF VETCH SEED SIZE ON THE SEED QUALITY AND ON SEEDLING VIGOR RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ, RATIBOR ŠTRBANOVIĆ, LANA ĐUKANOVIĆ, DOBRIVOJ POŠTIĆ, SNEŽANA JOVANOVIĆ, MARIJENKA TABAKOVIĆ, JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ ................................................................ 500 GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC CORRELATIONS AMONG STUDIED TRAITS OF DIFFERENT ALFALFA CULTIVARS RATIBOR ŠTRBANOVIĆ, RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ, LANA ĐUKANOVIĆ, DOBRIVOJ POŠTIĆ, SNEŽANA JOVANOVIĆ, MARIJENKA TABAKOVIĆ, NENAD DOLOVAC ........................................................................ 505 GENOTYPIC AND PHENOTYPIC CORRELATION BETWEEN YIELD COMPONENTS IN S1 AND HS PROGENIES OF AN F3 MAIZE POPULATION SLAVIŠA STOJKOVIĆ, NEBOJŠA DELETIĆ, MILAN BIBERDŽIĆ, MIROLJUB AKSIĆ, DRAGOLJUB BEKOVIĆ, SLAVIŠA GUDŽIĆ ................................................................................................................................................ 512 THE CRUDE PROTEIN CONTENT IN RED CLOVER GROWN ON DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES SNEŽANA JAKŠIĆ, JOVICA VASIN, SAVO VUČKOVIĆ, NADA GRAHOVAC .................................................. 517 CONDITION OF SOME PRIMARY METABOLITES IN WHEAT GRAINS DURING STORAGE SNEŽANA JANKOVIĆ, SVETO RAKIĆ, JELA IKANOVIĆ, BRANKA KRESOVIĆ, RADOJICA RAKIĆ, JANJA KUZEVSKI.......................................................................................................................................................... 523 VARYING OF AVERAGE YIELDS OF THE COMMERCIAL HYBRID ZPSC 341 OVER DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PERCENTAGE PARTICIPATION OF FERTILE PLANTS SNEŽANA V. JOVANOVIĆ, MARIJENKA TABAKOVIĆ, BRANIMIR ŠIMIĆ, TOMISLAV ŽIVANOVIĆ, RATIBOR ŠTRBANOVIĆ, RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ ....................................................................................................... 528 INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZATION AND TILLAGE ON MAIZE GRAIN QUALITY TRAITS AND YIELD SNEŽANA MLADENOVIĆ DRINIĆ, BRANKA KRESOVIĆ, VESNA DRAGIČEVIĆ, MILAN BRANKOV ........ 534 APPLICATION OF PLANT ANATOMY IN CROP RESEARCH SOFIJA PEKIĆ QUARRIE, DRAGANA RANČIĆ, ILINKA PEĆINAR, MAJA TERZIĆ, RADENKO RADOŠEVIĆ 540 GENETIC POTENTIAL AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF WINTER BARLEY VERA ĐEKIĆ, JELENA MILIVOJEVIĆ, VERA POPOVIĆ, SNEŽANA BRANKOVIĆ, MIODRAG JELIĆ, MIRJANA STALETIĆ, VESNA PERIŠIĆ .............................................................................................................................. 553 EFFECTS OF FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND GRAIN QUALITY IN WINTER WHEAT VERA ĐEKIĆ, JELENA MILIVOJEVIĆ, MIODRAG JELIĆ, VERA POPOVIĆ, SNEŽANA BRANKOVIĆ, MIRJANA STALETIĆ, SNEŽANA ŽIVANOVIĆ-KATIĆ ..................................................................................................... 559

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FORTIFICATION AND BIO-AVAILABILITY OF MINERAL ELEMENTS FROM AGRICULTURAL PLANTS VESNA DRAGIČEVIĆ, MILOVAN STOJILJKOVIĆ, MILENA SIMIĆ, SNEZANA MLADENOVIĆ-DRINIĆ, BOGDAN NIKOLIĆ, SANJA ŽIVKOVIĆ, NATALIJA KRAVIĆ ............................................................................ 565 EFFECT OF BENTAZONE ON WHEAT GENOTYPES DIFFERENT BY LR GENES GROWTH AND PARASITES IN HARD CONTINENTAL CLIMATE ZORAN JERKOVIĆ, ŽELJANA PRIJIĆ, RADIVOJE JEVTIĆ ................................................................................. 571 THE EFFECT OF PRUNING SYSTEM ON VARIATION OF NUMBER OF BUNCHES OF THE VINE CULTIVAR WHITE TAMJANIKA IN ZUPA VINE DISTRICT, SERBIA ZORAN JOVANOVIC, BRATISLAV CIRKOVIC, MLADJAN GARIC, DRAGAN JANKOVIC, ZORAN NIKOLIC . 577 STORAGE PROTEIN VARIATION IN CENTRAL EUROPEAN WHEAT VARIETIES EDITA GREGOVÁ, SVETLANA ŠLIKOVÁ, RASTISLAV BUŠO ........................................................................... 582 DETERMINATION OF VEGETATIVE AND GENERATIVE CHARACTERISTYICS OF DIFFERENT COTTON VARIETIES UNDER DROUGHT STRESS ESENGÜL DEMİREL, BERKANT ÖDEMİŞ ........................................................................................................... 588 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ZINC APPLICATIONS ON YIELD, YIELD COMPONENTS AND SOME QUALITY TRAITS OF BREAD AND DURUM WHEAT VARIETIES İLKNUR AKGÜN, FATMA DURAN, MUHARREM KAYA .................................................................................... 594 ORNAMENTAL PEPPER BREEDING PROGRAM AS POTTED PLANT IN TURKEY KAZIM MAVİ ....................................................................................................................................................... 602 EFFECTS OF PREHARVEST SOME APPLICATIONS ON CRACKING AND FRUIT QUALITY OF ‘0900 ZİRAAT’ SWEET CHERRY CULTIVAR MEHMET AKSU, İSMAIL DEMİRTAŞ, HASAN CUMHUR SARISU, ÖZGÜR ÇALHAN, HÜSEYIN AKGÜL ..... 608 DETERMINATION OF THE OPTIMUM FERTILIZER QUANTITY BY THE SOIL ANALYSIS IN TURKEY MEHMET ARIF ŞAHİNLİ, AHMET ÖZÇELİK, H.TAYYAR GÜLDAL .................................................................. 615 ASSESSMENT OF ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITIES OF PLANT EXTRACTS FROM VITEX AGNUS-CASTUS L. MELIH YILAR, YUSUF BAYAN, ABDURRAHMAN ONARAN ............................................................................. 622 INVESTIGATION OF VIRULENCE AND PRESENCE OF MIKOVIRAL DSRNA ON LEUCOSTOMA SPP. ISOLATES OF THE CHERRY PRODUCTION AREAS IN THE AEGEAN REGION/TURKEY MELIS TÖNGÜŞLÜ, SERAP AÇIKGÖZ .............................................................................................................. 626 PLUM PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN TURKEY MUSTAFA KENAN GECER, YAKUP ERDAL ERTURK, SULEYMAN YALCIN, MUTTALIP GUNDOGDU............ 632 EVALUATION OF ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF METHANOL PLANT EXTRACTS FROM CORNUS MAS L. AND MORUS ALBA L. YUSUF BAYAN, MELIH YILAR, ABDURRAHMAN ONARAN ............................................................................. 640 THE IMPACT OF FLOODS ON THE CHANGE OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AGRICULTURAL SOIL GORAN PERKOVIĆ, VESNA TUNGUZ, ALEKSANDRA GOVEDARICA-LUČIĆ, RADOMIR BODIROGA, MLADEN DUGONJIĆ, MIRZETA SALETOVIĆ, SAŠA LALIĆ ............................................................................ 644 EFFECT OF VARIETY AND SIZE OF PLANTING MATERIAL TO POTATO TUBERS YIELD BRANKA GOVEDARICA, VESNA MILIĆ, IGOR ĐURĐIĆ, MILAN GUJA .......................................................... 649 VARIABILITY OF QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF SOME POTATO VARIETIES IN THE AREA OF SARAJEVO-ROMANIJA REGION

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ BRANKA GOVEDARICA, IGOR ĐURĐIĆ, DANIJELA MOČEVIĆ, DRAGANA VUKOVIĆ, LJILJANA JANKOVIĆ656 PERSPECTIVITY OAT GENOTYPES AND THEIR COMPONENTS OF PRODUCTIVITY AT THE PLOVDIV REGION (BULGARIA) AGRO-CLIMATIC CONDITIONS PLAMEN ZOROVSKI, TONYA GEORGIEVA, TODORKA SAVOVA, DRAGICA SPASOVA ............................... 661 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT OF MULTI-NUTS CUTTING TOOLS GOPAL U. SHINDE, SHRIKANT PATIL, SUNIL SHINDE ..................................................................................... 667 USING PRINCIPAL COORDINATES ANALYSIS FOR INTERPRETING GENOTYPE × ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION IN PLANT BREEDING PROGRAMS MEHDI MOHEBODINI, NASER SABAGHNIA ................................................................................................... 673 EXAMINATION OF SOME DUTCH WHITE FLESH POTATO VARIETIES IN MOUNTAINOUS REGION OF MONTENEGRO ZORAN JOVOVIĆ, ŽELJKO DOLIJANOVIĆ, ANA VELIMIROVIĆ, DOBRIVOJ POŠTIĆ, DRAGO MILOŠEVIĆ681 CONTENT OF MANGANESE, COPPER AND ZINC IN ALFALFA AND GRASSES IN RELATION TO THE SOIL PROPERTIES IN SERBIA KLARA MARIJANUŠIĆ, MAJA MANOJLOVIĆ, DARINKA BOGDANOVIĆ, RANKO ČABILOVSKI, PEDER LOMBNAES........................................................................................................................................................ 685 SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF TEMPORAL TRENDS IN GROWING SEASON LENGTH FOR SERBIA OVER THE PERIOD 1961–2010 MIRJANA RUML, ENIKE GREGORIĆ, SLAVICA RADOVANOVIĆ, GORDANA MATOVIĆ, MIRJAM VUJADINOVIC, ANA VUKOVIC ...................................................................................................................... 690 THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT COVER CROPS ON FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF WEEDS IN SWEET MAIZE ŽELJKO DOLIJANOVIĆ, MILENA SIMIĆ, DUŠAN KOVAČEVIĆ, SNEŽANA OLJAČA, VESNA DRAGIČEVIĆ, ZORAN JOVOVIĆ ................................................................................................................................................ 696 EFFICIENCY OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IN CONTROLLING OF SEEDS AND ROOTS DISEASES OF EGGPLANT NADEEM A. RAMADAN, PERIS T. AKRAWI ..................................................................................................... 703 ASSESSMENT OF BISEXUAL P. ATLANTICA GENOTYPES AS POLLINATORS FOR P. VERA CULTIVARS AND THE GENETIC SIMILARITY AMONG THEIR F1 PROGENIES USING SSR MARKERS NAJWA M. ALHAJJAR, BAYAN M. MUZHER.................................................................................................... 713 ASSESSMENT OF GENETIC INTEGRITY OF APPLE SEEDLINGS ROOTSTOCKS DERIVED FROM THE LOCAL APPLE CULTIVAR (SUKARI 2) IN SYRIA USING SSR MARKERS OLA T. AL-HALABI, BAYAN M. MUZHER ....................................................................................................... 721 MAIZE BREEDING FOR QUALITY TRAITS SNEZANA MLADENOVIC DRINIC, MARIJA KOSTADINOVIC, DRAGANA IGNJATOVIĆ MICIĆ, VESNA DRAGIČEVIĆ ..................................................................................................................................................... 727 THE RESPONSE TO STOMATAL CONDUCTANCE AND CHLOROPHYLL VALUE OF GROUNDNUT GROWN UNDER SALT STRESS IN DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT STAGES BERKANT ÖDEMIŞ .............................................................................................................................................. 732 INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS ON GRAIN YIELD AND QUALITY OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BREAD WHEAT MEHMET KARAMAN, HÜSNÜ AKTAŞ, ENVER KENDAL, SERTAÇ TEKDAL, İRFAN ERDEMCİ, HASAN DOĞAN ............................................................................................................................................................... 738 COMPARISION OF REGISTERED FLAXSEED CULTIVARS IN TERMS OF MINERAL AND NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION AND HARVES EFFICIENCY

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ ANNA WONDOŁOWSKA-GRABOWSKA, ELŻBIETA SKRZYŃSKA, MONIKA KOWALSKA-GÓRALSKA, MAGDALENA SENZE, JASMINKA BUTORAC, CEM OMER EGESEL .................................................................. 742 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HAIRY ROOT INDUCTION EFFICIENCY IN TWO MEDICINALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS USING AGROBACTERIUM RHIZOGENES BAHMAN HOSSEINI, ELNAZ NOROZY .............................................................................................................. 750 PLANT PROTECTION AND FOOD SAFETY .............................................................................................. 757 STUDY OF OCHRATOXIN A’ AND ZEARALENONE’ CONTAMINATION IN WHEAT AND MAIZE FROM ALBANIA AFËRDITA SHTËMBARI, DRITAN TOPI ............................................................................................................. 758 THE IDENTIFICATION OF MOLD DEVELOPED IN WHEAT’S GERM OBTAINED FROM INDUSTRIAL MILL COMPANIES IN KORÇA, ALBANIA LORENA MEMUSHAJ, DONIKA PRIFTI.............................................................................................................. 763 ANALYSIS OF TRANS-FATTY ACIDS AND THE QUALITY OF OLIVE OIL EXTRACTED IN ALBANIA STELA VELO, BOJAN BUTINAR, MILENA MIKLAVČIČ-ARNES, DRITAN TOPI ............................................ 770 DIFFERENCES IN COMPARED ACTIVITY OF WHITE FLIES PREDATORY POPULATIONS IN THE CITRUS REGION OF CHLEF (WESTERN NORTH OF ALGERIA) ABDELHAQ MAHMOUDI, LEÏLA BENFEKIH, FERRAN GARCIA MARI .......................................................... 780 THE APHIDS INFESTING CITRUS ORCHARDS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES IN THE NORTHWESTERN ALGERIA ZINE-EDDINE LABDAOUI, YAMINA GUENAOUI ............................................................................................. 787 DENSITY INFESTATIONS OF PARLATORIA ZIZIPHII (LUCAS) (HEMIPTERA: DIASPIDIDAE) ON CITRUS IN THE NORTHWESTERN ALGERIA. IMAD BOUAZZA, YAMINA GUENAOUI ............................................................................................................ 793 SEVEN YEARS OF STUDIES ON TUTA ABSOLUTA (MEYRICK) (LEPIDOPTERA: GELECHIIDAE) IN ALGERIA: WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED ABOUT? YAMINA GUENAOUI, ABDERAHMENE DEHLIZ, RAOUF BENSAAD, ZINE-EDDINE LABDAOUI, KACEM HAMOU .............................................................................................................................................................. 799 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF DATES SYRUPS (PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA L.) YASSINE NOUI, OURIDA ALLOUI LOMBARKIA, DJAMEL FAHLOUL, AMEL BEKRAR, ADEL LEKBIR, LATIFA HADERBACHE ...................................................................................................................................... 805 SOME BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS EVOLUTION IN SEVERAL CHICKPEA GENOTYPES CALLI, ELICITED WITH ASCOCHYTA RABIEI SPORES SUSPENSION ZOHRA IGHILGARIZ, AMINA KADIRI .............................................................................................................. 812 ORGANOLEPTIC ASSESSMENT OF FIG STRUDEL WHERE SUCROSE WAS SUBSTITUTED WITH HIGH FRUCTOSE SYRUP HANADIJA OMANOVIC, ALMA MICIJEVIC, DZENAN VUKOTIC, MAJA VRLJIC, AMNA BIJEDIC ............... 820 ASSOCIATION OF CYNODONO-SORGHETUM HALEPENSAE (LABAN 1974) KOJIĆ 1979 IN THE VINEYARDS OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ZLATAN KOVACEVIC, BILJANA КELECEVIC, SINISA MITRIC ....................................................................... 825 SCREENING FOR ANTIXENOSIS RESISTANCE OF WINTER WHEAT GENOTYPES TO CEREAL LEAF BEETLES (OULEMA SPP.) LILYANA KOLEVA, SVETLANA LANDJEVA, ELENA TSOLOVA, KRASIMIR IVANOV ................................... 831 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT HERBICIDES ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF WHEAT MAYA DIMITROVA, IVAN ZHALNOV, DOCHKA DIMOVA, ILIAN ZHELYAZKOV, PLAMEN ZOROVSKI .. 838

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PHENOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME CULTIVARS OF WINTER OATS UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL SOTHERN BULGARIA TONYA GEORGIEVA, PLAMEN ZOROVSKI ...................................................................................................... 843 FIRST RECORD OF PHOMOPSIS SP. ON CHICK PEA (CICER ARIETINUM) IN BULGARIA YORDANKA STANOEVA, MAGDALENA BELEVA ............................................................................................. 850 MODELING THE PRODUCTION AND THE PROTECTION OF THE TOMATO CROP IN MIDDLE EGYPT AHMED ABDU HAMED AMIN .............................................................................................................................. 854 RECOGNITION OF TWO BIOCONTROL AGENTS AND THEIR LABORATORY EVALUATION FOR CONTROLLING WOOD BORERS AHMED MERGHEM ............................................................................................................................................ 862 SURVEY ON DISEASES AND PESTS ATTACK QUINOA IN EGYPT TAWFIK H. ABD EL MOITY, HAITHAM B.M. BADRAWY, AYAT M. ALI ........................................................ 868 AN INNOVATIVE MACHINE PERFORMING THE FLAME TREATMENT OF KIWI FRUIT PRUNING RESIDUES INFECTED BY PSA ROBERTO TOMASONE, CARLA CEDROLA, MAURO PAGANO ....................................................................... 877 EFFECTS OF CARBON SOURCE ON THE TOXINOGENESIS OF PENICILLIUM AURANTIOGRISEUM ASSIA BOUHOUDAN, ABDELRHAFOUR TANTAOUI-ELARAKI, MUSTAPHA KHADDOR............................. 883 COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF GARLIC JUICE AND FENAZAQUIN TO POPULATION OF CITRUS MITES YOUNES ATIBI, ABDELMALEK BOUTALEB JOUTEI, TAHER SLIMANI .......................................................... 890 MICROBIOLOGICAL DRESSING OF PEA SEEDS AS A FORM OF INCREASE RESISTANCE AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT JOLANTA KOWALSKA, ZBYSZEK ZBYTEK ...................................................................................................... 900 EFFICIENCY OF REGULATORS OF GROWTH AND MICROFERTILIZERS ON THE LETTUCE A GRADE GEYSER CULTIVATED BY METHOD OF A FLOWING HYDROPONICS LUDMILA V. DERBENEVA, A.D. BOYARSHINOVA ....................................................................................... 907 THE EFFECT OF WEEDS ON THE YIELD AND QUALITY PARAMETERS OF RAPESEED DANIJELA PAVLOVIĆ, PETAR MITROVIĆ, DRAGANA MARISAVLJEVIĆ, ANA MARJANOVIĆ-JEROMELA, ANA ANĐELKOVIĆ ........................................................................................................................................... 914 MORPHOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR PATHOGEN OF ANISE SEED IN SERBIA

IDENTIFICATION

OF FUSARIUM SUBGLUTINANS,

DANIJELA RISTIĆ, SNEZANA PAVLOVIĆ, NENAD TRKULJA, MILICA AĆIMOVIĆ, ERIKA PFAF-DOLOVAC, NENAD DOLOVAC, MIRA STAROVIĆ .............................................................................................................. 919 REACTION OF SUGAR BEET MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLINA

GENOTYPES

ON

CHARCOAL

ROOT

ROT

CAUSED

BY

TATJANA DUDAŠ, DRAGANA BUDAKOV, NADEŽDA ĐURAGIN, FERENC BAGI, VERA STOJŠIN ................ 924 THE SISTEM OF REGULAR TEHNICAL DEVICE CONTROL FOR THE APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA DRAGOSLAV DJOKIC, TANJA VASIC, JASMINA MILENKOVIC, DRAGAN TERZIC, RADE STANISAVLJEVIC, SASA BARAC, RANKO KOPRIVICA .................................................................................................................. 930 EFFECT OF INDIGENOUS RHIZOSPHERIC ISOLATES PSEUDOMONAS SPP. ON THE INHIBITION OF PSEUDOTHECIA FORMATION AND ASCOSPORES GERMINATION OF VENTURIA INAEQUALIS GORAN ALEKSIĆ, MIRA STAROVIĆ, SLOBODAN KUZMANOVIĆ, MILOŠ STEVANOVIĆ, IVAN VUČUROVIĆ, DRAGANA JOŠIĆ ........................................................................................................................ 936

15


ALUMINA POWDERS AS NOVEL (ACANTHOSCELIDES OBTECTUS SAY)

NON-TOXIC

INSECTICIDE

AGAINST

BEAN

WEEVIL

IGOR KOSTIĆ, SLOBODAN KRNJAJIĆ, ALEKSANDAR RADOJKOVIĆ, MARKO RADOVIĆ, SLAVICA M. SAVIĆ, MIROSLAV KOSTIĆ, JELENA MITROVIĆ, ZORICA BRANKOVIĆ, GORAN BRANKOVIĆ .............................. 943 CHARACTERISTICS OF FATTY ACIDS AND ESSENTIAL OIL FROM SWEET AND BITTER FENNEL FRUITS GROWING IN SERBIA MILICA AĆIMOVIĆ, SANJA POPOVIĆ, LJILJANA KOSTADINOVIĆ, JOVANA STANKOVIĆ, MIRJANA CVETKOVIĆ ...................................................................................................................................................... 949 ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITIES MYCOPOPULATIONS

OF

DIFFERENT

ESSENTIAL

OILS

TO

MARIGOLD

SEEDS

MIRA STAROVİC, DANIJELA RİSTİC, DRAGANA JOŠİĆ, MILOS STEVANOVİC, NENAD DOLOVAC, MEHMET MUSA ÖZCAN, SNEZANA PAVLOVIC ............................................................................................................... 954 DISSIPATION OF HERBICIDE NICOSULFURON IN SOIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS SANJA LAZIĆ, DRAGANA ŠUNJKA, IRENA STOJANOVIĆ, SLAVICA VUKOVIĆ, BOJAN KONSTANTINOVIĆ, MILENA POPOV................................................................................................................................................... 959 CONTROL OF DIABROTICA VIRGIFERA VIRGIFERA LE CONTE WITH INSECTICIDES SLAVICA VUKOVIĆ, DUŠANKA INĐIĆ, SONJA GVOZDENAC ......................................................................... 966 THE IMPACT OF COLLETOTRICHUM DESTRUCTIVUM ON RESISTANCE IN DIFFERENT RED CLOVER CULTIVARS TANJA VASIĆ, ZORAN LUGIĆ, DRAGAN TERZIĆ, JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ, JORDAN MARKOVIĆ, SANJA ŽIVKOVIĆ .......................................................................................................................................................... 972 DETERMINATION OF THE MATERNAL EFFECT OF RHYZOBIUS LOPHANTHAE BLAISDELL (COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLIDAE) BY USING LIFE TABLE BETÜL ŞİMŞEK, ALI KAYAHAN, İSMAIL KARACA ........................................................................................ 977 DETERMINATION STUDIES ON THE REACTIONS OF SOME WHEAT GENOTYPES FOR DRY LANDS AGAINST STRİPE RUST (PUCCINIA STRIIFORMIS F. SP. TRITICI) GÜL İMRİZ, MURAT NADI TAŞ, BIROL ERCAN, FATIH ÖZDEMİR, İLKER TOPAL ......................................... 985 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM O2 OR CO2 FOR APPLE CV. STARKRIMSON DELICIOUS UNDER CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE İSA EREN, ÖZGÜR ÇALHAN, C. EBRU ONURSAL, ATAKAN GÜNEYLİ, TUBA SEÇMEN, SÜLEYMAN AKOL989 METAL, NON-METAL AND HEAVYMETAL CONTENTS OF CAPER PARTS MEHMET MUSA ÖZCAN, MUSTAFA HARMANKAYA, FAHAD AL JUHAIMI, KASHIF GHAFOOR, ELFADIL E. BABIKER ............................................................................................................................................................ 995 DETERMINATION OF STORAGE AND SHELF LIFE QUALITY OF JEROMINE APPLE VARIETY GROWN IN THE ISPARTA ÖZGÜR ÇALHAN, İSA EREN, TUBA SEÇMEN, ATAKAN GÜNEYLİ, C. EBRU ONURSAL, M. ALI KOYUNCU1001 COLOR QUALITY OF FRESH-CUT FRUITS AND VEGETABLES M.UFUK KASIM, REZZAN KASIM .................................................................................................................... 1007 THE METHODS TO PREVENT THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ETHYLENE ON THE ETHYLENESENSITIVE CUT FLOWERS REZZAN KASIM, M.UFUK KASIM .................................................................................................................... 1015 THE EFFECTS OF THE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVE FORMULATES AND STRAINS AGAINST THE CROWN ROT (PHYTOPHTHORA CACTORUM) SUAT KAYMAK, YUSUF ÖZTÜRK, HASAN PINAR, İLKER KURBETLİ, ŞEYMA REYHAN ERDOĞAN, HAMZA ŞENYURT ......................................................................................................................................................... 1025

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FIRST REPORT OF WHITE MOLD OF THE GLOBE ARTICHOKE CAUSED BY SCLEROTINIA SCLEROTIORUM IN TURKEY TIJEN TASKIN, GULCAN YIKILMAZSOY ....................................................................................................... 1031 DIAGNOSIS OF SOME SEED-BORNE FUNGI ON SOME BARLEY GENETIC SOURCES IN YEMEN AFEF M.R. ABDULLAH, ADEL ANSI, HAMEED ALKHADER, HISHAM AL-MUTWAKKIL ......................... 1035 ZEARALENON CONTAMINATION IN CORN FOR FOOD AND FEED IN REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA VOJISLAV TRKULJA, DRAGANA KOVAČIĆ JOŠIĆ, BOJANA VUKOVIĆ, JELENA VASIĆ, JOVANA PRIJIĆ . 1043 EFFICIANCY AND SELECTIVITY OF SOME HERBICIDES AT SWEETCORN ATANAS SEVOV, MAYA DIMITROVA, DIMITAR STOICHEV, PLAMEN ZOROVSKI .................................... 1048 COMPOSITION OF AROMA COMPOUNDS OF THE APPLE DISTILLATES FROM NATIVE VARIETIES OF NORTH GREECE MARIA CHRISTOPOULOU – GEROYIANNAKI, CHRYSOULA TZOUTZOUKOU, THEOPHILOS MASOURAS1053 THE EFFECT OF MANURE, ZEOLITE AND MINERAL FERTILIZER ON THE YIELD AND MINERAL COMPOSITION OF CAULIFLOWER STELIOS THEOFANOUDIS, SPYRIDON PETROPOULOS, VASILIOS ANTONIADIS ...................................... 1058 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF BOOM SPRAYER BY CFD ANALYSIS GOPAL U. SHINDE, SHAILESH H. THAKRE, VISHAL S. GAIKWAD, BALIRAM S. BHOSLE .......................... 1063 COMPARISON OF METHODS USED FOR DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL-BORNE PLANT PATHOGENS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS BEKRI XHEMALI, BETIM BRESILLA, ISMAJL CACAJ .................................................................................... 1070 POTENTIAL PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS REGULATING INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR VEGETABLE AND FIELD CROPS IN SUDAN ABDALLA ABDELRAHIM SATTI ......................................................................................................................... 1075 COMPOSITION ANALYSIS OF THE SELECTED FOOD SUPPLEMENTS MAŁGORZATA SKARBEK ................................................................................................................................. 1084 THREE SUCCESSIVE TIMELY WORK MASKED GENES SAVING OF VIRULIFEROUS INSECTS AND COORDINATED WITH ZYMV RESISTANCE GENE IN SQUASH. ABDULBASIT A. AL JANABI ............................................................................................................................. 1089 RESPONSE OF MAIZE LINES TO TWO SULFONYLUREA AND TRIKETONE HERBICIDES MILAN BRANKOV, MILENA SIMIĆ, SAVA VRBNIČANIN, VESNA DRAGIČEVIĆ, IGOR SPASOJEVIĆ ..... 1096 THE FIRST REPORT OF BIPOLARIS/DRECHLERA SOROCINIANA(SACC IN SOROK.) ON ANISE SEEDS IN SERBIA SNEŽANA PAVLOVIĆ, TATJANA STEVIĆ, DANIJELA RISTIĆ, MIRA STAROVIĆ, GORAN ALEKSIĆ, SLOBODAN KUZMANOVIĆ, SAŠA STOJANOVIĆ .......................................................................................... 1101 DIVERSITY OF LEAFMINERS OF PEAR IN THE REGION OF EAST SARAJEVO DEJANA TEŠANOVIĆ, RADOSLAVA SPASIĆ ................................................................................................... 1106 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE ......................................................................................................................... 1111 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF OIL PRODUCTION FROM ORGANIC LAVENDER EDIN PECO, DUŠAN MILIĆ, ZORICA SREDOJEVIĆ ........................................................................................ 1112 IMPACT OF VARIOUS HERBAL EXTRACTS ON YIELD OF LETTUCE (LACTUCA SATIVA) SRDJAN LJUBOJEVIC ....................................................................................................................................... 1118 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL AND METHANOL EXTRACT FROM MINT (MENTHA PIPERITA L.) GROWING IN MACEDONIA

17

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ LJUPCHO MIHAJLOV, SANJA KOSTADINOVIĆ VELIČKOVSKA ................................................................ 1127 ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF ORGANIC FARMS IN POLAND WIOLETTA WRZASZCZ, JÓZEF ST. ZEGAR ..................................................................................................... 1132 THE POSSIBILITY OF USING WASTE BIOGAS PLANT (DRY RESIDUE AND PELLETS) AS FERTILIZER NATALIA NIKITSKAYA ................................................................................................................................... 1140 EFFICIENCY OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS AND BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN ON BARLEY ANTONINA KOSOLAPOVA, VLADIMIR OLEKHOV, NATALYA MUDRYKH, IGOR TETERLEV, IRINA YASHININA ..................................................................................................................................................... 1145 TESTING CONSTITUTION AND REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL OF SVRLJIG ZACKEL SHEEP FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION IN EAST SERBIA ALEKSANDAR COJKIĆ, MILA SAVIĆ, ZSOLT BECSKEI, BRANKO PETRUJKIĆ, VLADIMIR DIMITRIJEVIĆ, NIKOLA ČOBANOVIĆ, LIDIJA MILOVANOVIĆ, MENSUR VEGARA ............................................................ 1151 SEASONAL CHANGES OF MICROBIAL POPULATION IN MAIZE AND SOYBEAN RHIZOSPHERE UNDER CONVENTIONAL AND ORGANIC GROWING SYSTEMS DRAGANA BJELIĆ, NASTASIJA MRKOVAČKI, JELENA MARINKOVIĆ, BRANISLAVA TINTOR, IVICA ĐALOVIĆ.......................................................................................................................................................... 1156 EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FARMING ON SOIL COMPACTION JOVICA VASIN, MILORAD ŽIVANOV, JORDANA NINKOV, STANKO MILIĆ, BRANISLAV ŽEŽELJ ............... 1162 CROP INTERACTIONS IN GREEN BEAN INTERCROPPING WITH LETTUCE AND RADISH MILAN UGRINOVIĆ, SNEŽANA OLJAČA, NEBOJŠA MOMIROVIĆ, ŽELJKO DOLIJANOVIĆ, MILKA BRDAR JOKANOVIĆ, MLADEN ĐORĐEVIĆ ............................................................................................................... 1167 THE IMPACT OF BIOCHAR ON HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE SOIL JANA DOMANOVÁ, DUŠAN IGAZ, TOMÁŠ BORZA, JÁN HORÁK................................................................. 1173 POTENTIAL OF RHIZOBIUM AND BRADYRHIZOBIUM SPECIES AS PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA ON PADDY (ORYZA SATIVA L.) KANKANAM PATHIRANAGE PUBUDU MAHESHYA, PINNADUWAGE NEELAMANIE YAPA ............................... 1178 CAN BIOCHAR AMENDMENT BE AN ECOLOGICAL FARMING TECHNOLOGY TO INCREASE SOYBEAN (GLYCINE MAX L.) GROWTH AND YIELD? MEEGALLA RALALAGE SAHANI PULARA MEEGALLA, PINNADUWAGE NEELAMANIE YAPA ......................... 1184 PLANT EXTRACTS AS AN ORGANIC CONTROL AGENT FOR SPIDER MITES TETRANYCHUS URTICAE (TETRANYCIDAE: ACARINA) KOCH AYŞE YEŞILAYER, EYÜP CAN MATUR, GIZEM DOĞAR ............................................................................... 1190 WEED CONTROL WITH ESSENTIAL OILS IN ORGANIC FARMING MEHMET ARSLAN, ILHAN UREMIS................................................................................................................. 1194 THE PROSPECTS OF THE APPLICATION OF PREPARATIONS BASED ON BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS IN ORGANIC AGRICULTURE OKSANA NAYDYONOVA ................................................................................................................................ 1201 STUDY OF SOME BIOLOGICAL MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL AND RHIZOSPHERE FABA BEAN (VICIA FABA L. VR EQUINA AND MINOR) HAMMA WASSILA ............................................................................................................................................ 1209 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ........................... 1216 DIRECT SEEDING EMERGENCE IN THE AGRICULTURAL FARMS OF THE SETIF PLAIN (ALGERIA) RYMA LABAD, TARIK HARTANI .................................................................................................................... 1217

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ANTAGONISTIC ACTIVITY OF TWO STRAINS OF BACILLUS SP. OBTAINED FROM AN ALGERIAN SOIL AGAINST THE MIGRATORY LOCUST LOCUSTA MIGRATORIA (LINNAEUS 1758) HAKIMA OULEBSIR-MOHAND KACI, SOUAD TALBI-KHEMILI, SALIMA GANA-KEBBOUCHE, BAHIA DOUMANDJI-MITICHE .................................................................................................................................. 1222 EVALUATION OF METAL AND METALLOID CONTAMINATION IN SOIL FROM MINING WASTE FOR REHABILITATION AND FUTURE LAND USE BARRY NOLLER ............................................................................................................................................... 1230 SIGNIFICANT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FROM HERBICIDE AND PESTICIDE USE IN MULTIPLE AGRO-BASED ACTIVITIES IN NORTHEAST THAILAND TATIANA KOMAROVA, CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI, ATCHARAPORN SOMPARN, NATSIMA TOKHUN, JOCHEN MUELER, IVAN KENNEDY, BARRY NOLLER .................................................................................. 1236 SEASONAL DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AEROALERGENIC POLEN OF BIRCH, ALDER AND HAZEL IN BANJA LUKA (B&H) DURING 2008-2014 GORDANA BABIĆ, BOJANA ĆURKOVIĆ, VOJISLAV TRKULJA ...................................................................... 1242 OCCURENCE AND DISTRIBUTION MAPPING OF INVASIVE WEED SPECIES HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS L. IN NORTH WESTERN AREA OF REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA GORDANA BABIĆ, VOJISLAV TRKULJA .......................................................................................................... 1248 CONTAMINATION OF SOIL AND PLANT MATERIAL IN FLOODED AREAS IN THE LOWER COURSE OF THE RIVER SPREČA (NORTHEASTERN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA) HELENA FILIPOVIĆ, ESAD BUKALO, AHMEDIN SALČINOVIĆ, DAMIR BEHLULOVIĆ, MARIJANA TOMIĆ1256 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANALYZED PHYSICAL, WATER AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL SOIL TYPES IN TUZLA CANTON

CHEMICAL

JASMINKA ŽUROVEC, SABRIJA ČADRO .......................................................................................................... 1264 ASSESSING THE HYDRAULIC SENSITIVITY OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION DELIVERY NETWORKS THROUGH THE MASSCOTE/MASSPRES RATIONAL SALWA CHERNI-ČADRO, DANIELE ZACCARIA, SABRIJA ČADRO .............................................................. 1271 LAND SUITABILITY EVALUATION FOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN PLOVDIV REGION, BULGARIA, USING GIS APPLICATION VERA STEFANOVA, ZHULIETA ARNAUDOVA, KRASIMIR MIHOV ............................................................. 1278 CREATING OF LAND ASSESSMENT DATABASE FOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN PLOVDIV REGION, BULGARIA ZHULIETA ARNAUDOVA, VERA STEFANOVA, DIMKA HAYTOVA ............................................................ 1285 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL SALINITY IN NERETVA RIVER ESTUARY BOŠKO MILOŠ, ALEKSANDRA BENSA ............................................................................................................. 1291 AN EXPLORATORY SURVEY ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE IN EGYPT GEHAN A.G. ELMENOFI, ROBERTO CAPONE, SHEREEN WAKED, PHILIPP DEBS, FRANCESCO BOTTALICO, HAMID EL BILALI ............................................................................................................................................. 1298 THE IMPACT OF PRESCRIBED FIRE ON THE VEGETATION OF WADI EL-RAYAN WETLANDS (A PROTECTED AREA), WESTERN DESERT, EGYPT MOHAMED TALAAT EL-HENNAWY, MOHAMED SAMEH ANTAR .................................................................. 1305 BIOCHAR FROM MUNICIPAL WOOD: A KEY STRATEGY TO PRODUCE ADDED VALUE PRODUCTS FROM WASTES HADI JAVIDI, ALI M.NIKBAKHT .................................................................................................................... 1313 NEGATIVE FEEDBACKS DUE TO PRESENCE OF HEAVY METALS AND AGRICULTURAL TOXICANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: A SOIL QUALITY PERSPECTIVE

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PEIMAN ZANDI, LEILA BAZRKAR KHATIBANI, SHAHRAM KHADEMI CHALARAS, MOJTABA KORDROSTAMI .............................................................................................................................................. 1319 CONSERVATION COOPERATION BETWEEN IRAN AND INDIA CAN SERVE AS GLOBAL MODEL SAIKAT KUMAR BASU, PEIMAN ZANDI ........................................................................................................... 1327 SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF SOIL-PLANT PARAMETERS UNDER DIFFERENT SALINE WATER TREATMENTS ALI AJEEL, ALI SAEED, GIOVANNA DRAGONETTI, ALESSANDRO COMEGNA, NICOLA LAMADDALENA, ANTONIO COPPOLA ......................................................................................................................................... 1331 A MODERN MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR IRRIGATION SYSTEMS MASSIMO NATALIZIO ...................................................................................................................................... 1338 STATISTICALLY-BASED DETECTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AHMED DOUAIK ............................................................................................................................................... 1347 HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE IN MOROCCO: AN EXPLORATORY SURVEY AZIZ ABOUABDILLAH, ROBERTO CAPONE, LAHCEN EL YOUSSFI, PHILIPP DEBS, AHMED HARRAQ, HAMID EL BILALI, MOHAMED EL AMRANI, FRANCESCO BOTTALICO, NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH ............ 1353 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF STANDARD OF LIVING: A CASE STUDY OF MARDAN DISTRICT, KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA IN PAKISTAN ANWAR HUSSAIN, ASMA SAEED .................................................................................................................... 1361 BIODIVERSITY POTENTIAL IN CAMPING DESTINATIONS CORBU AND VADU FROM DANUBE DELTA BIOSPHERE RERSERVE IONELA DOBRIN, EMILIA BRÎNDUŞA SĂNDULESCU, COSMIN-ALEXANDRU MIHAI, MALA-MARIA STAVRESCU-BEDIVAN ................................................................................................................................. 1368 THE RECYCLING AND EVALUATION OF LF SLAG FOR SOIL ACIDITY NEUTRALIZATION MIRCEA MIHALACHE, LEONARD ILIE, DORU IOAN MARIN, ROXANA MARIA MADJAR, GINA VASILE SCĂEŢEANU .................................................................................................................................................... 1376 GRANULOMETRY FEATURES IN MOUNTAIN SOILS IRAIDA SAMOFALOVA .................................................................................................................................... 1383 THE USE OF CRAB BY-PRODUCTS OF RAW CRUSTACEANS IN THE TECHNOLOGY OF RECYCLING OF RESOURCES IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IRINA A. GLOTOVA, ELENA E. KURCHAEVA, VLADIMIR S. BALABAEV, VLADISLAV N. IZMAILOV ..... 1388 BUFFERING PROPERTIES OF MOUNTAIN SOILS TO ACID EFFECTS, AND THEIR ABSORPTION CAPACITY MARIA KONDRATEVA, IRAIDA SAMOFALOVA, ALENA SOBOLEVA, NATALIAY SOKOLOVA .............. 1394 IMPACT OF THE CONTENT OF MOBILE PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM ON BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF THE SOIL NATALYA M. MUDRYKH ................................................................................................................................. 1401 SOIL EROSION IN THE ČANČAR BROOK CATCHMENT (WESTERN SERBIA) GORDANA ŠEKULARAC, MIODRAG JELIĆ, MILENA DJURIĆ, BORIVOJ PEJIĆ, TANJA JAKIŠIĆ, MIROLJUB AKSIĆ ............................................................................................................................................................... 1407 THE CONTENT OF HEAVY METALS IN THE BULEVARD SOIL IN NOVI SAD, SERBIA LAZAR PAVLOVIĆ, LJILJANA NEŠIĆ, MILIVOJ BELIĆ, MAJA MANOJLOVIĆ, VLADIMIR ĆIRIĆ, VESNA TUNGUZ, SILVIJA KRAJTER OSTOIĆ ............................................................................................................ 1413 PRECIPITATION IN VOJVODINA PROVINCE AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CROP PRODUCTION LIVIJA MAKSIMOVIĆ, VLADIMIR SIKORA, MILKA BRDAR-JOKANOVIĆ, DUŠAN ADAMOVIĆ, JANOŠ BERENJI............................................................................................................................................................ 1419

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SOIL EROSION IN THE ORAHOVACKA RIJEKA WATERSHED, MONTENEGRO MILAN GAZDIC, SRDJAN PEJOVIC, DONALTINA VILA, DUSKO VUJACIC, GORAN BAROVIC, NEVENKA DJUROVIC, VJEKOSLAV TANASKOVIKJ, VELIBOR SPALEVIC ................................................................... 1425 COMBINED APPLICATION OF CROP ROTATION AND LOW RATES OF HERBICIDES FOR WEED CONTROL IN MAIZE MILENA SIMIC, IGOR SPASOJEVIC, VESNA DRAGICEVIC, MILAN BRANKOV, ZELJKO DOLIJANOVIC 1433 INTERNET COMMUNICATIONS IN THE STATE ENTERPRISE FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT „SRBIJAŠUME“ GORDANA JANČIĆ, MILKA ZELIĆ ................................................................................................................... 1439 INFLUENCE OF LIGNIN CONTENT ON HIGHER HEATING VALUE OF BURLEY TOBACCO STALKS FROM DIFFERENT PRODUCTION AREAS IN SERBIA OLIVERA EĆIM-ĐURIĆ, NEMANJA MANDIĆ, VESNA RADOJIČIĆ ................................................................ 1444 POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION ASSESSMENT OF THE WATER USED FOR SOIL IRRIGATION IN THE BASIN OF THE DRINA RIVER, SERBIA RADMILA PIVIĆ, DRAGANA JOŠIĆ, ZORAN DINIĆ, FERDINANDO MARGARINO, JELENA MAKSIMOVIĆ, SRBOLJUB MAKSIMOVIĆ, ALEKSANDRA STANOJKOVIĆ-SEBIĆ ................................................................ 1449 SEDIMENT QUALITY ASSESSMENT USING CULTIVATED PLANTS AS BIOINDICATORS SONJA GVOZDENAC, DUŠANKA INĐIĆ, SLAVICA VUKOVIĆ ....................................................................... 1456 REDUCING THE NICOTINE CONTENT THROUGH TOBACCO WASTE COMPOSTING WITH OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS VESNA RADOJIČIĆ, NEMANJA MANDIĆ, OLIVERA EĆIM-ĐURIĆ, VERA RAIČEVIĆ, BLAŽO LALEVIĆ .. 1462 RESEARCHES ON DEMOGRAPHIC VARIATION OF NEW ARTIFICIAL YANARDÖNER (CENTAUREA TCHIHATCHEFFII FISCH. & MEY.) POPULATIONS AHMET TANSEL SERİM, MUSTAFA SELÇUK BAŞARAN, AYŞEGÜL YILDIRIM .............................................. 1468 THE EFFECTS OF THE OZONE GAS PRODUCED IN GENERATOR ON THE ENVIRONMENT, FOOD AND HUMAN HEALTH (RECENT DEVELOPMENTS) ULKU SOYDAL, YASIN AKKEMIK.................................................................................................................. 1475 LANDSCAPE-ADAPTIVE APPROACHES TO THE MANAGEMENT OF SALINE SOILS FERTILITY IN UKRAINE SVIATОSLAV BALIUK, ELENA DROZD, MARINA ZAKHAROVA ................................................................... 1482 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION ON THE AVAILIBILITY OF WATER: A CASE OF AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN. SAMINA KHALIL ............................................................................................................................................... 1489 ROLE OF PREDATORY MAMMALS IN CIRCULATION OF ZOONOTIC HELMINTHS IN THE URBAN AREAS BORIS VITALIEVICH ROMASHOV, ELENA N. ROMASHOVA ......................................................................... 1497 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIC CAMBISOL ON DIFFERENT PARENT SUBSTRATES IN THE AREA OF VLASENICA, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ZORICA GOLIĆ, MIHAJLO MARKOVIĆ ........................................................................................................... 1504 THE ANTI-FATTY LIVER EFFECTS OF GUAVA LEAVEAS AND POMEGRANATWE PEEL EXTRACTS ON ETHANOL-EXPOSED RATS MEDHAT M. ABOZID, HODA E. A. FARID ..................................................................................................... 1510 VERTICAL MIGRATION OF 90SR RADIONUCLIDE IN AGROECOSYSTEM NATAŠA B. SARAP, PETAR M. MITROVIĆ, SRĐAN I. ŠEREMEŠIĆ, MARIJA M. JANKOVIĆ, ADRIANA RADOSAVAC, IVICA G. ĐALOVIĆ ................................................................................................................ 1517

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ADDRESSING WATER SCARCITY THROUGH RECYCLING AND MAKING THE BEST USE OF WASTE WATER ATEF HAMDY, ADEL ALY ............................................................................................................................... 1522 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN SMART WATER MANAGEMENT ATEF HAMDY ................................................................................................................................................... 1530 BIOCONCENTRATION OF LEAD IN THE POPLAR TREES (POPULUS ROBUSTA L.) ANDRZEJ GREINERT, JAKUB KOSTECKI, MICHAŁ DRAB, BARBARA WALCZAK, RÓŻA WASYLEWICZ 1538 RISK ASSESSMENT OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES USE TO FOREST FIRE IVETA MARKOVÁ, MILADA VÁVROVÁ, JÁN ZELENÝ, EVA MRAČKOVÁ ................................................ 1545 EFFECT OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES ON SOIL MOISTURE BALANCE FOR SORGHUM YIELD UNDER RAINFED CONDITIONS OF NORTHERN INDIA SAMI I. M. N. GABIR, MANOJ KHANNA, MAN SINGH, S.S. PARIHAR, INDRA MANI, T.K. DAS ............... 1551 EFFECTS OF CHLORPYRIFOS AND GLYPHOSATE PESTICIDES ON BEHAVIOUR OF EARTHWORM IN THE SOIL ŞADIYE ZAMBAK, BADEGÜL ÜNSAL, OSMAN TİRYAKİ ............................................................................... 1558 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ................................................................................................................................. 1564 IN VITRO EVALUATION OF CLORHEXIDINE BASED DISINFECTANTS USED POST-DIPPING AGAINST MASTITIS PATHOGENES LINDITA TEROLLI, NATALIA SHOSHI, VERA CABELI, XHELIL KOLECI, ELVIRA QIRINXHI ..................... 1565 COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTIVE AND ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE IN SEVERAL COMMERCIAL BROILER FARMS IN ALBANIA ELENI MAVROMATI, SABAH SENA, LUMTURI SENA .................................................................................... 1570 PLANT EXTRACT EFFECT OF YUCCA SCHIDIGERA ON OOCYST SHEDDING IN BROILERS NAIMA SAHRAOUI, MOHAMED. BRAHIM ERRAHMANI, MOHAMED AMINE BENNADJI, DJAMILA AMMIBAAZIZ, NADIA HEZIL, HAYET BOULARIAH, DJIDJIGA CHAOUADI, JEAN LUC HORNICK, DJAMEL GUETARNI ....................................................................................................................................................... 1576 NATURAL PASTURE EFFECT ON THE FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF THE CAMEL'S HUMP ................ NAIMA SAHRAOUI, MOHAMED BRAHIM ERRAHMANI, OLIVIER DOTREPPE, BAAISSA BABELHADJ, SALIHA BOUDJENAH, DJAMEL GUETARNI, JEAN-LUC HORNICK .............................................................. 1581 EFFECTS OF FOOD SUPPLEMENTS FOR YUCCA SCHIDIGERA ON LIPID BALANCE OF BROILER NAIMA SAHRAOUI, HACHEMI OULED ROUIS, MOHAMED BRAHIM ERRAHMANI, ZAKIA SAIDANI, JEANLUC HORNICK, DJAMEL GUETARNI .............................................................................................................. 1586 EFFECTS OF REMOVING VITAMINS AND TRACE MINERALS FROM CHICKEN FINISHER DIETS ON ASH CONTENT IN THE BREAST MEAT MILANKA DRINIĆ, ALEKSANDAR KRALJ, NEBOJŠA SAVIĆ, BOŽO VAŽIĆ ................................................... 1591 POSSIBILITY TO USE THREE ACACIA PASTURES DUSKA SLIJEPAC ............................................................................................................................................. 1597 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EGGS IN DIFFERENT PHASES OF MANUFACTURING OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION TATJANA PANDUREVIĆ, SRETEN MITROVIC, BOJANA RISTANOVIC, MIROSLAV LALOVIC ................... 1600 IMPACT OF THIAMINE NUTRITION ON HYPOPHARYNGEAL GLANDS DEVELOPMENT IN IRANIAN HONEY BEES (APIS MELLIFERA MEDA) HOSSEIN MOHEBODINI, BEHROUZ DASTAR, GHOLAMHOSSEIN TAHMASEBI, YOUSEF JAFARI AHANGARI1605

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DETERMINATION OF THE SUBSPECIES PURITY OF APIS MELLIFERA MACEDONICA THROUGH MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF COLORING OF THE ABDOMINAL RINGS ON THE TERRITORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA MIROLJUB GOLUBOVSKI, KRISTIJAN HRISTOVSKI ..................................................................................... 1609 APPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES IN VETERINARY LABORATORY PRACTICE ELENA CHUGUNOVA, NATALYA TATARNIKOVA, TATYANA PROHOROVA............................................ 1616 FATTENING AND MEAT QUALITIES OF BLACK-VARIEGATED BULLS OF DIFFERENT GENOTYPES IRINA GORDEEVA ............................................................................................................................................ 1620 ASSESSMENT OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM IN SHEEP YURY A. SHUMILIN, DMITRY A. STEPIN ....................................................................................................... 1626 SEROEPIZOOTOLOGY MONITORING OF CYCTIC ECHINOCOCCOSIS IN SHEEP WITH ANTIGENES OF PROTOSKOLEXES OF ECHINOCOCCUS GRANULOSUS (L) AND ECHINOCOCCUS MULTILOCULARIS (L) VERA K. BEREZHKO, A.A. THAKAHOVA, K. A. HAIDAROV, O.V. RUDNEVA ...................................... 1632 CHARACTERIZATION OF PROTEIN FRACTION IN ENSILED APPLE POMACE TREATED WITH DIFFERENT ADDITIVES BORA DINIĆ, JORDAN MARKOVIĆ, MILOMIR BLAGOJEVIĆ, DRAGAN TERZIĆ, BOJAN ANĐELKOVIĆ, DEJAN GAJIĆ ..................................................................................................................................................... 1636 THE EFFECT OF PRO-MIXTURE ON THE QUALITY OF CHICKEN EGGS FOR CONSUMPTION DRAGANA GRČAK ............................................................................................................................................ 1643 VARIABILITY OF WING NERVATURE ANGLES IN HONEYBEES (APIS MELLIFRA CARNICA POLL) FROM VARIOUS LOCATIONS OF RASINA DISTRICT GORAN JEVTIĆ, BOJAN ANĐELKOVIĆ, MIĆA MLADENOVIĆ, NEBOJŠA NEDIĆ, KAZIMIR MATOVIĆ ... 1648 SILAGE QUALITY OF INBRED LINES DERIVED FROM LOCAL MAIZE POPULATIONS JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ, RADE STANISAVLJEVIĆ, JORDAN MARKOVIĆ, MILOMIR BLAGOJEVIĆ, BORA DINIĆ, DRAGOSLAV DJOKIĆ, DRAGAN TERZIĆ ............................................................................................. 1653 CHARACTERISTICS OF RED CLOVER DRY MATTER FOR IMPROVING NITROGEN UTILIZATION IN RUMINANTS JORDAN MARKOVIĆ, BORA DINIĆ, TANJA VASIĆ, JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ, SNEŽANA ANĐELKOVIĆ, DRAGAN TERZIĆ, MILOMIR BLAGOJEVIĆ ..................................................................................................... 1659 VARIABILITY OF MILK UREA ON VOJVODINA'S DAIRY FARMS KSENIJA ČOBANOVIĆ, DENIS KUČEVIĆ, SNEŽANA TRIVUNOVIĆ, MIROSLAV PLAVŠIĆ......................... 1665 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE „BREEDING PROGRAM” IN PIG PRODUCTION IN VOJVODINA PROVINCE (SERBIA) IVAN RADOVIC, MILE MIRKOV, SLOBODAN KONJEVIC, IVAN ZARKOVIC, VELIBOR VASILJEVIC ....... 1672 CORRELATION BETWEEN BLOOD METABOLITES, MILK YIELD, DRY MATTER INTAKE AND ENERGY BALANCE IN DAIRY COWS DURING EARLY AND MID LACTATION RADOJICA DJOKOVIC, MARKO CINCOVIC, VLADIMIR KURCUBIC, ZORAN ILIC, MILUN PETROVIC, MIROSLAV LALOVIC, JULIJANA TRIFKOVIC ................................................................................................. 1678 EGG WEIGHT AND SHELL QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LAYING HENS FED WITH GRADED LEVELS OF COCOA BEAN SHELL OLUWASEUN SAMUEL ODUNIYI ....................................................................................................................... 1684 EFFECTS OF SUBSTITUTION OF SOYBEAN MEAL BY FABA BEAN ON FATTENED HOLSTEIN BULLS PERFORMANCES IN FINISHING PHASE CHOKRI BEN MUSTAPHA, NIZAR MOUJAHED, CYRINE DAREJ ................................................................. 1693

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EFFECTS OF THE FEEDING LEVELAND OF THE SUBSTITUTION OF THE BARLEY BY THE OAT ON PERFORMANCES OF REPRODUCTION OF RAM IMTIEZ BOUZARRAA, ABDULBASET ZIDANE, AISSAM BOUSBIA, SOUROUR ABIDI, MOKHTAR MAHOUACHI1700 THE UTILIZATION OF MOBILE LAB FOR MEASURING GAS AND PARTICULATE MATTER EMISSIONS OF ANIMAL BARNS ATILGAN ATILGAN, HONGWEI XIN, JACE KLEIN, TIM SHEPPERD, YANG ZHAO ...................................... 1705 DETERMINATION OF HEATING AND COOLING DAY DATA FOR TOMATO PLANT: ADANA CASE ATILGAN ATILGAN, BURAK SALTUK, HASAN OZ, ALI YUCEL ................................................................... 1711 MANAGEMENT OF MANURE FROM LIVESTOCK HOUSING AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL IMPACT ON CEYHAN AND SEYHAN RIVER ATILGAN ATILGAN, BURAK SALTUK, HASAN OZ, M.FATIH SELCUK, NIHAT KOSE ................................. 1718 EFFECTS OF COLD AND HEAT STRESS ON EGG QUALITY TRAITS OF A NEWLY IMPROVED HYBRID LAYER İSMAIL DURMUS, SERDAR KAMANLI ............................................................................................................ 1723 A STUDY ON THE PRESENT DISEASE SITUATION OF THE CULTURED RAINBOW TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS, W.) IN TURKEY JALE KORUN ..................................................................................................................................................... 1729 ANALYSIS OF EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TURKISH POULTRY SECTOR NEZIH OKUR, MESUT TURKOGLU, HASAN ELEROGLU, SERDAR OZLU, AHMET UCAR ........................... 1734 DOG FIGHTING IN EUROPE ORHAN YILMAZ, FUSUN COSKUN, MEHMET ERTUGRUL ........................................................................... 1741 PREDICTION OF POST-BROKEN TRAITS USING PRE-BROKEN TRAITS AS REGRESSORS IN GUİNEA FOWL EGGS SEZAI ALKAN, TAKI KARSLI, AŞKIN GALİÇ, KEMAL KARABAĞ, İSMAIL DURMUŞ ................................ 1749 CHEMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL CHANGES IN SUNFLOWER SILAGE ASSOCIATED WITH MOLASSES, LACTIC ACID BACTERIA AND ENZYME SUPPLEMENTATION YUSUF KONCA, SELMA BÜYÜKKILIÇ BEYZI, MAHMUT KALIBER, İSMAIL ÜLGER, SÜLEYMAN ÇALIŞLAR1755 INSTALLATION TRANSMITTER ELECTRONICS WITH SURGERY AND DIFFERENT HEALING METHODS ON RAINBOW TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS) MEBRURE DAMLA KILAVUZ, MIKAIL ÖZCAN ............................................................................................... 1762 THE EFFECT OF THE ORDER OF LACTATION ON REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMMENTAL COWS JELENA VLAČIĆ, SRETEN MITROVIĆ, SVJETLANA MIČIĆ, TATJANA PANDUREVIĆ, JELENA ČABARKAPA, MILENKO KONJOKRAD ................................................................................................................................... 1773 THE EFFECT OF THE ORDER OF LACTATION ON PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMMENTAL COWS SVJETLANA MIČIĆ, SRETEN MITROVIĆ, JELENA VLAČIĆ, TATJANA PANDUREVIĆ, JELENA ČABARKAPA, MILENKO KONJOKRAD ................................................................................................................................... 1777 MORPHOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL FEATURES OF TESTES IN LANDES GANDERS VASKO GERZILOV, ATANAS BOCHUKOV, GEORGE PENCHEV, PETAR PETROV ...................................... 1782 PATHOLOGY OF TESTES CELLS IN WHITE MICE AFTER IMPACT OF NOVOMEK SOGRINA ANASTASYA, VERA BEREZHKO, LYUDMILA NAPISANOVA, TATIANA SIVKOVA, TATIANA PROHOROVA ................................................................................................................................................... 1788 COMBINED INFLUENCE OF BACILLUS SUBTILIS AND FASCIOLA HEPATICA SOMATIC EXTRACT TO SPERMATHOGENIC EPITHELIUM OF LABORATORY AND FARM ANIMALS

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E.V. KRASNIKOVA, TATIANA N. SIVKOVA, S.A. SHURAKOV .................................................................. 1791 COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF REPRODUCTIVE QUALITIES OF LARGE WHITE BREED OF SOWS ON OFFSPRING QUALITIES ZHANNA A. PEREVOIKO, LARISA V. SYCHEVA, OLGA IU. IUNUSOVA...................................................... 1797 CARBOHYDRATES FRACTIONS BY CNCPS OF PEA-OAT MIXTURE MILOMIR BLAGOJEVIĆ, BORA DINIĆ, NENAD ĐORĐEVIĆ, JORDAN MARKOVIĆ, DRAGAN TERZIĆ, BOJAN ANĐELKOVIĆ, JASMINA MILENKOVIĆ........................................................................................................ 1802 RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGRO-ECONOMY ................................................................................ 1808 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES IN ALGERIA SAMIR ALI AROUS, HAMID EL BILALI, LOUARDI GUEZLANE, NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH, SINISA BERJAN, HAMID OULD YOUCEF.................................................................................................................................... 1809 DETERMINANTS OF ACCESS TO AGRICULTURAL CREDITS FOR SMALL SCALE FARMERS IN THE SOUTHERN PROVINCE OF RWANDA EDOUARD MUSABANGANJI, ANTOINE KARANGWA, PHILIPPE LEBAILLY .............................................. 1815 TESTING OF A TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC REFERENTIAL IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN BURKINA FASO ADOLPHE B. V. C. ZANGRE, THÉODORE B. BERE, VINCENT KABORE, DIDIER WOIRIN, BRUNO BARBIER, THOMAS DOGOT ............................................................................................................................................... 1821 SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF IRRIGATED FARMS IN BURKINA FASO B. V. C. ADOLPHE ZANGRÉ, ELISÉ WENDLASSIDA MININGOU, FREDDY NOMA, THOMAS DOGOT ........... 1827 FOREIGN TRADE OF FOOD PRODUCTS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ADRIANA RADOSAVAC, ANJA ROSANDIC ................................................................................................... 1836 THE EFFECT OF GLOBAL G.A.P. ON THE FINANCIAL RESULTS OF AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS IN BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA BORKO SORAJIĆ, TEA ZERDELIĆ .................................................................................................................. 1841 THE ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE REPORTING TO PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE RETAIL FOOD RADOJKO LUKIC, SRDJAN M. LALIC, IVICA MATOVIC ................................................................................. 1848 EVALUATION OF ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF SOLID BIOMASS PLANT CONSTRUCTION ŽELJKO VAŠKO, MILEVA VAŠKO ................................................................................................................... 1855 A STUDY OF BULGARIAN DAIRY FARMS PROFITABILITY BEFORE AND AFTER ABOLITION OF MILK QUOTAS VASSIL STOYCHEV, BOZHIDAR IVANOV....................................................................................................... 1862 YOUNG FARMER’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE BUSINESS COOPERATION ĐURĐICA ŽUTINIĆ, LARI HADELAN, MARINA TOMIĆ, ALEKSANDAR NEDANOV ..................................... 1868 CONTRIBUTION OF EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES TO AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN EGYPT GEHAN A.G. ELMENOFI, HAMID EL BILALI, SINISA BERJAN...................................................................... 1874 FARMERS’ INFORMATION ABOUT THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN BEHEIRA GOVERNORATE IN EGYPT MEDHAT ABDELWAHAB, GAMAL ASRAN .................................................................................................... 1881 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT AND THE TWINS PRIORITY GOALS: FOOD SECURITY AND HUNGER ERADICATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN ROSANNA QUAGLIARIELLO, ATEF HAMDY, CHIARA CIANNAMEA ......................................................... 1886

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ PRODUCTION CAPACITY IN RURAL AREA OF ŽABLJAK MUNICIPALITY, MONTENEGRO DARKO STIJEPOVIĆ, ADRIANA RADOSAVAC, SANJA ĐUKIĆ ..................................................................... 1893 PERISHABILITY AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF SPICES IN IBADAN, NIGERIA CATHERINE AKINPELU, OYEBOADE ADEBAYO, OLUYEMISI ADEWALE, TIMOTHY FARIYIKE ................ 1899 REMITTANCES, POVERTY AND INCOME INEQUALITY IN RURAL PAKISTAN: LINKAGES AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE KHADIJA SHAMS............................................................................................................................................... 1905 COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN POLAND – ACHIEVEMENTS AND EXPECTATIONS DURING MEMBERSHIP IN THE EUROPEAN UNION MAREK WIGIER ................................................................................................................................................ 1913 INNOVATION IN THE SECTOR OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION ON THE POLISH EXAMPLE ROBERT JADACH, STANISŁAW MINTA ........................................................................................................... 1920 COFFEE COOPERATIVES PROMOTING PEACEBUILDING AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF FARMERS IN HUYE DISTRICT, SOUTHERN RWANDA GISARO M YA-BITITI, PHILIPPE LEBAILLY, DEO MBONYINKEBE ............................................................. 1924 OBSTACLES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK IN THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA ............... BANDER M. ALSAGHAN, EMAD M. EL-SHAFIE, ABDEL-HALIM ABBAS KESHTA ....................................... 1932 BUSINESS NETWORKING - CONDITION TO INCREASE INNOVATION IN AGROSECTOR OF SERBIA BILJANA GRUJIĆ, VESNA PARAUŠIĆ, NATAŠA KLJAJIĆ .............................................................................. 1937 FORMS OF RURAL TOURISM IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA GORDANA RADOVIĆ, RADOVAN PEJANOVIĆ, DUNJA DEMIROVIĆ, ZORAN NJEGOVAN ........................ 1943 THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN FOSTERING RURAL DEVELOPMENT JELENA PREMOVIĆ, DUŠKO JOVANOVIĆ, LJILJANA ARSIĆ ........................................................................ 1949 RED PEPPER PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS – COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS IN EU COUNTRIES AND SERBIA NEBOJŠA NOVKOVIĆ, BEBA MUTAVDŽIĆ, TOMO KRASNIĆ, ..................................................................... 1955 GROSS MARGIN OF STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION IN POMORAVLJE REGION IN SERBIA JASMINA FILIPOVIĆ, SLAĐAN STANKOVIĆ, SLAVICA ČOLIĆ, DRAGAN RAHOVIĆ, VEDRAN TOMIĆ, NIKOLA LJILJANIĆ, ROBERT RADIŠIĆ ........................................................................................................... 1961 AGRICULTURAL ADVISORY AND TRAINING IN SERBIA: THE CASE STUDY OF THE INSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE SLAĐAN STANKOVIĆ, SNEŽANA JANKOVIĆ, SINIŠA BERJAN, VEDRAN TOMIĆ, NATAŠA TOLIMIR ....... 1966 EXPERIENCES IN ESTABLISHING THE SERBIAN FARM ACCOUNTANCY DATA NETWORK – FADN VLADIMIR JOVANOVIĆ, BOJAN ANĐELIĆ ..................................................................................................... 1973 THE GREEN INTEGRAL DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL CO-EVOLVED INNOVATION MOVEMENT OF SLOVENIAN GOOD PRACTICES

FROM

GRASSROOTS

LILIANA VIŽINTIN ............................................................................................................................................ 1978 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES IN TUNISIA MEHER MELAOUHIA, HAMID EL BILALI, NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH, SINISA BERJAN, RADOMIR BODIROGA1985 ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION OF GRASS SILAGE IN TRABZON PROVINCE OF TURKEY İSMET BOZ, ÇAĞATAY YILDIRIM, HATICE TÜRKTEN................................................................................... 1993 MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS IN PROCESSED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS: A CASE STUDY ON ÇUKUROVA REGION IN TURKEY

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ NERMIN BAHŞİ, DILEK BOSTAN BUDAK ...................................................................................................... 2002 BERRY FRUIT GROWN AND MARKETED IN TURKEY YAKUP ERDAL ERTURK, MUSTAFA KENAN GECER, SULEYMAN YALCIN .................................................... 2009 LIVESTOCK SUPPORT POLICIES IN TURKEY SINCE 2000 YAKUP ERDAL ERTURK, SULEYMAN YALCIN, ORHAN YILMAZ .................................................................. 2019 FORESTRY AND AGRO-FORESTRY ........................................................................................................ 2028 VERIFICATION OF IMPORTANCE OF THE FORESTRY MANAGEMENT FOR THE RIVER WATER CONSERVATION IN AGRO-FORESTRY WATERSHED YURI YAMAZAKI, TOSHIMI MUNEOKA, HIROMU OKAZAWA, MASATO KIMURA, OSAMU TSUJI .......... 2029 CONDITIONS FOR THE INITIATION OF MOTION AND TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT IN TORRENTIAL WATERCOURSES VOJISLAV DJEKOVIC, ALEKSANDAR ANDJELKOVIC, SLOBODAN MILIVOJEVIC, VELIBOR SPALEVIC, DUSKO VUJACIC, GORAN BAROVIC .............................................................................................................. 2034 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT PLANTING CONDITIONS ON THE GROWTH OF SPRUCE FOREST CULTURES (CASE STUDY: SIVINSKII FOREST DISTRICT, PERMSKII KRAI) ALEKSANDR ROMANOV, MARIIA IAKOVLEVA, ARTEM PEPELIAEV ......................................................... 2044 QUANTIFICATION OF THE STAND STRUCTURE TO DEFINE THE ECOSYSTEM ALPHA DIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY IN A BEECH STAND BRATISLAV MATOVIĆ, MILOŠ KOPRIVICA, DEJAN STOJANOVIĆ, STEFAN STJEPANOVIĆ .................... 2050 INTEGRAL EVALUATION OF BELGRADE FOREST RESOURCES FUNCTIONALITY DRAGANA DRAZIC, LJILJANA BRASANAC, DJORDJE JOVIC, MILORAD VESELINOVIC, NEVENA CULE, SUZANA MITROVIC .......................................................................................................................................... 2058 ADAPTIVE MEASURES IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS VULNERABLE TO CLIMATE CHANGE MIHAILO RATKNIC, TATJANA RATKNIC, LJUBINKO RAKONJAC, SONJA BRAUNOVIC ........................... 2066 INVESTIGATION OF POTENTAL OF ALPHA - CYPERMETHRIN APPLICATION FOR COMMON OAK WOOD PROTECTION AGAINST SCOLITID AMBROSIA BEETLES MILAN DREKIĆ, LEOPOLD POLJAKOVIĆ – PAJNIK, PREDRAG PAP, VERICA VASIĆ, ANDREJ PILIPOVIĆ, IVANA DENIĆ, DAMJAN FIŠGAR ..................................................................................................................... 2072 IMPACT OF FUNGUS DAEDALEOPSIS CONFRAGOSA (BOLT.: FR.) J. SCHRÖT. MYCELIUM ON THE LOSS OF WILD CHERRY (PRUNUS AVIUM L.) WOOD MASS MIROSLAV MARKOVIĆ, PREDRAG PAP, VLADISLAVA GALOVIĆ, SRĐAN STOJNIĆ, ANDREJ PILIPOVIĆ, MARINA KATANIĆ ........................................................................................................................................... 2076 SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF HEAVY METALS LEVEL IN UNDERGROUND WATER OF HYDROMORPHIC SOILS SAŠA PEKEČ, SAŠA ORLOVIĆ, LJILJANA NEŠIĆ, MILIVOJ BELIĆ, MARINA KATANIĆ, BRANISLAV KOVAČEVIĆ .................................................................................................................................................... 2082 ELEMENTS OF GROWTH AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIRST THINNING IN THE MIXED CULTURE OF POPLAR AND BLACK LOCUST ON FLUVISOL SINIŠA ANDRAŠEV, MARTIN BOBINAC, SAVO RONČEVIĆ ......................................................................... 2088 INJURY OF OZONE – MONITORING PLOT – MOKRA GORA SNEZANA RAJKOVIC, MIROSLAVA MARKOVIC, LJUBINKO RAKONJAC, RADOSLAV RAJKOVIC, ALEKSANDAR LUCIC......................................................................................................................................... 2095 MORPHOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF QUALITY OF TURKISH HAZEL (CORYLUS COLURNA L.) ONEYEAR-OLD SEEDLINGS TATJANA ĆIRKOVIĆ-MITROVIĆ, LJILJANA BRAŠANAC-BOSANAC, VLADAN POPOVIĆ, VLADAN IVETIĆ2100

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APPLICATION OF GENETIC MARKERS IN DETERMINATION OF FOREST TREES SEED ZONES IN SERBIA VASILIJE ISAJEV, SAŠA ORLOVIC, MILENA STANKOVIĆ, STEFAN STJEPANOVIC ................................... 2107 ANALYSIS OF VARIABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF DOUGLAS FIR PROVENANCES IN CENTRAL SERBIA VLADAN POPOVIĆ, VERA LAVADINOVIĆ, ALEKSANDAR LUČIĆ, LJUBINKO RAKONJAC ........................ 2113 EFFECT OF FOREST SITE TYPE ON THE GROWING STOCK OF FOREST-FORMING SPECIES UNDER CONDITIONS OF THE DNIEPER STEPPE, UKRAINE SVITLANA SYTNYK, VIKTORIIA LOVINSKA, MYKOLA KHARITONOV, IRYNA LOZA ............................... 2118 AUTHOR INDEX ............................................................................................................................................ 2126

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KEYNOTE PAPERS

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Review paper 10.7251/AGSY1505030B TOWARDS A NEW PARADIGM OF INNOVATION IN THE BIOECONOMY John M. BRYDEN Research Professor, NIBIO Grounded Innovation Group, Norway Emeritus Professor, University of Aberdeen, Scotland *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction and outline We live in troubled times. Inequalities in income and wealth are growing nearly everywhere nationally and transnationally (Picketty, 2014; Varoufakis et al, 2014), as are migration and refugee streams resulting from failures of political, social and economic systems and the collapse of the climate regulation system. The neoliberal hegemony has so far triumphed, and private capital is penetrating formerly public spheres, and generating further inequalities. However, the system is ‘broke’, and it is up to the intellectual community to join with civil and political society in the search for alternatives. If both the extremes of soviet communism and neo-liberal finance capitalism are dead, we must search for a range of ‘third way’ solutions in which the Nordic model has something to offer (Bryden et al, 2015). Without important changes, the world will become less, and not more, sustainable. We, as social and indeed natural, scientists can no longer afford to adopt the fiction of objectivity and avoid normative questions, as Weber famously advised us to do; we need to address the norms and values that underpin our work (Bryden and Gezelius, 2014). An increasing number of scholars believe that innovation, innovations systems, and innovation policies and practices are adding to these problems rather than solving them (STEPS, 2010). This is a huge challenge for the innovation community in general, and to innovation scholars in particular. In this paper I suggest that a new paradigm of innovation is needed if these concerns are to be addressed, especially perhaps in relation to the bioeconomy, but also in other fields. I further suggest that the new paradigm is reflected in some key examples of locally generated and initiated innovation systems in rural regions. The order of the discussion, and questions raised, are as follows:• What is the bioeconomy and what are its special characteristics • What is innovation? • Who is innovation for? – The ‘3 Ds’ – Direction, Distribution and Diversity – The TBL – Economic, Social and Environmental – The HRB-TBL – Human Rights governed TBL • Why we need a new paradigm? • Can we see signs of the new paradigm in the ’real world’? • How can we stimulate and shape the new paradigm through praxis and policy? • Concluding remarks The Bioeconomy Our focus here is on the bioeconomy because the wider bioeconomy has a number of important particularities, notably  It is a source of basic needs for all humanity – especially food, water, shelter;  It is associated with many public and quasi public goods, notably climate regulation, landscapes, biodiversity;

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“   

It is closely linked to a number of important human rights, notably the rights to an adequate diet, clean water, and perhaps in future energy; Bioeconomy is part of the transition to a low carbon economy, involving the replacement of fossil-based fuels, plastics, building materials, pharmaceuticals etc. One of the key natural resources on which it is based – land – is limited in supply (cannot be easily added to) and variable in quality, as well as being closely linked to important social systems of ownership and use rights.

In NIBIOs grounded and inclusive innovation research group1, we define the bio-economy widely, to include, in principle, all the living natural resources of land, air and sea that are transformed into useful commodities or public goods and services (including ‘ecosystem services’), together with their related upstream and downstream industries. Agriculture and its related upstream and downstream sectors, the main focus of this conference, all lies within the bioeconomy. As social scientists, out key interest lies in human behaviour and decisions relating to this bioeconomy, and especially concerning changes defined as ‘innovation’, and related institutions, policies and governance, and in conflicts of use. These conflicts are important, since the biomass has alternative uses with different social and market values. One way to deal with such conflicts – for example between energy and food – is to adopt what is called the ‘cascading’ principle, which means taking the highest value uses first and using waste or residues for the lowest value uses. Here social scientists must help decision-makers and citizens penetrate the term ‘value’, and the determinants of value when market price is taken as a surrogate for ‘value’. The broad definition of the bioeconomy we adopt is reflected in the mostly recent bioeconomy strategies of a range of countries, the EU, and also recent documents of the OECD. The following diagrams illustrate the cases of Finland (mainly forest-based bioeconomy) and Iceland (mainly marine-based bioeconomy). Figure 1: The Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy “Bioeconomy refers to an economy that relies on renewable natural resources to produce food, energy, products and services. The bioeconomy will reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, prevent biodiversity loss and create new economic growth and jobs in line with the principles of sustainable development.”

At one time called NILFs ‘Green Innovation’ Group. See http://www.nilf.no/green_innovation_research/ NILF joined Bioforsk and Skog og Landskapp Institutes to form the Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO) in July 2015. The websites are not yet harmonized. 1

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Figure 2: Icelandic Bioeconomy (Matis Ltd.)

Our main focus in this paper is the land-based bioeconomy, but in our view the new paradigm for innovation is probably one that is universally desirable in all fields. Innovation We must think of innovation broadly – not only technological innovation, and also not as equivalent to invention. Of course invention and technology are important, but if indeed the system is ‘broke’, then we desperately need institutional and policy innovations. It is not innovation or invention per se that produce unsustainable outcomes, but human behaviour and the institutional and governance systems that guide it (Bryden, 1994). Moreover, the problems of complexity, implicit in the goals of sustainable development, which cut across disciplinary boundaries, also demand multiple solutions and adaptations to different needs and contexts2. This is especially so in the bioeconomy based on natural resources, where multiple natural conditions determine the production possibilities, productivities, and interactions with society and environment. One size does not – and cannot – fit all needs and circumstances. Innovation is different from invention. In particular, Innovation typically involves adaptation of existing techniques or institutions to local (economic, social, cultural, geographical, physical, ecological) conditions, needs, etc. While we generally, but not always correctly, think of invention as the solitary work of a scientist , craftsman or entrepreneur, innovation is commonly a collective process involving a range of actors in ‘doing using and interacting’ (‘DUI’). Interaction typically takes place between public institutions, universities or research instituted, raw material suppliers, craftsmen and enterprises transforming raw materials, and final users of the goods and services produced. Research has demonstrated that innovations typically involve two key modes working together, namely science, technology and 2

Delvalle(2015) cites Ashby’s (1956) Law of Requisite Variety in his discussion of the governance problems around complex issues.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ innovation (‘STI’) and DUI (Jensen et al, 2007). Here the growing focus of research has been on ‘innovation systems’, first at national level (Lundvall, Freeman, Nelson, Fagerborg among others), but later at regional and local levels (Edquist, Cooke et al, and others). The innovation systems research focused on the nature and process of collective learning and forms of knowledge. Within that, the regional and local innovation systems research focuses on the embedding of innovation systems within specific regional and local contexts. Our main focus in this paper is on local innovation systems, and especially ‘grass roots’, ‘inclusive’ and ‘participatory’ innovation in its various forms. We further argue that such local innovation systems are ‘social’ in the sense that they are collective learning systems. Later we add the further notion that they are also ‘social’ in at least some of their key objectives. They are also dynamic, in the sense of all learning systems – the various conditions under which they are functioning alter through time, and they in turn have new issues and questions to solve; feedbacks from initial changes also cause internal adjustments and innovations. Innovation thus needs to be seen as an on-going process, rather than a one-off occurrence. Innovation and sustainability The STEPs3 manifesto (STEP 2010), the work of the collaboration of scholars from many countries, argued that radical changes in the policy and institutional framework were needed if the problems of sustainable development were to be tackled. Specifically we needed to address the problems of the Direction and Diversity of Innovation, and the Distribution of the benefits arising from it – the so-called Three D’s. This is closely related to the notion of the ‘3 Ps’ – People Planet and Profit – and to that of the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ or TBL (Elkington, 1997). However, as Bryden & Gezelius (2014) argue, the 3D’s contain an ethical imperative, whilst the TBL is based on consequentialist ethics. Ethical issues are very important in the bioeconomy, for several reasons, but especially because many basic needs are goods and services from the bioeconomy, or closely linked to it, notably food, water, housing and energy. Moreover, food and water are codified in Human Rights legislation. This issue is further discussed below. The growing concern about the link between innovation and processes of social inequality and all levels is indicated by the international network of scholars within the Globelics group, who study innovation systems. Globelics recently held an international conference on Innovation and Inclusion in Cuba (September 2015). The high level of submissions from all parts of the world indicates the strong degree of interest in the issue of whether innovation policies and institutions, as well as innovation systems, can help to address the problems of social inequalities, whatever their source. There has also been a growing interest in innovation and innovation systems within the EU. The SCAR committee report (2012) emphasised the role of innovation platforms4, as did the discussion of European Innovation Partnerships in Innovation Europe. This was followed by the current R&D programme H2020, which has a large focus on innovation including social innovation, and which was certainly influenced by the SCAR report. In one sense innovation platforms can be seen as social innovations, because they explicitly recognise the importance of social processes of collaboration and learning in creating (product and process) innovation. 3

STEPS Centre at Sussex University, a collaboration between SPRU (Science Policy Research Unit) and IDS (Institute of Development Studies) supported by the UK Economic and Social Research Council. 4 Innovation platforms are not a new idea – Roling and Jiggins (1994) worked on them, drawing on the soft systems work of Checkland (1981) and Checkland & Scholes (1991), discussed in Bryden 1994. However, what is new is the debate on the impacts and objectives of innovation stimulated by the STEPS New Manifesto in 2010 and subsequent work in this area.

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However, since social innovation is most usually treated as a sub-category of innovation, and one that is mainly concerned with the delivery of social services 5, we prefer to address the general innovation discourse in this paper. Given this background, there are three further questions we want to address in this paper. Firstly, why do we need a new paradigm? Secondly, what would the new paradigm look like in practice, given our revised norms? Thirdly, can we observe instances of innovation systems that illustrate the new paradigm in practice? Why we need a new paradigm? A set of more or less tacit normative value premises underpins most of today’s innovation discourse, and is taken for granted by policy makers (Bryden & Gezelius, 2013, 2014, 2015; Bryden et al, 2015). It is also, for the most part, silently and uncritically adopted by scholars. In particular, a widely adopted premise is that a key purpose of innovation is to promote economic growth and to increase the international competitiveness of national industries. Founding on this premise, it is the ability to promote growth and competitiveness that makes innovation a ’good thing’ and that justifies public funding of innovation related research and development. The evidence base is thus influenced, even determined, by these tacit norms and values: this consists, mainly, of numbers on public and private expenditure on research & development, and the numbers of patents filed, as measures of input and output respectively. This is what represents the ’old paradigm’ because it focuses on only one of several sources of knowledge needed for the processes of co-learning that are implicit in most innovation systems. But suppose we challenge and replace these norms with others? In particular, norms based on premises about sustainable development and human rights? STEPs’ New Manifesto emphasises that development and innovation should pursue poverty reduction, social justice, and environmental sustainability. To achieve this, innovation should be driven by those in the greatest need of it. Consequently, innovation should be driven from the bottom-up, rather than by politicians and scientists who promote ready-made solutions that disregard local needs and contexts. Innovation processes should thus include, especially, poor and underprivileged groups. Their guiding ’3 Ds’ are about the Direction of Innovation and its link to the Distribution of income and wealth, and to Diversity of solutions to practical problems.  Direction – what direction will this or that type of innovation take us? Some pathways – like highly specialised, capital-intensive, centralised, large-scale and long lead-time nuclear infrastructures – can 'crowd out’ alternatives. Where should innovation resources be focused?  Distribution – what will be the impacts on distribution of income and wealth? Will the innovation help the poor? How? Many scholars of development do not accept the hypothesis that this question does ’not matter’ because wealth will ’trickle down’ no matter where it is created, since the hypothesis is contradicted by the evidence and has no robust theoretical underpinning in any case.  Diversity – diversity is a strength (not to put ’all eggs in the same basket’; letting ’a thousand flowers bloom’). Triple bottom line (TBL) accounting is a principle for business ethics developed largely within a rich country context (Elkington, 1997). Its basic idea is that business results should Much of the discourse relates to the so-called ‘social economy’, in which much of the activity concerns delivery of social services that were formerly delivered by public – often local – authorities within the framework of the welfare state. This focus is however too narrow for our purposes. 5

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be measured not only in terms of profit, but also in terms of social consequences and environmental effects. It is very similar – even analagous - to the idea of PPP, or ’people, planet, and profit’, widely adopted by environmental interests, for example. Despite obvious similarities, the New Manifesto and the Triple Bottom Line build on different ethical foundations. The STEPS manifesto brings in a strong element of duty ethics, focusing on social justice and addressing human rights such as the poverty issue. Triple bottom line thinking is fundamentally consequentialistic because of its focus on the measurement of outcomes. Social justice is by nature an obligatory normative standard. Human rights are even more so; they are not something that can be traded off against other benefits. To conclude this section, we need a new paradigm of innovation to •

•

•

change the objectives of innovation – three Ds + TBL = HRB-TBL – “innovation as if people mattered” – “inclusive innovation” change innovation praxis – from STI to STI plus DUI – from top-down to bottom-up – from exclusion to inclusion change innovation policies – from science-led to actor-led – from property rights to common property – from private interest to public interest

What should the New Paradigm look like? At this stage we can briefly contrast the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ paradigms. The ‘old paradigm’ of innovation is primarily characterised as innovation serving the private sector in its quest for international competitiveness through improvements in the productivity of labour and capital. State support for innovation has become almost wholly captured by this normative and largely tacit objective, which is nowadays barely discussed. In contrast with Polanyi’s notion of the market being ‘within’ the State, the State is now within the market, a very powerful belief in western market economies, especially the ‘anglo-saxon’ and lately neo-liberal countries of the UK, the US, Canada and Australia. The State is seen as ‘subservient’ to capital, serving its needs, rather than protecting citizens from the impacts of capitalism, for example on inequalities and the environment. Capital is in fact directing the focus of R&D through its close relationship with national and transnational policies, and firms and individual entrepreneurs and ‘innovators’ are seen as the main actors and policy targets. The main and often the only indicators used to measure the ‘strength’ of innovation, or the rank order of states, are the number of patents registered and the expenditure on research and development. The outcomes may be evaluated by growth in productivity or GDP. The ‘new paradigm’ stands in stark contrast to this. Based on the previous, normative, analysis, we argue that innovation should serve citizens, and the State’s activities and policies in relation to innovation should be based on the needs and priorities of citizens as expressed through civil and political society. The market, and market actors, are of course part of that civil and political society, but we follow Polanyi (1944) in arguing that the market is within the State, rather than vice-versa. Innovation is thus driven by societal problems and priorities – especially ‘sustainable development’. To summarise, the New Innovation Paradigm involves: 1. the state serving citizens; the market is within and not above the state;

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2. the objectives are first and foremost social; they are concerned with human wellbeing and the natural environment that sustains it; where these are codified in human rights they give priority to these; 3. research and innovation as a multi-actor collective learning process which is inclusive in the sense that it includes all those with an interest in the outcomes, including those normally excluded from such processes. This is wider than the notion of ‘including users’ where ‘users’ are considered as ‘customers’; 4. innovation policies target and encourage multi-actor innovation platforms that are inclusive, we call these ‘Grounded Innovation Platforms’ or ‘GRIPs’ (Bryden et al, 2013; Bryden and Gezelius, 2014; Bryden et al 2015) 5. the outcomes of innovation are assessed by TBL and Human Rights impacts. Can we see signs of the ‘new paradigm’ in the ‘real world’? Sheik (2015) discusses ‘grass roots’ innovation in Indian ‘informal’ sector. He cites Gupta’s (1999) attempt to conceptualise grassroots innovations in India, in which he “maintains that technological solutions at the grassroots level seem to be more environmentally sustainable, local in nature, developed through bottom up approach and suited to the local communities”. In his paper, Sheik focuses on two Indian institutions focused on the poor, and on action research at the grass roots level involving the ‘blending’ of formal and informal knowledge systems. These are the National Innovation Foundation (NIF) and Barefoot College (BC). NIF, in collaboration with Shodyatras and its volunteers at Honey Bee Network “claims to have build up a database of more than 200,000 ideas, innovations and traditional knowledge practices from over 555 districts of India To us the GRIP is one concrete expression of the New Paradigm in action in the Nordic context, but there are many terms for the same kind of structure. A GRIP is firstly an innovation platform in the sense that it is a grouping of actors who come together because they have a shared goal of changing something together. The object can be technology, but it can also be a policy or a practice going beyond technology. It is a means of collective learning by those whose lives are most directly affected by the outcomes, and so it is a ‘participatory’ or ‘bottom up’ process. It also builds on the existing experience, knowledge and evaluations of the actors. It may or may not be inclusive, and it may or may not have HRTBL outcomes – neither can be assumed, and both are empirical questions6. But we follow Gupta in hypothesising that such new paradigm institutional forms are likely to be more inclusive and more likely to have HR-TBL outcomes than those of the old paradigm. Our own research in the TRIBORN project can be used to illustrate GRIP like structures. In it we have identified a form of ‘quintuple helix’ structure active in the bioeconomy at local levels in Norway, Sweden and Finland. That is to say there are five distinct types of actor involved, notably the suppliers of raw materials (typically foresters or farmers, but also sawmills, food processors and other sources of ‘waste’ biomass materials); the firms that transform those materials into energy (district heating, electricity, biofuels, biogas, pharmaceuticals, bioplastics and chemicals etc); the local authorities that create local regulations and so engage in ‘market-making’ as well as being ‘responsible’ to their electorate and therefore concerned with legitimacy, fairness and other ethical and moral questions as well as local development and employment issues; one or more sources of formal knowledge, in some cases universities and research institutes, in others knowledge intermediaries such as extension agents, consultants, etc. ; and finally, the citizens either as ‘customers’ or through their civil society organisations. The following diagram illustrates such structures:6

Research has shown that such ‘bottom up’ structures can be ‘captured’ by elites, for example.

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There are also many examples of similar structures from around the world. Some are documented in the background work for the New Manifesto. Others are discussed by Fressoli et al (2014), and Sheik (2015) mentioned earlier. Alfredo del Valle from Valparaiso in Chile recently discussed a paper called : “Building a rural future in Valporaiso, Chile via Participatory Innovation. Methodical governance of complexity as a seed for post-neoliberal policy” in which he discusses the structure of this new governance system. Since the local governance system he describes incorporates government, the productive sector, businessassociations, the knowledge sector and NGOs, we can think of it as a form of GRIP. The local action groups of the EU LEADER programme had similarities to a GRIP in its earlier manifestations prior to ‘mainstreaming’ (Bryden, 2011). In more general terms, the move to more ‘inclusive’ innovation in terms both of its objectives and its institutions is an on-going topic of discussion and research within the GLOBELICS group, thanks to the work of young scholars like Judith Sutz, Gaby Bortz, Mariano Fressoli, and Susan Cozzens, to name but a few. To some extent at least, the European Innovation Partnerships (2010), elaborated for agriculture in the EU report of the Standing Committee on Agricultural Research (SCAR) 2012, opened a door to the new paradigm, even if the arguments were somewhat different (if also relevant). The EIPs and the SCAR report undoubtedly influenced the thinking behind Horizon 2020. However, the focus of the EU has mainly been in EU competitiveness and technology development, and our arguments and proposals go far beyond these issues. Conclusions 1. The world needs a New Paradigm of Innovation (NPI) a. To address growing global problems of inequalities and exclusion, climate change and its impacts b. To shift the normative goals of innovation and innovation policy 2. There are many examples of institutions from different parts of the world that appear to illustrate the New Paradigm, and policies moving towards their support. At the moment, though, they are a form of experiment

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a. We need to study them carefully, and learn from processes and outcomes i. How do GRIPs form, how do they learn and adapt, are they temporary or long-lasting? ii. What kind of formal or informal governance and/ or organizational structures do they have, and how do these influence things like learning processes, longevity, and outcomes? iii. What are their objectives and are these concerned with HR-TBL outcomes? iv. Do innovations through GRIPs produce HR-TBL outcomes? 3. Such experiments give us grounds for hope in the quest for more sustainable human development. We will be continuing to work on these issues in future both in relation to the bioeconomy, and beyond it, and hope that others will join in this endeavour in their own fields. We will also work with policy makers at all levels to find new ideas about how GRIP-like structures can be fostered without becoming controlled and inhibited by the bureaucracy and technocracy that kills so many creative ideas and structures. What is sure is that public policies towards the stimulation of innovation need to change if innovation is to contribute fully and adequately to social, environmental and economic goals of sustainability and to human rights. Key References Ashby, W.R. 1956. An introduction to cybernetics. London: Chapman and Hall. Bortz, G. 2014. De I+D en biotecnología a oportunidad de desarrollo regional: trayectoria sociotécnica del Yogurito Escolar (Tucumán, Argentina). XXIV Jornadas de Historia Económica, 1-3 October, 2014, Rosario, Argentina Bryden J.M (ed). 1994. Towards Sustainable Rural Development. University of Guelph. Bryden J M 2010. Local Development. In Hart, JK et al ‘Human Economy’. Cambridge, Polity Press, Bryden, J.M., et al. 2013. Governing Innovation for Sustainable Development: Designing Creative Institutions, Working Paper 2013-5, Norsk Institutt for Landbruksøkonomisk forskning, Oslo. Bryden, J., Gezelius, S. S. 2014. Innovation as if people mattered: Designing institutions for land based economic development, Presentation at Nordic Ruralities, 3rd Nordic Conference for Rural Research 08-10 September in Trondheim, Norway 2014. (A similar paper was delivered at the Globelics Conference in Turkey in 2013 and at the ESRS Congress in Aberdeen in 2015). Bryden J, Brox O and Riddoch L. eds. 2015. Northern Neighbours: Scotland and Norway since 1800. Edinburgh University Press. Bryden, JM., Cavicchi, B., Kvakkestad, V., Prestvik, A-S., Refsgaard, K (2015) Towars Inclusive Innovation Praxis in Forest-Based Bioenergy. Paper presented at the Globelics Conference, Havana, Cuba, Spetember 2015; Cavicchi, B., Bryden, J.M. Vittuari, M. 2014. A comparison of bioenergy policies and institutional frameworks in the rural areas of Emilia Romagna and Norway. Energy Policy 67, pp. 355-363. Checkland, P. 1981. Systems thinking, systems practice. Wiley. Checkland P and Scholes J. 1990. Soft systems methodology in action. Wiley. Del Valle, A 2015. Building a rural future in Valporaiso, Chile via “Participatory Innovation”. Methodical governance of complexity as a seed for post-neoliberal policy. Presented at the ESRS Congress, Aberdeen, Aug 2015.

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Elkington J. 1997. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Oxford: Capstone Publishing. Fressoli, M., Arund, E., Abrol, D., Smith, A., Ely, A. 2014 When grassroots innovation movements encounter mainstream institutions: implications for models of inclusive innovation. Innovation and Development, Special Issue on Inclusive Innovation. Gezelius, Stig S. 2004. Food, Money and Morals - Compliance Among Natural Resource Harvesters, Human Ecology 32 (5): 615-634. Hart, J K., Laville, J-L., Cattani, AD. 2010. The Human Economy. Cambridge, Polity Press. Heeks R, Amalia M, Kintu R, Shah N 2013. Inclusive Innovation: Definition, Conceptualisation and Future Research Priorities, IDPM Development Informatics Working Paper no. 53, University of Manchester, UK. Heeks R, Foster C, Nugroho Y 2014. New models of inclusive innovation for development, Innovation and Development, 4:2, 175-185. Hilson M 2008. The Nordic Model: Scandinavia since 1945. London, Reaktion Books Morten Berg Jensen, Bjö̈rn Johnson, Edward Lorencz, & Bengt Åke Lundvall 2007. Forms of knowledge and modes of innovation. Research Policy 36 (2007) 680–693 Lundvall B.-Å 1992. National Systems of Innovation. Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter Publishers OECD 2012. Linking Renewable Energy to Rural Development. OECD Publishing, Parishttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264180444-en. (OECD Green Growth Studies). Ostrom, E. 1990. The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Pava ML. 2007. A response to "Getting to the bottom of 'Triple Bottom Line'". Business Ethics Quarterly 17 (1): 105-110 Piketty T. 2014. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, Mass. The Belknap Press of Harvard University. Polanyi K. 1944 (2001edition). The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston, Beacon Press (Originally published in New York by Farrar & Reinhart. Roling NG, Jiggins J. 1998. ‘The Ecological Knowledge System’ in Roling N G and Wagemakers, MAE. (eds). Facilitating sustainable agriculture: participatory learning and adaptive management in times of environmental uncertainty. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Sheik, Fayaz-Ahmad. 2015. Policymaking for Innovations in the Informal Economy: Insights from National Innovation Foundation and Barefoot College of India. Paper presented at the Globelics Conference, Havana, Cuba, Sept. 2015. Slaper T. and Hall TJ. 2011. The triple bottom line: What is it and how does it work? Indiana Business Review, Spring 2011. http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html. Accessed 19 April 2013. STEPS 2010. Innovation, Sustainability, Development: A New Manifesto. Brighton: STEPSCentre. Varoufakis, Y., Halevi, J., Theocarakis, NJ., 2014.Modern Political Economics: Making sense of the post-2008 world. Routledge. Vera-Cruz, M., Grass, N., Dutrenit, G. 2015. A causal model of inclusive innovation: agents, interactions and stage. Paper presented at the Globelics conference, Havana, Cuba, 2325 September.

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Review paper 10.7251/AGSY1505040B 150 YEARS OF THE GENIUS OF GENETICS Novo PRŽULJ1,6*, Dragan PEROVIĆ2,3, Yueming YAN4, Milan MIROSAVLJEVIĆ5, Branka GOVEDARICA6, Tanja KRMPOT1, Slađana PETRONIĆ6 1

2

University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Agriculture, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Julius Kühn-Institut (JKI), Institute for Resistance Research and Stress Tolerance, Quedlinburg, Germany 3 EDUCONS University, Faculty of Ecological Agriculture, Svilajnac, Serbia 4 College of Life Science, Capitol Normal University, Beijing, China 5 Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Serbia 6 University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

In 2015 world is commemorating 150 years since Gregor Mendel presented his lectures Experiments in Plant Hybridization (Versuche über Plflanzen-hybriden), on the 8th of February and March 1865. He presented, for the first time, the results of his research into breeding peas and other plants that he had been performing for a number of years in the gardens of the Augustinian monastery in Old Brno at a meeting of the Natural Science Society in Brno (Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn). Using the garden as a genetics laboratory, Gregor Mendel could manipulate and select for certain traits to formulate and test out his hypotheses about mechanisms of inheritance and distribution of traits in offspring. In order to trace the transmission of traits, he chose seven pea traits that were expressed in a distinctive manner, such as plant height (short or tall), seed color (green or yellow), etc. The F1 of crossing varieties that differed in one trait- for instance tall x short, displayed the trait of one variety but not that of the other. He observed that the plant height was a trait that was passed on to progeny independently from other traits. In Mendel’s terms, one character was dominant and the other recessive. The recessive character reappeared in F2, and the proportion of offspring bearing the dominant to offspring bearing the recessive was very close to a 3 to 1 ratio. After seven years of research and analyses of thousands pea plants, Mendels observational talent and mathematics knowledge were base for the defining of three principles, often known as Mendel's principles of heredity- Law of dominance, Law of segregation and Law of independent assortment, which are the essential for the Mendelian genetics and heredity. Remarkably, Mendel described elements of DNA-based inheritance in the absence of any knowledge of the molecular biology behind it. His important contributions to the field of genetics continue to influence modern scientists and every geneticist or genetics student has heard his name. Although initially well-received, Mendel’s work was not given proper appreciation during his lifetime, even after it was published in 1866. In fact, over the next 35 years, this paper was only cited three times. The genetics became more important at the beginning of the 20th century when three different research groups (Dutch botanist and geneticist Hugo de Vries, German botanist and geneticist Carl Erich Correns, and Austrian botanist Erich von Tschermak with their co-workers) independently re-discovered Mendel’s Laws. Biologist William Bateson became the strong supporter of Mendel’s theory and later zoologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan located the genes on the chromosomes. As the architect of genetic experimental and statistical analysis, Mendel remains the acknowledged father of genetics. Key words: Gregor Mendel, genetics, inheritance, dominant, recessive.

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Introduction Since the beginning of human history, people have wondered how traits are inherited from one generation to the next. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. Although children often look more like one parent than the other, most offspring seem to be a blend of the characteristics of both parents. Centuries of breeding of domestic plants and animals had shown that useful traits - yield of wheat, speed in horses, larger fruits in crops, protein content in milk - can be improved by controlled mating. However, there was no scientific way to predict the outcome of a cross between two particular parents. A number of hypotheses were suggested to explain heredity. During the 19th century, prior to the discovery of genetics, many biologists support to the idea of blending inheritance (Jenkin, 1867). Blending inheritance was merely a widespread hypothetical model, rather than a formalized scientific theory since it was never formally presented to a scientific community nor published in any scientific journals. By this theory inherited traits were determined randomly, from a range bound by the homologous traits found in the parents. For example the height of a person, with one short parent and one tall parent, was thought to always be of some intermediate value between its two parents' heights. The shortcoming to this idea was in how it required the person of intermediate height, in turn, to then become one of the limiting bounds (either upper or lower) for future offspring, and so on down the entire lineage. Thus, in each family, the potential for variation would tend to narrow, quite dramatically, with each generation, and it would go for the entire population with every trait. If blending inheritance were true, in this example, all members of a species would eventually converge upon a single value for height for all members, variation disappeared, every generation should be more uniform than the previous one. By now, all individuals should be as indistinguishable as clones. Blending inheritance failed to explain how traits that seemingly disappeared for several generations often reasserted themselves down the line, unaltered. Blue eyes and blond hair, for example, often could disappear from a family's lineage for several generations, only to have two brown-haired, brown-eyed parents give birth to a blond, blue-eyed child. If blending inheritance were fact, this could not be possible. In 1868 in England, Charles Darwin proposed his pangenesis theory (pan- whole, genesisorigin) to describe the units of inheritance between parents and offspring and the processes by which those units control development in off spring (Darwin, 1868). Indeed, pangenesis theory originated from the claim that characteristics acquired during an organism's life were heritable. A theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics (IAC) had persistent for almost two thousand years, since Greek antiquity. Hippocrates, who lived during the fifth to fourth centuries BC in Greece used this theory to explain why some people had longer than normal heads. Many scientists and philosophers in the eighteenth and nineteenth century favored some form of IAC theory, including Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in Paris, France. Lamarck stated that all the characters acquired during an individual's life transmitted to their offspring. Darwin propose the concept of gemmules, which he said referred to hypothesized small particles of inheritance inside cells. Darwin argued that, in what he called higher animals or plants, every cell in their bodies emitted small particles, which were units of heredity, that he called gemmules. The gemmules could either circulate and disperse in the body system, or they could aggregate in the sexual cells located in reproductive organs. As hereditary units, the gemmules transmitted from parents to offspring, where they developed into cells that resembled the parents' cells. It was not sexual cells alone that generated a new organism, but rather all cells in the body as a whole. The theory suggested that an organism's environment could modify the gemmules in any parts of the body, and that these modified gemmules would congregate in the reproductive organs of parents to be passed on to their offspring. In sexual reproduction, gemmules from both parents blended in the sexual organs to be passed to

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the offspring With the term pangenesis, Darwin suggested that all parts of the parents could contribute to the evolution and development of the offspring. Darwin's theory of pangenesis gradually lost popularity in the 1890s when biologists increasingly rejected the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics (IAC), on which the pangenesis theory partially relied. Around the turn of the twentieth century, biologists replaced the theory of pangenesis with germ plasm theory and then with chromosomal theories of inheritance, and they replaced the concept of gemmules with that of genes. Weismann stated that small units of materials in the cells of organisms pass from parents to their offspring (Winther, 2001). Nonetheless, Weismann argued that only the hereditary material in the sexual cells, or germ cells, could transmit to offspring. Weismann called his theory germ-plasm theory. Principles of the germplasm theory gradually replaced Darwin's pangenesis theory, but biologists adopted little of Weismann's terminology. The particulate hypothesis states that parents pass on to their offspring distinct factors that retain their offspring while the blending hypothesis states that parents hereditary material blends in their offspring. In the 1860s in Brno, Austrian Empire, which later became the Czech Republic, Mendel had studied how heritable factors in sexually reproducing plants behaved across generations, and he had inferred laws to describe those behaviors. Mendel did not study the actual units of inheritance, but only the phenotypes or traits hypothesized to develop in organisms that had those factors. With his laws, Mendel could predict phenotypes among the offspring from data about the phenotypes of parents. Mendel's laws, unstudied for decades, were rediscovered in 1900, and Walter Sutton in the US and Theodor Boveri in Europe soon paired those laws to the mechanistic descriptions of how chromosomes behaved in replicating cells, creating a chromosomal theory of inheritance (Satzinger, 2008). Mendel's hypothesis states that parents pass on to their offspring separate and distinct factors (today called genes) that are responsible for inherited traits. Mendel stressed that these heritable factors retain their identity during next generations. Following Bateson in England and Johannsen in Denmark, most biologists eventually rejected theories of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and Darwin's pangenesis theory, and they used the term gene to refer to those things that Mendel had called factors (Bateson, 1900; Johannsen, 1909). Scientists in the early and middle decades of the twentieth century worked to fit the chromosomal and genetic theories of inheritance with Darwin's theory of the evolution of species by natural selection. Education and early career of Johann Mendel Johann Mendel was born 1822 in a farmers family in Hynčice about 120 km north of Brno. He was the son of Anton and Rosine Mendel, and had two sisters; older Veronika and younger Theresia. From his mother Johann Gregor inherited some of his character traits, for he seems to have been good-natured, quiet, and modest. Probably his talent came also from the mother's side of the family. Anton Mendel had a great fondness for fruit-growing. They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years. During his childhood Johann helped his father farm their land working as a gardener and studding beekeeping, but he was not destined to be farmer. On the farm Johann developed his love for the science. Johan began attending the village school as soon as he was old enough and his teachers noticed that he was an exceptionally intelligent boy. Johanns teachers recommended him to an upper elementary school in Leipnik. This was a school where exceptional students were sent to prepare them for the gymnasium. The gymnasium (grammar school) was a school that provided an education for the best students, which were selected to go on to study

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an university. Later, when Johann was 11 years old, he attended Gymnasium in Opava in 1834. Johann’s parents had to deal with the fact that Johann would not be taking over the family farm when his father grew older. In 1938 Johann’s father was seriously injured while working and that situation places a lot of stress on Johann, because his parents were no longer able to pay for any of his schooling, leaving him to support himself entirely. Due to that Johann become quite sick and stayed in bed for four months. To provide money for studying Johann decided to study to become a teacher for tutoring his classmates. He graduated from the gymnasium in 1840. Johann wanted to continue his education at a university and prerequisite for that was two year philosophical study. From 1840 to 1843, he studied religion, philosophy, ethic, pedagogy mathematics and physics at the University of Olomouc Faculty of Philosophy, taking another year off because of illness. When Mendel entered the Faculty of Philosophy, the Department of Natural History and Agriculture was headed by Johann Karl Nestler who conducted extensive research of hereditary traits of plants and animals, especially sheep. Johann had the problems with his health whenever he was faced with difficult circumstances. He also struggled financially to pay for his studies, and Theresia gave him her dowry. Later he helped support her three sons, two of whom became doctors. He was excelled in physics and mathematics. Johann Mendel no longer wanted to have to struggle. Indeed, Friedrich Franz, his professor of physics who was a priest, urged Johann to become a monk. For Mendel that was the only way for obtaining education since monasteries were known to be centers of learning. Johann Mendel in late 1843, at the age of twenty one, joined the Augustinian monastery of St. Thomas and began his training as a priest; born Johann Mendel took the name Gregor. Gregor Mendel was ordained into the priesthood in August 1947. As a priest Mendel found his parish duty to visit the sick in hospital. It quickly become clear that he was not fit for these duties because whenever he visited the patients he became very upset. Mendel wanted to teach. Head of the monastery Abbot Napp found him a substitute-teaching position at Znojno, where he proved very successful in teaching mathematics and literature at the high school. Mendel began teaching in 1849, even he did not yet have a formal document from a university approving him to do so. In 1850 he failed the oral part, the last of three parts, of his exams to become a certified high school teacher. From point of Mendel it was debacle, but from point of genetics it was good that he did not pass the exam. If he passed Mendel probably would be happy teaching at the Znojno high school for the rest of his life and probably would never work with pea. In 1851 Mendel was sent to the University of Vienna to study under the sponsorship of Abbot Napp so that he could get more formal education. As at Olomouc, Mendel devoted his time at Vienna to physics and mathematics, working under Austrian physicist Christian Doppler and mathematical physicist Andreas von Ettinghausen. He also studied the anatomy and physiology of plants and the use of the microscope under botanist Franz Unger, an enthusiast for the cell theory. In the summer of 1853, Mendel returned to the monastery in Brno, and in the following year he was again given a teaching position, principally of physics, this time at the Brno high school, where he remained until elected abbot 14 years later. In 1856 he took the exam to become a certified teacher and again failed the oral part. In 1867 he replaced Napp as abbot of the monastery. After he was elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended, as Mendel became occupied with his increased administrative responsibilities. The increased responsibilities prevented him from conducting any further scientific experiments. Mendel died on 6 January 1884, at the age of 61, in Brno, from chronic nephritis. After his death, the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's collection, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation.

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Mendel's Genetics In 1854 in the garden of monastery Gregor Mendel established the experimental program in hybridization . Between 1856 and 1863, he cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants. The aim of this program was to trace the transmission of hereditary characters in successive generations of hybrid progeny. Mendel found that garden pea (Pisum sativum) has many distinct varieties and he selected it to conduct his studies. Pea is suitable due to ease of growing and control of pollination and the high proportion of successful seed germinations. In period from 1854 to 1856 Mendel tested 34 pea varieties for stability of their traits. In order to understand the transmission of characters, Mendel observed seven traits that are easily recognized and apparently only occur in one of two forms: flower color is purple or white, flower position is axil or terminal, plant is tall or short, seed shape is round or wrinkled, seed color is yellow or green, pod shape is inflated or constricted and pod color is yellow or green. This observation that these traits do not show up in offspring plants with intermediate forms was critically important because the leading theory in biology at the time was that inherited traits blend from generation to generation. He crossed varieties that differed in one trait- for instance, varieties with purple flower crossed with varieties with white flowers. The first generation of hybrid (F1) displayed the character of one variety but not that of the other. In Mendel’s terms, one character was dominant and the other recessive. He grown numerous plants from this hybrid and obtained the second generation (F2), in which the recessive character reappeared, and the proportion of offspring bearing the dominant to offspring bearing the recessive was very close to a 3 to 1 ratio. Study of the descendants (F3) of the dominant group showed that one-third of them were pure line and two-thirds were of hybrid constitution. The 3:1 ratio could hence be rewritten as 1:2:1, meaning that 50% of the F2 generation were pure line and 50% were still hybrid. This was Mendel’s major discovery, and it was unlikely to have been made by his predecessors, since they did not grow statistically significant populations, nor did they follow the individual characters separately to establish their statistical relations. Mendels knowledge in physics and mathematics, especially combinatorial mathematics served him to represent obtained results. If dominant form of a trait denote by A and the recessive by a, then the 1:2:1 ratio recalls the terms in the expansion of the binomial equation: (A+a)2 = A2+2Aa+a2. From these experiments, Mendel induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. He described these principles in a two-part paper, Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden (Experiments on Plant Hybridization), that he read to the Natural History Society of Brno on February 8 and March 8, 1865, and which was published in 1866. Mendel's Laws of heredity are usually stated as: 1) The Law of segregation: Each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair. Parental genes are randomly separated to the sex cells so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Although Mendel did not know the physical basis for heredity, he observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes. Offspring therefore inherit one genetic allele from each parent when sex cells unite in fertilization. 2) The Law of Independent Assortment: Mendel realized that he could test his expectation that the seven traits are transmitted independently of one another. Crosses involving first two and then three of his seven traits yielded categories of offspring in proportions following the terms produced from combining two binomial equations, indicating that their transmission was independent of one another. So, genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another. 3) The Law of dominance: Therefore, a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive will always express the dominant phenotype, while still having a

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heterozygous genotype. Recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant alleles. In a cross between two organisms pure for any pair of contrasting characters, the character that appears in the F1 generation is called dominant and the one which is not expressed is called recessive. Mendelism - important and controversial theory It is obviously that Mendel did not make effort to publicize his work. Today it is not known how many reprints of his paper he distributed. He had ordered 40 reprints, the where of only eight of which are known. Other than the journal that published his paper, in 19th century 15 sources are known in which Mendels plant hybridization work is mentioned. Few of these provide a clear picture of his achievement. Indeed, Mendel's results were largely ignored. Although Mendel's laws were not completely unknown to biologists of that time, they were not seen as generally applicable. A major barrier to understanding their significance there was in the apparent blending of inherited traits in the overall appearance of the progeny, now known to be due to multigene interactions, while Mendel studied the organ-specific binary characters. In 1900, however, his work was "re-discovered" by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak but they partially still ignored Mendel's findings. Bateson was the strongest promoter of Mendel's theory (Bateson, 1909). By 1902, he had translated Mendel's works into English and was a strong supporter of the Mendelian laws of inheritance. Bateson is credited with coining the terms "genetics," "allele", "zygote," "heterozygote" and "homozygote". Bateson first used the term "genetics" publicly at the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906 (Bateson, 1906), and Johannsen first used the word "gene" in 1909 to describe the units of hereditary information. Many other biologists were against Mendel's model of heredity because it implied that heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits. However, later Fisher (1936) showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they could produce the diverse results observed. After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes and the chromosomes of cells were thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and created what is now known as classical genetics. This finally strengthen Mendel's place in history of genetics. Discussion The fundamental laws of inheritance are now known as Mendel's laws, and the science on which they are based is called Mendelian genetics. However, because Mendel's importance was unrecognized during his lifetime, little original information about his scientific work was preserved. Most unfortunately, his scientific records were apparently burned around the time of his death (Orel, 1996). Classical study of seven genes by Gregor Mendel was basis for modern genetics development, although relatively recently little was known about their function. Progress in molecular genetics in last few decades dramatically changed this situation and identity of Mendels genes in pea has been discovered. The gene Mendel studied that governs seed shape trait is r on chromosome 7, the gene that governs cotyledon color is i on chromosome 1, the gene that governs seed coat color is a on chromosome 1, the gene that governs pod shape is either v on chromosome 4 or p on chromosome 6, the gene that governs pod color is gp on chromosome 5, the gene that governs flower position is fa on chromosome 4 and the gene that governs stem length is le on chromosome 4. Although Mendel's paper is considered a classic in the history of biology, it generated much controversy throughout the century that elapsed since the rediscovery of Mendelian laws in

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1900. Some authors glorify Mendel as a brilliant scientist whose work was ahead of its time, others are critical of his methods, and a few claim he was a deception (Monaghan and Corcos, 1993; Weldon, 1902; Hartl and Fairbanks, 2007). There is substantial disagreement about his objectives, the accuracy of his presentation, the statistical validity of his data, and the relationship of his work to evolutionary theories of his day. Fairbanks and Rytting (2001) apostrophize five of the most contentiously debated issues by looking at the historical record through the view of current science: (1) Are Mendel's data too good to be true? (2) Is Mendel's description of his experiments fictitious? (3) Did Mendel articulate the laws of inheritance attributed to him? (4) Did Mendel detect but not mention linkage? (5) Did Mendel support or oppose Darwin? Some scholars disagree about Mendel's integrity in his presentation, his articulation of the fundamental laws of inheritance, his experimental design, his motives for conducting his experiments, and his conclusions. However, given the lack of suitable terminology at the time, this seems a very unpleasant judgment. Fisher (1936) certainly saw the significance of Mendel’s contribution to the field even though he was the one who raised several concerns about the data. Some of these concerns still exist, and the controversy has not been resolved, despite recent implications to the contrary (Franklin, 2008; Stigler, 2008). Fairbanks and Rytting (2001) concluded that Mendel did not fabricate his data, his description of his experiments is literal, he articulated the laws of inheritance attributed to him insofar as was possible given the information he had, he did not detect linkage, and he neither strongly supported nor opposed Darwin. References Bateson, W. 1900. Problems of heredity as a subject for horticultural investigation. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, 25: 54-61. Bateson, W. 1906. The Progress of Genetic Research. Report of the Third International Conference on Genetics; Hybridisation (The Cross-breeding of Genera or Species), The Cross-breeding of Varieties and General Plant-breeding. London: Royal Horticultural Society, pp. 90-97. Bateson, W. 1909. Mendel’s Principles of Heredity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Darwin, C. 1868. The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. London: John Murray. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/61215#/ summary. Fairbanks, D.J., Rytting, B. 2001. Mendelian controversies: a botanical and historical review. American Journal of Botany, 88: 737-752. Fisher, R.A. 1936. Has Mendel’s work been rediscovered? Annals of Science, 1: 115-137. Franklin, A., 2008. The Mendel-Fisher controversy: an overview. In: Franklin, A., Edwards, A.W.F., Fairbanks, D.J., Hartl, D.L., Seidenfeld, T. (eds), Ending the Mendel-Fisher Controversy, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, pp. 1-68. Hartl, D.L., Fairbanks, D.J. 2007. Mudsticks: on the alleged falsification of Mendel’s data. Genetics, 175: 975-979. Jenkin, F. 1867. Origin of Species. North British Review, 46: 277-318. Johannsen, L.W. 1909. Elemente der Exakten Erblichkeitslehre [The elements of an exact theory of heredity]. Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1909. http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.1060. Monaghan, F.V., Corcos, A.F. 1993. The real objective of Mendel’s paper: a response to Falk and Sarkar’s criticism. Biology and Philosophy, 8: 95-98. Orel, V. 1996. Gregor Mendel: the first geneticist. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

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Satzinger, H. 2008. Theodor and Marcella Boveri: Chromosomes and cytoplasm in heredity and development. Nature Reviews Genetics, 9: 231-238. doi:10.1038/nrg2311.PMID 18268510. Stigler, S.M. 2008. CSI: Mendel. American Scientist, 96: 425. Winther, G.R. 2001. August Weismann on Germ-Plasm Variation. Journal of the History of Biology, 34: 517-555. Weldon, O. E. 1902. Mendel’s law of alternative inheritance in peas. Biometrika, 1: 228-254.

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Review paper 10.7251/AGSY1505048M FEEDING THE WORLD IN 2050: FOOD AVAILABILITY VS FOOD ACCESS William H. MEYERS*, Kateryna G. SCHROEDER Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia 101 Park De Ville Dr., Suite E, Columbia, MO, USA 65203 *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract This paper assesses the projected growth of food supply relative to population growth and estimated food demand growth over the next four decades. World population projections are analyzed for the main developed and developing regions. Implied food demand growth is then compared to grain and oilseed supply projections from a few of the most reliable sources. Three of these are ten-year projections and two extend to 2030 and 2050. To the extent possible, comparisons are made among the alternative projections. Conclusions about food availability and prices are finally drawn. Meeting the growth in demand for food, feed, and biofuels to 2050 will not be a steep hill to climb, but there will need to be continued private and public investment in technology to induce increased production growth rates through productivity enhancements and increased purchased inputs. The main food security challenge of the future, as in the present, is not insufficient production but rather increasing access and reducing vulnerability for food insecure households. The dominance of future population growth in the food insecure regions of Africa make this challenge even more critical between now and 2050 and even more so in the years beyond 2050 when climate change effects on resource constraints will be more severe. Keywords: food supply, population growth, price projection, production growth Introduction In 2009, FAO issued a report (Bruinsma, 2009) that contained estimates of how much agricultural production needed to increase between 2006 and 2050 to meet the projected growing consumption from increasing population and changing diets. It was the basis for what became a widely used figure that production needed to double by 2050, even though that was only the FAO estimate for production in developing countries. The actual estimate in the 2009 report was that global agricultural production would need to increase by 70 percent. Moreover, that “double by 2050” continues to be repeated even though agricultural production has already increased substantially since 2006. More recently, FAO (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012) updated these estimates and projected a 60 percent increase in agricultural production needed to provide an adequate food supply from 2006 to 2050. These figures are used later in this paper but we will first take a look at the broader context for this and other estimates of future needs. Since the end of World War II, rapid technological change combined with inelastic demand for food has been generating declining real agricultural prices. Consumers have been the ultimate beneficiaries of agricultural innovation, while farmers have had to expand their operations and become more efficient to offset price declines. Governments in high-income countries have adopted various support and protective trade policies to shelter their farmers from price declines which often contribute to even lower market prices. This long-term decline in real prices has periodically been interrupted by price spikes caused by crop failures or other factors. From the beginning of 2006 to the end of 2008, the world witnessed the largest surge of commodity and food prices since the early 1970s. After a short and deep price decline, they rose again between 2011 and 2014, and then began another decline in 2015 (Figure 1) The

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2007/08 price surge raised the age-old Malthusian question of whether food production can keep pace with growing demand. Numerous studies have found complex factors related to this issue. Historically, the main driver of production has been technological progress. Meanwhile, the drivers of consumption have been population growth (which increases the number of mouths to feed) and income growth (which increases the quality and quantity of food consumed per person). Changing diets that accompany both increased incomes and increased urbanization generally lead to more meat consumption and thus more grain consumption per person. Aging of the population which is occurring at a faster pace in higher-income countries, may have the opposite effect on diet and quantity of grain consumed. 250 200 150 100

0

2000M06 2000M12 2001M06 2001M12 2002M06 2002M12 2003M06 2003M12 2004M06 2004M12 2005M06 2005M12 2006M06 2006M12 2007M06 2007M12 2008M06 2008M12 2009M06 2009M12 2010M06 2010M12 2011M06 2011M12 2012m06 2012M12 2013M06 2013M12 2014M06 2014M12 2015M06

50

energy

food

agriculture

Figure 1. World Bank food, agriculture, and energy price indices, 01/00 to 6/15, 2005=100 Source: World Bank monthly commodity prices (Pink Sheet), accessed July 11, 2015. A number of factors have contributed to the rising and more volatile prices since 2007, including declining grain and oilseed stocks, depreciation of the US dollar, poor weather (leading to yield shocks), governmental policy reaction to rising prices, changing diets, and rising demand. It has been in many ways a ‘perfect storm’ of factors (Abbott, Hurt, & Tyner, 2009; Meyers & Meyer, 2008). In a number of countries, the implementation of policies stimulating biofuel production in pursuit of environmental and farm support objectives has formed a much stronger link between fuel and food markets, a link that can contribute both to the level and the volatility of food prices (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO] 2008a; Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute [FAPRI-MU], 2008; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2008). These policy changes have increased the profitability of investments in biofuel capacity and the increased use of existing capacity, resulting in more grains and oilseeds being used as feedstock for biofuel production. Biofuels component of grain and oilseed demand rose strongly from 2005 to 2011, but it is not expected to be a major factor in future demand (FAPRI-MU, 2015). Examination of grain and oilseed world markets indicates that the rate of production growth was decelerating since the 1970s. This has contributed to declining stock positions in global markets (Table 1), although the new millennium saw a rebound partly in response to higher commodity prices. This rebound has continued into the second decade of the twenty-first century, but the growth rate has decelerated again. While a significant share of the decline in the 1990s was due to the restructuring and reform in the Former Soviet Union (FSU-12), even without that, grain production growth would have been slower than in earlier decades. In comparing growth rates in yield over each decade from 1960 to 2013, there has been a steady

49


deceleration in yield growth rates since the 1970s. Added to this problem is the finding by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that natural disasters may become more frequent and extreme in the future due to climate change, thus contributing to decelerating average growth in yield. Grain area which also declined between 1980 and 2000 to less than 1% per annum in production growth has rebounded, but not to previous levels. Table 1. Average annual percent change in area, yield, and production, grains and oilseeds 1960-70 1970-80 Grains Yield 2.48 1.87 Area 0.47 0.82 Production 2.98 2.43 Consumption 3.02 2.31 FSU-12 Area –02.0 0.63 Production 2.82 –0.06 Consumption 3.77 2,05 World Less FSU-12 Area 0.62 0.85 Production 3.01 2.79 Consumption 2.90 2.36 Grains and Oilseeds Area 1.44 1.29 Production 3.64 2.78 Consumption 3.71 2.64 Source: Calculated from PSD database, USDA (2015).

1980-90

1990-00

2000-10

2010-13 1.11 0.41 1.69 1.66

1.82

1.30

–0.43

–0.43

1.49 1.55

0.62 0.87

1.62 0.47 2.00 1.67

–1.78 1.15 0.68

–3.03 –3.49 –5.71

0.07 1.80 0.84

0.14 1.81 0.12

–0.18 1.53 1.68

–0.07 1.00 1/57

0.52 2.01 1.72

0.44 1.68 1.75

–0.15 1.63 1.68

0.05 1.01 1.20

0.81 2.21 1.92

0.71 1.88 1.79

Production and consumption tend to run parallel over time. Production may temporarily outpace consumption and build buffer stocks in years of bumper crops or fast land expansion. Conversely, shrinking land use or bad weather may lead to lagging production and falling buffer stocks. Not surprisingly then, since the 1980s, consumption growth rates for both grains and total grains and oilseeds have declined, dropping below the 1% per year level in the 1990s. These, too, have since rebounded, although not to the levels seen in the 1970s and not to the same degree as growth rates in production. This suggests that decelerating population growth rates have not been completely offset by the consumption boosting effects of income growth (Alexandratos, 2008). A major factor in the consumption deceleration of the 1990s was what happened in the FSU-12, when excessive and wasteful feed use was drastically cut by market forces that rationalized grain use. Consumption growth in the rest of the world did not decline substantially in this period. Over the past several decades, food security as an economic and political objective has grown increasingly important in all the nations across the globe. During this time the concept of food security has been changing as well - from concern for global levels of food supply, to national food self-sufficiency objectives, and more recently to a more balanced view that not only adequate national and local supplies of foods must be available but also that effective demand must be assured for the people most at risk. We first look at population growth projections and the implications for food demand growth, and then looking at grain and oilseed supply projections from several sources. Supply and demand growth are analyzed relative to whether or not supply-demand pressures will sustain an upward pressure on prices and relative to which supply-side developments may be needed to keep pace with possible demand growth. Finally, we discuss the factors that can improve access to adequate food by those at risk of being food insecure.

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Materials and Methods First the population dynamics are taken from the US Census Bureau 2015 estimates and analyzed by region of the world. Second, the simple projection of demand is conducted with population growth, income growth projections and the income elasticity of demand for food. Then, supply projections from various alternative sources are compared to check for similarities or differences. Analysis of price projections is discussed relative to recent past price dynamics. Finally, we discuss the main factors that can improve access to food for vulnerable populations. Population Growth Dynamics and Projections to 2050 The United States Census Bureau (2015) projects the world population to reach 9.38 billion persons by 2050, an approximate 36.5% increase over the population in 2010, while the United Nations (2012) projects 9.55 billion persons by 2050. While world population continues to increase, rates of population growth have been decreasing where incomes and education levels increase (Table 2). It is known that higher income and education levels increase the marriage age of women and reduce the number of children per family. This more than offsets increased life expectancy at birth and reduces population growth rates (Table 2). In the projected aggregate of developed countries, population begins to decline beyond 2040, and for the European continent this decline is projected to commence in 2020. Europe’s birth rate has been below the replacement level for many years; only immigration has kept Europe’s population increasing. In China, with its one-child policy, the population growth rate is projected to go negative in 2033 and be below the developed country level by 2050. Table 2. Population growth rates, historical and projections in 10-year increments, 1960–2050 Region

1960– 1970 1.82 2.20 0.89 2.27 1.48

1970– 1980 1.66 2.00 0.68 2.47 1.28

1980– 1990 1.58 1.90 0.51 2.53 1.12

1990– 2000 1.29 1.53 0.39 2.23 1.21

2000– 2010 1.10 1.28 0.32 2.23 0.93

World Developing Developed Africa North America South 2.48 2.13 1.89 1.48 1.13 America Europe 0.76 0.50 0.35 0.10 0.11 Oceania 1.91 1.45 1.45 1.29 1.27 Asia 2.09 1.86 1.72 1.34 1.04 China 2.13 1.67 1.41 0.87 0.47 India 2.00 1.95 1.85 1.68 1.40 Source: International database, US Census Bureau (2015).

2010– 2020 0.96 1.11 0.25 2.09 0.80

2020– 2030 0.78 0.91 0.14 1.89 0.67

2030– 2040 0.62 0.72 0.04 1.70 0.50

2040– 2050 0.48 0.56 –0.04 1.50 0.38

0.90

0.68

0.43

0.20

0.09 1.07 0.85 0.37 1.12

–0.06

–0.16

–0.26

0.85 0.61 0.05 0.88

0.62 0.39 –0.22 0.67

0.46 0.22 –0.37 0.48

Another important aspect of global population growth is the evolution of regional distribution. From 1970 to 2010, 63% of the world population growth was in Asia and 21% in Africa (Figure 3). These numbers change dramatically between 2010 and 2050, when the total share of population growth will be about 42% in Asia and 48.5% in Africa. More than 1.2 billion people are projected to be added in Africa, which well exceeds the 1.0 billion projected for Asia. This dramatic shift in shares of population in Asia and Africa may have a significant impact on global food consumption patterns and food security because the most food insecure regions are growing the fastest. Meanwhile, Europe’s population, which has been at essentially zero growth since 1990, is expected to decrease from 11% of the world population in 2010 to 7.5% in 2050. The shares of total population in North America and South America are projected to be around 7% each in 2050. With the expected 2.67 billion

51


Millions

additional people between 2010 and 2050 and nearly half of these in Africa, there will be future food security challenges.

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200

Asia

Africa

N. S. America America

Change 1970-2010

Europe

Oceania

Change 2010-2050

Figure 3 Regional population changes over 40 year periods past and future Source: International database. US Census Bureau (2015). Potential Income and Demand Growth As an approximation of the growth in demand for food, if there were no change in per capita consumption in each country, food demand would grow at a slower rate than population simply because the populations with lower per capita consumption levels also tend to have higher population growth rates (Alexandratos, 1999). In addition, per capita consumption tends to grow with income in low-income populations, where the diet is often inadequate. At higher income levels, where there is an adequate diet, the income effect is insignificant. The percent growth in demand for food for 1% growth in income is called income elasticity of demand. We can illustrate this by comparing the calculated growth in demand for food with no change in per capita consumption (or no income effect) compared to scenarios where the income elasticity of demand for food is 0.2 or 0.4, meaning that food consumption would grow by 2% or 4% for every 10% growth in income, assuming that nothing else changes (this means there is no change in prices or other factors that may influence food demand). Food demand growth is calculated as Food demand growth = population growth + (income elasticity * per capita income growth) This calculation requires a projection of the growth in income per capita for which we use the projected growth in real gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. GDP figures reflect an average growth rate of 2% or slightly higher on a per capita basis and between 3% and 3.5% per annum, including population growth. Applying the different income elasticities and using the world population growth rates from the previous section, we obtain food demand growth rates that range from about 2% per annum for the higher-income elasticity to about 1% per annum when there is no income effect or no change in per capita consumption (Figure 4). To check which of these may be closest to a recent long-term projection of food demand growth, we use the FAO (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012) projection for growth rate of demand for all commodities and all uses. For the period 2000 to 2030, the estimated average growth rate is 1.4% per annum which is virtually identical to the middle calculation from 2015 onward

52


(Figure 4). Since population growth rates are declining, it is likely that future food demand growth will be lower.7

Percent per annum

2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00

0.0 income effect

0.2 income effect

0.4 income effect

FAO projection

Figure 4. Calculated food demand growth rate compared with FAO long-term projections Source: GDP growth rates are IHS Global Insight projections used in the FAPRI January 2015 baseline. Results and Discussion We do not want to dwell too much on food demand growth without speaking of supply and price conditions, but it is useful to have a reference point when speaking of potential growth in supply. When looking at supply growth, we focus on grains and oilseeds since they are the basic commodities from which most foods are derived. When incomes grow, people tend to shift from direct consumption of grains to indirect consumption of grain through meat (animals eat grain as a feedstuff). This is reflected in the income effect represented by the income elasticity; that is, more grain per capita is used when meat constitutes an increasing percentage of the national diet. Supply Projections for Cereals from Different Sources As discussed earlier, several factors have contributed to slow production growth in cereals. A key market factor was the extended period of declining real prices that reduced market incentives to invest and produce. The result was a decline in grain area (Table 1) at the same time that yield growth rates were decelerating. Another important factor in slowing yield growth rates was the diminishing national and international public investment in agricultural research and development (R&D) that began in the 1990s. The international research investments of the 1960s were deliberate policies to enhance agricultural productivity in developing countries which resulted in the high yielding Green Revolution wheat and rice varieties that spurred yield growth and enhanced multiple cropping opportunities with shorter growing seasons. Along with continuing public and private agricultural R&D in industrial countries, improved technologies supported grain yield growth of nearly 2.5% and production growth of 3% annually from 1960 to 1970. While yield growth remained relatively high in the 1970s and 1980s, grain area declined and finally plateaued in the 1990s. 7

This global illustration greatly oversimplifies the process used in conducting such projections. Generally, projections of demand growth must be conducted in more disaggregated ways and preferably country by country (Alexandratos, 1997).

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Numerous World Bank, FAO and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) documents have established that investment in agricultural development has been lagging, especially in developing countries. Developing countries have underinvested in agriculture since the 1990s (World Bank, 2007a). Only 4% of total public R&D goes to agriculture in developing countries where 75% of the world’s poor live in rural areas. Pardey, Beintema, Dehmer, and Wood (2006) find that growth in public agricultural R&D spending (which was critical to the Green Revolution) declined by more than 50% in most developing countries from 1980 onward and turned negative in high-income countries from 1991 onward. While there have been important exceptions in China and India (World Bank, 2007b), national governments and international organizations have mainly neglected these investments despite the high rates of return demonstrated in past R&D projects. Grain and oilseed area and production have been increasing in response to a commodity price surge and increasing biofuels feedstock demand since 2006. Another contributing factor has been the steady recovery and growth of the crop sectors in the FSU-12 since 2000. It is in this context that the most recent ten-year projections of future supply have been conducted. These projections are also conducted in the context of public R&D deficiency because, even if urgent action were taken to reverse the investment path for agriculture, such action would constitute the beginning of a long-term endeavor. The first comparison of grain and oilseed production projections comes from three wellknown annual global market assessments. The first is by FAPRI-MU with assistance from the University of Arkansas on global rice market analysis (FAPRI-MU, 2015). The second is by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2015). The third is conducted jointly by the OECD and FAO (OECD/FAO, 2014). The implications of all three projections are quite similar. Grains (except for rice) and oilseeds have had significant growth in production, primarily in response to rapidly rising prices and agricultural recovery in the FSU-12 from 2000 to 2014 (Table 3). Projected production growth rates for 2014 to 2023 are lowered, with only wheat production growth rates remaining higher than in the 1990s. Wheat is a special case in the United States because the decoupling of payments from base acres in the mid-1990s led to a large shift of land from wheat to soybeans in the 1990 to 2000 period. The comparison of FAPRI with USDA and OECD/FAO projections serves to show a considerable agreement on production growth rates. Finally, we compare these ten-year projections to long-term projections conducted by FAO (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012) and by IFPRI (Rosegrant et al., 2013). The long-term projections use different kinds of modeling systems than the ten-year projections. FAO essentially assumes constant real prices and projects that the use of grains and oilseeds for biofuels feedstock will not grow beyond 2020. IFPRI’s projections also estimate prices and incorporate models of biofuel feedstock demands. The long-term estimates also take account of water and land resource constraints in the analysis. We use the FAPRI results for comparison and find a rather consistent outlook (Table 4). Table 3. Comparison of growth rates for grains and oilseeds production, % per annum FAPRI USDA Crop 1990–2000 2000–2014 2014–2023 2014–2023

OECD/FAO* 2014–2023

Rice

1.48

1.28

1.03

0.89

1.06

Wheat

0.38

1.38

0.90

0.63

0.91

Corn/Coarse grains*

1.98

3.57

1.40

1.31

1.08

Total Grains Above

1.24

2.25

1.14

1.00

1.03

Soybeans/Oilseeds*

5.25

3.98

2.24

2.38

1.57

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*OECD aggregates coarse grains and oilseeds. Sources: FAPRI (2015), OECD (2014), and USDA (2015). Historical figures use three-year average of production. Table 4 Comparison of growth rates for grains and oilseeds production, % per annum Crop

FAPRI 2014–2023

FAO* 2006–2030

FAO* 2006–2050

IFPRI 2010–2050

Rice

1.03

—

—

Wheat

0.90

—

—

Corn

1.40

—

—

Total above/Cereals*

1.14

1.20

0.90

0.84

Soybeans

2.24

1.0

1.3

N/A

Population

1.00

1.04

0.87

0.87

*FAO and IFPRI do report aggregate cereals

Sources: FAPRI (2015), Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012), and (Rosegrant et al., 2013). Comparing FAO and IFPRI analyses, it is sufficient to look only at the 2010 to 2050 summary, or 2006 to 2050 for FAO, to see that they are very similar in terms of total cereals. However, the IFPRI analysis has slightly lower growth rates in grain production despite the fact that they include the growth of biofuel feedstock demand through 2050, which FAO does only through 2020. Another factor to consider when looking at these figures is that they project about a 50 percent increase in cereal production over the next 30 years, compared to a 12.5 percent actual increase over the last 4 years and 22 percent over the last 10 years. Commodity and Food Price Projections Projections of commodity and food prices are also important. The FAPRI, OECD/FAO, and USDA projection models include a wide range of production, consumption, trade, and price information for crops and livestock/dairy products. Price spikes in 2007/08 and shortly thereafter have opened a dialog on whether the downward path of real commodity prices has come to an end. The FAPRI price projections that accompany the most recent outlook do not answer this question. It is a price path that is neither increasing nor returning to the lowest levels seen at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Figure 4). Price projections of FAPRI include a stochastic price band that makes it clear prices will continue to be volatile whether the long-term path is increasing or decreasing. The demand for grains and oilseeds as feedstock for biofuels adds to the traditional demands for food grains and animal feeds but this growth is expected to be relatively small in the future. Declining petroleum prices have diminished these price pressures in the near term.

55


1200 1000 800 600 400

Maize

Wheat, US HRW

Soybeans

2023

2020

2017

2014

2011

2008

2005

2002

1999

1996

1993

1990

1987

1984

1981

1978

1975

1972

1969

1966

0

1963

200 1960

Real dollars per metric ton

1400

Thai 5% rice

Figure 4. World grain price projections consistent with supply and demand projections Source: History from World Bank Pink Sheet, projections calculated from FAPRI 2015 Baseline A thoughtful recent study of alternative analyses and modeling approaches to projecting future food needs points to much research that remains to be done and alternative modeling approaches to be considered (Wise, 2013). He also highlights the post-2050 timeframe as being a much more challenging issue to analyze, especially because climate change impacts will be more pronounced. Likewise, the dominance of population growth in Africa beyond 2050 will also continue, so increasing challenges in the world’s most food insecure region will be difficult. The projections cited in this paper also do not attempt to estimate the possible impacts of reducing food loss and waste, which in some locations could be a substitute for increasing production at the farm level. This is a relatively new and growing concern, and increasing information is emerging on its effects and the potential for action to reducing waste in ways that would improve food security. The questions of cost effectiveness of policies and how such actions could improve food security still need careful assessment. Improving Access to Adequate Food A central policy question for food-insecure regions around the world is to understand what drives changes in food security and how to incorporate this understanding into agricultural and food policy. When it comes to dealing with poverty and malnutrition, overall economic growth seems to be one of the most efficient remedies. Income redistribution and social safety net programs that target vulnerable populations are also efficient ways to address malnutrition. A strong science and technology system contributes to innovation for equitable agricultural development and food security. Along the human history, public agricultural research and technology adoption have enabled a growing populace to avoid mass starvation. If properly focused, agricultural innovations can also enhance nutritional value of our food. Therefore, policy options boosting research and innovations in agriculture should be an intrinsic part of the national or regional food security strategies. However, the impact that public research can have on food and nutrition security is still limited since very often the scientific outputs, developed either in their own countries or elsewhere, are not easily or widely accessible to farmers. The performance of research and innovation systems can be enhanced with the help of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to improve access to knowledge in a cost-effective way, improve the demand- and technologies uptake, more effective interface

56


with international and national institutional partnerships and finally contribute to food and nutrition security. Conclusions and Implications Prior to the beginning of the twenty-first century, production and consumption growth rates have decelerated. Parallel declines in real food prices over a long period suggest that, until recently, demand pressure was not driving up prices in the food system in response to decelerating production. However, since 2000, declining stocks and a series of market shocks have led to markedly higher prices that have induced increased land use and a more rapid growth of yields and production. Limits on future agricultural land-use expansion and water resources are constraints on both production growth and consumption growth. Prices are not likely to return to the low levels seen in the early part of this millennium and will surely continue to be more volatile than in those years of stagnation. It does appear that meeting the growth in demand for food, feed, and biofuels to 2050 will not be a steep hill to climb, but there will need to be continued private and public investment in technology to induce increased production growth rates through productivity enhancements and increased purchased inputs. There will be greater land-use and water-use pressures, as well as greater pressure on food import costs, to meet food demand and provide greater food security among low-income households, especially in developing food-importing countries. Most of these baseline projections assume a continuation of technology growth patterns of the recent past, which has seen a deceleration of yield growth rates. An alternative future would see an increased rate of technological advancement through higher private and public R&D investment which would generate a higher yield growth path, permit substitution of technology for cropland, and benefit farmers through higher productivity and consumers through lower food prices. Such an alternative higher technological future would improve the well-being of consumers, especially in developing countries, and contribute to long-term sustainability of agricultural resources by substituting technology for land, thereby reducing pressure on cropland. The main food security challenge of the future, as in the present, is not insufficient production but rather increasing access and reducing vulnerability for food insecure households. The dominance of future population growth in the food insecure regions of Africa make this a significant challenge between now and 2050 and even more so in the years beyond 2050 when climate change effects on resource constraints will be more severe. These are also the regions where waste reduction could be a cost-effective alternative to increased production, but ideally both of these means to increase availability should be pursued simultaneously. References Abbott, P.C., Hurt, C., & Tyner, W.E. (2009, March). What’s driving food prices? Oakbrook, Illinois: Farm Foundation. Retrieved from http://purl.umn.edu/48495. Alexandratos, N. (1997). The world food outlook: A review essay. Population and Development Review, 23(4), 877-888. Alexandratos, N. (1999). World food and agriculture: Outlook for the medium and longer term. Proceedings of the US National Academy of Sciences, 96, 5908-5914. Alexandratos, N. (2008). Food price surges: Possible causes, past experiences, relevance for exploring long-term prospects. Population and Development Review, 34(4), 663-697. Alexandratos, N. & Bruinsma, J. (2012). World agriculture towards 2030/2050: The 2012 revision (ESA Working paper 12-03). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

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Bruinsma, J. (2009). The resource outlook to 2050: By how much do land, water and crop yields need to increase by 2050? Paper presented at the Expert Meeting on How to Feed the World in 2050, June 24-26, Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]. (2008a). Biofuels: Prospects, risks and opportunities. In State of Food and Agriculture 2008. Rome, Italy: Author. FAO. (2008b, September 17). Briefing paper: Hunger on the rise. Rome, Italy: Author. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/newsroom/common/ecg/1000923/en/hungerfigs.pdf. FAO. (2012). FAO statistics [online database]. Rome, Italy: FAO. Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute at University of Missouri [FAPRI-MU]. (2008, July). Model of the US ethanol market (FAPRI-MU Report #07-08). Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri. FAPRI-MU. (2015, March). 2015 US baseline briefing book (FAPRI-MU Report #01-15). Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]. (2007). Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Meyers, W.H., & Meyer, S. (2008, December). Causes and implications of the food price surge (FAPRI-MU Report #12-08). Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri. Retrieved from http://www.fapri.missouri.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/FAPRIMU-Report-12-08.pdf. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2008, July). Biofuel support policies: An economic assessment. Paris, France: OECD. OECD. (2014, July). OECD-FAO agricultural outlook 2014-2023. Paris, France: OECD. Pardey, P.G., Beintema, N., Dehmer, S., & Wood, S. (2006, August). Agricultural research: A growing global divide? Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Rosegrant, M.W., Simla Tokgoz, S., & Bhandary, P. (2013) The new normal? A tighter global agricultural supply and demand relation and its implications for food security. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 95(2), 303-309. United States Census Bureau. (2015). International database [online database]. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/informationGateway.php. United Stated Department of Agriculture [USDA]. (2015, February). International long-term projections to 2022. Washington, DC: USDA. Wise, T.A. (2013, September). Can we feed the world in 2050? A scoping paper to assess the evidence (Working Paper No. 13-04). Somerville, MA: Tufts University, Global Development and Environment Institute. World Bank. (2007a). World Bank development report 2008: Agriculture for development. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank (2007b, October 17). Press release 2008/080/DEC. Washington, DC: World Bank.

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Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505059S HOW TO REDUCE SOIL EROSION – REQUESTS OF LEGISLATION AND EXPERIENCES WITH CONSERVATION TILLAGE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Vladimir SMUTNY, Lubomir NEUDERT, Vojtech LUKAS, Tamara DRYSLOVA, Blanka PROCHAZKOVA Mendel university in Brno, Zemedelska 1, 613 00, Brno, Czech Republic *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract In the Czech Republic there is more than 50% of agricultural land exposed to water erosion. It is a very urgent problem at present and mainly for the future. The goal of legislation is to protect soil against soil erosion especially on slope areas. The payment of direct support for farmers and other selected subsidies depends on fulfilment of the Statutory Management Requirements (SMR) and Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (DZES), which are standards of the cross compliance system. The restrictions are concerned to cultivation of wide-row crops in seriously and slightly endangered areas by erosion. In seriously endangered areas, wide-row crops (maize, sugar beet, potatoes, sunflower, bean, soybean and sorghum) are not allowed to grow. In slightly endangered areas, growing of wide-row crops is allowed, but using conservation tillage, where limits for minimum crop residue coverage were defined. Conservation tillage systems with their modification are increasingly being introduced under the economic pressure on the fields of the Czech Republic. Reducing tillage operations improves soil surface properties, including improved soil aggregation accounting for increased infiltration and percolation; less compaction due to less usage and more biological activity due to an increase in organic matter. Adding soil surface cover increases water infiltration, reducing soil drying and maintains available water for crops. Apart from above mentioned approaches in soil tillage, new crop management practices are tested with potential effect against erosion. In maize, systems based on narrower spacing and higher stand density, are evaluated in different locations of the Czech Republic. Keywords: soil erosion, conservation tillage, legislation rules Introduction Soil erosion is a major environmental threat to the sustainability and productive capacity of agriculture. During the last 40 years, nearly one-third of the world’s arable land has been lost. (Pimentel et al., 1995). Soil erosion as a physical process has been consistently studied for the last two centuries (Dotterweich, 2013) by scientists from backgrounds as diverse as geography, agronomy and engineering (Boardman et al., 2003). The use of large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation help offset deleterious effects of erosion but have the potential to create pollution and health problems, destroy natural habitats, and contribute to high energy consumption and unsustainable agricultural systems. It is well known, that water erosion increases on slope areas. Living and dead plant biomass left on fields reduce soil erosion and water runoff by intercepting and dissipating raindrop. Both texture and structure of soil influence its susceptibility to erosion. Soils with medium to fine structure, low organic matter content, and weak structural development have low infiltration rates and experience increased water runoff. Soil tillage in a sustainable land management harmonises the soil protection with demands of the crop to be grown on the given land and aims soil conservation, without increasing the production risks even in the long term (Birkás et al., 2002). It can be stressed, that the demand of the crops is independent of the tillage methods. The sustainability in a soil tillage viewpoint

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can evolve toward greater efficiency of resource use, and can develop and maintain a harmony between crop production technologies and soil environment (Birkás, 2013). From above mentioned facts is visible, that crop yields on severely eroded soil are lower than those on protected soils because soil erosion reduces soil fertility and water availability. Reliable and proven soil conservation technologies include ridge-planting, no-till cultivation, crop rotations, strip cropping, grass strips, mulches, living mulches, agroforestry, terracing, contour planting and cover crops. Although the specific processes vary, all conservation methods reduce soil erosion rates by maintaining a protective vegetative cover over the soil, which is often accompanied by a reduction in the frequency of ploughing. Each conservation method may be used separately or in combination with other erosion-control techniques (Pimentel et al, 1995). By substantially decreasing soil and nutrient loss, conservation technologies preserve the soil’s fertility and enable the land to sustain higher crop yields. In many instances, the use of conservation technologies may actually increase yields. Voluntary incentive-based measures often form parts of regional development policies. These policies have formed a basis for many cases of conservation success in Europe, including a substantial reduction in soil erosion due to a change from autumn to spring ploughing in Norway (Lundekvam et al., 2003), mitigation of harmful sheep grazing practices in Iceland (Arnalds and Barkarson, 2003), and greater farmer involvement in soil conservation schemes in Belgium (Verstraeten et al., 2003) and the Netherlands (Spaan et al., 2010). In the Czech conditions according to the database of Research Institute for Soil and Water Conservation (2008), individual types of degradation differ with the area, the most notable being water erosion which threatens more than 50% of agricultural areas. This is followed by wind erosion (11%), extreme soils – clay soils (4.5%), and soils affected by dryness (1.5%). In this paper we describe and analyse weak points of current Czech agriculture in relation with soil protection, introduce valid legislation principles against water erosion and present approaches of suitable soil management practices based on results from research. Materials and methods In paper there are presented results from different topics focused on the impact of soil tillage on soil parameters and profitable and environmentally friendly management practice for maize in conditions of South Moravia (Czech Republic). Soil tillage and soil parameters Grain and silage maize are crops, where acreage increased in last years. Successful soil management system is based on improving soil properties. In lowlands, especially in dry areas, water saving soil tillage technologies can be enough efficient against a lack of suitable water for maize plants during vegetation. On the other hand, the systems, which are preserving soil erosion, could be used on slope areas. The effect of different soil tillage for grain maize on chosen soil parameters was assessed in two field trials established in different soil-climatic conditions in South Moravian region. Both localities are in maize-production region. Locality Visnove is characterized with brown loamy soil, in comparison with clayloamy fluvisol, which is in Zabcice. Average annual temperature is similar in both localities (approx. 9.0 °C), annual sum of precipitations differed (480 mm in Zabcice and 557 mm in Visnove). Different variants of soil tillage were used: CT – conventional tillage - ploughing to the depth of 0.22 m; MT – minimum tillage included soil loosening (disking) to the depth of 0.15 m and NT – no tillage (direct drilling without any tillage). In Zabcice, grain maize was grown after winter wheat and two variants of soil tillage were used (CT and MT). In Visnove, there is grain maize monoculture, all three variants were assessed (CT, MT and NT). The

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grain yield was evaluated in both trials, in Visnove physical soil properties (bulk density, soil porosity, soil moisture, minimum air capacity and water infiltration into soil) were assessed as well. Kopecky’s physical cylinders were taken from soil depth (0–0.10 m; 0.10–0.20 m; 0.20– 0.30 m) in five replications, each year in June (2005 – 2010). A double ring infiltrometers with diameter of 0.28 m and 0.54 m in soil depth of 0.1 m were used for soil infiltrability measurement. Effect of row spacing and stand density on silage maize yield Maize grown in a standard row spacing (0.75 m) is connected with high risk of soil degradation by water erosion mainly on sloping plots. Except of conservation tillage technologies, growing of maize in narrow rows is approach aimed on faster canopy closure and water runoff reduction when keeping sufficient yield level. Influence of different row spacing and stand density on silage maize yield was evaluated in a field experiment in the Czech Republic. In years 2013 and 2014, a field experiment, where influence of different row spacing and stand density on silage maize yields, was established on a field experimental station in locality Zabcice (description is mentioned above). Three different row spacing were compared in both years - standard spacing 0.75 m, twin rows (rows on standard 0.75 m spacing, where each row is further divided into adjacent sub-rows spaced approximately 0.20 m) and sowing to narrow rows, which width is half of standard spacing – 0.375 m (Tab. 1). Stand density of maize was another observed factor - standard sowing rate 80.000 – 90.000 seeds per ha and end sowing rate increased about 10.000 – 20.000 seeds per ha. In 2013 these two densities were observed and in 2014 was a third sowing rate added (109.000 seeds per ha). Precise numbers of sown seeds differ in case of every technology because of different setting of drilling machine for precision sowing (KINZE 3500). Maize was sowed on 23. 4. 2013 (hybrid Silotop) and 14. 4. 2014 (Beautiful), the depth of sowing was 0.07 m. Fertilizing dose of nitrogen was 180 kg, fertilizer urea was used. Post emergent application of herbicides and insect treatment against European corn borer was made. Harvest was made in the phase of milk-wax maturity by one-row cutter in four replications. Table 1. Overview of experimental variants in 2013 and 2014 Stand density Row spacing Technology (seeds per ha) – variants (m) name in 2013 1 – 85.000 0.375 narrow 2 – 99.000 x 1 – 76.000 standard 2 – 80.000 x 0.75 1 – 91.000 twin 2 – 102.000 x

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Stand density (seeds per ha) – variants in 2014 1 – 87.000 2 – 97.000 3 – 109.000 1 – 89.000 2 – 97.000 3 – 108.000 1 – 87.000 2 – 97.000 3 – 109.000


Results and discussion The main characteristic of agriculture in the Czech Republic (Křen and Dušková, 2013) Agriculture belongs to strategic branches of national economy of the Czech Republic as summarized by its production and off-production functions. Agricultural land resources occupy 54 % of the country’s acreage. Production potential of the Czech agriculture represents the area of 4.25 mil. ha of farm land with more than 70 % of its plough-up. The level of arable land is higher compared to EU states with similar soil-climatic conditions. Approximately 50 % of farm land is located in less favoured areas (LFA) because of lower soil quality and adverse climatic conditions. From a production viewpoint, basic restructuring of the sector occurred as early as the 1990's (that is prior to entry into the EU on 1.5.2004). It was accompanied by a significant decrease in production, higher unemployment and a deepening imbalance of agrarian foreign trade. After “Velvet Revolution” in 1989, in the Czech Republic, there was a period of agriculture transformation, when state farms and cooperatives were privatised. Consequently, this process had a significant impact on agronomic standards, and a lack of financial resources also negatively affected the level of inputs into the crop production. Since entry into the EU and during gradual integration of the Czech Republic to common market and implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy, deepening of structural disequilibrium has occurred. The efforts of enterprises are, more than to market, oriented to the subsidy obtaining which results in the following: - Changes in crop structure, i.e. total decrease of animal husbandry, especially of pigs, decrease of acreage of crops which are too demanding on quality labour including management and marketing (fruits and vegetables), and also acreage of forage crops (clovers and alfalfa) on arable land with significant positive impacts on the environment. These structural changes cause at the same time the decrease of total agricultural production. Typical Czech farm is without animal husbandry, where “three-crops” are grown (winter wheat, winter oilseed rape and maize or spring barley). - Although the current regulatory measures (cross compliance) and stimulation agroenvironmental measures within the rural area development strive for better relationships between agriculture and the environment, further soil quality degradation, water regime deterioration and biodiversity loss continuously occur. Soil quality and water regime are predominantly affected by inappropriate large-area utilization of farm land together with reduction or even giving-up of animal husbandry accompanied with shortage of organic fertilizers. Reduction of desirable diversity of soil use e.g. by growing forage crops is also one of the courses. - Maize (Zea mays L.) is a crop which has an important place in a structure of crops grown in the Czech Republic. Maize areas have been increasing all over the world. In the Czech Republic the same trend is, in spite of the fact, that during the last twenty years number of livestock, which was an important consumer of silage maize, rapidly reduced. In recent years became silage maize the main source of biomass used in biogas stations. The Czech agriculture has a free market in biomass production for energetic utilization. For this purpose, up to 900-1100 thousand ha (about 25 % of farm land) can potentially be used while maintaining food self-sufficiency. The volume of energy produced from biomass occupies within the renewable energy sources (RES) increasingly important position in the Czech mixture of energy sources.

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Future development in the use of RES will be formed according to the obligations of the Czech Republic which delimitate the national goal of RES proportion of gross energetic consumption to 13.5 % till 2020 or 10 % proportion of bio-fuels in transportation. Currently, this goal is being re-evaluated at the EU level. A considerable decrease of subsidies or more strict conditions of their granting can be expected in the field of RES. Goal fulfilments will be connected with orientation to energetic utilization of agricultural commodities (including energy crops and fastgrowing species) and agro-wastes and crop residues for heat production or a combine production of power and heat. Inappropriate use of predominantly rented farmland contributes to the increase of internal and external negative impacts of climate change on soil quality, water regime and risk to conduct a business in agriculture under more and more frequent periods of drought and floods. Climate change causes the transformation of some regions into new ones, often with adverse climatic conditions (e.g. constant increase of temperature and water shortage in the South Moravian region) together with higher importance of agriculture in less favoured areas (LFA).

Soil degradation causes annual damages estimated to be 4 to 10 billion of Czech crowns (loss of arable land and soil quality, decreased yields, clogging of watercourses, property damage etc.) and poses a significant threat for long-term competitive strength of the branch. A considerable part of waters is constantly contaminated; 82 % do not reach a suitable ecological status, and 25 % of waters do not comply with a good chemical status even though nearly no watercourses flow into the Czech Republic. On the contrary, our country is an important European water divide and the status of groundand surface-waters is entirely dependent on precipitations and the landscape status. Water flows very fast from the Czech area due to degradable changes in agricultural land, and thus the landscape losses its retention capacity. Great part of the present cultural landscape lost its natural characters owing to unsuitable farming. This results in lower ability of the landscape to cope with fluctuations in climate change.

National legislation rules linked with soil care, especially measures for soil protection against water erosion Handling the negative impact of agriculture on the landscape and the environment is one of the main topics of the contemporary agricultural policy. The system of cross compliance was initiated in 2003 as part of the Common Agricultural Policy reform, and became a key element in negotiations on maintenance/evolvement of EU subsidies in agriculture in the future. The compliance with standards and requirements is ensured by monitoring the performance of so-called “control” requirements. EU member states determine their own methods of inspection on the national level. Since 1 January 2009, the system of crosscompliance is applied in the Czech Republic. The direct payments and other selected subsidies can be granted only on the condition that a beneficiary meets the statutory management requirements addressing environment, public health, the health of animals and plants, and animal welfare; the standards of good agricultural and environmental conditions (GAEC, now is used abbreviation in Czech language - DZES); and minimum requirements for fertilizer and plant protection product use as part of agro-environmental measures. In case that the potential beneficiary does not meet above-mentioned conditions, the financial support may be reduced or not provided at all.

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The issue of water soil erosion is addressed mainly by the Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions standards – DZES 4 and 5, applied to agricultural parcels listed in the Land Parcel Identification System as arable land. DZES 4 defines soil conservation measures on arable parcels with a slope greater than 5◦. Applicants for farming subsidies on this type of land are required to sow a inter-crop after harvest, latest at September, 20th and staying till sowing of chosen spring crop or to apply one of the following measures: (1) The stubble of the harvested crop is left on the block of land or part thereof until some spring crop establishment. (2) stubble breaking and leaving the soil without ploughing till crop establishment in spring. The main aids of DZES 5 are to protect soil against water erosion and to reduce both direct impacts of erosion and indirect impacts caused by flooding and muddy floods. There are two categories of soils classified: strongly and slightly endangered soils. Applicants for farming subsidies (direct payments) on land classified as strongly endangered by erosion are required through cross-compliance not to grow wide-row crops on this land, i. e. maize, potatoes, beetroot, broad beans, soybean, sunflower and sorghum. Cereals and rapeseed crops are to be planted using soil conservation technologies, when crop residues cover on soil surface is at least 30 % till emergence of crop. For cereals, these measures are not required where the crop is sown into protective clover or grass-clover. On slightly endangered soils, the applicant is required to grow wide-row crops only with soil conservation technologies. Limit for minimum crop residue cover is changing with developing of crop stand: 20% is requested during sowing, 10 % till June, 30 and visual provability of usage of conservation tillage system after July, 1. Results from agricultural research in South Moravia Table 2 includes the results from impact of soil tillage on soil properties. Values of bulk density increased with lower intensity of soil tillage and with soil depth. Values around 1.50 g cm-3 were found out in variant MT and NT (except surface layer). The highest values of soil porosity were in CT (50.24 % in average of 0-0.30 m), the lowest in NT (44.18 %). Smaller differences in soil porosity were between layers 0.10 – 0.20 m and 0.10 – 0.20 m in all variants of soil tillage. Minimum air capacity decreased with intensity of soil tillage, in MT and CT. The values in deeper layers were lower than 10 %. Soil moisture was the highest in NT, where surface and the deepest layers had the highest values. CT and MT variants had the driest layer close to the surface. Smutný et al. (2013) found out non-significant differences among variant of soil tillage. Table 2. Physical soil properties (Visnove, 2005 – 2010) soil layer soil tillage 0 - 0.10 m 0.10 - 0.20 m 0.20 - 0.30 m average 0 - 0.30 m

bulk density (g cm-3) soil porosity (%) minimum air capacity (%) soil moisture (%) CT MT NT CT MT NT CT MT NT CT MT NT 1.19 1.22 1.36 54.92 53.64 48.37 20.01 17.25 11.97 17.41 21.99 27.37 1.35 1.53 1.52 48.71 41.68 42.07 12.39 7.94 8.44 25.10 25.66 23.70 1.39 1.49 1.52 47.09 43.35 42.15 10.87 10.13 9.10 25.12 25.67 27.23 1.31

1.41

1.47 50.24 46.22 44.18

14.42

11.77

9.84

22.54 24.44 26.10

Above mentioned results are in relation with results of other authors. According to Birkás (2013), soil quality is focused on dynamic soil processes and properties influencing plant production risks even in the long term. Any method of tillage may be considered as beneficial

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if the soil is not damaged while fulfilling plant demands or if the soil physical and biological quality is improved. Soil tillage and water infiltration rate The results from location Visnove shown, that the highest infiltration rate in first minutes was for conventional variant (CT) and the lowest for no tillage variant (NT). But this order was changing through time intervals (1, 10, 30 and 60 min) and the infiltration rate of NT was increasing to the level of CT variant. This corresponds to the review of Strudley et al. (2008), which describes the tendency of NT to increase macropore connectivity and deeper movement of water. Lipiec et al. (2006) noted that the differences in initial infiltration and reduction of infiltration rate with time among tillage treatments imply higher capability of conventional tillage pore system to increase amount of water infiltrating before filling macro-pores and reaching steady state. Kroulík et al. (2007) compared the differences between tillage practices at same locality in 2006. The results were similar – the highest infiltration rate was observed for CT and lowest for minimum tillage (MT) variant. Coloured water infiltration was used as well, and it showed a water saturation of CT in the top layer, while the variants with reduced tillage (MT, NT) were saturated deeper. Results of influence of different row spacing and stand density on silage maize yields and statistical comparison of variants in both observed years 2013 and 2014 are in Fig. 1. In 2013 were statistically significant higher yields in case of narrow rows and twin rows compared to standard spacing 0.75 m. Standard technology also had lower dry matter at harvesting time. In relative values it is a difference 37 – 42 %. Only in case of twin rows stand yields increased due to an increased sowing rate (+ 28% compared to the standard sowing rate). year 2013

year 2014

24

25 24

22

23

yield of dry matter (t ha )

22 -1

-1

yield of dry matter (t ha )

20

18

16

14

12

21 20 19 18 17 16 15

10

14 8 narrow

standard row spacing

twin

13

stand density 1 stand density 2

narrow

standard row spacing

twin

stand density 1 stand density 2 stand density 3

Figure 1. Yields of aboveground dry matter of maize grown under different row spacing and stand density in 2013 and 2014 Different results were reached in 2014. There were not found statistically significant differences among variants with different row spacing as in case of sowing densities. The highest yield of aboveground biomass was from variant with standard row spacing (0.75 m; 18.76 t ha-1), lower from twin rows (18.39 t ha-1) and the lowest from narrow rows variant (17.87 t ha-1). In case of twin rows and standard technology the yields increased as sowing rate increased but the difference was not statistically significant. Twin rows proved the highest yield in case of the variant with the lowest seed rate. Explanation for different results in 2013 and 2014 can be given by different rain precipitation distribution during vegetation season. In 2013 was the first part of vegetation season humid and the summer part of vegetation season was significantly dry. Distribution of rain precipitation in the vegetation

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season 2014 was in comparison to year 2013 reversed. Smutný et al. (2015) published more detailed results from this field trial, included the effect of different technologies on soil moisture, temperature and relative air humidity. Two years results showed an advantage of maize growing in narrow rows proved by higher yields in a season with longer dry period during the first part of vegetation season. Under these conditions stand cover was involved earlier, which gave preconditions for better water management. In the wet year with sufficient amount of precipitation during vegetation season was maize yield in case of narrow rows the lowest but without statistically significance compared with others row spacing technologies. Nowadays, suitability of “narrow maize cropping system” is evaluated in the field conditions in different locations in the Czech Republic. According to Czech legislation linked with protection of soil against erosion, different types of conservation tillage methods are applied by farmers. Conservation tillage technologies, where ploughing is replaced by tillers and shallow soil loosening, are increasingly used as soil treatments. It is typical for shallow soil tillage that all crop residues are left on the soil surface, or in the treated (tilled) upper soil layer. Crop residues can play a very important role by the next crop cultivation. Leaving crop residues on the soil surface year around, before and after planting provides soil surface protection at critical times to protect the soil against wind and water erosion. Reducing tillage operations improves soil surface properties, including improved soil aggregation accounting for increased infiltration and percolation; less compaction due to less usage of field implements; and more biological activity due to an increase in organic matter. Adding soil surface cover increases water infiltration, reducing soil drying and maintains more moisture for crop utilization. Especially conservation tillage systems with their modification are increasingly being introduced under the economic pressure on the fields of the Czech Republic (Mašek et al., 2012). The inter crops have an important role in cropping systems. Integration of crop into crop rotation in short grow period between the two main crops protects the soil against erosion, supplies the soil with easily decomposable organic matter (Thorup-Kristensen, 1994), enhances the physical and chemical properties of soil (Eichler-Löbermann et al., 2008) and soil biological activity (Piotrowska and Wilczewski, 2012). The effect of catch crops on the reduction of erosion risk depends on the crop stand establishment, height of plants, leaf area index (LAI) and duration of soil coverage (Janeček, 2007). The highest values of coverage were found for variants with white mustard, phacelia and crambe, the lowest for buckwheat and common millet in field experiment in period 2007-2012 in Žabčice (Lukas et al., 2013). However, the results were strongly influenced by the year. Conclusion The results have shown that conventional and also minimum soil tillage can be suitable for maize growing, especially in lowlands. For areas endangered by water erosion, different modifications of conservation tillage are used. Suitable soil tillage management has to create good conditions for germination, emergence a development of maize stands. Conditions for high yield productivity could be in relation with improvement of soil fertility and protection soil against erosion. Acknowledgements This study was supported by the National Agency of Agricultural Research as research project No. QJ1210008 “Innovation of cropping systems of cereals in different agroecological conditions in Czech Republic“.

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Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505069J AGROECONOMIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE FUNCTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES Snežana JANKOVIĆ1, Nebojša NOVKOVIĆ2, Zorica VASILJEVIĆ3 1

Institute for Science Application in Agriculture, Belgrade, Serbia University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad, Serbia 3 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

2

Abstract The role of agricultural advisory services in the second half of the 20th century both in the Republic of Serbia and in other countries of former Yugoslavia consisted primarily of collecting information, innovations and knowledge from agricultural research and educational institutions and transferring them to the farmers, in order to increase production and labour productivity, and to introduce innovations and technological progress into farming practices. Advisory services mainly comprised activities related to biological, technical and technological knowledge in agriculture. The structure of employed advisers confirms this fact (only 6.6% of advisers in Serbia are agricultural economists). Development of market economy has put a focus on economic aspects of production, so agricultural advisory was faced with the need to expand its scope of work, switching to the “market-oriented“ mission, which requires the introduction of an increasingly wider range of agro-economic knowledge in the activities' programme of advisory services. The European integration processes have confirmed and strengthened this tendency. The paper analyses the state of agricultural advisory services in the Republic of Serbia and its development perspectives concerning agro-economic knowledge and activities imposed as an imperative for the current agricultural and rural development stage, as well as the preparation processes for European integration. In addition to the methodological procedures commonly used for this type of research (desk research, the method of deduction, descriptive statistics), the authors also used the results of the survey conducted in April and June 2015 on the sample of about 30% of advisers who work in Central Serbia. The results show that most of the advisers think their scope of work has been increased in the last few years by agro-economic activities, and therefore they need some additional training on agro-economics. Since 2010 the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture (IPN), as an appointed training institution, has been constantly incorporating agro-economic courses for advisers into annual training plans. It is necessary for the Agricultural Advisory Service of Serbia to strengthen its capacities – to employ more agricultural economists and continue to organise regular training courses for the existing staff, especially in domain of agricultural economics. Key words: agricultural advisory, agro-economic knowledge, European integration, Serbia Introduction The first written records of the agricultural advisory beginnings can be traced back to 1800 BC, to ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), where clay tablets were found with advice on irrigation and pest management. In Egypt, data on flood advice were found. Onwards, such written records with agricultural advice can be traced from Ancient Greece and the Phoenician civilization all along to Ancient Rome (Radišić, 2015). The beginnings of modern advisory are related to founding the first farmers’ association in 1723 in Scotland, while the first practical advisory activities started in 1743. Soon after that, such associations started to emerge in other leading agricultural countries in Europe (France,

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Denmark, England, Germany) as well as in the USA. In the 19th century there were eight of them, 33 more were founded by the Second World War and 49 in the post-war period (Ceranić et al., 2011). The work of Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg is important for advisory development in Europe. A decade after purchasing an estate in Switzerland in 1799, he started founding agricultural schools. These schools, albeit not being the first of such kind, led to spreading ideas of advisory work in Denmark, Germany, France and Great Britain. On the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford the idea of agricultural advisory gained ground in 1890s, spreading to the USA, where agricultural advisory (extension) services were established within landgrant universities. In the USA, the Morill Act at the end of 19th century allowed establishing of land-grant universities, and within them, agricultural advisory services. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 formalised advisory tasks and defined funding models. Further development and modernisation of the society and economy have inevitably led to emergence and growth of professional consulting services and advisory work. While agricultural advisory in developed European countries started in the mid-18th century, its beginnings in Serbia could not be traced before the mid-19th century. In the 20th century, advisory developed significantly in Europe and the USA, as well as in other parts of the world. Today it is hard to find a country without some kind of a formally organised agricultural advisory service. The role of agricultural advisory, its form of organisation, operation and growth in Serbia and in the world have been subject-matter for numerous Serbian authors, among which: Novković (Novković et al., 1993; Somođi, Novković, 1992; Šnjegota, Novković, 1997, Novković et al., 2013), Janković S. (Janković et al., 2013; Berjan et al., 2015; Janković et al., 2015; El Bilali et al., 2015), Janković. D. (Petrović, Janković, 2010; Hoffmann et al., 2008.1; Hoffmann et al., 2008.2;), Ceranić (Ceranić et al., 2011) and others. Agricultural Advisory Service of the Republic of Serbia The work of the Agricultural Advisory Service of the Republic of Serbia (PSSS) is defined by the Law on Advisory and Expert Services in Agriculture, adopted in 2010 (Law on Advisory and Expert Services in Agriculture, 2010 / Zakon o obavljanju savetodavnih i stručnih poslova u oblasti poljoprivrede, 2010). PSSS operates as:  Agricultural Advisory Service in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina and  Agricultural Advisory Service in Central Serbia. PSSS comprises 34 centres, covering the whole territory of Serbia and employing 259 advisers trained to provide agricultural advice. The work of 22 centres (agricultural stations and institutes) in Central Serbia is coordinated by the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture (IPN), whereas the work of 12 centres and the Oenological station – Vrsac in the AP Vojvodina is coordinated by the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry. Advisory services in animal husbandry are also provided by the veterinary stations. The advisory stakeholders are also agricultural input companies, private advisers, as well as the local NGOs. The Serbian Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection together with the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry provide the institutional framework for work and development of agricultural advisory services, ensuring legislation and finances. The government ensures farmers receive advice free of charge. During the second half of the 20th century, the role of agricultural advisory services in the Republic of Serbia, as well as in other countries of former Yugoslavia, consisted primarily of collecting information, innovations and knowledge from agricultural research and educational

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institutions and transferring them to farmers, in order to increase production and labour productivity, and to introduce innovations and technological progress into farming practices. The “production-oriented“ mission also determined the content of advisory activities and services that were offered to farmers at the time. Advisory services mainly comprised activities related to the biological, technical and technological knowledge in agriculture. The structure of advisers employed in PSSS today confirms this fact (only 6.6% of advisers in Serbia are agricultural economists). The current Law on Advisory and Expert Services in Agriculture defines advisory services in agriculture as activities performed to: “increase general knowledge and awareness of farmers; increase competitiveness and modernise agricultural production; increase profitability; enhance the quality of products; introduce the production of safe food; encourage farmers to associate; protect natural resources and the environment; improve living conditions and the culture of life in rural areas and, consequently, improve rural development“ (Law on Advisory and Expert Services in Agriculture, 2010 / Zakon o obavljanju savetodavnih i stručnih poslova u oblasti poljoprivrede, 2010). Agricultural knowledge is transferred along all levels of formal education (from secondary education to PhD studies) through different types of training organised by various educational and research institution and organisations, PSSS, private enterprises, project units, media, etc. (Agriculture and Rural Development Strategy for the period 2014-2024, 2014 / Strategija poljoprivrede i ruralnog razvoja Republike Srbije za period 2014-2024. godine, 2014). Since 2010, advisors’ training has been organised by an authorised institution – the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture. According to the Strategy, the general objectives of agricultural advisory services are, as follows: production of safe food, profitable production, increased competitiveness and higher quality of agricultural products, encouraging farmers to associate in interest groups, improving farmers’ knowledge, enabling farmers to run the farm successfully, protection of natural resources and the environment, and rural development. In addition to these general objectives, the Strategy also defines the following advisory activities within the scope of work of PSSS: increasing the competitiveness of agricultural production; upgrading the existing knowledge of farmers and raising their awareness; training of farmers on how to make their production and run farms more successfully; assisting farmers in production and with economic and organisational issues related to farm development; improving economic position of farms; increasing farmers’ income; adjusting production to match natural resources and market demands; encouraging entrepreneurship in agriculture and in rural areas; protecting and improving natural resources; encouraging farmers to associate in interest groups; helping farmers to plan how to improve future production and develop their farm; and rural development (Development Strategy of Agricultural Advisory in Serbia, 2009 / Strategija razvoja poljoprivrednog savetodavstva u Srbiji, 2009). From the above mentioned one can see that the mission of agricultural advisory has been shifting over the last ten years from the “production-oriented“ one to the “market-oriented“ mission, so agricultural advisory was faced with the need to expand its scope of work, switching to a “market and development-oriented“ mission, which requires the introduction of an increasingly wider range of agro-economic knowledge in the work programme of advisory services. (Janković et al., 2013; Berjan et al., 2015; Janković et al., 2015). The process of European integration has confirmed and strengthen this tendency (El Bilali et al., 2015). The authors of this paper tried to investigate whether advisers in the Republic of Serbia are ready to adjust their activities to the present requirements. In other words, whether they are ready for a new “market and development-oriented“ mission of advisory that implies a wide range of agro-economic knowledge.

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Materials and Methods In addition to the methodological procedures commonly used for this type of research (desk research, the method of deduction, descriptive statistics), the authors used the results of the survey conducted in April and June 2015 on advisors employed in the Agricultural Advisory Service of Serbia who work on the territory of Central Serbia. The survey comprised 49 advisers, which makes 18.9% of the total number of advisers employed in the Agricultural Advisory Service of Serbia (259), i.e. 29.3% advisers who work on the territory of Central Serbia (167). The survey used a questionnaire with both open-ended and close-ended questions. Results and Discussion The goal of the questionnaire was to show the advisers’ level of agro-economic knowledge, to indicate whether there had been some changes in the structure and character of their activities in the last few years, or whether they dealt with agro-economic issues more than before. Moreover, the questionnaire also asked for advisers’ opinions on whether they need some more advanced training on agro-economics. At this point, the goal of survey was not to introduce the farmers, their opinions and level of agri-economic knowledge, but there is a plan for such survey in the future. Most of the surveyed advisers had formal education in the field of agro-economics and fruit and wine production. Table 1. Educational profile of the surveyed advisers Educational profile Number of advisers Agro-economics 10 Fruit and wine production 10 Animal husbandry 8 Plant protection 8 (Phytopharmacy) Field and vegetable crop 6 production General course 4 Soil amelioration 1 Technology 1 Organic production 1 Total 49 Source: Anketa savetodavaca (Survey of advisers)

Structure (%) 20.4 20.4 16.3 16.3 12.2 8.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 100.0

One fifth of the surveyed advisers (20.4%) were graduate agricultural economists, which implies they have a wide range of agro-economic knowledge. Most of the surveyed advisers were young people with less than three years of experience (42.9%), or 4-6 years of experience (28.6%) in agricultural advisory.

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Table 2. Year of experience of the surveyed advisers Years of experience Less than 3 years 4-6 years 7-10 years over 10 years No answer

Number of advisers 21 14 9 2 3 49 Source: Anketa savetodavaca (Survey of advisers)

Structure (%) 42.9 28.6 18.4 4.0 6.1 100.0

When asked whether they had been required to do more agro-economic activities in their advisory work over the last 3-5 years, 75.5% of the advisers gave a positive answer, 10.2% gave a negative answer, while 14.3% did not answer at all or said they were not sure. The advisers were also asked to assess their own knowledge of agro-economics from 1 to 5 (1 – unsatisfactory and 5 – excellent). Table 3. The advisers’ self-assessment on agro-economic knowledge Grade Excellent (5)

Number of advisers 4

Structure (%) 8.2

Very good (4)

7

14.3

Good (3)

32

65.3

Satisfactory (2)

6

12.2

Unsatisfactory (1)

0

0.0

49

100.0

Source: Anketa savetodavaca (Survey of advisers) Most of the surveyed advisers (65.3%) assessed their agro-economic knowledge as “good“. Grades 4 and 5 (“very good“ and “excellent“) were mostly given by advisers who had formal agro-economic education. A relatively high percentage of advisers who assessed their knowledge as “very good“ and “excellent“ is also a result of trainings that IPN has been continuously conducted since 2010, primarily through modules on Farm management, European integrations and other topics. It is also interesting the advisers’ assessment of previously organized agro-economic training courses. Most of the advisers (77.6%) thought the previous agro-economic training courses were not sufficient enough. Only 8.1% of the advisers considered there had been enough training courses on improving agro-economic knowledge, whereas 10.2% of the advisers thought there had not been enough training on topical agro-economic issues. Two advisers (4.1%) did not answer this question. Finally, the advisers were also asked which agro-economic topics they need to be trained for in the future. There were offered 16 topics to the advisers where they could chose more than one item. The results are shown in Table 4.

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Table 4. Agro-economic topics for future training courses Topic Number of answers Costs and calculations in 20 agricultural production Financing of agriculture and 24 rural development Market and prices in 19 agriculture Risks and insurance in 19 agriculture Monitoring and recording of 8 farm data FADN methodology 4 Farm management 6 Principles of cooperatives 11 and their establishment Business plans and project 23 management Agriculture and rural 9 development strategy Agricultural and rural 8 development subsidies EU pre-accession funds (IPA 41 and IPARD funds) Interest grouping 17 (establishment of unions, associations, clusters, etc.) Rural development 10 Other on-farm activities that 17 can increase income of the family farms Other topics* 1 Total 237 *Only one adviser suggested training on "Export agreements". Source: Anketa savetodavaca (Survey of advisers)

Structure (%) 8.5 10.1 8.0 8.0 3.4 1.7 2.5 4.6 9.7 3.8 3.4 17.3 7.2

4.2 7.2

0.4 100.0

The most of advisers (17.3%) said they need training on using the EU pre-accession funds (IPA and IPARD funds), which was expected because Serbia is about to start using money from these funds and advisers have not been trained on possibilities and applying procedures. Financing of agriculture and rural development ranked second (10.1%), and making business plans and project management ranked third (9.7%). Although the business plan making was the topic of several training courses in the past, it seems to be something that is always topical and useful. Conclusion Agricultural advisory has a long tradition in Serbia, where it started in the mid-19th century. Nowadays, the Agricultural Advisory Service of Serbia (PSSS) is organised through 34 centres, employing 259 advisers. PSSS is under charge of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection and the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Water Management

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and Forestry (territory of the AP Vojvodina). The Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection delegated the organisation of advisers’ training to the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture – an appointed training institution on the territory of Central Serbia. During the second half of the 20th century, the role of PSSS was mostly about collecting agricultural information, innovations and knowledge from research and educational institutions and transferring them to farmers, in order to increase production and labour efficiency and introduce some innovations and technological progress into farming practice. In other words, the mission of PSSS was mainly “production-oriented“. The development of market economy put a focus on economic and organisational aspects of agricultural production. Hence, a wider scope of work and “market-oriented” mission has become the imperative for agricultural advisory. Since 2010 agro-economic topics have been constantly incorporated into the annual training plans for advisers’ training courses organised by the Institute for Science Application in Agriculture. In the mid-2015, the advisers employed in PSSS were subjected to a survey, by given a questionnaire. The goal of the questionnaire was to show the level of advisers’ agro-economic knowledge, to indicate if there have been some changes in the structure and character of their activities in the last few years, or whether they deal with agro-economic issues more than before. Moreover, the questionnaire also asked for advisers’ opinions on whether they need more advanced training on agricultural economics. The results confirmed the expected – PSSS lacks advisers with formal agro-economic education (only 6.6% of such advisers are currently employed in PSSS). A large number of the surveyed advisers (75.5%) confirmed that they had been lately required to do more agro-economic activities in their advisory work. Most of the advisers assessed their knowledge as “good” (average). However, most of the advisers (77.6%) thought the previous agro-economic training courses were not sufficient. When asked to choose among 16 of agro-economic topics for future training courses, most of the advisers (17.3%) said they need training on EU pre-accession funds (IPA and IPARD funds) most. The second-ranked topic was financing of agriculture and rural development (10.1%). The programmes for improving PSSS should be created in such way to take into account new needs that advisory is facing, both when it comes to training programmes for currently employed advisers and training programmes for future staff. Moreover, the results of the questionnaire are also important for designing agricultural curricula of Serbian educational institutions, primarily universities, where courses in the field of agricultural economics have been recently left out from the curricula on biological and technological departments or put as the elective courses (according to the “Bologna Process“ accreditation conditions). Graduate students of biological and technological departments at the faculties of agriculture in Serbia therefore today have less agro-economic knowledge, which contradicts the imperative imposed by the market-oriented economy. It is evident that the Agricultural Advisory Service of Serbia needs to strengthen its capacities in terms of employing more agricultural economists, organising more follow-up trainings and intensifying regular training of its staff on agro-economic matters. References *** (2015). Anketa savetodavaca (sprovedena aprila i maja 2015.). Berjan, S., El Bilali, H., Despotovic, A., Jankovic, S., Radosavac, A., Driouech, N. (2015). Problems on Rural Areas of Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia: A Comparative Analysis. Abstracts of the 6th International Conference on Environmental and Rural Development, Bohol, Philippines, 7-8 March 2015, p. 30.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Ceranić, S., Paunović, T., Popović, B. (2011). Savetodavna služba u edukaciji i stručnom usavršavanju poljoprivrednog stanovništva u Srbiji, Agrosym 2011, Jahorina, www.agrosym.rs.ba/agrosym/agrosym_2011/pdf/Agricultural_economics/Ceranic_i_s ar.pdf El Bilali, H., Berjan, S., Radosavac, A., Despotovic, A., Jankovic, S., Driouech, N. (2015). Relation between Rural Diversification and Governance: Some Insights from Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia. Abstracts of the 6th International Conference on Environmental and Rural Development, Bohol, Philippines, 7-8 March 2015, p. 101. Hoffmann, V., Gerster Bentaya, Maria., Janković, D. (2008.1). Savetodavstvo i komunikacija, Skripta, Tempus Project JEP 19027_2004 Balkan Agri Sector Initiative for Capacity Building, www.agroedu.net/basic/m8/materijal_savetodavstvo_komunikacija.pdf Hoffmann, V., Gerster Bentaya, Maria., Janković, D. (2008.2). Poljoprivredno savetodavstvo – definicija, finansiranje i organizacija, Poljoprivreda Zapadnog Balkana i evropske integracije, Fakultet za zemjodelski nauki i hrana,Skolje, pp. 80-91. Janković, S., Kuzevski, J., Tolimir, N., Berjan, S., El Bilal, H., Capone, R., Tomić, V. (2013). Role of Extension Services in Promoting Multifunctional Agriculture and Integrated Rural Development in Serbia. 21st ESEE – European Seminar on Extension Education, 02-06 September 2013, Antalya, Turkiye. Proceedings: Extension Education Worldwide – trends, challanges and cases, 2013/85, pp. 141-146. Jankovic, S., Despotovic, A., Berjan, S., El Bilali, H., Driouech, N., Stojanovic, A., Tomic, V. (2015). Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services in Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia: An Overview. Abstracts of the 6th International Conference on Environmental and Rural Development, Bohol, Philippines, 7-8 March 2015, p. 5. Novković, N. (1992). Japanska poljoprivreda i poljoprivredna savetodavna služba monografija, Institut za ekonomiku poljoprivrede i sociologiju sela Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, p. 101. Novković, N. (1993). A comparative analysis of Japanese and Yugoslav agricultural extension service, Zbornik radova simpozijuma IAAE o obrazovanju i istraživanjima u agroekonomiji u zemljama u tranziciji, Kijev – Ukrajina, p. 101. Novković, N. Šomodji, Š. Ševarlić, M. Njegovan, Z. (1993) Model poljoprivredne savetodavne službe (potrebe, ciljevi, zadaci i način organizovanja), Zbornik radova simpozijuma agroekonomista, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Zemun, pp. 401-407. Novković, N., Vasiljević, Z., Matković, M. (2013). E-Concept of an Agricultural Extension Service, “Agriculture & Forestry”, Vol. 59. Issue 2, Podgorica. pp. 187-198. Petrović, Ž., Janković, D. (2010). Poljoprivredno savetodavstvo Srbije - Stanje, problemi i mogućnosti reforme. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad. Radišić, R. (2014). Finansiranje poljoprivrednih savetodavnih službi u svetu i kod nas, Seminarski rad na doktorskim studijama Poljoprivrednog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu. Somogyi, S., Novković, N. (1992). Possible organization of agricultural extension service in Vojvodina, Zbornik radova 5. seminara CIOSTA-CIGR o radnoj snazi u poljoprivredi, Djendješ – Mađarska, pp. 147-152. Šnjegota, D., Novković, N. (1997). Poljoprivredno savjetodavstvo kao faktor uspješne obnove i razvoja poljoprivredne proizvodnje Republike Srpske, Agroznanje, br.1, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Banja Luka, pp. 79-92. ***(2009). Strategija razvoja poljoprivrednog savetodavstva u Srbiji, Ministarstvo poljoprivrede, šumarstva i vodoprivrede Republike Srbije, https://www.google.rs/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0Q FjAAahUKEwj4zdvuupnHAhXHDCwKHb8mD3E&url=http%3A%2F%2Farhiva.euk onvent.org%2Fdownloads2%2F090730-

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MinistarstvoPSVRS.ppt&ei=ZPLFVfiLAseZsAG_zbyIBw&usg=AFQjCNFP0vpFSB pNDsOvKVtNZbKXyE8siA&sig2=HVPLJaEADOZly6x-7JiGGw ***(2014). Strategija poljoprivrede i ruralnog razvoja Republike Srbije za period 2014-2024. godine, Sl. Glasnik Republike Srbije br. 85/14 (12.08.2014.). *** (2015). Unapređenje savetodavne i stručne službe u poljoprivrednom sektoru Republike Srbije, Ministarstvo poljoprivrede i zaštite životne sredine Republike Srbije. *** (2010). Zakon o obavljanju savetodavnih i stručnih poslova u oblasti poljoprivrede, Sl. Glasnik Republike Srbije br. 30/10 (7.05.2010.).

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PLANT PRODUCTION

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Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505079L EVALUATION OF ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF TWO ALGERIAN DRY DATE PALM (Phoenix dactylifera L.) FRUITS Adel LEKBIR1*, Ourida ALLOUI LOMBARKIA1, Radhia FERHAT2, Yassine NOUI1, Naima SAADA1, Fatma Ezahra SALHI1, Salima BAISSISSE1, Mouhamed ABDEDDAIM1 1

Food Science Laboratory (LSA), Department of Food Engineering, Institute of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University Hadj Lakhdar, Batna, Algeria 2 Biotechnology of Bioactive Molecules and Cellular Pathophysiology Laboratory (LBMBPC), University Hadj Lakhdar, Batna, Algeria *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Antioxidants are vital substances which possess the ability to protect the body from damage caused by free radical induced oxidative stress. Epidemiological studies specify that intake of fruits and vegetables have the ability to inhibit the damaging behavior of free radicals in the human body. The present research was undertaken to explore the antioxidant potential of the methanolic extract of two Algerian dry date varieties (Frezza and Mech-Degla). The research was under taken to determine the total phenolics and flavonoides using Folin-Ciocalteu’s and aluminum chloride colorimetric methods. The antioxidant ability was assessed by using 2,2diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) and βcarotene-linoleic acid. The total phenolic content (TPC) of the two studied varieties ranged from 13.48-25.94 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g of fw and the total flavanoid content (TFC) ranged from 2.97-3.05 mg quercitin equivalent (QE)/100 g of fw. The DPPH assay (91.57% and 93.68%) and the FRAP assay (112.98 and 116.49 mg VitCE/100 g) showed the highest inhibition, whereas the FRAP assay (54.16 and 55.92 mg BHAE/100g ; 21.04 and 21.74 mg GAE/100 g ; 40.91 and 42.22 mg QE/100 g) and the β-carotene assay (24.19% and 24.10%) showed the lowest inhibition of methanolic extracts of two varieties Frezza and Mech-Degla, respectively. In the present research, it is found that date palm fruit extracts have remarkable antioxidant activities. Its phenolic and flavonoid contents could be responsible for its antioxidant activity. Key words: Date palm fruit, Total phenols, DPPH, ß-carotene and FRAP. Introduction Date palm tree, Phoenix dactylifera L., is an important plantation crop for many countries. Worldwide production of dates in 2013 was 7 627 624.4 tons. With a production of 848 199 tons, corresponding to 11.12 % of the worldwide production, Algeria is the 4th world producer (FAOSTAT, 2013). This production ensures an important income for the national economy, providing at the same time a significant resource for local consumption. Fruits and vegetables have been implicated in preventing or reducing the risk of coronary heart diseases, cancer and other chronic diseases. For these reasons, recommendations to increase the dietary intakes of fruits and vegetables have been suggested by many world authorities. The potential health benefits of fruits and vegetables have been partially attributed to their polyphenols contents (Abdullah Saleh et al., 2011). These compounds are secondary metabolites that gather a large set of molecules, divided into fourteen chemical classes (Vermerris & Nicholson, 2006). They are found in all parts of higher plants (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, pollens, fruits, seeds and wood), where they have significant role in many physiological processes such as growth, reproduction and defence (Lugasi et al., 2003). These valuable molecules possess very interesting biological properties, which are used in various fields, such as medicine, pharmacy and nutrition.

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In this present work we carried out a measurement of total phenolic content, total flavonoids and evaluation of their antioxidant activities (DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reduction capability and percentage inhibition of β-carotene) of methanolic extracts from two Algerian dry date varieties: Frezza and Mech-Degla. Materials and methods Plant material Fresh ripe date samples used in this study consisted of two cultivars of dry dates locally known as Frezza and Mech-Degla dates. The samples were selected identically in terms of size, colour, ripening stage, without damage and calamity, and were stored in paper bags at 4 °C until use. Chemicals and standards Aluminum chloride, β-carotene, BHA (Butylated Hydroxyl Anisole), chloroform, DPPH (2,2diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl), ferric chloride, Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent, gallic acid, linoleic acid, methanol, potassium ferricyanide, quercetin, sodium carbonate, trichloroacetic acid, Tween 40, and vitamin C were purchased from Fluka Chemie (Switzerland), Merck (Germany) and Sigma-Aldrich (USA). All Chemicals and reagents used in the experiments were of analytical grade. Moisture content Moisture was determined according to standard AOAC method 920.151 (AOAC, 1998). Extraction of the phenolic compounds Ten grams of cleaned pitted fruits was extracted with 30 ml of methanol (80%) at room temperature (20°C) for 5 hours with continued agitation. After filtration and centrifugation (at 4000 g, for 10 min), the extracts were concentrated under reduced pressure at 40 °C in a rotary evaporator. The extracts were then redissolved in 10 ml of the same solvent. These concentrated extracts were used to determine total phenolics, flavonoids content, and antioxidant activities of date palm fruits. All the measurements were taken in triplicate and the mean values were calculated. Total phenolics content Total phenolics were estimated using Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent as described by Juntachote et al. (2007). 0.5 ml of each sample was mixed with 5 ml of distilled water and 1 ml of FolinCiocalteu's reagent, after 3 min, 1 ml of 7.5 % sodium carbonate was added. The final mixture was shaken and then incubated for 1 h in the dark at room temperature. The absorbance was measured at 640 nm using Shimadzu UV-120-01 spectrophotometer. Total flavonoids content Total flavonoids content were estimated using the colorimetric assay according to Gursoy et al. (2009). One ml of 2 % aluminium methanolic trichloride solution (AlCl3) was mixed with 1 ml of the methanolic extracts. Test tubes were incubated at room temperature for 10 min and the absorbance was determined at 415 nm. Antioxidant activities Free radical scavenging by using DPPH radical The DPPH radical scavenging capacity was determined using the method described by Mansouri et al. (2005). Twenty five µl of sample were added to 975 µl methanolic solution of DPPH (6 x 10-5 M) and vortexed, the mixture was left in the dark for 30 min and the absorbance measured at 515 nm. DPPH radical scavenging capacity was estimated according to the following equation (Lu et al., 2011) :

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DPPH radical scavenging capacity (%) =

(Abs515 DPPH − Abs515 Sample) x 100 Abs515 DPPH

Where Abs515 DPPH is the absorbance of the control solution (containing only DPPH), and Abs515 Sample is the absorbance in the presence of the date extracts. The scavenging activity was calculated from the calibration curve. BHA (0-200 µg/ml), gallic acid (0-80 µg/ml), quercitin (0-200 µg/ml) and vitamin C (0-500 µg/ml) were used as a references to produce a standard curves. The same antioxidant capacity of the methanolic extracts of tow date cultivars was compared to those of the standards and all results were expressed as a microgram standard equivalent antioxidant capacity per gram of fresh weight (µg SEAC/g fw). Ferric Reducing Power Assay (FRAP) The reducing power was determined according to the method of Oyaizu (1986) with a slight modification (Gülçin, 2006). One ml of each extract was mixed with 2.5 ml of 200 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml of 1% potassium ferricyanide. The mixture was incubated at 50°C for 20 min. Then, 2.5 ml of 10% trichloroacetic acid were added. 2.5 ml of this mixture was added to 2.5 ml of distilled water and 0.5 ml of 0.1% ferric chloride and the absorbance was measured at 700 nm. Increased absorbance of the reaction mixture indicates an increase of reduction capability. The reduction capability was calculated from the calibration curve. BHA (0-200 µg/ml), gallic acid (0-80 µg/ml), quercitin (0-100 µg/ml) and vitamin C (0-300 µg/ml) were used as a references to produce a standard curves. The reduction capability of the methanolic extracts of tow date cultivars was calculated and all results were expressed as a milligram standard equivalent per gram of fresh weight (mg SE/g fw). β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching assay The total antioxidant activity was evaluated using β-carotene-linoleic acid test system (Kulisic et al., 2004 and Gursoy et al., 2009), with a little modification. Briefly, β-Carotene (2 mg) in 4 ml of chloroform was added to 25 µl of linoleic acid and 200 mg of Tween 40 emulsifier mixture. After evaporation of chloroform under vacuum at 50 °C by a rotary evaporator, 100 ml of distilled water saturated with oxygen was added by vigorous shaking to form emulsion A. 2.5 ml of this mixture were transferred into 0.5 ml of the samples. A control negative (without antioxidant) consisting of 0.5 ml of methanol and 2.5 ml of emulsion A was prepared. A second emulsion (B) consisting of 25 µl of linoleic acid, 200 mg of Tween 40 and 100 ml of distilled water saturated with oxygen was also prepared. Methanol (0.5 ml), to which 2.5 ml of emulsion B was added, was used to zero the spectrophotometer. Readings of all samples were taken immediately (t = 0) and after incubation (50°C) at 30 min intervals for 120 min at 490 nm. Measurement of absorbance was continued until the color of β-carotene disappeared. Antioxidative activities of the extracts were compared with those of BHA (0-100 µg/ml), gallic acid (0-400 µg/ml), quercitin (0-100 µg/ml), vitamin C (0-400 µg/ml). The same antioxidative activities of the methanolic extracts of tow date cultivars was compared to those of the standards and all results were expressed as a microgram standard equivalent antioxidative activities per gram of fresh weight (µg SEAA/g fw). The antioxidative activities (percentage inhibition) of β-carotene was calculated according to the following equation (Bourkhiss et al., 2010) : 𝐴𝐴 (𝐼𝑛ℎ𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 %) =

𝐴120 (𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒) − 𝐴120 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙) 𝑥 100 𝐴0 (𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒) − 𝐴120 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙)

Where : A120 (Sample) is the absorbance of the sample at t = 120 min, A120 (Control) is the absorbance of the control at t = 120 min, A0 (Sample) is the absorbance of the sample at t = 0 min and A0 (Control) is the absorbance of the control at t = 0 min.

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Statistical analysis Pearson’s correlation was carried out to study the relationship between the antioxidant activities (DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reduction capability and percentage inhibition of β-carotene), total phenolics and Total flavonoids. Data were reported as means ± standard deviation of triplicate experiments. Data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software (Version 21.0). Results and discussion Two varieties of date palm fruit from Algeria used in this study were dry dates namely Frezza and Mech-Degla (moisture content 11.51 and 15.57%, respectively). Total phenolics content The total phenolics content of the two cultivars ranged between 13.48 to 25.94 mg GAE/100 g fw (Table 1). Compared to other fruits, the two studied date varieties have nearly the same levels of polyphenols than those found by Dacosta (2003), in cherry, pear, peach, apricot and grapefruit which have levels varying between 60-90, 2-25, 10-150, 30-43 and 50 mg/100 g fresh weight respectively. Dates like the other fruits are a good source of natural antioxydants and could potentially be considered as functional food (Al-Farsi et al., 2005) Total flavonoids content Total flavonoids of the two studied varieties Frezza and Mech-Degla are respectively 2.97 and 3.05 mg in terms of quercetin equivalent/100 g fresh weight of sample (Table 1). They account for 22 and 11.76 % of the rate of total polyphenols. Total flavonoids content of the two studied varieties are comparable with those of some fruits reported by Chun et al., (2005), who gave values of 0.63, 1.77, 5.07, 7.30 and 11.82 mg/100 g fresh weight respectively for honeydew melon, tomatoes, grapefruit, kiwifruit and oranges. Our results are slightly lower to that of some fruits reported by Lin, & Tang (2007), with a values of 14.6, 37.6 and 14.2 mg/100 g fresh weight respectively for strawberry, oriental plum and loquat. Flavonoids are a group of polyphenolic compounds diverse in chemical structure and characteristics. They occur naturally in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, flowers, and bark and are an integral part of the human diet. Dietary intake of flavonoids range between 23 mg/day estimated in The Netherlands and 170 mg/day estimated in the USA (Cook, & Samman, 1996 ; Heim, et al., 2002). Flavonoids are classified into eight groups: flavans, flavanones, isoflavanones, flavones, anthocyanidines, isoflavones, chalcones and flavonolignans. More than 8000 compounds of flavonoid structure have been identified (Hodek et al., 2002). Flavonoids are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals and are excreted either unchanged or as flavonoid metabolites in the urine and fecal slurries (Stevenson, et al., 2009 ; Crozier, et al., 2010). Most of the beneficial health effects of flavonoids are attributed to their antioxidant and chelating abilities. They have been used to treat a wide variety of human conditions including inflammation, allergy, headache, cancer, viral infections, gastric and duodenal ulcers (Cook, & Samman, 1996 ; Heim, et al., 2002 ; Ndhlala et al., 2007). Table 1. Total phenolics and total flavonoids contents of two dry Algerian date cultivars Values are means (n = 3) ± SD ; fw : Fresh weight ; GAE : Gallic acid equivalent ; QE : Quercitn equivalent.

Cultivar Total phenolics (mg GAE/100 g fw) Total flavonoids (mg QE/100 g fw)

Frezza 13.48 ± 0.39 2.97 ± 0.34

82

Mech-Degla 25.94 ± 0.8 3.05 ± 0.09


Antioxidant activities DPPH scavenging capacity of date extracts Results of comparison between the same radical scavenging capacities of the methanolic extracts of two date cultivars and those of the standards are shown in Table 2. With a 259.42 µg/g fw for total phynolics content, Mech-Degla date showed a level of total antioxydant capacity (93.68 %) slightly higher than Frezza (91.57 %) with a BHA, gallic acid, quercitin and vitamin C equivalents antioxidant capacity values of 300.33, 97.40, 238.14 and 870.40 µg/g fw, respectively. Total antioxidant activity was also found to increase in a dose dependent manner. Table 2. DPPH scavenging capacity and standards equivalent antioxidant capacity per gram of fresh weight of date fruits (µg SEAC/g fw). Values are means (n = 3) ± SD ; TP: Total phenolics; TF: Total flavonoids; DPPHSC: DPPH scavenging capacity; BHAEAC, GAEAC, QEAC and VitCEAC: BHA, Gallic acid, Quercitin and Vitamin C equivalent antioxidant capacity.

TP Cultivar Frezza Mech-Degla

TF

BHAEAC

DPPHSC (%) (µg/g fw) (µg/g fw) (µg /g fw) 134.82 ± 0.39 29.69 ± 0.34 91.57 ± 0.91 293.79 ± 4.33 259.42 ± 0.8 30.46 ± 0.09 93.68 ± 1.56 300.33 ± 4.37

GAEAC (µg /g fw) 95.22 ± 0.94 97.40 ± 0.93

QEAC

VitCEAC

(µg /g fw) (µg /g fw) 232.33 ± 2.49 851.83 ± 25.48 238.14 ± 2.53 870.40 ± 25.86

Ferric Reducing Power Assay (FRAP) Reducing power is one of the mechanisms of antioxidant capacity which measure the conversion of a Fe3+ ferricyanide complex to the ferrous form. Results of reduction capability of the methanolic extracts of tow date cultivars are shown in table 3 and all results were expressed as a milligram standard equivalent per gram of fresh weight (mg SE/g fw). With a vitamin C standard, the methanolic extracts of Mech-Degla date showed the highest level of reduction capability (116.49 mg VitCE/100g fw) and with a gallic acid standard, the methanolic extracts of Frezza date exhibited the lowest level of reduction capability (21.04 mg GAE/100g fw). Table 3. Reduction capability (mg SE/100 g fw) of two dry Algerian date extracts. Values are means (n = 3) ± SD ; SE : Standard equivalent ; BHAE : BHA equivalent ; GAE : Gallic acid equivalent ; QE: Quercitin equivalent ; VitCE: Vitamin C equivalent.

Reduction capability (mg SE/100 g fw) BHAE GAE QE 54.16 ± 0.26 21.04 ± 0.1 40.91 ± 0.2 55.92 ± 0.28 21.74 ± 0.11 42.22 ± 0.21

Cultivar Frezza Mech-Degla

VitCE 112.98 ± 0.52 116.49 ± 0.56

β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching assay Results of comparison between the same Antioxidative activities of the methanolic extracts of two date cultivars and those of the standards are shown in Table 4. With a 134.82 and 259.42 µg/g fw for total phynolic content, Frezza and Mech-Degla dates showed the same level of Antioxidative activities (24 %) with a BHA, gallic acid, quercitin and vitamin C equivalents antioxidant capacity values of 12, 589, 33 and 515 µg/g fw, respectively. Table 4. Inhibition of β-carotene bleaching (%) and standard equivalent antioxidative activities per gram of fresh weight (µg SEAA/g fw). Values are means (n = 3) ± SD ; TP: Total phenolics; TF: Total flavonoids; IBCB: Inhibition of β-carotene bleaching; BHAEAA, GAEAA, QEAA and VitCEAA: BHA, Gallic acid, Quercitin and Vitamin C equivalents antioxidative activity.

TP Cultivar Frezza Mech-Degla

TF

IBCB (%) (µg/g fw) (µg/g fw) 134.82 ± 0.39 29.69 ± 0.34 24.19 ± 3.37 259.42 ± 0.8 30.46 ± 0.09 24.10 ± 1.35

BHAEAA

GAEAA

(µg /g fw) (µg /g fw) 12.04 ± 4.9 589.07 ± 68.06 12.11 ± 4.89 589.94 ± 68.15

83

QEAA

VitCEAA

(µg /g fw) 33.66 ± 0.7 33.73 ± 0.7

(µg /g fw) 514.37 ± 7.27 515.10 ± 7.29


Correlation Pearson’s correlation (Table 5) shows a very high positive significant relationship between phenol and reduction capability of all standards equivalents (r = 0.966, p < 0.01). However, no association could be found between phenol and inhibition of β-carotene bleaching (r = 0.019, p > 0.05) as well as flavonoid and reduction capability of all standards equivalent (r = 0.094, p > 0.05). A high negative significant correlation has been observed between flavonoid and inhibition of β-carotene bleaching (r = -0.713, p > 0.05). Table 5. Correlation matrix between antioxidant activities (DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reduction capability and percentage inhibition of β-carotene) and antioxidants. TP : Total phenolics ; FLA : Flavonoïds ; DPPHSC : DPPH scavenging capacity ; IBCB : Inhibition of β-carotene bleaching ; RCSE : Reduction capability of all standards equivalent ;

TP FLA DPPHSC IBCB RCSE

TP 1 0.135 0.739 -0.019 0.966**

**

p < 0.01.

FLA

DPPHSC

IBCB

RC

1 0.242 -0.713 0.094

1 -

1 -

1

Conclusion The presence of compounds such as phenolics with a potential to scavenge free radicals, increase antimutagenic effects, stimulate the immune system and protect tissues from oxidative stress. Polyphenol’s antioxydant defenses also have great importance in the protection of brain and nerve tissues against oxidative attacks as those causing Alzheimer’s disease. The antioxidant mechanisms and different antioxidant activities should be further studied to gain more application for use as natural antioxidants. To understand their mechanism of action as bioactive components, further fractionation of methanolic extracts, isolation of phenolic compounds, and determination of their biological activities in vitro and in vivo are needed. References Abdullah Saleh, E., Said Tawfik, M., & Abu-Tarboush, H. M., (2011). Phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of various date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruits from Saudi Arabia, Food and Nutrition Sciences, Vol., (2), pages (1134-1141). Al-Farsi, M., Alasalvar, C., Morris, A., Baron, M., & Shahidi, F., (2005). Comparison of antioxidant activity, anthocyanines, caroténoids, and phenolics of three native fresh and sun-dried date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) varieties grown in Oman, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol., (53), pages (7592-7599). AOAC International, (1998). Official methods of analysis (16th edition). Gaithersburg, MD, method 920.151. Bourkhiss, M., Hnach, M., Paolini, J., Costa, J., Farah, A., & Satrani, B., (2010). Propriétés antioxydantes et anti-inflammatoires des huiles essentielles des différentes parties de Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) masters du Maroc (Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of essential oils of different parts of Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters from Morocco), Bulletin de la Société Royale des Sciences de Liège, Vol., (79), pages (141-154). Chun, O. K., Kim, D. O., Smith, N., Schroeder, D., Han J. T., & Lee C. Y., (2005). Daily consumption of phenolics and total antioxidant capacity from fruit and vegetables in the American diet, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Vol., (85), pages (1715-1724). Cook, N.C. & Samman, S., (1996). Flavonoids : Chemistry, metabolism, cardioprotective effects, and dietary sources, The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, Vol., (7), pages (66-76).

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Crozier, A., Del Rio, D., & Clifford, M. N., (2010). Bioavailability of dietary flavonoids and phenolic compounds, Molecular Aspects of Medicine, Vol., (31), pages (446-467). Dacosta, Y., (2003). Les phytonutriments bioactifs (The bioactive phytonutrients), Tec et Doc-Lavoisier, Paris. FAOSTAT (2013). Date palm production downloaded from FAOSTAT, Website : http://faostat.fao.org Accessed on 25/01/2015. Gülçin, I., (2006). Antioxidant activity of caffeic acid (3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid), Toxicology, Vol., (217), pages (213–220). Gursoy, N., Sarikurkcu, C., Cengiz, M. & Solak, M. H., (2009). Antioxidant activities, metal contents, total phenolics and flavonoids of seven Morchella species, Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. (47), pages (2381-2388). Heim, K. E., Tagliaferro, A. R., & Bobilya, D. J., (2002). Flavonoid antioxidants: chemistry, metabolism and structure-activity relationships, Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, Vol., (13), pages (572-584). Hodek, P., Trefil, P., & Stiborova, M., (2002). Mini review : Flavonoids-potent and versatile biologically active compounds interacting with cytochromes P450. ChemicoBiological Interactions, Vol., (139), pages (1-21). Juntachote, T., Berghofer, E., Siebenhandl, S. & Bauer, F., (2007). Antioxidative effect of added dried holy basil and its ethanolic extracts on susceptibility of cooked ground pork to lipid oxidation, Food Chemistry, Vol. (100), pages (129-135). Kulisic, T., Radonic, A., Katalinic, V. & Milos, M., (2004). Use of different methods for testing antioxidative activity of oregano essential oil, Analytical, Nutritional and Clinical Methods, Food Chemistry, Vol., (85), pages (633-640). Lin, J. Y., & Tang, C. Y., (2007). Determination of total phenolic and flavonoid contents in selected fruits and vegetables, as well as their stimulatory effects on mouse splenocyte proliferation, Food Chemistry, Vol., (101), pages (140-147). Lu, M., Yuan, B., Zeng, M. & Chen, J., (2011). Antioxidant capacity and major phenolic compounds of spices commonly consumed in China, Food Research International, Vol. (44), pages (530-536). Lugasi, A., Hovari, J., Sagi, K. V., & Biro, L., (2003). The role of antioxidant phytonutriments in the prevention of diseases, Acta Biologica Szegediensis, Vol., (4), pages (119-125). Mansouri, A., Embarek, G., Kokkalou, E. & Kefalas, P., (2005). Phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of the Algerian ripe date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera). Food chemistry, Vol. (89), pages (411-420). Ndhlala, A. R., Kasiyamhuru, A., Mupure, C., Chitindingu, K., Benhura, M. A., & Muchuweti, M., (2007). Phenolic composition of Flacourtia indica, Opuntia megacantha and Sclerocarya birrea, Food Chemistry, Vol., (103), pages (82-87). Oyaizu, M., (1986). Studies on products of browning reactions: antioxidative activities of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine, Jpn. J. Nutr. Vol., (44), pages (307-315). Stevenson, D. E., Scheepens, A., & Hurst, R. D., (2009). Bioavailability and metabolism of dietary : Flavonoids - Much Known - Much More to discover. In Keller R. B., Flavonoids: biosynthesis, biological effects and dietary sources (pp.1-52), Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York. Vermerris, W., & Nicholson, R., (2006). Phenolic compound biochemistry. Springer, Netherlands.

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Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505086D PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES OF DURUM WHEAT (Tr.durum Desf.) TO LOW TEMPERATURES Faouzia DEHBI*, Hamena BOUZERZOUR, Abdelhamid MEKHLOUF, Abderrahmane HANNACHI * University Ziane Achour , Agro Veterinary Department, 17000 Djelfa, Algeria *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract In the high elevation area of Algeria early genotypes of durum wheat (Tr. Durum Desf) suffer seriously from low temperature damage during cold season. Developing genotypes resistant to low temperature stress appear critical to ovoid crop failure and to improve grain yield. Cold tolerance is a complex mechanism linked to ecophysiological and biochemical changes. The present study was conducted at the agricultural experimental station of National Institute of agricultural research of Algeria (INRAA). The objectives of this study were to determine the period risk of low temperature; to evaluate the genotypic variability for resistance to low temperatures through several physiological tests (crown, leaves, spike) and biochemical tests (proline and soluble sugars) and to investigate the relationships between the results of such tests, and the agronomics performances of a set of durum wheat. These tests enabled genotypes to be differentiated on the basis of their cold tolerance, The results identified however early, freezing tolerant genotypes such as Cyprus1 and Waha which can be used as genetic source to improve tolerance to low temperatures. Keywords: Triticum durum Desf., low temperature, physiological and biochemical changes, yield. Introduction In Algeria, cereal crops are practiced in a dry way; it is subjected to strong abiotic constraints (Baldy, 1974; Mekhlouf, 1998). The rainfall is low and uncertain; it is the main factor limiting the productivity of this crop (Bensedik and Benabdelli, 2000). Naturally, intermittent drought threatens the crop throughout the cycle. The other constraint is represented by low spring temperatures that reduce most often yields to their simplest expression (Laumont, 1961; Baldy, 1974; Fletcher, 1983; Abbassenne, 1998; Mekhlouf and al., 1998). This constraint leads to limit the expression of genetic potential of cultivars (Slatyer, 1974), hence, stagnation of yields (8q/ha) despite of many efforts through the intensification and support programs. Varietal selection using an empirical approach takes grain yield as a selection criterion. This approach has shown its limits, especially regarding the improvement of stress tolerance (Araus and al, 1998). For this purpose, the approach based on understanding the environment through frequency studies of the main climatic parameters, complete with phonological, morphological and physiological analysis of the plant is introduced as an alternative. This approach aims to characterize the abiotic constraints and locate it in time and to identify characteristics of tolerance to different types of stress. The objective of this paper is to study the genetic variability of response to low temperatures and analyze the relationships with the characteristics of phenological, morphological, physiological and biochemical traits measured of several genotypes of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.).

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Materials and methods Twelve durum wheat (Tr. durum Desf.) genotypes were grown. The field trials were conducted from 1999 to 2003 at the agricultural experimental station of INRAA (latitude 36° 9'N and 5° 21'E, altitude 1080m). The site is representative of the high elevation area of eastern Algeria. Grain yields, yield components and the number of days to heading were measured. The test of cold tolerance (Marshall and Kolb,1982) was carried out on the crown which was subjected to different temperatures ranging from -8 ° to -16 ° C with step of -2 ° C. The same test on spike at levels of temperatures of -3°C to -5°C was used. The effect of cold was evaluated on a scale of 1 to 3 (Mekhlouf et al., 2001). Proline and soluble sugars were measured during two seasons of experimentation on vegetation samples taken from the genotypes planted in field at tillering stage (Bridger et al., 1995). Data analyses was performed using the statistical software Irristat version 5 yield and its components were analysed according to a factorial experiment conducted in a completely randomized block design with three replication. Least Significant difference (LSD), at 5% was used for means separation. Principal component analysis was performed on the basis of the correlation matrix among the measured variables Results and Discussion Frequency of climate and risks: freezing and water deficit Figures 1 and 2 highlight the levels of risk on cereals sown each year in semi-arid area. The water deficit is beginning to appear as early as February and becomes more intense as the plant grows (Figure1). Figure 2 highlights the presence of late frosts in spring coinciding with the stage of high sensitivity of the crop. The varieties that spikes emerged during April are in danger of freezing; the effect is measurable on the number of kernels per spike.

Figure 1. Variation of the average rain deficit for the experimental site over the period 1980/2000

87


Over the period 1980/00 Figure 2.Frequency of the minimal temperatures, pentad of sensitive phase of durum wheat. Environmental effect on the expression of the variables The year effect is by far the most important, explaining much of the observed variation in the variables analyzed (Table.1). This effect highlights the high variability of growing conditions which is subject of durum wheat in the highlands. The genotype effect is significant only for the duration of the vegetative phase and harvest index (Table 1). The ranking of genotypes for these two variables remains relatively constant from one year to another, showing little interaction. Table 1. Average squares of variance analysis of the variables measured during 4 years. Source of Variation year (A) Blocs/year

Df 3 8

PVG (D) 859* 7.2

HT NE (cm) (/m2) 1594* 961666* 56.3 1725

PMG (g) 1019* 3.7

Genotype (G) GxA Error(/Residus)

11 33 88

199* 28* 12.2

522ns 21888ns 286* 18956* 78.2 3543.2

32ns 30* 6.3

BIO NGE (100kg/ha 27347* 3056* 125 8.7 979ns 1580* 156.6

48ns 103* 14.4

GY HI (100kg/ha) (%) 3574* 222.6* 23.5 7.3 217ns 216* 30.1

173.9* 64.8* 18.6

PVG= vegetative phase, HT= straw height, NE = spike per m², PMG = 1000 grain weight, BIO= dry matter or biomass, NGE= seed number/spike, GY= grain yield, HI= harvest index; Df= degrees of freedom, D=day ns, *,** = not significant and significant effect at 5 and 1 % respectively.

The change in growth conditions between the different seasons induced very different genotypic responses for the remaining variables. This environmental variation leads to a change in ranking of genotypes between years. 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 seasons have been less favourable to the expression of grain yield, with an average of 3.29t/ha. Both following seasons have been relatively more favourable; with an average yield of 5.01t/ha (Table 2). The difference of 1.72t/ha between the average performance of favourable and unfavourable seasons was significant. It is associated with a long duration of vegetative phase, a higher biomass and yield components taking values over the average of four seasons of study (Table 2). Quite similar yields are obtained in the two unfavourable seasons through very different performance development itinerary. These results confirm those of Ceccarelli and al. (1991) and Bahlouli and al. (2004) who find that the same level of grain yield is obtained in different combinations of characters. Thus, the 1999-2000 season allowed the expression of the number of spike per m2 but unfavourable to the number of kernels per spike, whereas the contrary is recorded in 2000/2001. The differences in biomass, the number of days to heading, thousand kernel

88


weight and harvest index are not significant between these two years (Table 2). Kirby and al. (1992) mentioned the phenomenon of compensation that is set up between the components of yield. The number of spikes per m2 is formed early in the beginning of the cycle, once the main strand begins its elongation immediately after the completion of meiosis stage (Hoshino and Tahir, 1987). This component is determined once the swelling stage is achieved. Winter water stress and / or low temperatures of early spring can cause a significant reduction in this component (Gate, 1995). The number of kernels per spike began its formation just before heading, at the meiosis stage, and ends 10 days after heading (Wardlaw, 2002). It is very sensitive to low spring temperatures (Bouzerzour and Benmahammed, 1994, Mekhlouf and al. 2006). Water stress and high temperatures for the period of 10 days before and after the date of achieving the heading stage are also deleterious to this component (Moncor and Wardlaw, 1995).

Table 2.Season and genotypic main effects of the measured variables PVG HT (d) (cm) 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 Mexicali75 Merouani MBB Heider/Martes//Huevos Waha Roqueno Cyprus1 Cyprus2 Medolla Durum d’Oran Beliouni3258 Hedba3 General average LSD 5%

117 119 128 121

64 67 63 78

117 125 127 119 116 118 117 119 123 127 124 124 121.7 3.7..

62 70 65 62 66 70 66 71 68 74 61 85 68.5 ..

NE PMG BIO NGE (/m2) (g) (100kg/ha) … Season main effect 649 37.1 69 15.4 278 36.8 65 30.4 459 33.9 117 32.9 340 46.2 112 36.3 Genotypic main effect 481 38.7 98 29.4 471 40.2 88 28.0 463 40.3 87 24.4 387 38.0 89 31.2 427 35.2 84 27.2 453 40.6 110 27.9 428 36.3 83 30.0 464 37.6 99 31.4 362 38.3 86 27.4 455 38.3 99 30.3 435 39.8 79 27.7 354 38.7 84 30.0 432 38.5 90.9 28.7 .. 2.5.. .. 5.8..

GY (100kg/ha)

HI (%)

33.8 31.9 50.5 49.7

48.6 49.3 43.9 45.8

47.0 40.3 39.9 44.6 41.4 46.9 41.8 47.5 36.9 36.6 40.0 34.9 41.5 32.2..

50.6 46.3 44.9 50.2 49.8 45.7 50.9 49.5 42.7 39.8 50.3 42.5 46.9 ..

PVG = number of days to heading, HT = straw height , NE= number of spike per m², PMG= thousand Kernel weight, BIO = biomass, NGE = number of kernels per spike, GY= grain yield , HI = harvest index (%), d=day.LSD little significance difference

Responses to low temperatures The cold test performed on the crown showed Cyprus1, Cyprus2, Durum d’Oran, Medola and Beliouni3258 as tolerant and Merouani, MBB, and hedba3, Roquéno as sensitive (figure 3). The test performed on spike confirms the tolerance of genotypes Cyprus1, Cyprus2, Heider //Martes/ /Huevos de oro (Figure 3).

89


3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 h3

bel

do

med

cy2

cy1

roq

wha

hei

mbb

mer

mex

TC Tep TC: crown test, Tep : spike test Figure 3: Response of the genotypes to the low temperatures. The capacity of accumulation of proline and soluble sugars varies according to seasons and genotypes. The differential ability of accumulation of these substances in low temperatures is taken as a measure of tolerance of the genotype (Heber and al., 1971; Heller and Green,1981). Average of two seasons, Mexicali, Medolla and Durum d’Oran accumulate more proline, while Heider/Martes//Huevos de oro, Roqueno and Cyprus1 accumulate more soluble sugars (Figure 4).

Prol

Suc

300 250 200 %(S-C/C)

150 100 50 0 Mex Mer MBB HMH Wah Roq Cy1 Cy2 Med Dur

Bel

H3

Figure 4. Capacity of accumulation, under low temperatures, of proline and soluble sugars 100 [(Stress-Control)/Control ], mean of 2 seasons H3 = Hedba3, MBB = Mohammed Ben Bachir, Dur = Durum D'Oran, Med= Medolla, Mer= Marouani, Cy1= Cyprus1, Cy2= Cyprus2, Wah= Waha, HMH= Heider/Martes//Huevos de Oro, Mex= Mexicali 75, Roq= Roqueno, Bel= Beliouni3258).

Results revealed also that in the stressful conditions, genotypes Cyprus1, Heider/Martes // Huevos de oro and Medolla were high cold tolerance. This tolerance is confirmed by the level of accumulation of proline and sugars. This ability to accumulate these substances as a result of heat stress appears to be related to cold tolerance and has been noted by several authors (Santarius, 1973; Line Berger and Steponkus, 1980, Heber et al, 1971), who note that cell destruction can be prevented by the accumulation of these substances. In parallel, the genotypes Roqueno presents conflicting results. Indeed, this variety showed significant levels of soluble sugars and proline and sensitivity to low temperatures according to various tests of cold used (figure 3 and 4). Results showed also that some genotypes such as Cyprus1,

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Cyprus2 and Heider/Martes//Huevos de oro present both an adaptation to cold through physiological tests and a significant accumulation of proline and soluble sugars in samples stressed. These results confirm those obtained by Havaux and Lannoye (1982), indicating that the accumulation of free proline is more marked as the plant is more tolerant to cold. The principal component analysis (PCA) accounted for 74.1% of the variation. PCA1 accounted 33.4% of the variation and represented number of days to heading, the number of kernels per spike, harvest index, biomass and straw height toward its positive direction (Figure 5). And spike cold test, thousand kernel weight variance and harvest index toward its negative direction. PCA1 represented the overall variation between seasons for all variables measured except grain yield (Figure 5). PCA2 represented the number of days to heading, the number of spike per m², grain yield, biomass and differences among soluble sugars measured during seasons 2001 and 2002. Along PCA2 axis, are opposed phenology of production capacities and accumulation of soluble sugars and proline., in this case grain yield, biomass and soluble sugars. According to their position along the axis PCA1 and PCA2: along PCA1 genotypes Heider // Mt // Ho, Waha and Cyprus1 had a tolerance to late cold, low and varying thousand kernels weight and low across season straw height, the number days to heading, the biomass, the number of kernels per spike and harvest index. Along the same axis, genotypes Roquéno and durum d’Oran showed the opposite characteristics (Figure 5). They had below average thousand kernels weight, are sensitive to cold late; a low across season variance thousand kernels weight but high thousand kernels weight, high across season variances for straw height, biomass, harvest index, number of kernels per spike and number days to heading (Figure 5). The genotype Durum d’Oran (PCA2,) is less productive. Heider / Mt // Ho, Waha and Cyprus1 have an intermediate productivity. Roqueno is the most productive genotype. Along axis 2, local genotypes Medolla, Durum d’Oran and Beliouni3852 oppose varieties introduced Mexicalli75 and Cyprus2. Local genotypes are characterised by a high number of days to heading, low number of spikes per m², low grain yield, a significant biomass production and low accumulation capacity of soluble sugars. In contrast, the introduced genotypes are characterised by an early heading and high number of spikes per m², high grain yield and , biomass but a low accumulation of soluble sugars under stress.

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CP2

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Figure 5. Principal Component Analyses (PCA) projections on axes 1 and 2 PVG = number of days to heading , HT = straw height, NE= number of spike per m², Pmg= 1000 kernel weight, BIO = biomass, NGE = Number of kernels per spike, RDT= grain yield , HI = harvest index. Tc=crown test 1=Méxicalli75, 2=Merouani, 3=Mohammed Ben Bachir, 5=Waha, 6=Roqueno,7=Cyprus1,8Cyprus2,9=Medolla, 10= Durum d'Oran, 11=Beliouni3258 12=Hedba3 4=Heider/Martes//Huevos de Oro

Conclusion In the high elevation area of eastern Algeria, durum wheat suffer seriously from environmental stress factors that can prevent the expression of the genetic potential . The results of the present study showed that tests used were effective in sorting out the genotypes which were low temperatures tolerant those wich were sensitive. The measured agronomic traits varied between seasons and genotypes indicating the presence of significant genotypic variability and differential responses to the growth conditions experienced. The results identified however early, freezing tolerant genotypes such as Cyprus1 and Waha which can be used as genetic source to improve tolerance to low temperatures. References Abbassenne F.,(1997). Etude génétique de la durée des phases de développement et leur influence sur le rendement et ses composantes chez le blé dur (Triticum durum Desf). Thèse de magister, INA, 81p. (Genetic study of the duration of developpment phases and their influence on the yield and its components in durum wheat (Tr. durum Desf). Magister thesis INA p81) Abbassenne F, Bouzerzour H., Hachemi L. (1998). Phénologie et production de blé dur (Tr. durum, Desf) en zone semi-aride d’altitude. Annales de l’INA, 18, 24-36./ (Phenology and durum wheat(Tr. durum, Desf) production in high semi arid area) Annales de l’INA, 18, 24-36 Araus J. l., Amaro T., Voltas J., Nakhoul H.et Nachit MM.(1998). Chlorophyll fluorescence as a selection criteria for grain yield in durum wheat under Mediterranean conditions. FCR, 55, 209-223.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Baldy G. (1974). Contribution à l’étude fréquentielle des conditions climatiques et de leurs influences sur la production des principales zones céréalières. Document projet céréale, 70p./ (Contribution to frequency study of climatic conditions and their effect on the principal productions in wheat areas). Cereal project document p70.) Bensedik B., Benabdelli K., (2000). Impact du risque climatique sur le rendement du blé dur (Tr.durum, Desf) en zone semi-aride : approche éco-physiologique. Sécheresse 1. Vol 11, 45-51.(Impact of climatic risk on durum wheat (Tr.durum, Desf) production in semi arid area: eco-physiological approach). Sécheresse 1. Vol 11, 45-51) Bouzerzour H. And Bemmahamed A. (1994). Environmental factors limiting barley grain yield in the high plateaux of eastern Algeria. Rachis 12, 11-14. Bridger, J. J., Hatfield, J. L., Klein, R. P. and Mullet, J. E. 1995. Accumulation of heat shock proteins in field grown cotton. Plant physiol. 78: 394-408. Ceccarelli S. and Grando S (1991).Selection environment and environmental sensitivity in barley.Euphytica, 57, 157-167. Canterro-Martinez C, Villar JM, Romagosa I, Fereres E. (1995). Growth and yield responses of two contrasting barley cultivars in a Mediterranean environment. European Journal of Agronomy 1995, 4, 317-326. Dakheel AJ, Nasi I, Mahalakshmi V, Peacock JM. (1993). Morphophysiological traits associated with adaptation of durum wheat to harsh Mediterranean environments. Aspects of Applied Biology, 34: 297- 307. Feliachi, K. (2002). PNDA, Intensification et développement des filières, cas de la céréaliculture. Acte des 3emes journées scientifiques sur le blé 12/13 février 2002. Université Mentouri Constantine. (PNDA, Intensifacation and développement of sectors. Case of cereals. proceeding of the 3rd scientific journeys on wheat 12/13 February 2002. Constantine university, Algeria.) Fletcher Rj. (1983). Breeding for frost resistance in early flowering wheat.Proc. 6Th Inter. Wheat genetics sympo.965-969. Fowler D B., (1979).Selection for winter hardiness in wheat. Identification of genotypic variability. Crop Sc.,19, 769-772. Gate P. (1995). Ecophysiologie du blé, de la plante à la culture. Editions TEC & DOC, Lavoisier, Cachan. (Ecophysiology of wheat , from plant to the crop . TEC & DOC Editions, Lavoisir, Cachan. ) HavauxM. , Lannoye R.(1985). Effet des basses températures positives sur les réactions photochimiques primaires de la photosynthèse du Maïs (Zea Mays L. Cv ‘’LG ‘’). Agronomie, 5 (4), 331-337. (Effect of positives low temperatures on photosynthesis primary photochemical reactions of Zea Mays L.) Agronomie, 5 (4),331-337 Heber U., Tyankova l., SataruisK..A. (1971). Stabilization and inactivation of biological membranes during freezing in the presence of amino acid. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 241, 578592. Heller Green J., Li P. H., (1981).Survival of Solonum tuberisum suspension cultures to – 14°C.the mode of action of proline. Physiol. Plant, 52, 449-453. Laumont P, Erroux J.(1961). Inventaire des blés durs rencontrés et cultivés en Algérie. Mémoires de la société d’histoire naturelle de l’Afrique du nord, 5, 94 p. (Inventory of wheat founfd and cultivated in algeria .memories of natural history of north africa ,5, 95p) Marshall HG. and Kolb FL(1982).Individual crown sélection for résistance to freezing stress in winter oats.Crop.Sci.,22506-510. Mekhlouf A, Bouzerzour H, Dehbi F., Hannachi A. (2001) Rythme de développement et variabilité de réponses du blé dur (Triticum durum Desf.) aux basses températures. Tentatives de sélection pour la tolérance au gel. In : Proceeding séminaire sur la valorisation des

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milieux semi-arides. Oum El Bouaghi, 23, 75-80. (developpmengt rhythm and responses variability of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) to low temperatures. Attempt to selection for tolerance to frost . proceeding on valorisations of semi arides areas. Oum elbouaghi, Algeria, 23,75-80) Mekhlouf A., Bouzerzour H., Benmahammed A., HadjSahraoui A., Harkati N. (2006). Adaptation des variétés de blé dur (Triticum durum Desf.), au climat semi-aride. Sécheresse, 17 (4),507-513. (Adaptations of durum wheat varieties (Triticum durum Desf.), to semi arid climate . Sécheresse, 17 (4) ,507-513.) ONM. Données météorologiques de la station ONM de Sétif. Période 1980/81 à 1998/99; 23 p. ONM (National office of meteorology) (meteorological data of ONM of Setif (Algeria) from 1980/81 to 1998/99; 23 pages) Paulsen GM., Heine E.G. (1983).Grain production of winter wheat after spring freeze injury. Agro. J., 75, 105-107. Santaruis, (1973). In Havaux , Lannoye R.(1982). Changement biochimiques observés pendant l’adaptation au froid de l’orge. Agronomie 2(10), 923-930. (Biochemicals changes observed during frost adaptation of Hordeum) . Agronomie 2(10), 923-930 Slatyer RO., (1974).The effect of internal water status on plan growth developpment and yield. In plant response to climat factors. Proceeding for the UPSALA Symposium.UNESCO, 1974. Single W.V., H.Marcellos (1974). Studies on frost injury to heat. IV. Freezing of ears after emergence from the leaf sheath. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 25-679. Wardlaw IF, Moncur L. (1995).The response of wheat to high temperature following anthesis. The rate and duration of kernel filling. Aust J. Plant Physiol., 22, 391-397.

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Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505095M EFFECT OF REGULATED DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON GROWTH AND WATER REGIME OF POTATO Mirjana MOJEVIC1*, Slavisa DJORDJEVIC2, Zorica JOVANOVIC2, Radmila STIKIC2 1

University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Serbia

Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the effect of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on potato growth and plant water regime in the field conditions and to compare these effects with the conventional method of irrigation. The field potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv Liseta) experiments were conducted during 2007. and 2008. In 2007. a static approach in regulated deficit irrigation technique was applied and the plants were irrigated with 70% of water compared to plants that are optimally irrigated (FI) during the whole season, while a dynamic approach was applied in 2008. where the amount of water for irrigation was reduced from 70% to 50% during the last 3 weeks of the irrigation period. During these two seasons, the following parameters were measured: water potential and stomatal conductance, plant height, leaf area and leaf area index (LAI). The results showed that in the both seasons the regulated deficit irrigation didn't significantly affect the plant growth parameters as plant height, leaf area and LAI compared with optimally irrigated plants, but the differences were expressed between individual harvests. Analysis of the plant water regime parameters point to the differences between two seasons in a way that in 2007. the chemical signals were more responsible for the reduction of stomatal conductance, while in a 2008. season the reduction of stomatal conductance was followed by a decrease of leaf water potential that indicated the hydraulic drought signals. Key words: regulated deficit irrigation (RDI), potato, plant growth, water regime Introduction Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate change and especially, to drought. The increase in temperature can increase duration of the crop growing season in regions with a relatively cool spring and shortened the season in regions where high summer temperature already limits production. The clean freshwater becoming a limited resource and its use for crop irrigation is in competition with the demand for household consumption, as well as with the need to protect the aquatic ecosystems. It is obvious that saving clean water, increasing agricultural productivity per unit of water (“more crop per drop”) and producing safe food are becoming of strategic importance for many countries (Luquet et al., 2005).The reduction of yield in drought conditions is most likely due to the decrease of growth, but also as a result of shortening the growing season (Samara et al., 2005). In drought conditions shoot growth inhibition is associated with the closure of stomata (Holbrook et al., 2002), which caused a decrease in transpiration, conservation and plant water use efficiency (Tahi et al., 2007). In Serbia and countries in the region, drought is also a significant stress factor, and its negative impact particularly affects the breeding and productivity of crops, especially vegetables, including potatoes.Potato is an important crop worldwide. The crop is very susceptible to water stress and hence irrigation is needed for achieving acceptable yield and quality (Liu et al., 2006).The potato plants have high demands for water and irrigation is necessary for a successful growth (Fabeiro, 2001). In the last decades, one of the management options to overcome the agricultural drought is the use regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and they are called deficit irrigation method. DI have been extensively and successfully tested on many

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field and horticultural crops without significant loss of economic yield (Sepaskhah and Ahmadi, 2010). RDI method is based on the understanding of the physiological responses of plants to water supply and water deficit, especially the perception and transduction of root-toshoot drought signals (Chaves et al., 2002; Morison et al., 2008). Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI/DI) is a method that irrigates the entire root zone with an amount of water less than the potential evapotranspiration during whole or specific periods of the crop cycle (English & Raja, 1996). The principle of the RDI technique is that plant sensitivity to drought is not constant during the growing season and that intermittent water deficit during specific periods of ontogenesis may increase water savings and improve yield quality (Loveys et al., 2004). When the roots are in contact with dry land becomes a source of chemical signals ABA primarily as inhibitors of growth. The increased content of ABA leads to partial closure of stomata, which causes the reduction of transpiration and leaf growth, but also increase plants water use efficiency (Davies et al., 2002). Whole plant growth is usually limited by dry matter production and leaf area expansion and, therefore, traditional plant productivity analysis is based on the investigation of several biomass and assimilatory area parameters Materials and methods Experimental design and cultivation The experiments were carried out during the growing seasons of 2007 and 2008 in a vegetable commercial farm (“Salate Centre”), located 10km north of Serbian capital, Belgrade. The soil of the field was silty-clay and it was developed on alluvial deposit. Potato (S. tuberosum L.) cultivar Liseta was used for investigation.The field was organized as split plot design with six plots (three per treatment). The seed tubers were planted in the beginning of April at the depth of 10 cm, with distance between plants in a row of 30cm and distance between rows of 75 cm. Seed tubers were ridged with 15cm soil and ridges were formed about 30 days after planting. During the vegetation season plants were treated against weeds and fungal disease. Fertilization included an initial application of nutrients (N, P, K and micronutrients). Irrigation scheduling and treatments Irrigation amount was controlled by programmable irrigation equipment that supplied their irrigation through a drip line system to each plot.The irrigation method used was a dripsubsurface method. The subsurface irrigation system was supplied by Netafim (A.C.S. Ltd.Netafim, Israel). For the FI and RDI treatments, one drip line was placed 10cm below the top of the ridge. The distance between emitters in FI and RDI treatments was 30 cm and these were place exactly in the middle between two plants.With the RDI treatment is started after the phase of tuber initiation (when 80% of tubers more than 20 mm long). In the last 3 weeks of the irrigation period, 70% RDI was replaced by 50% (RDI plants received 50% of FI treatment). Irrigation was done at least twice per weekand done with a time domain reflectometer (TDR, TRASE, Soil Moisture Equipment Corp.,USA) using vertically installed probes. Experimental measurements The leaf water potential (Ψl) was measured using the pressure chamber (Scholander et al., 1965). The method is based on the extraction xylem sap from the leaves under the pressure of the gas usually nitrogen.Stomatal conductivity was measured using diffusion porometer AP4 (Delta-T Devices). During the experimental period we measured the: water potential and stomatal conductance, plant height, leaf area and leaf area index (LAI). Leaf area was determinate destructively by sampling leaves from plants and than scanned by scanner

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(Mustec Scan Express A3 USB). Leaf area index (LAI) is the ratio of total leaf area of the plant to the soil surface.The measured traits have been analyzed for statistically significant differences by Students unpaired t - test (Sigma Plot 6.0 for Windows – SPW 6.0, Jandel Scientific, Erckhart, Germany) Results and Discussion Leaf water potential (Ψl) and stomatal conductance (gs) Fig 1. shows the changes in leaf water potential and stomatal conductivity of plants under the influence of FI and RDI irrigation regimes in 2007. year. Between harvest the values of stomatal conductivity were decreased by 68% in FI and RDI regime. The values of stomatal conductivity with FI and RDI irrigation regimes at the end of the experiment were: 0,19 and 0,21 mol m-2 s-1. Maximum values of water resources leaves were recorded for FI irrigation regimes in phenological stage when tuber reached 50% of its total mass, while harvesting H3, and the RDI maximum values were at the stage of flowering plants during the harvest H1. For FI, RDI maximum values were: -0.82 and -0.97MPa. Decrease the values in water potential was recorded with FI irrigation regimes between harvests H3 and H4 in phenological development phase where tuber reached 50-60% of their final mass. Values water potential at the end of the experiment were the FI -1.12 MPa, RDI1.0 MPa. In the period in 2008. (Fig.2 ) were similar results as in 2007. The decrease in water potential and conductivity of the stomata was consistent in all irrigation regimes. The results obtained showed that RDI the plants at the end of the experiment had a higher level of stress. The decrease in water potential RDI plants indicates that the water stress in the zone of the root system was sufficient to cause reduction of water potential of leaves. Our results are in agreement with the results Wakra et al., (2004) who examined the beans in water resources affected by RDI irrigation regimes where there has been a decrease in the value of water resources in relation to the control. Similar results in studies of effects RDI irrigation regimes on tomato plants were given by Topcu et al., (2006). Values conductivity stomata, in all irrigation regimes, between the third and fourth measurements were significantly reduced. The measured values were: FI at 0,40 mol m-2 s-1 (H3) and 0,32 mol m-2s-1 (H4), RDI 0,38 mol m-2s-1 (H3) and 0.26 mol m-2s -1 (H4). The changes of dynamic conductivity of stomata was followed by canges in leaf water potential.Thus, the maximum values of water potential were the harvests H1 and then there was a decrease in the value of the harvest H4. Values water potential at the last harvest were: -1.01 MPa (FI) and -1.06 MPa (RDI).Results of the correlative relationships of parameters of water regime also indicate differences between the investigated season and so that are the chemical signals were more responsible for the reduction of conductivity stomatal cells in 2007. year, while in 2008. year decrease in conductivity stomata was accompanied by sheets of falling water potential (hydraulic signals drought).Reduced stomatal conductance in early stages of water stress inhibits transpiration rate more than it reduces the intercellular CO2 concentration that is the driving factor for photosynthesis.Crop water use or transpiration (water diffusion to the air through the stomata) is mainly controlled by stomatal conductance. In terms of the efficient use of water in agriculture, stomatal response to the water status of the soil and plant system has been a critical area in crop physiology. Reactions stomatal cells are of particular importance for reactions of plants to applied methods of irrigation. Such reactions stomatal cells is of particular importance because it allows the plant to dry when exposed to water more efficiently exploit the process of growth and metabolism and thus reduce the adverse effects of dehydration (Jones, 1980). According Maroco et al., (1997), stomata response to drought is more associated with the water content in the soil than with leaf water status. This indicates that the stomata respond to chemical signals which produces the root (Davies and Zhang, 1991). By reduction, in all irrigation

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regimes, there is in the initial stages of the experiment, where a sudden drop in between the first and second measurement, the phase of flowering plants. This reduction in conductivity of the stomata was more pronounced than the reduction in water potential and this indicates that the chemical signals, rather than sheets of water regime (hydraulic signals) were more responsible for the reduction of conductivity stomata cells during this period The decline in conductivity stoma was reflected in the later stages of plant development 'and it is similar to the results that were obtained on potato Liu et al., (2005). These authors found that changes in the conductivity of the stoma by irrigation regimes applied in correlation with the interaction of chemical and hydraulic signals In the period in 2008. The decrease in conductivity of the stoma was accompanied by decreasing resources and leaves. Liu et al., (2004) in their results were given to the conductivity of the stoma in plants sensitive to desiccation of potato land in the initiation phase. Tuber and their growth, and these results confirm previous research on potatoes (Jefferies, 1989). Based on our results, we can assume that the degree of land drainage in the applied irrigation regime was sufficient to induce signals that are induced closure of stoma. It can also be assumed that the stoma closure was the result of induction of both types of signals, as well as their interactions. However, recent investigations in field grapevines suggest if severe soil drying saving 50% water of control plants is applied during deficit irrigation feedback hydraulic signals may play a dominant role (Santos et al., 2007; Rodrigues et al.,2008). 1.0 1.0 RDI FI

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Fig 1. and 2. shows the changes in leaf water potential and stomatal conductivity of plants under the influence of FI and RDI irrigation regimes in 2007. and 2008. year

Plant height, leaf area and leaf area index (LAI)

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Effects of irrigation regime (FI and RDI) on plant height , leaf area and leaf area index (LAI ) during the 2007 are presented in figure 3.and 4. In our experiment there was no significant difference between FI and RDI irrigation regimes in plant height , leaf area and leaf area index during the 2007 year . Differences in values of these parameters have emerged within the regime, irrigation , between individual harvests . During the growing season expressed variation in leaf area between harvest H3 and H4 in all investigated regimes of irrigation during the 2007 years and this is probably due to the phenological phases in which the plants are contained, and this is the period of accumulation of dry weight in tubers .Plants were tested in both regimes of irrigation during 2007. year, were about the same height Maximum values of plant height were observed in all the studied irrigation regimes in the flowering stage in harvests H1 and H2. At the end of the experiment the height of FI and RDI plants was : 49.6cm and 52.0cm. The results showed that during the season in all investigated irrigation regimes were uniformly decline in plant heigh .The maximum value of the leaves area , in all investigated irrigation regimes were in the flowering stage , the harvest H1. FI and RDI irrigation regime values were : 3775 and 3446 cm2 , and then there was a decline in the value to the end of the test period.This reduction was 40 % for FI plants, 32% for RDI plants . Leaf area, at the end of the experiment in irrigation regime FI and RDI were: 1544 cm2 , 1672 cm2 . There was a reduction in leaf area at 8 % RDI irrigation regime in relation to optimally irrigated plants.Results for LAI values also show , for all irrigation regimes pronounced difference between harvest H3 and H4 and t-test was statistically highly significant difference (P99.9997 vol%, flow rate =1.26ml/min). The fatty acids peaks were identified by comparison of retention times with retention times of standards from Supelco 37 component fatty acid methyl esters mix and with data from internal data library, based on previous experiments. Results were expressed as mass of fatty acid or fatty acid group (g) in 100g of fatty acids. Essential oil analysis. Essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation using the Clevengertype apparatus from crushed mature fruits. The oil quality was assessed through analysis by combined Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. GC-MS analysis was performed by using an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph coupled with an Agilent 5973 Network mass selective detector (MSD), in positive ion electron impact (EI) mode. The separation was achieved by using Agilent 19091S-433 HP-5MS fused silica capillary column, 30m x 0.25mm i.d., 0.25μm film thickness. The GC oven temperature was programmed from 60°C to 285°C at a rate of 4.3°C/min. Helium was used as the carrier gas; inlet pressure was 25 kPa; linear velocity was 1ml/min at 210°C. Injector temperature: 250°C; injection mode: splitless. MS scan conditions: source temperature, 200°C; interface temperature, 250°C; energy, 70 eV; mass scan range, 40-350 amu. Identification of components was done on the basis of retention index (RI), their retention times (RT) and by comparison with reference spectra (Wiley and NIST databases). Results and disscusion Oil content in seeds of sweet and bitter fennels was 3.97% and 6.39%, respectively (Table 1). The major compound in both fennel oils was saturated myristic fatty acid (64.85% and 47.86%, respectively), followed by unsaturated C18:1 (21.71% and 25.03%, respectively). In sweet fennel these two fatty acids participated with 86.56%, and other five fatty acids (C4:0, C10:0, C12:0, C16:0 and C18:22) were present from 1.45 to 4.22%. In bitter fennel C14:0 and C18:1 fatty acid participated with 72.89%. Another significant fatty acid was capric acid (17.83%), followed by polyunsaturated C18:2 (4.41%), while other four fatty acids (C4:0, C6:0, C12:0 and C16:0) were present from 0.35 to 1.97%. In Turkey, the obtained oil content in sweet and bitter fennel was 12.22% and 14.41%, respectively (Coşge et al., 2008). The C18:1, C18:2, and C16:0 were the principal fatty acids which constituted around 97% of the total oil content. The ratios of essential oil from sweet and bitter fennel were found similar (average 3.00%).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1 Fennel fatty acids Fatty acid C4:0 C6:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:1 C18:2 Fatty oil content

R.t. (min) 10.102 10.546 13.874 17.041 21.073 25.526 30.985 32.692

sweet fennel 1.55 nd 3.85 2.37 64.85 1.45 21.71 4.22 3.97

bitter fennel 1.24 0.35 17.83 1.97 47.86 1.31 25.03 4.41 6.39

R.t. – Retention time; nd – not detected Essential oil content in sweet and bitter fennels was 7.1% and 8.0%, respectively (Table 2). According to our Pharmacopeia, essential oil content in fruits of sweet fennel need to be more than 2%, while in bitter fennel fruits more than 4% (Ph. Jug V, 2001). The major compound in both fennel essential oils was trans-anethole (80.0% and 67.1%, respectively). In sweet fennel the second major compound was limonene (11.4%), followed by fenchone (3.9%) and methyl chavicol (2.7%), while in bitter fennel that was fenchone (22.6%) followed by α-pinene (3.3%). Table 2 Fennel essential oil Compounds α-pinene camphene sabinene β-pinene myrcene α-phellandrene p-cymene limonene β-ocimene γ-terpinene cis-sabinene hydrate fenchone camphor methyl chavicol carvone cis-anethole trans-anethole Essential oil content

R.t. (min) 5.816 6.225 6.911 7.024 7.398 7.867 8.553 8.688 9.013 9.784 10.098 10.942 13.227 15.567 17.436 18.033 19.531

RI 936 951 976 980 994 1008 1028 1031 1040 1060 1062 1084 1142 1200 1241 1248 1282

sweet fennel 1.0 tr tr tr 0.3 0.1 tr 11.4 tr 0.2 nd 3.9 tr 2.7 0.4 tr 80.0 7.1

bitter fennel 3.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.0 0.3 tr 2.2 tr 0.6 tr 22.6 0.4 2.0 nd tr 67.1 8.0

R.t. – Retention time; RI – Retention indices on HP-5 MS capillary column; tr – compound present in traces (less than 0.1%); nd – not detected The compound with the highest value in the sweet and bitter fennel from Turkey was transanethole as 95.25% and 75.13%, respectively (Coşge et al., 2008). While methyl chavicol was found in bitter fennel oil in a remarkable amount (15.51%), sweet fennel oil contained small amounts of methyl chavicol (2.87%). Fenchone was found in less than 1% in sweet and around 5% in bitter fennel. There are a lot of factors which can influence the essential oil content and composition. Growing technology such as date of sowing, plant density, apply fertilizers etc. have a 951

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ significant influence on essential oil content (Mohamed and Abdu, 2004; Ayub et al., 2008; Khorshidi et al., 2010). Alternatively, very important factors are the environmental and ecological characteristics of the particular growing region (Shahat et al., 2012). However, the content of trans-anethole in essential oil from fennel grown in Romania varied between 60.477.6%, while fenchone was present from 8.6-13.1%, and methyl chavicol 2.5-8.3% depending on the year of cultivation (Aprotosoaie et al., 2010). Conclusion Fatty oil and essential oil content in bitter fennel seed is higher than in the sweet variety. The major compound in both fatty oils was saturated myristic acid, followed by unsaturated C18:1, while the major compound in both essential oils was trans-anethole, followed by limonene in sweet fennel, and fenchone in bitter fennel. Acknowledgements The study is the result of the Project number 114-451-2373/2014-03 funded by Provincial Secretariat for science and technological development, Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia. References Aprotosoaie A.C., Şpac A., Hăncianu M., Miron A., Tănăsescu V.F., Dorneanu V., Stănescu U. (2010): The chemical profile of essential oils obtained from fennel fruits (Foeniculum vulgareMill.). Farmacia, 58(1):46-53. Chang Sh., Bassiri A., Jalali H. (2013): Evaluation of antioxidant activity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed extract on oxidative stability of olive oil. Journal of Chemical Health Risks, 3(2):53-61. Coşge B., Kiralan M., Gürbüz B. (2008): Characteristics of fatty acids and essential oil from sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. var. dulce) and bitter fennel fruits (F. vulgare Mill. var. vulgare) growing in Turkey. Natural Product Research, 22(12):1011-1016. Dongare V.R., Arvindekar A.U., Magadum C.S. (2010): Hypoglycemic effect of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. fruit on dexamethasone induced insulin resistance rats. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(2):163-165. El-Soud N.A., El-Laithy N., El-Saeed G., Wahby M.S., Khalil M., Morsy F., Shaffie N. (2011): Antidiabetic activities of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. essential oil in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(2):139-146. Garg C., Ansari S.H., Khan S.A., Garg M. (2011): Effect of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. fruits in obesity and associated cardiovascular disorders demonstrated in high fat diet fed albino rats. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, 8(19):1-5. Khorshidi J., Mirahmadi S.F., Tabatabaei M.F. (2010): Oil content and yield of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. cv. Soroksary seeds as affected by different plant cultivation densities. Journal of American Science,6(11):1098-1100. Kooti W., Moradi M., Ali-Akbari S., Sharafi-Ahvazi N., Asadi-Samani M., Ashtary-Larky D. (2015): Therapeutic and pharmacological potential of Foeniculum vulgare Mill: a review. Journal of HerbMed Pharmacology, 4(1):1-9. Mohamad R.H., El-Bastawesy A.M., Abdel-Monem M.G., Noor A.M., Al-Mehdar H.A., Sharawy S.M., El-Merzabani M.M. (2011): Antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects of methanolic extract and volatile oil of fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare).Journal of Medicinal Food, 14(9):986-1001. Mohamed M. A-H., Abdu M. (2004): Growth and oil production of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill): Effect of irrigation and organic fertilization. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, 22:31-39.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Oktay M., Gülçin İ., Küfrevioğlu Ö.İ. (2003): Determination of in vitro antioxidant activity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed extracts. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 36(2):263-271. Özbek H., Uğraş S., Dülger H., Bayram İ., Tuncer İ., Öztürk G., Öztürk A. (2003): Hepatoprotective effect of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil. Fitoterapia, 74(3):317319. Öztürk M., Geçgel Ü., Duran A., Uslu N., Özcan M.M. (2014): The fatty acid compositions of several plant seed oils belong to Leguminosae and Umbelliferae families. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186:2795-2799. Ph. Jug. V (2001): Pharmacopoea Jugoslavica, 2000. National Institute for Health Protection, Belgrade. Rabeh N.M., Aboraya A.O. (2014): Hepatoprotective effect of dill (Anethum graveolens L.) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) oil on hepatotoxic rats. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 13 (6):303-309. Rahimi R., Ardekani M.R.S. (2013): Medicinal properties of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. in traditional Iranian medicine and modern phytotherapy. Chinese Journalof Integrative Medicine, 19(1):73-79. Rezq A.A. (2012): Beneficial health effects of fennel seeds (Shamar) on male rats feeding high fat-diet. The Medical Journal of Cairo University, 80(2):101-113. Shahat A.A., Hammouda F.M., Shams K.A., Saleh M.A. (2012): Comparative chemical analysis of the essential oil of wild and cultivated fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill). Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 15(2):314-319. Shahat A.A., Ibrahim A.Y., Hendawy S.F., Omer E.A., Hammouda F.M., Abdel-Rahman F.H., Saleh M.A. (2011): Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oils from organically cultivated fennel cultivars. Molecules, 16:1366-1377. Verešbaranji I. (1996): Animal and vegetable fats and oils –Preparation of methyl esters of fatty acids. In: Karlović, Đ. Andrić, N. Quality control of oilseeds. Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, Institute for Standardization of Serbia, Belgrade, 311-314.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY1505954S ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITIES OF DIFFERENT ESSENTIAL OILS TO MARIGOLD SEEDS MYCOPOPULATIONS Mira STAROVİC1*, Danijela RİSTİC1, Dragana JOŠİĆ2, Milos STEVANOVİC1, Nenad DOLOVAC1, Mehmet Musa ÖZCAN3, Snezana PAVLOVIC4 1

Institute for Plant Protection and Environment, Belgrade, Serbia 2 Institute of Soil Science, Belgrade, Serbia 3 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Selçuk University, 42079 Konya, Turkey 4 Institute for Medicinal Plant Research “Dr. JosifPančić”, Belgrade, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

This study investigates the possibility of biological control of fungal species isolated from marigold seeds using essential oils from medicinal plants: mint (Mentha spicata L.), sage (Salvia fruticosa L.), rosemary (Rosmarinu sofficinalis L.), anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), bitter fennel (Foeniculum vulgare spp. piperituum L.) and myrtle (Myrtus communis L.). Two fungal species isolated from marigold seeds: Botritiscinerea and Sordaria fumicola, were used in this experiment. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were determined by micro-dilution method using selected essential oils (EOs). MIC was determined by a modified micro-dilution method in 96 well microtiter plates. Spores were added to each well with 90 µL potato dextrose medium with appropriate dilutions of the EO 10 µL fungal inoculum (1.0x105-5.0x105). All experiments were performed in duplicates and repeated four times. The microplates were incubated for 72h at 28°C. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of essential oils (EO) which completely inhibited the visible fungal growth. Fluconazole was used as positive control. Essential oils MIC values were in the range of 0.00325-7.75.0 mg/mL. Among thetestedoils Salvia fructicosa EO proved to be the best inhibitor of B.cinerea (MIC 0.003mg/mL) and Myrtus communis EO to the Sordaria fumicola (MIC=0.032mg/mL). The tested fungi were observed to have a susceptibility to all selected essential oils. These results suggest the possibility for application of the EOs in biological control of marigold production. Key words: Antifungal activity, Essential oils, MIC, marigold Introduction The plant disease control in agriculture using the antimicrobial chemicals is very often associated with serious problems: toxicity, carcinogenic and teratogenic effect on people and fungal resistance to the fungicide, justifying the search for new strategies in plant protection (Rapp, 2004). The essential oils and other products of especially medicinal plants become a potential antifungal agents in recent years (Bouchra et al. 2003; Carmo et al. 2008; Tavassoli et al. 2011). The phytopatological fungi are very often a casual agents of numerous diseases during the cultivation of medicinal plants. The presence of the fungi in medicinal plants reduces their quality (Essono et al. 2007). On the other hand the medicinal plants are a very rich source of a biologically active compounds including antifungal activity (Kumar et al. 2007; Carmo et al. 2008; Arrebola et al.2010; Bouzennaans Krichen, 2013; Stević et al. 2014). The antimicrobial activity of selected species has already been demonstrated (Maksimovic et al. 2005; Carmo et al. 2008; Tawassoli et al. 2011; Cosic et al. 2010; Istianto and Emilda, 2011; Vitoratos et al. 2013; Mahilrajan et al. 2014).Therefore, the application of essential oils is an alternative, biological control measure. This study was undertaken to investigate the inhibitory effects of a number of essential oils (EOs), against two phytopathogenic fungi isolated from marigold seeds.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Material and methods Essential oils EOs of selected plants (listed in Table 1.), were obtained by hydro-distillation in a Clevengertype apparatus. The obtained essential oils were stored in sealed glass bottles, protected from the light by wrapping in aluminium foil and storing at -18oC. Table 1. Essential oils No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Essential oil Mint Sage Sage Rosemary Anise Bitter (fennel) Myrtle

Plant origin Mentha spicata L. Salvia officinalis L. Salvia fruticosa L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Pimpinella anisum L. Foeniculum vulgare spp. piperituum L. Myrtus communis L.

Origin Mersin (Turkey) Mersin (Turkey) Sarajevo (BIH) Mersin (Turkey) Mersin (Turkey) Mersin (Turkey) Mersin (Turkey)

Used Parts leaves Leaves+flowers Leaves Leaves Fruit Fruit Leaves

Fungi Antifungal activity was tested using two fungal species isolated from marigold seeds during 2014 identified as: Botritis cinerea and Sordaria fumicola. Antifungal assay in vitro To investigate the antifungal activity of essential oil, modified micro-dilution method was used. A minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using 96 well microtiter plates (Douk et al. 1995; Nikolić, 2014). The fungal spores were washed from the surface of agar plates with sterile 0.75% saline containing 0.1% Tween 80 (vol/vol), filtered and adjusted to a concentration of approximately 1.0x105 - 5.0x105 spores per ml using a hemocytometer. Fungal inoculum was added to each well with 90 µL potato dextrose medium with appropriate dilutions of the EO 10 µL. All experiments were performed in duplicates and repeated four times. The microplates were incubated for 72 h at 28 °C. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of essential oils (EO) which completely inhibited the visible fungal growth. Fluconazole was used as positive control. Statistical analysis The results of the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were processedby Duncan’s multiple range tests. Analysis of the variance was performed on MIC data of seven oils on 2 pathogenic fungi. Significance was evaluated at p t1 (significance level equal to 0.05)

Stand. dev.

Test statistic

(s)

(to)

28.02. (+/- ) 2.8 0.89 5.2 2.24 4.9 1.86 1.8 0.74 4.8 2.45 5.0 1.95

2.84* 7.53*

Rank

9 4 6 10 7 5

3.6 5.3 3.2 5.3

5.0 4.5 5.5 6.8

2.47 1.92 2.15 3.55

5 8 3 1

4.0 4.8

5.0 5.7

2.95 2.76

5 2

Length of aboveground part of the plant Application of nettle, yarrow, lemon balm, valerian, burdock and squirting cucumber extracts contributed to increment in length of aboveground part of the plant in comparison to the control group, however, only in the case of lemon balm the observed differences were statistically significant (Tab. 2). On the contrary, with dandelion application the growth of aboveground part of the plant was significantly slowed down. However, the biggest increment in length of above ground part of lettuce has been achieved in treatments with “Giberlex”, while treatments with seaweed extract were lower than the control group.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2: The average increment in length of aboveground part of the plant

Treatment

T1 Extract of comfrey T2 Extract of nettle T3 Extract of dandelion T4 Extract of horsetail T5 Extract of yarrow T6 Extract of lemon balm T7 Extract of valerian T8 Extract of burdock T9 Extr. of squirting cuc. T10 Extract of „Giberlex“ T11 Seaweed extract Control group

Average length of aboveground part of the plant before treatment 31.12. (cm/plant) 5.4 5.8 5.1 5.4 5.9 5.3

The average increment in length of aboveground part of the plant during the treatment Recordings 22.01. 05.02. 11.02 (Δ cm/plant) 1.8 3.3 5.1 2.9 5.1 12.7 4.5 6.2 8.8 3.4 6.7 9.1 2.8 4.1 6.1 6.9 8.2 9.1

Stand. dev.

Test statistic

(s)

(to)

28.02. (+/- ) 13.8 5.73 18.7 8.78 9.6 4.8 11.9 6.11 18.3 9.46 21.2 11.6

5.7 5.7 4.7

4.1 4.2 4.6

4.9 6.1 9.8

6.0 8.2 14.2

18.0 16.5 18.5

8.42 7.37 9.25

6.0

4.7

15.7

25.7

33.8

13.6

5.6 4.9

2.2 4.4

5.1 8.1

9.6 11.0

13.4 14.6

7.91 7.45

3.09* 2.76*

Rank

9 3 12 11 5 2 6 7 4

6.78*

1 10 8

Root length of the plant Application of nettle, yarrow, valerian and squirting cucumber extracts contributed to increasing the length of roots in comparison to the control group, however, the observed differences were not statistically significant. On the contrary to this, application of comfrey, dandelion and horsetail extracts showed that root growth in length was significantly slowed compared to the control group (Tab. 3). The treatment with lemon balm extract did not affect the root’s growth in length of those intensity as that they did in case of above ground parts. In the case of treatment with "Giberlex" and seaweed extract, root growth trend was slower than the control group.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 3: The average increment in length of underground part of the plant

Treatment


Average length of underground part of the plant before treatment

The average increment in length of under ground part of the plant during the treatment Recordings 05.02. 11.02 (Δ cm/plant) 7.4 8.5 5.6 12.2 3.4 7.25 4.3 10.1 5.4 8.8 4.3 8.9

31.12. (cm/plant) 3.0 2.5 2.9 3.0 2.6 3.7

22.01.

2.7 3.0 3.6

2.5 2.5 3.4

4.0 4.8 4.6

2.6

5.6

2.5 2.9

2.8 3.4

3.0 3.7 2.8 2.1 4.7 3.0

Stand. dev.

Test statistics

(s)

(to)

Rank

28.02. (+/- )

3.44*

9.7 19.0 10.2 10.7 16.2 14.5

4.18 8.70 3.98 4.07 7.36 7.39

7.5 9.9 13.7

16.0 12.7 15.2

6.80 6.53 8.10

3 7 4

4.7

11.2

12.5

5.46

8

4.6 6.0

7.8 12.7

11.5 15.0

6.09 7.33

9 5

3.16* 2.81*

12 1 11 10 2 6

Fresh weight of the plant Application of nettle, yarrow, lemon balm and squirting cucumber extracts contributed to the increased growth of fresh plant compared to the control group, however, the observed differences were not statistically significant. On the contrary, treatment with comfrey, dandelion and horsetail gave significantly lower results compared to the control group. From the recordings based on these indicators, we can cautiously conclude that the extracts of comfrey, dandelion and horsetail act as retardants, when it comes to fresh lettuce weight in the early growth stages.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 4: The average increment in fresh weight of the plant

Treatment


Average fresh weight of plant before treatment

The average increment in fresh weight of the plant during the treatment Recordings 05.02. 11.02 (Δ g/plant) 1.46 4.03 3.87 5.14 1.83 4.68 2.73 5.65 5.17 7.96 5.62 8.54

Stand. dev. (s)

Rank

31.12. (g/plant) 0.54 0.63 0.67 0.60 0.83 1.13

22.01.

0.50 0.83 0.80

2.33 1.04 3.20

3.50 2.67 3.95

5.96 6.77 6.36

9.58 9.13 10.73

4.21 4.56 5.37

7 8 4

1.00

3.50

3.75

8.08

10.52

4.31

5

0.83 1,00

2.42 3.80

3.17 7.50

8.92 10.12

8.97 10.30

5.02 5.15

9 6

0.71 2.75 1.23 1.90 2.17 3.37

28.02. (+/- ) 6.16 2.71 11.50 6.32 8.50 3.48 8.24 3.33 11.09 5.66 10.88 5.40

Test statistics (to)

3.98* 2.25* 3.35*

12 1 10 11 2 3

Conclusions The observed plant extracts show contrasting growing patterns in the observed period – at the early growth stages of lettuce. Comfrey extract acts as an inhibitor because it slows down the formation of leaves, development of above ground and underground part in length and conclusive increase of fresh biomass. Similar actions exhibit the extracts of dandelion and horsetail. Nettle extract stimulates the growth of above ground and underground parts of plants, but not to the extent of considering observed changes as statistically significant. An identical conclusion applies to extracts of yarrow, valerian and squirting cucumber. Extract of lemon balm has significant impact on the growth of above ground portions of the plant. Burdock extract does not contribute to a significant increase in above ground and underground parts, but also does not slow down its growth, i.e. does not have the inhibitor characteristics. None of the studied extracts did induce a significant increase in fresh biomass compared to the control group. Nevertheless, the effect of the extract is promising. The majority of extracts has showed without any upgrades the same, if not even better activity than of commercially produced extracts from seaweed. Also, in contrast to the "Giberlex" preparations, whose effect is strictly specific (induces only above ground parts growth), herbal extracts act simultaneously on the above- and underground part of the plant. References Anonymous (1986): Index of papers about the natural plant-growth bioregulators Agrostemin - published during the periods 1954-1986. Agrostemin d.o.o., Belgrade. 1-35 Anonymous (2011): Hardness in Drinking-water. Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization. 1-11 Bulgari R. et al. (2015): Biostimulants and crop responses: a review. Biological Agriculture & Horticulture. Vol. 31, No. 1. 1-17 Calvo P., Nelson L., Klopper W.J. (2014): Agricultural uses of plant biostimulants. Plant Soil, 383. 3-41

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Coupin H. (1911): La toxicité comparée des essences végétales. C.R.Acad. Sci. Paris, 152. 529-531 du Jardin P. (2012): The science of plant biostimulants – a bibliographic analysis. Contract with European Commission „Ad hoc study on biostimulants products“. 1-37 Hanafy S.M. et al. (2012): Effect of some natural extracts on growth and chemical constituents of Schefflera arboricola plants. Journal of Horticultural Science & Ornamental Plants (4) 1. 26-33 Knapp R., Thyssen P. (1952): Untersuchungen über die gegensitige Beeinflussung von Heilpflanzen in Mischkulturen. Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft 65. 60-70 Ljubojević S. (1998): Žalfija kao komponenta regulatora rasta bilja (Sage as a component of plant growth regulator). International Congress „Meeting Days of Medicinal Plants 98“, Banja Koviljača, 14.- 19.09.1998. Ljubojević S., Brujić, J., Travar, J. (2000): Biomass of medicinal plants in the northern mountain region of Republic of Srpska. Proceedings of the First Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of outheast European Countries & VI Meeting Days of Medicinal Plants 2000» Aranđelovac, Yugoslavia, May 29 – June 3, 2000. 131-138 Ljubojević S. et. al. (2014): Ekološko-proizvodni potencijali ljekovitog i jestivog bilja u šumama i na šumskim zeljištima Republike Srpske. Nezavisni Univerzitet Banja Luka (Ecological and production potentials of medicinal and edible plants in forests and forest land of Republic of Srpska. Independent University of Banja Luka). 1-279 McGowan W. (2000): Water processing: residential, commercial, light-industrial. 3rd ed. Lisle, IL, Water Quality Association Molisch H. (1937): Das Einfluβ einer Pflanze auf die andere – Allelopathie. Gustav Fischer, Jena. 1-106 Omahen M. (1985) Moj bio vrt. Delo. Ljubljana. 1-111 Pracelsus Th. B. Von Hohenheim (1525): Von den natülichen Dingen. I Buch, Kapitel 5., „Von dem sanct Johanns kraut“. Publiched by Karl Sudhoff, Berlin, 1930. 116 Steiner R. (1993): Agriculture. Bio-Dynamic farming and Gardening Association Inc.1-310 Stickland S. (1989): The organic garden. Hamlyn. 1-128 Tei F., Scaife A., Aikman P.D. (1996): Growth of lettuce, onion and red beet. 1. Growth analysis, light interception and radiation use efficiency. Annals of Botany 78. 633-643 Thompson M.J. et al. (1981): Synthesis and biological activity of brassinolide and its 22 beta, 23 beta- isomer: novel plant growth-promoting steroids. „Steroids“, 38 (5). 567-580 Ullman S.B. (1940): Essential oils, alkaloids and glucosides as inhibitors of germination and growth. Ph. Thesis, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 1-30 Willis J.P. (2007): The history of allelopathy. Springer. 1-316

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Professional paper 10.7251/AGSY15051127M CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL AND METHANOL EXTRACT FROM MINT (Mentha piperita L.) GROWING IN MACEDONIA Ljupcho MIHAJLOV*, Sanja KOSTADINOVIĆ VELIČKOVSKA Faculty of Agriculture, University “Goce Delčev”, Krste Misirkov bb, 2000 Štip, Macedonia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The chemical composition and antioxidant potential of essential oil and methanol extract from Macedonian Mentha Piperita L. was object of this study. The plant was organically produced from for the first time at south-east region of Macedonia (41º49`N, 21º 59È) on the overlapping area of two climate types: the Mediterranean and Continental climate. The GC-FID and GC-MS analyses of essential oil indicated menthol and menthone as the most abundant compounds with 48.05 and 20.4% respectively. The other identified and quantified compounds such camphene, sabinene, p-cymene, β-pinene, limonene, cis-carvon, menthol acetate, piperitone and piperitone oxide were presented in the levels below 10%. The total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids were presented at higher level in methanol extract with abundance of 22.42±1.14 mg of gallic acid equivalent/g DM and 0.79±0.34 mg luteolin/g DM respectively, in comparison to essential oil with the levels of 10.12±0.89 mg galiic acid equivalent/g DM and 0.54±0.11 mg luteolin/g DM. The antioxidant potential measured by two radicals DPPH and ABTS indicated higher values for methanol extract in comparison to essential oil. Keywords: Mentha piperita L., essential oil, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, antioxidant potential Introduction The aromatic plant Mentha piperita L. belonging to the family Lamiaceae which is grown in regions of Eurasia, South Africa, the north, west and east portions of Europe, as well as Turkey and Russia. The chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of different varieties of Mentha plant were object of study of many researchers. In the work of Arman et al., the essential oil from Mentha mozaffarianii had significant antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis, B. pumulis, Staphylococcus aureus and S. Epidermidis as well as moderate activity against gram negative bacteria such Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) and no activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger. The major components of the oil were piperitenone (59.5 %), cis-piperitenone epoxide (14.9 %), and pulegone (8.5 %), (Arman et al.2011). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Mentha pulegium from Iran was studied by Morteza-Semnani et al. (2011). According to their findings, the major constituents of this essential oil were pulegone (54.6 %) and menthone (15.1 %). CarvoneRich Essential Oils from Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. ssp. schimperi Briq. and Mentha spicata L. grown in Sudan had oxygenated monoterpenes comprised 81.5% and 88.7%, while monoterpene hydrocarbons comprised 14.7% and 9.2% (M. H. Younis and S. M. Beshir 2011). Zeinali et al. (2005), reported fifteen principal components in the oils of 12 variety of Iranian mints accessions. The oils obtained from Mint variety Mzin 9 and Mzin 10 contained the highest value of p-cymene with the levels of 48.9 and 48.6%. In the mint oils from variety Mzin 5 and Mzin 11 was quantified cis-carveol over 70%. Carvon oxide was the most dominant compound in Mzin 4 with the level of 52.5%. Rissanen et al. (2002), stated that oil

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ yield and composition of Mentha piperita L. depends of plant density and growing season. According to their findings, the highest oil concentrations were present in highest plant densities in the first growing season. The chemical composition and antioxidant potential of essential oil and methanol extract from Macedonian organically produced Mentha Piperita L. was object of this study. The plant was organically produced, described in details in research of Mihajlov et al. (2015), from for the first time at south-east region of Macedonia (41º49`N, 21º 59È), on the overlapping area of two climate types: the Mediterranean and Continental climate. Materials and Methods Oil isolation and analysis: A sample of 250 g of dried leaves and stems was mixed with 500 mL of tap water in flask and water distilled for 2 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus (Fig. 1). The oil content was measured based on mL oil per 100 g dry matter (mL/DM). The oil compositions were analyzed by GC (FID) and GC/MS. Gas chromatography was carried out with an Agilent HP 6890 gas chromatograph equipped with flame-ionization detector (FID) and quantitation was carried out by addition of pure standards as well as area normalization and neglecting response factors. The analysis was conducted using a HP-5 (5% Phenyl Methyl Siloxane) fused silica capillary column (30 m x 0.50 mm, film thickness 0.32 μm, J &W Scientific Inc., Rancho Cordova, CA). The operating conditions were as follow: injector and detector temperature: 250°C, carrier gas: helium; inlet pressure: 35.4 kPa. Oven temperature program was 50 - 220°C at the rate of 4°C/min. Quantitative data concerning the percentage contribution of each constituent were taken with this system. GC/MS analysis was carried out using an Agilent HP 6890 gas chromatograph fitted with the same column as described above, coupled to quadrupole 5973 MSD, which was operated at an ionization potential of 70 eV and electron multiplier energy 2000 V. The temperate program started at 50°C during the split injection and then programmed to 220°C with increment of 4°C/min. The oil components were identified by comparing their retention indices and mass spectra data (NIST 14 Standard Reference Database 1A) with those of authentic samples and published data: M. H. Younis and S. M. Beshir (2011), S. Kostadinović Veličkovska (2013), and S. Kostadinović et al. (2010). Determination of total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids: 0.5 mL of the methanol extract and 0.5 mL of essential oil were dissolved in 5 mL distilled water and mixed with 0.5 mL оf 10 times diluted Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent. 1 mL of saturated sodium carbonate (35 %) was added to the mixture and it was topped up to 10 mL distillated water. After three hours, the total phenolics were measured spectrophotometrically at 725 nm. Determination of flavonoids: in the extract and essential oil was performed by method of Oomah et al, (1996). Methanolic extract and essential oil (10 μL) was three times dissolved in distillated water. Furthermore, 200 μL of diphenylboric acid 2-aminoethyl ester solution was added in the mixture and solution was measured at 404 nm. Luteolin as standard for calibration curve was used in the range from 0.1 to 10 mg/L. Antioxidant assays: DPPH and ABTS: For DPPH assay, the antioxidant activities of the extract and essential oil were expressed as percentage of decolorization of a solution of the stable radical DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical) at 517 nm.The Trolox equivalent antioxidant assay (TEAC) employed in this study gives a measure of the antioxidant activity of methanol extract and essential oil under study. For this purpose 10 mL of ABTS (2,2'azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) solution was prepared from 39.23 mg of ABTS and 7.17 mg of potassium thiosulphate disolved in Nanopure water to volume.

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Fig. 1. Isolation of essential oil from Mentha piperita L. by hydrodestilation. Results and Discussion The qualitative and quantitative compositions of the essential oil obtained from Macedonian organically produced Mentha piperita L. was presented in Table 1. Twelve components were identified with total abundance of 85.96%. Four compounds had the highest abundance from all identified compounds, in particular: menthol (48.05%), menthone (20.4%), piperitone (8.3%) and piperitone oxide (4.9%). The relative percentages of all other compounds were in the level below 2.5%. The level of total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids for methanol extract and essential oil of organically produced Mentha pipperita L. as well as antioxidant activity were presented in Table 2. As we can see from the results, the total phenolic compounds expressed as gallic acid equivalent had higher abundance in comparison to total flavonoids expressed as mg of luteolin/g of dry matter. On the other hand, menthanol extract had higher level of both classes of polyphenolics in comparison to the level of the same classes of polyphenolics in distillated essential oil. Furthermore, the level of total phenolic compounds for mentanol extract was more than double in comparison to total phenolics found in essential oil. However the difference for flavonoids was around 30% in favor to methanol extract. The higher antioxidant potential by two radicals (ABTS and DPPH) had methanol extract. More precisely, methanol extract had higher antioxidant potential than essential oil which was in good agreement with the results from total phenolics and total flavonoids. On the other hand, TEAC assay showed higher antioxidant potential for both samples in comparison to DPPH assay. If we compare the results from DPPH and ABTS assay for methanol extract and essential oil presented, we can concluded that results are more than double in favor to ABTS assay.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1. Chemical composition of essential oil from Mentha piperita L. from Macedonia by GC-FID and GC-MS

Table 2. Total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids and anthioxidant activity of methanol extract and essential oil from Mentha piperita L. Total phenolic compounds (mg GAE/g DM)

Total flavonoids (mg Luteolin/g DM)

Methanol extract of Mentha piperita L.

22.42±1.14

0.79±0.34

Essential oil from Mentha piperita L.

10.12±0.89

0.54±0.11

DPPH assay (mg Trolox/g DM)

TEAC assay (mg Trolox/ g DM)

Methanol extract of Mentha piperita L.

12.98±1.05

27.14±2.24

Essential oil from Mentha piperita L.

7.14±0.87

13.31±0.04

Conclusion We concluded that the region of South-east Macedonia had good potential for production of high-quality organically produced Mint (Mentha piperita L.) described in details in published surveys of Mihajlov et al. (2015), with appreciable amount of menthol and menthone. Further investigations will include antibacterial, antifungal and antimicrobial activity of essential oil from different varieties of Mentha plants.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Arman M., Yousefzadi M., Zahra Khademi S., (2011). Antimicrobial Activity and Composition of the Essential Oil from Mentha mozaffarianii, J. Essent. Oil Res., 14, p.131-135. Kostadinović Veličkovska S. (2013). Volatile profile and flavour of cold –pressed Citrus essential oils, LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. Saarbrücken, Germany. Kostadinović S., Stefova M., Nikolova D., D. Nedelcheva, N. Martinez, D. Lorenzo, E. Dellacassa, H. Mirhosseini, (2010). Multivariate analysis discrimination of various cold-pressed lemon oils from different geographical regions, J Food, Agric. Environ. , 8(2), 132-136. Mihajlov Lj., Zlatkovski V., and Ruzdik N.M., (2015). Obtained Yield and Financial Parameters of Organically Grown Mint in the Republic of Macedonia, British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, http://sciencedomain.org/issue/1213, Vol.(10) p.16. Morteza-Semnani K., Saeedi M. and Akbarzadeh M., (2011). Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of the Essential Oil of Mentha pulegium L, Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 14, p.208-213. Rissanen K. Aflatuni S. A., Tomperi P. H., Jalonen J. E. and Laine K. M., (2002). Herbage and Essential Oil Yield and Composition of Mentha piperita L. in Different Plant Densities in Northern Latitudes, J. Essent. Oil Res., 14, p.243-246. Younis M. H. and Beshir S. M. (2004). Carvone-Rich Essential Oils from Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. ssp. schimperi Briq. and Mentha spicata L. Grown in Sudan, J. Essent. Oil Res., 16, p.539-541. Zeinali H., Arzani A., Razmjoo K. and Rezaee M. B. (2005). Evaluation of Oil Compositions of Iranian Mints (Mentha ssp.), J. Essent. Oil Res., 17, p.156-159.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051132W ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF ORGANIC FARMS IN POLAND Wioletta WRZASZCZ, Józef St. ZEGAR Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics – National Research Institute, Poland *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Agricultural holdings are facing many challenges, which they must meet. These challenges are conditioned, on the one hand by macroeconomic factors, such as progressing globalisation and growing consumers awareness concerning the quality of agricultural products, as well as the need to respect natural environment. On the other hand, farms as enterprises must be ruled by the microeconomic conditions, namely the agricultural production volume and value, as well as satisfactory level of agricultural income. There is common understanding, that only conventional farms can cope with the microeconomic and global challenges. The purpose of article is verifying, basing on the microeconomic account, if organic farms are able to meet the economic challenges. The article focuses on the analyses of production and economic results of organic farms compared to all private farm covered by agricultural accountancy system in Poland – Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) 2012. The study was conducted taking into consideration agricultural land and farming types that indicate specialization of agricultural production. There were calculated the main indicators, namely: land and labour productivity, as well as profitability, using the following categories: total agricultural output, gross farm income, agricultural farm income. Conducted research in static approach indicated, that organic farms have smaller ability to meet the economic challenges than conventional ones, however, in the long term and with full economic account including the externalities, these relations would probably be opposite in favour of sustainable form of agriculture. On the basis of the relatively unfavourable economic results of organic farms, it can be concluded that the financial support under governmental programmes targeting such a system of farming is inadequate. Keywords: Organic farms, microeconomic account, Poland, FADN data Introduction The increasing liberalisation of markets in terms of structural supply surpluses puts competitiveness on a pedestal, meeting of which is essential for the achievement of the economic objectives of agricultural holdings. Competitiveness cannot be achieved at the expense of the natural environment or the food quality. These requirements try to reconcile the organic form of agriculture, which becomes a part of the concept of sustainable agriculture. The key feature of organic agriculture is the use of such methods of agricultural production, which comply with the requirements of soil fertility, plants and animals, with simultaneous care of the other environmental components (Nachtman, 2015; Runowski, 2012; Sołtysiak, 1994). The development of organic farms is dependent on economic relations and national policy (Wrzaszcz and Zegar, 2014a; Wrzaszcz and Zegar, 2014). Organic production, on the one hand, should not affect the ecosystem sustainability, on the other hand, must meet economic challenges. Meeting these challenges may occur in the way of normal market rules – via higher prices and possibly lower costs of production – or (and) targeted support of governmental institutions, primarily in the form of subsidies. The first one is observed for example in American agriculture, while the other in the agriculture of the European Union countries, including Poland.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ This article aims at verifying, basing on the microeconomic account, if organic farms are able to meet the economic challenges. Material and methods The analysis considered 10,589 farms covered by the Farm Accountancy Data Network in Poland in 2012. The article focuses on the production and economic results of organic farms compared to all individual (private) farms covered by FADN. The guiding principle in the organic system is to cultivate plants in compliance with the standards of the Good agrienvironmental practices with due attention to the phytosanitary condition of plants and soil protection. Such farms are obliged to keep an area of permanent grasslands and landscape elements not used for agricultural purposes8. For analysed groups of farms, there was presented their number and the basic characteristics of the production potential, measured by the following indicators: the area of agricultural land (AL ha), the labour input (AWU9), the stocking density (LU10) and the standard gross margin (ESU11). The study was conducted taking into consideration farming types that indicate specialization of production, namely: specialised in field crops (type: I), in permanent crops (III) and in rearing grazing livestock (IV), non-specialised with mixed crops (VI), with mixed livestock (VII) and with mixed crops and livestock (VIII). Subsequently, the economic efficiency of farms was assessed by means of the following indicators: land productivity (Total Output/Agricultural Land; Gross Farm Income/Agricultural Land); labour productivity (Total Output/Annual Work Unit; Gross Farm Income/Annual Work Unit); land profitability (Family Farm Income/Agricultural Land); labour profitability (Family Farm Income/Family Work Unit). The Total Output of a farm indicates the economic result of farming. It is the outcome of the sum of the crop and livestock production value and other activities. Gross Farm Income is the result of difference of total output and the total intermediate consumption (total specific costs – including inputs produced on the holding – and overheads arising from production in the accounting year), adjusted for the outcome of the balance of current subsidies and taxes. It accounts the impact of the agricultural policy on the economic situation of farms by means of the system of subsidies and taxes (Goraj, 2009). Net value added adjusted for the cost of total external factors and the balance of subsidies and taxes on investments indicates the level of Family Farm Income (Bocian and Malanowska, 2014). Family Farm Income is the primary economic goal of farmer’s agricultural activity and it is an essential determinant of a farmer family living standard, and hence it may be an important indicator of farm efficiency in agriculture. The issue of factor productivity is especially significant in the context of food security, thus profitability factor has particular importance in the evaluation of labour remuneration and farmer`s family general income. The volume of income illustrates the level of compensation for the involvement of their own factors of production in the farm’s operations and for the risk taken by a farm manager in a given financial year.

8

The list of legal regulations in the field of organic farming system can be found on the website of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development: (http://www.minrol.gov.pl). 9 1 AWU (Annual Work Unit) is equivalent to full-time own and paid labour, i.e. 2,120 hours of work a year. 1 FWU (Family Work Unit) is the equivalent of a full-time labour of a farming family member. 10 1 LU – Livestock Unit is a conventional unit of farm animals with a mass of 500 kg. 11 Sum of standard gross margins – the difference between output and specific (direct) costs of all activities occurring on the farm – indicates the economic size of the farm, otherwise the productive potential of the farm. 1 ESU is equivalent to EUR 1,200. The standard gross margin is the average gross margin by region. Standard gross margin on a particular crop or animal is a standard (average of three years in a particular region) value of production obtained from one hectare or from one animal minus the standard direct costs necessary for production.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and discussion Organic farms constitute a small fraction – 4% of FADN farms` population (Table 1). The average area of the organic farms amounted to 37 ha, just like the size of an average individual one. Only 40% of organic farms had an area of at least 50 ha, whereas every second farm had such an area (Chart 1a). The level of labour inputs was slightly lower in the case of organic farms. The average size of a herd of animals in the individual farm in question amounted to 27 LU. In comparison to that, the organic farms significantly deviated from the average (14 LU). Every fifth individual farm didn’t conduct animal production, whereas among organic ones it was every fourth. Such a result is not justified for organic farms. The main idea of organic production is to keep a closed circuit of nutrients within a farm, which should lead to mixed agricultural production. The presented data confirm the discrepancy between theory and practice in agriculture12. The differences in the livestock population of the selected groups of farms were reflected in the total value of their assets. Organic farms were characterised by the lowest value of the assets (ca. ¼ as compared to an average individual farm). The standard gross margin made it possible to synthetically evaluate the economic potential of the identified groups of farms. Organic farms differ in this respect from the average individual farm – the result was lower by 38%. This result is a proof of the importance of animal production and diverse crop production for the value of the standard gross margin. Multifunctionality of agricultural production and diversified crop structure contributes not only to the assurance of environmental benefits, but also tangible economic benefits. Table 1. Production potential of analysed farms` groups (average per farm) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Specification Number of farms Agricultural land (ha) Labour input (AWU) Livestock units (LU) Total assets (thousand EUR) Standard gross margin (ESU)

Total farms Organic farms (ECO) 10 589 422 36,8 37,4 2,01 1,89 27,3 14,4 294,3 214,5 21,7 13,5

ECO/Total (%) 3,9 101,5 94,0 52,6 72,9 62,2

Source: Prepared on the basis of FADN 2012 data. About 60% of the analysed farms` population are specialized holdings – mainly focused on field crops (I) and rearing grazing livestock (IV, Chart 1b). Among the non-specialized farms – with the so-called mixed-production – dominate the holdings, with mixed crops and livestock (VIII). However, organic farms are more likely to lead a specialized agricultural production. The value of agricultural production is predominantly determined by the total output value. The relatively largest importance of the other kind of production can be seen in organic farms (3% of total output value), which results from slightly different organisation of such farms. In the case of many organic farms, agricultural production is supplemented for instance with agri-tourism based on the assets of a farm. Land productivity on an average individual farm amounted to EUR 1,691/ha13 (Table 2). Compared to that, organic farms deviated from the average individual one in particular – their result was lower by 58%. The presented figures confirm lower land productivity on farms that provide services for the natural environment – of course if we measure it in static terms. It is very likely that in the long term and with a full 12

Studies have demonstrated, that there is a growing problem involving not only limiting the scale of animal production on organic farms, but even giving up such production (Nachtman, 2014; Wrzaszcz and Zegar, 2014a). 13 The exchange rate in FADN 2012: EUR 1 = PLN 4,3177.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ account of the costs and benefits – of the externalities – these relations would be the opposite. Organic farms – just like in terms of land productivity – had significantly lower results in labour productivity (with the difference amounting to 54%).

Area structure Farming types structure Chart 1. Area (a) and farming type (b) structure of all and organic farms Source: Prepared on the basis of FADN 2012 data. Table 2. Selected categories of economic calculation for analysed total and organic farms No.

Specification

1 2 3 4 5

Total Output (€/ha AL) Total Output (€/AWU) Total intermediate consumption (€/ha AL) Balance on current subsidies & taxes (€/ha AL) Agri-environmental subsidies (€/ha AL)

6 7 8 9 10 11

Organic subsidies (€/ha AL) Gross Farm Income (€/ha AL) Gross Farm Income (€/AWU) Depreciation (€/ha AL) Farm Net Value Added (€/ha AL) Total external factors* Balance on subsidies & taxes on investments

1691 30 945 1 003 216 22

Organic farms (ECO) 714 14 160 407 319 113

4

101

2543,9

904 16 540 205 699 78 -40

627 12 423 140 487 70 -19

69,4 75,1 68,5 69,7 90,1 47,1

Total farms

ECO/Total (%) 42,2 45,8 40,5 147,9 504,6

12 Family Farm Income (€/ha AL) 633 425 67,1 13 Family Farm Income (€/FWU) 13 363 10 334 77,3 * The salaries of employees (including social insurance of salaried employees), the rents associated with the lease of land and buildings and the interest and fees associated with the loans contracted for the purchase of land, buildings, machinery, equipment, livestock and materials.

Source: Prepared on the basis of FADN 2012 data. Total intermediate consumption on an average individual farm amounted to EUR 1,003/ha (Table 2). In this respect, farms that provide services for the natural environment were characterised by a lower production intensity. Organic farms distinguished themselves in this respect in particular, which results from the specifics of this production system that is based on small and justified use of external means of production. The Common Agricultural Policy instruments that are currently under implementation determine the opportunities for obtaining financial support by agricultural producers through environmental restrictions and for compensating the services provided for the environment. These determinants have the form of regulations, such as cross-compliance, that are linked to

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ direct payments, refer to diversification of that type of payments depending on the chosen plant species and animals production and include the activities for the sustainable development in the form of e.g. environmental programmes14. The implementation of these measures by farmers is confirmed by the level of subsidies they receive. An account drawn up in accordance with the FADN methodology distinguishes the category of the balance of subsidies and taxes connected with current productive activity. The category indicates the direction of the transfer of funds to a farm when it adopts a positive value. For organic farms, this category was significantly higher than the average result for the population of the analysed farms (48%). About one third of current subsidies are organic subsidies, that accounted 90% of agri-environmental payments of organic farms. These differences indicate that the measures taken for the environment are compensated by the state with funds, however there is still a question whether they are sufficient. Gross farm income on an average individual farm amounted to EUR 904/ha. The conducted static analysis indicates that organic farms are incomparably lower than the other farms in terms of produced volume of agricultural production (31%), and policy instruments compensate for such differences only to a certain degree. Despite a high share of the balance value of current subsidies and taxes in the gross farm income in the case of organic farms (51%), their results are still below an average one. Land and labour profitability in family farms are illustrated in table 2. On average, the use of 1 ha of utilised agricultural area made it possible to generate income amounting to EUR 633/ha. Organic farms still have a significant economic delay compare to other analysed farms (EUR 425/ha, the difference 33%). The presented results may be a sign of insufficient legal and financial protection of that production system because they compensate for a small part of the low profitability of the production factors. One full-time worker of family labour on an average individual farm (that indicate labour profitability) achieved the result of EUR 13,363/FWU. Unfortunately, organic farms are still placed on unsatisfactory position (EUR 10,334/FWU, the negative difference amounting to 23% compared to the average FADN farm), which strengthens previous conclusions on this system of farming. In the analysed population, farms specialized in permanent crops (III) characterised with the highest land productivity and profitability, while on the opposite place, holdings specialized in field crops are located (I, Chart 2a). Regarding organic farms, specialized ones generate less satisfactory production and economic results than non-specialised (Chart 2b). This result is promising in the light of sustainable development – diverse organic production not only provides relatively greater environmental benefits, but also economical ones. However, organic farms remain far behind average individual holdings in terms of land productivity and profitability (the difference in the case of total output, gross farm income and family farm income per hectare of AL, was appropriately 58%, 31% and 33%). Farms with mixed livestock (VII) characterize with relatively less surface of agricultural land, resulting in a higher production outcome per hectare. While the level of unit costs (intermediate consumption measured per unit area) is nearly twice higher in those farms compared to entities specialised in field crops (I), simultaneously having lower subsidies to current activity. The level of subsidies, connected with, among other, with providing environmental services as a part of the Rural Development Programme, was a significant factor determining the higher profitability of farms specialized in field crops (I). Organic farms – like in terms of land productivity and profitability – significantly deviate from all individual farms in minus in the range of the labour productivity and profitability (the difference in the case of total output, gross farm income and family farm income per work unit, amounts appropriately to 54%, 25% and 23%, Chart 2c,d). Regarding the farming 14

www.minrol.gov.pl.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ type, agricultural holdings specialized in field crops (I) achieve the best results in this range, in contrast to those with mixed crop production (VI). This relationship is maintained also in the case of organic farms. In the case of organic farms, the attention is put towards agricultural holdings specialized in permanent crops (III), where in spite of relatively lower unit value of total output per annual work unit, unit gross farm income and family farm income exceed the average result for all organic farms. The national system of agrienvironmental subsidies particularly prefers this farming type, that is reflected in the presented economic account (Table 3).

(a) All farms

(b) Organic farms

(c) All Farms

(d) Organic farms

Total Output (€/ha AL) Gross Farm Income (€/ha AL) Family Farm Income (€/ha AL)

Total Output (thous. €/AWU) Gross Farm Income (thous. €/AWU) Family Farm Income (thous. €/FWU)

Chart 2a-d. Land (a, b) and labour (c, d) productivity and profitability of all and organic farms Source: Prepared on the basis of FADN 2012 data.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 3. The level of agri-environmental subsidies in total and organic farms Subsidies Agri-environmental subsidies (€/ha AL) Organic subsidies (€/ha AL) Agri-environmental subsidies/Family Farm Income (%) Organic subsidies/Family Farm Income (%) Subsidies Agri-environmental subsidies (€/ha AL) Organic subsidies (€/ha AL) Agri-environmental subsidies/Family Farm Income (%) Organic subsidies/Family Farm Income (%)

Total 22,3 4,0 3,5 0,6 Organic 112,6 100,7 26,5 23,7

I III IV VI VII VIII 25,4 57,9 15,5 26,9 18,2 24,0 3,6 56,6 4,3 11,8 1,3 2,4 4,3 5,3 2,4 4,0 3,3 4,6 0,6 5,2 0,7 1,8 0,2 0,5 I III IV VI VII VIII 96,0 258,3 107,5 139,0 98,0 89,1 91,7 255,1 83,8 132,3 88,5 80,5 26,5 47,5 29,0 23,2 17,8 20,6 25,3 46,9 22,6 22,0 16,0 18,6

Source: Prepared on the basis of FADN 2012 data. Conclusion The number of organic farms is not numerous. Production and economic results of organic farms are significantly lower than for the average individual farm, both in terms of livestock population, assets and the generated standard gross margin. This result is a proof of the importance of animal production and diverse agricultural production for the value of the standard gross margin. Organic farms do not match the other farms in terms of the generated production volume and land productivity. Organic farms could not match the average ones in the range of land and labour profitability. Unfortunately, also in this regard, organic farms generate worse economic effects. On the basis of the relatively unfavourable economic results of organic farms, it can be concluded that the financial support under governmental programmes targeting such a system of farming is inadequate. Regardless the farming type, economic efficiency of organic farms is lower compared to the average individual farms. Regarding the farming type, in particular, organic farms specialised in field crops (I) and in rearing grazing livestock (IV) generate significantly lower results in terms of land productivity and profitability in relation to average individual farms of mentioned types. Conducted research in static approach indicates, that organic farms have smaller ability to meet the economic challenges than conventional ones, however, in the long term and with full economic account including the externalities, these relations would probably be opposite in favour of sustainable form of agriculture. References Bocian M., Malanowska B. (2014). Wyniki Standardowe 2012 uzyskane przez indywidualne gospodarstwa rolne uczestniczące w Polskim FADN. Część I. Wyniki Standardowe [Standard results 2012 of Polish individual FADN farms. Part I. Standard results], IERiGŻ-PIB [Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics – National Research Institute], Warszawa [Warsaw]. Goraj L. (2009). Rachunkowość i analiza ekonomiczna w indywidualnym gospodarstwie rolnym, [Agricultural accountancy and economic analysis in individual farm] Difin, Warszawa [Warsaw]. Nachtman G. (2014). Konkurencyjność ekologicznych gospodarstw roślinnych na tle gospodarstw prowadzących produkcję z udziałem zwierząt, [Competitiveness of organic plant and animal farms], Zagadnienia Ekonomiki Rolnej [Problems of Agricultural Economics], No. 4.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Runowski H. (2012). Rolnictwo ekologiczne w Polsce – stan i perspektywa, in: Z badań nad rolnictwem społecznie zrównoważonym [15], [Organic farms in Poland – state and perspective, in: Socially Sustainable agriculture [15], No. 50, IERiGŻ-PIB, [Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics – National Research Institute], Warszawa [Warsaw], 38-78. Sołtysiak U., ed. (1994). Rolnictwo ekologiczne w praktyce [Ecological agriculture in practise], Stowarzyszenie Ekoland, Stifung Leben&Umwelt, Warszawa [Warsaw]. Wrzaszcz W., Zegar J. St. (2014a). Structural changes at the polish organic farms in 20052010, The Journal “Agriculture and Forestry”, Vol. 60, Issue 4, 165-172. Wrzaszcz W., Zegar J. St. (2014). Zrównoważenie ekonomiczne gospodarstw rolnych w świetle danych PSR 2010 [Economic sustainability of farms on the basis of Agricultural Census data 2010], Wiadomości Statystyczne [Statistical News], No. 11, Warszawa [Warsaw], 48-64. www.minrol.gov.pl [20.06.2015].

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051140N THE POSSIBILITY OF USING WASTE BIOGAS PLANT (DRY RESIDUE AND PELLETS) AS FERTILIZER Natalia NIKITSKAYA Perm State Agricultural Academy, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Increased requirements to protect the environment from pollution, ever increasing cost of waste rekindled interest in the anaerobic digestion of biomass in biogas plants. Fermented sludge from biomass is a valuable fertilizer, since the fermentation process is stored in the organic or ammonium form almost all of the nitrogen. It does not contain pathogenic microflora and viable weed seeds, suitable for aerobic composting or direct use as a fertilizer in the form of solids or pellets. The purpose of the study - to explore the possibility of using waste biogas plant as fertilizer in a laboratory experiment. The most effective stimulation of the fertilizer for growth and weight of aboveground parts of barley are pellets at a dose of 2.20 g / kg 4.28 g / kg and a dry residue at a dose of 1.36 g / kg. The least effective option turned making pellets at a dose of 1.12 g / kg. This is because the sawdust pellets contained in conifers has a high ratio of carbon to nitrogen, for supplying negative microorganisms which does not compensate for the nitrogen contained in the pellets in a minimum dose. Making pellets and solids at all doses increased cellulolytic activity to 79-91 % in the case of pellets (with increasing doses reduced activity) to 82-90 % in the case of the dry residue (increasing doses led to an increase in activity). Most cellulolytic activity observed when making pellets at a dose of 1.12 g / kg solids in a dose of 5.42 g / kg. Keywords: biogas, pellets, organic fertilizer, barley, laboratory experience. Introduction Annually Russianlivestock farms produce 200-250 million tons of manure and about 600 million tons of liquid effluents. Organic waste without recycling can significantly pollute the environment. The chemical composition of manure is a valuable secondary resource. Therefore the main objective of its use is the use as organic fertilizer on agricultural land. The first of the ecological problems of industrial livestock production is the transformation of potentially hazardous environmental contaminant – manure, relatively strong, fast, and complete organic fertilizer, rich in nutrients. You need to look for new ways of processing that would meet the following requirements: disinfection, ensuring long-term storage with maximum retention of nutrients, elimination of waste, polluting the environment. At the same time, it is important that they are economically justified. For the processing of manure can be applied biotechnology and by regulating the activity of microorganisms, to obtain high quality products, while preserving the environment (Orlova, 2009). Increasing requirements to protect the environment from pollution, increasing the cost of recycling has revived interest in the anaerobic digestion of biomass in biogas plants. The biogas plant not only lower the hazard class of livestock waste and contribute to production of organic fertilizers, which are due to the anaerobic treatment is easily absorbed by plants, but also allow to obtain electrical and thermal energy (Lysenko, 1998). The fermented material slurry after processing of biomass is a valuable fertilizer, as in the fermentation process and stored in the organic or ammoniums form almost all of the nitrogen. It does not contain pathogenic microorganisms and viable weed seeds suitable for aerobic composting or direct use as fertilizer in the form of solids or pellets.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ The aim of the study was to explore the possibility of using waste biogas plants as fertilizer laboratory experience. In accordance with the aim, the following tasks were set: 1. Agrochemical analysisof soilis making for laboratorial test. 2. Influence assessment of different forms and doses of fertilizers from cattle manure in comparison with urea on growth of the aerial parts of barley. 3. Influence assessment of different forms and doses of fertilizers on biometrics of barley. 4. Influence assessment of different forms and doses of fertilizers on the effect size of phytostimulation. 5. Influence assessment of different forms and doses of fertilizers on the cellulolytic activity of the soil. Materials and methods The objects of study are the dry residue and pellets.The dry residueisobtainedby separation from cattle manure. Pellets are made by line LCC-500 from the enterprise "Integrated recycling system" the city of Orenburg (Russia). Line for the production of fertilizers in the form of pellets required for the production of fuel pellets from the solid fraction of the biogas plant. These pellets can be used as fuel for heating. The heat transfer is several times higher than that of wood of wood for 1 kg of fuel: allocated 4400 kcal of heat energy. However, it is worth noting that the granules of litter and manure are almost unusable to pellet boilers. They long to ignite, has a bad smell and the combustion temperature is ineffective. Nevertheless, the experimenter said, “It is best to use granular manure as fertilizer, not for burning”. The company "Energorezhim" (the city of Perm (Russia)) on the enterprise "Integrated recycling system" the city of Orenburg (Russia) in 2012 launched a line of pellet production from cattle manure. This product can be used in dry form as a soil fertilizer in recommended doses. The same can be soaked in water. This gives an aqueous solution of an organic fertilizer with all necessary nutrients. According to research conducted by the Testing laboratory FGPAS "Orenburg" the content of basic nutrients in dry matter: organic matter is 57.5%, total nitrogen – 5.53 %, total phosphorus – by 1.4 %, total potassium was 8.8 %, nitrate nitrogen – 10388 mg/kg ammonium nitrogen – 82946 mg/kg, movable copper – 3.6 mg/kg, movable zinc – 17.4 mg/kg, movable iron to 78.3 mg/kg. The content of basic nutrients in the pellets: total nitrogen – 6.7%, total phosphorus – 1.1%, total potassium of 7.0%, sawdust coniferous trees – 20.0% by weight. For comparison we used nitrogen fertilizer urea CO(NH2)2 with a nitrogen – 46.2%. The experiments were performed in the chemical laboratory of ecology Department of the Perm state agricultural Academy in the 2012-13 year. Soil for laboratory experiences taken in Krestyanskih – farm SP Raszyn. Soil is sod-podzolic heavy loam. Agrochemical analysis was performed according to standard procedures. Determination of phytotoxicity was carried out by means of seedlings. The method is based on the reaction of the test culture, when applied to the soil or other compounds, which reveals the toxic effect or a stimulating effect of introduced substances. As the test object was used germinated seeds of barley varieties Rodnik Prikamya. Calculation of doses of fertilizers produced on the active substance (nitrogen) per 1 kg of soil. Options: without fertilizer (control), urea 0.16 g/kg, urea 0.32 g/kg, urea 0.64 g/kg, dry residue of 1.36 g/kg, residue is 2.71 g/kg dry residue 5.42 g/kg, pellets of 1.12 g/kg, pellets 2.20 g/kg, pellets to 4.28 g/kg. The experiment was conducted in triplicates. In a plastic container with a volume of 500 cm 3 was placed 400 g of the prepared substrate is pre-wetted to 60% of moisture capacity. In each vessel planted 15 seeds of the studied culture. On the fourth day the container was placed on a

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ rack with lighting within 24 hours. In the course of the experiment was maintained constant humidity. Length of experience is 14 days. When experiment plants were cleared from the ground and dried. Then experimenters determined the height of seedlings of barley, root length, weight of aerial parts and roots (Orlov, 2002). The effect of phytostimulation (FS) was calculated according to the weight of aerial parts and roots of the following equation: FS, %= (MH-MK)/MX ,where MK is the mass of plants in the control vessel, g; MX is the mass in the vessel of the investigated variants, g. To determine cellulolytic activity of the soil in the Petri dishes were taken 100 g of soil, with subsequent irrigation of up to 80% of full soil water content. 10 pieces of linen fabric 1x1 cm evenly placed in cups with soil. After that, the cups were covered with lids and left for 30 days at room temperature. The experiment was conducted in four replications. Options experience is similar to previous experience. Results and discussion To conduct the study and determine the optimal doses of fertilizer selected sod-podzolic heavy loam soil in farm SP Raszyn, which is located in the village of the Katishi of Krasnokamsk district of Perm Krai. Next table shows results of agrochemical analysis of soil. Table - Agrochemical indicators of sod-podzolic soil Humus, %

рНKCl

Hг, mEq/100 g

S, mEq/100 g

PC, mEq/100 g

V,%

Ntot., %

P2O5mob., mg/kg

5.4±0.6

6.2±0.2

1.1±0.2

23.4±1.3

24.5

95.6

0.37±0.03

198±62

Humus contributes to the formation of stable soil structure, provides a favorable water-air regime, gives the soil buffering in relation to nutrients, especially nitrogen. High level of microbiological activity of soils is also supported by the high level of humus. Thus, the humus is an important indicator of soil fertility. The humus content in the studied soil was 5.4%, typical sod-podzolic heavy loamy soils (3-6%). Actual acidity is due to the content of free hydrogen ions in the soil solution and is measured on the pH value of the aqueous extract from the soil. In the studied soil reaction is neutral environment (6.1-6.5). The sum of exchangeable bases (S) – total amount of alkali and alkaline earth cations absorbed by the soil and is able to exchange, depends on soil texture and humus content. In the studied soil, the amount of exchangeable bases – 23, which exceeds typical of sodpodzolic soils a value of 15-20 mEq/100 g of soil. The cation exchange capacity (PC) is the sum of all the cations absorbed by the soil. It depends on granulometric composition and content of humus. The heavier the soil, the higher PC. In the analyzed soil, the PC is moderately low (15-25 mEq /100 g of soil). The degree of saturation of soil base (V) shows the percentage of exchangeable bases in the total absorption capacity. It used to evaluate soils in relation to the saturation of bases. In the analyzed soil is high (>90%). Nitrogen is a part of the composition of organic matter of the soil. Total content of nitrogen in the surface layer of soils varies in the range of 0.10 to 0.85%. The total content of phosphorus depends on the mechanical composition of the soil and humus. The heavier the texture, the higher the phosphorus content. The content of phosphorus, according to the classification Kirsanov high (151-250 mg/kg) (Kovda, 1988; Kovriga, 2010). The influence of different forms and doses of fertilizers on the dynamics of growth of the aerial parts of barley. Measure the length of the aerial part was conducted a week after the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ start of the experiment. At the first measurement with the lowest value of the length of the aerial part was observed when introducing solids at doses 2.71 and 5.42 g/kg, and 37.0 and 37.8 mm, respectively. The length of the aerial part in the control dimension is slightly above – 40.1 mm. The highest value when making with urea – 55.8 mm, 47.6 and 50.1 mm. In the second measurement the minimum length of the aerial parts was observed in the control variant and in making pellets of 1.12 g/kg and dry residue 5.42 g/kg. The maximum length of the aerial parts was observed in the urea. The third measurementwas like the first two measurements. The fourth measurementshown the smallest length of the aerial part remained in the version with the introduction of pellets at a dose of 1.12 g/kg – 201.2 mm. The maximum length of options when introducing solids at a dose of 1.36 g/kg (254.1 mm) and control with urea in doses of 0.16 g/kg 0.32 g/kg, 0.64 g/kg – 269.3 mm, 291.2 and 267.5 mm, respectively. The effect of different doses and forms of fertilizers on biometrics barley. Biometrics – the main parameters characterizing the growth and development of culture. These include the height of the aerial part, root length, weight of aerial parts and roots, etc. According to the data obtained the most effective fertilizer to stimulate growth and increase the weight of the aerial parts of barley are pellets in the dose of 2.20 g/kg, 4.28 g/kg and the dry residue in a dose of 1.36 g/kg. This effect may be caused by a more uniform distribution of solids in the soil, and consequently, the reduction necessary for plant nutrition dose. The introduction of ureawasalso effective, which compares the use of waste biogas plant. These options have the greatest effect phytostimulation compared to the rest. The least effective dose for the posting turned out to be the pellets at a dose of 1.12 g/kg. This is because contained in the pellets sawdust of coniferous trees has a high ratio of carbon to nitrogen, adverse to food microorganisms, which does not compensate for the nitrogen contained in the pellet in a minimal dose. The effect of different doses and forms of fertilizers on the effect of phytostimulation. The data indicate that the greatest effect on root length and their weight had pellets at a dose of 2.20 g/kg and the dry residue in a dose 5.42 g/kg. Large mass, but the smaller root length showed the options with the introduction of pellets per dose to 4.28 g/kg of dry residue in a dose of 1.36 g/kg, and the control variant and urea applied at a dose of 0.32 g/kg. The greatest effect of phytostimulation was observed in the variant with urea at a dose of 0.32 g/kg. The influence of different forms and doses of fertilizers on the cellulolytic activity of the soil. Enzymatic activity of soil can be used as a diagnostic indicator of fertility of different soils, because the activity of enzymes reflects not only the biological properties of soil and their changes under the influence of agroecological factors. The cellulolytic capacity of the soil is one of the indicators of the total activity of soil microorganisms and soil fertility. It can serve as a characteristic of the transformation of organic matter, the involvement of hard to reach forms of carbon in the biological cycle and ultimately determines the level of soil fertility (Secondyou, 2010). According to the data obtained highest cellulolytic activity was observed when you make pellets at a dose of 1.12 g/kg and of dry residue in the dose 5.42 g/kg. Stimulation of activity destroys the cellulose microorganisms can be caused by the presence in these fertilizers movable of copper, zinc, manganese and iron. Lowest cellulolytic activity when urea 0.64 g/kg. Depressing effect of high doses of urea may be caused by excess nitrogen and lack of other nutrients for microorganisms. Conclusion On the basis of laboratory experiments with dry residue and pellets of cattle manure on sodpodzolic soil in the laboratory of ecology Department of the Perm state agricultural Academy (Russia), we can draw the following conclusions:

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Investigated sod-podzolic soil, heavy granulometric composition, has much humus, a neutral reaction medium, moderately low cation exchange capacity, high degree of saturation with bases characterized by a high content of phosphorus. The dynamics growth investigation of the aerial parts of barley showed that throughout the period of observation of maximum length reached the plants in the variants with the introduction of solids at a dose of 1.36 g/kg and urea, the lowest indices in the pellets at a dose of 1.12 g/kg. Investigation of the effect of introducing different forms and doses of fertilizers on biometrics of barley showed the greatest effect on the length and weight of the aerial part from the making of the pellets at a dose of 2.20 g/kg and 4.28 g/kg, dry residue at a dose of 1.36 g/kg. Is also effective was the introduction of urea.The smallest effect on the height and weight of the aerial part had pellets at a dose of 1.12 g/kg. The length and weight of roots of barley greatest effect was influenced by the introduction of dry residue at a dose 5.42 g/kg and pellets at a dose of 2.20 g/kg. The smallest effect was from urea at a dose of 0.64 g/kg. Investigation shown the greatest phytopromotionaleffect was when you make pellets at a dose 4.28 g/kg of dry residue in a dose of 1.36 g/kg. But, compared with urea, called this effect was less. The most intensive decomposition of cellulose in the studied soil was observed when depositing pellets of 1.12 g/kg and dry residue 5.42 g/kg. Lowest cellulolytic activity when urea applied at a dose of 0.64 g/kg. References Kovda V. A. / V. A. Kovda, B. G. Rozanov (1988). Soil science. Soil types, their geography and the use, Vysshaya SHKOLA. Moscow. Kovriga V. P. / V. P. Kovriga, I. S. Yurichev, L. M. Burlakov (2000). Soil science with the basics of Geology. Kolos. Moscow. Lysenko V. P. / V. P. Lysenko (1998). Recycling of poultry. VNITIP. Sergiev Posad. Orlov D. S. / D. S. Orlov, L. K. Sadovnikova, I. N. Lozanovska (2002). Ecology and conservation of the biosphere during the chemical pollution. Higher school. Moscow. Orlova O. V. / Orlova O. V., Afanasiev V. N., Archipenko I. A. (2009). Technology production effective fertilizer from poultry manure using microbial inoculums. Ecology and industry of Russia. No. 11. P. 22 – 25. Secondyou Y. T. / Y. T. Secondyou, I. N. Semenova, G. R. Ilbulova (2010). The Influence of climatic conditions on the rate of decomposition of cellulose in soils of the Bashkir TRANS-Urals. Agricultural science. No. 12. P. 12 – 14.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051145K EFFICIENCY OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS AND BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN ON BARLEY Antonina KOSOLAPOVA1, Vladimir OLEKHOV2, Natalya MUDRYKH2, Igor TETERLEV1, Irina YASHININA2 1

Department Agrochemistry and husbandry, Perm Agricultural Scientific Research Institute, Perm, Russia 2 Department of Agrochemistry, Perm state agricultural academy, Perm, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Use of mineral fertilizers is one of the most important factors determining the size and stability of productivity of crops in Perm Krai. We conducted researches on studying of efficiency of mineral fertilizers and biological nitrogen on productivity and quality of barley at cultivation on a sod-podzolic heavy loam soil. Researches showed that the level of productivity of barley depended on mineral fertilizers and preceding crop. When using a clover of 2 years of use as the it is got the reliable increase of productivity in comparison with barley and a lupine. On a lupine, is traced only the tendency of increase in productivity of barley since the increase in comparison with barley made 0.45 t/ha (LSD0.95 = 0.47 t/ha). Mathematical processing of results showed that productivity barley after on barley and on a lupine more depends on nitrogen. On the basis of the results received in experience are developed for each predecessor the production functions characterizing quantitative dependence between productivity of barley and doses of fertilizers. Quality of grain also depended on the studied factors. Best grain of barley is received after clover. Each kilogram of the application fertilizer provided depending on option from 0.3 to 29.7 kg of grain. The maximum payback (29.7 kg/kg) is noted in option with use one nitrogen after barley, additional introduction of phosphorus-potassium fertilizers reduces this indicator. The similar tendency is tracked and on the lupine predecessor. After clover payback of 1 kg of mineral fertilizers is much lower that is explained by a low increase of productivity barley of relatively control. Keywords: Mineral fertilizers, biological nitrogen, barley, sod-podzolic soil, yield Introduction The current economic conditions in agriculture do not allow to apply the amount of mineral and organic fertilizers required for crops. Plowing the soil and replacement of perennial vegetation leads to a decrease in revenues of plant residues to the soil, humus mineralization and as a result the degradation of the soil (Mudrykh et al., 2014b). Consequently, one of the urgent problems of agriculture in our region is to find ways to increase the yield of grain by means of alternative sources of organic matter and other nutrients. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Food of the Perm region, sown area of barley is about 69 thousand hectares of the total area occupied by the spring grain crops. The average yield of barley in the Perm region in 2014 was 18-22 t/ha. This is a very low yield, as the potential yield of different cultivars of barley is 60-80 t/ha (The Ministry of Agriculture). Achieving this level is only possible if all the elements of barley cultivation technology are followed, while the most important element is to regulate the conditions of mineral nutrition. However, the use of fertilizers in the Perm region remains low. In 2013-2014 14-15 kg of fertilizers has been introduced per hectare of grain field, of which about 5.6 kg was nitrogen. This dose of nitrogen provides only the growth and development of plants in the initial phase. Based on the above statements, the relevant problem of agriculture in our region is to find ways to provide crops with nutrients throughout all the growing season. 1145

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ The purpose of the research is to evaluate the effectiveness of mineral fertilizers and biological nitrogen on productivity and quality of barley under cultivation on sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil. Materials and methods The research was conducted in 2013. Field experiment is laid in a long-term stationary experiment on the field of federal state budgetary scientific institution Perm Agricultural Research Institute in accordance with standard procedure (Dospekhov, 1985) as follows: Factor A – preceding crop: А0 – permanent barley; А1 – clover of the 2nd year; А2 – blue lupin. Factor B – mineral fertilizers: В0– control (no fertilizers); В1 – N60; В2 – P30K60; В3 – N60P30K60. There was the triple replication of the experiment variants. Systematic plot allocation in 4 layers. Overall area of experimental plot for Factor A – 300 m2 (25×12 m), registration plot area – 184 m2 (23×8 m), for Factor В – 75 m2 (25×3 m) and 46 m2 (23×2 m) respectively. The following fertilizers were used: ammonium nitrate, normal superphosphate, potassium chloride. All fertilizers were applied manually during presowing cultivation. Measurement of barley yield was carried out by a direct method in the phase of full ripeness of grain. The mathematical processing of the research results was carried out using the Microsoft Excel, STATISTICA 7.0 and MINITAB 14 programs. The researches were conducted on sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil. The content of humus in the soil varies from very low to low (1.89-2.67%), the pH index from low to medium acid (рНКСl = 4.7-5.42). The content of labile phosphorus is very high (378.7-670.0 mg/kg of soil), exchange potassium from elevated to very high (161.2-428.2 mg/kg of soil). Weather conditions play an important role in the intake of nutrients from the soil, which subsequently affects the productivity of the crop. Let us consider weather conditions during growing seasons of spring barley compared with the average long-term annual data (Fig. 1). Precipitation, t оС mm 20 80 15 60 10 40 5

20 0

0 May

June

July

August

Month Sum of precipitations in 2013 Average multiyear precipitation total (normal) Average daily temperature in 2013 Average daily temperature (normal)

Figure 1. The dynamics of air temperature and precipitation in 2013 and average long-term annual data (according to Perm HMS) In the first decades of May 2013 there were low average daily air temperature and the abundance of rainfall, which led to the later emergence of seedlings and prolongation of

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ period from seedlings to tillering. In June, weather conditions were mainly quite favorable for plant growth and development. The tillering phase and establishment of generative organs proceeded in extreme conditions, namely high temperatures and lack of moisture, which further affected the yield of barley. July was characterized by erratic, mostly dry weather, which could lead to lack of grain at certain heads. There were often precipitation including the torrential rains. In this regard, the formation of the barley in July continued rapidly yet growth processes were slow. Weather conditions in August were favorable for harvesting barley. In general, the weather conditions of the vegetation period in 2013 can be described as satisfactory. Results and discussion Measurement of barley yield showed that it depends on the fertilizers and preceding crops (Fig. 2). А*В; Weighted Means Considering the main effects of Factor A,24)=6,2028, we can say that using clover of 2nd year as a Current effect: F(6, p=,00049 preceding crop we obtained significant yield increase compared to permanent barley and Type III decomposition lupin. For lupin, in turn, only a tendency to increase the yield of barley can be traced, because Vertical bars barley denote 0,95 confidence increase compared to the permanent is 0.45 t/ha (atintervals LSD05 of 0.47 t/ha). 7

Barley yields, t/ha

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

1

2

3

В nd

Factor A: 0 – permanent barley, 1 – clover of the 2 year, 3 – blue lupin. Factor B: 0 – control (no fertilizers), 1 – N60, 2 – P30K60, 3 – N60P30K60 (LSD 05 for main effects of Factor A – 0.47 t/ha, Factor В and АВ – 0.32 t/ha; particular I differences – 0.94, II differences– 0.55 t/ha)

Figure 2. Barley yields, t/ha Considering the particular differences it should be noted that in the variants without nitrogen fertilizer bean preceding crops have provided a significant increase in yield of barley grain. For example, in the control group of permanent barley we obtained yield of 1.43 t/ha, in clover of the 2nd year – 3.72, in lupin – 2.44 t/ha. When applying nitrogen fertilizer, only clover of the 2nd year has shown significant increase in the version with complete mineral fertilizer. Evaluation of the main effects of Factor B shows that phosphorus-potassium fertilizers did not provide a significant increase in yield of barley grain. Significant increment (0.8-0.9 t/ha) was

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А 0 А 1 А 2

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ only observed with nitrogen fertilizer in comparison with both the control and with P 30K60 variant. Particular second-order differences indicate that the most pronounced increment due to nitrogen fertilizers was obtained by using them with permanent barley – 1.78 t/ha compared to the control and 1.70 t/ha with phosphorus-potassium fertilizers. The mathematical processing of the results showed that both the permanent barley and lupine yields depend more on nitrogen. The correlation coefficient was 1.000 and 0.942 respectively. Yields of barley with these preceding crops were practically independent of the use of phosphorus-potassium fertilizers. By clover seam, yield was largely dependent on the phosphorus-potassium nutrition (r = 0.903) and to a lesser extent on nitrogen (r = 0.416). Based on the results obtained in the experiment, production functions describing the quantitative relationship between the barley yield (t/ha) and doses of fertilizers were designed for each preceding crop. These models are as follows (Table 1). Table 1. Regression models predicting yields of barley Preceding crop r Regression models * permanent barley 0.96 У = 1.44+0.0291Х1+0.00017Х2 nd clover of the 2 year 0.98 У = 3.70+0.00342Х1+0.0148Х2 blue lupin 0.65 У = 2.52+0.100Х1-0.0042Х2 * У – barley yield, t/ha; Х1 – dose nitrogen, kg/ha; Х2 – dose phosphorus, kg/ha.

R2 0.95 0.96 0.57

Using these models, we can predict the level of yields of spring barley depending on doses of mineral fertilizers and preceding crops (Table 2).

Doses, kg/ha N P K 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 30 60 60 30 60 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 30 60 60 30 60 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 30 60 60 30 60

Table 2. Trend of barley yields and deviation from it Trend of barley yields, Barley yields (fact.), t/ha Deviation from trend, % t/ha Preceding crop – permanent barley (А0) 1.43 1.44 1.2 3.21 3.19 -0.6 1.46 1.45 -0.8 3.16 3.19 0.9 nd Preceding crop – clover of the 2 year (А1) 3.72 3,70 -0,6 3.87 3,91 0,8 4.11 4,14 0,7 4.37 4,35 -0,5 Preceding crop – blue lupin (А2) 2.44 2,52 3,3 3.21 3,12 -2,7 2.48 2,39 -3,6 2.91 2,99 2,8

According to the obtained data, the deviation of calculated yield levels from the actual ones is low and ranges from -3.6 to 3.3 %. This indicates the high accuracy of the model, i.e. this model can be used to predict the level of barley yield depending on the preceding crops and used doses of mineral fertilizers. The efficiency of fertilizer use is assessed by the agronomic and economic payback. To improve the economic efficiency of production it is necessary to reduce the cost of

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ production, increase quality and sales of products at a higher price. To reduce production costs it is necessary to apply modern production technology. Therefore, according to the problem of this study we shall define the efficiency of applying fertilizer on barley in various preceding crops in economic terms. Significant yield increase due to mineral fertilizers was achieved in variants with doses N60 and N60P30K60 at permanent barley, N60P30K60 after clover of the 2nd year and N60 after lupin. Based on calculations, we can conclude that in the variant with the use of nitrogen fertilizers in dose N60 for the permanent barley the highest levels of net income (5826.72 rub.) and profitability (120 %) were achieved. In the variant with complete mineral fertilizer the profitability is lower due to increased costs for fertilizer use. The use of nitrogen fertilizer on barley after clover of the 2nd year was not profitable, as the cost of the use of fertilizers exceeds the value of increment. Introduction of nitrogen fertilizer on barley after blue lupine also led to obtaining a positive economic effect, but its profitability will be lower compared to the N60 version for the permanent barley. So, at the same cost of use of nitrogen fertilizer, the largest conditional net income from the use of nitrogen fertilizers was gained on the permanent barley – 5826.72 rubles. That is many times more than in the cultivation of barley after lupine. The annual change in prices for the products and expense items does not allow comparison of payback for measures applied, so the efficiency of fertilizer use is determined by agronomic evaluation (Mudrykh et al., 2014a). We calculated the agronomic payback, the results are shown in Table 3. The used fertilizers provided different barley grain yield increase, which affected the payback of 1 kg of active material.

Variants 0 N60 Р30K60 N60Р30K60 0 N60 Р30K60 N60Р30K60 0 N60 Р30K60 N60Р30K60

Table 3. The agronomic efficiency of mineral fertilizer application Return 1 kg of NPK increase The costs NPK on increase The yield, t/ha in yield, kg/kg yields grain, kg/t Preceding crop – permanent barley (А0) 1.43 – – 3.21 29.7 33.7 1.46 0.3 3000.0 3.16 11.5 86.7 nd Preceding crop – clover of the 2 year (А1) 3.72 3.87 2.5 400.0 4.11 4.3 230.8 4.37 4.3 230.8 Preceding crop – blue lupin (А2) 2.44 3.21 12.8 77.9 2.48 0.4 2250.0 2.91 3.1 319.1

Each kilogram of applied fertilizer, depending on the variant, provided from 0.3 to 29.7 kg of grain. Maximum payback (29.7 mg/kg) was observed in the variant with nitrogen only in permanent barley, the additional introduction of phosphorus-potassium fertilizer reduces the figure. A similar trend can be seen for lupine as a preceding crop. By clover seam, payback of 1 kg of mineral fertilizers is significantly lower due to the low yield increase relative to the control variant. Due to the fact that when determining the fertilizer needs for the crop the fundamental parameter is the amount of nutrients required for the yield unit formation, we found it 1149

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ necessary to determine this value (Table 3). The amount of fertilizers required for the 1 t increase of productivity also varied greatly depending on the variant, the range of variation was 33.7-3000 kg. The amount of fertilizer required to gain an increment of 1 t of barley yields has the same trend, but in the reverse order. At a higher payback of mineral fertilizer its consumption at the formation of the yield unit growth decreased. Conclusion Based on the conducted researches to study the effectiveness of mineral fertilizers and biological nitrogen on yield and quality of barley under cultivation on sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil of the experimental field of the state scientific institution "Perm Agricultural Research Institute", the following conclusions can be made: 1. For barley the best preceding crops is a red clover of the 2nd year and lupin. 2. Production functions allow to predict the level of productivity depending on the preceding crops and doses fertilizer. References Dospekhov, B.A. (1985). Methods of field experience. Moscow: Agropromizdat. Mudrykh, N., Olekhov V., Mikayilov F. (2014a). Predicting the yield and quality of grain of spring wheat been grown up of the Predural'e. J. French Journal of Scientific and Educational Research, 2(12). Vol. III: 480-488. Mudrykh, N., Samofalova I., Gordeeva I. (2014b). Ensure environmental sustainability of agriculture in the Perm region. J. Australian science review, 1(5): 528-540. The Ministry of Agriculture and Food of the Perm region. Analytics. Agro-industrial Complex Development Totals of Perm Krai [Electronic Recourse]. – Access Regime: http://agro.permkrai.ru/analitics/. Accessed on 15/06/2015.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051151C TESTING CONSTITUTION AND REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL OF SVRLJIG ZACKEL SHEEP FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION IN EAST SERBIA Aleksandar COJKIĆ1*, Mila SAVIĆ1, Zsolt BECSKEI1, Branko PETRUJKIĆ1, Vladimir DIMITRIJEVIĆ1, Nikola ČOBANOVIĆ1, Lidija MILOVANOVIĆ2, Mensur VEGARA3 1

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University in Belgrade, Serbia 2 Faculty of Agriculture, University in Belgrade, Serbia 3 Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Aas, Norway *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Eastern Serbia region, especially Homolje territory is an important natural resource of a great potential for organic sheep production. Its long tradition of sheep breeding and the quality of lamb meat and dairy products has become well-known. Svrljig type of Zackel sheep is traditionally reared in the hilly - mountain region of Eastern Serbia. It is well adapted to environmental conditions and sustainable breeding systems. Bearing in mind that autochthonous breeds are preferable for organic production due to the fact that they are well adapted to habitat and due to their genetic tolerance to diseases, the autochthonous Svrljig sheep population reared in Homolje territory was chosen for this research. Examination of health status, body score condition, reproductive traits in a population of 342 ewes and growth traits of 412 lambs reared in sustainable livestock farming was performed. Reproductive and lamb growth traits, litter size at weaning (LSW), total litter weight at birth (TLWB), total litter weight at one-month (1TLMW) and total litter weight at weaning (TLWW) were analyzed. Results of health status, basic ewe reproductive traits and lamb growth performance show that autochthonous Svrljig type of Zackel sheep has robust constitution and potential to be the breed of choice for organic production in the hilly - mountain region of Eastern Serbia. Key words: Zackel sheep, health status, production traits Introduction One of the primary elements in the organization of organic production is the choice of suitable breeds. Each breed and strain of domestic animals were created through a process of interaction between genome and environment, along with adjustment imposed by man. According to the legal regulations of the methods of organic livestock production (2010), animal species and breeds that are adapted to local growing conditions and resistant to disease are envisaged to be used in organic production (Cojkić et al., 2014.; Savić et al., 2014). When choosing the animals, advantage is given to domestic (autochthonous) animal breeds and strains (Petrović et al., 2009.). Autochthonous breeds, whose microevolution occurred under the influence of ambient selection factors represent a unique source of genetic variability that enable adaptation to the new conditions and may enable the survival of the population under adverse action of pathogenic microorganisms Organic production legal regulations set high standards which specify the conditions for breeding animals in self-sustaining systems. Animal breeding is based on physiological and ethological needs of the animals. But from the economic aspect of production, it is important to evaluate the reproductive and production potential of the breed. Reproduction of animals in organic production is carried out through natural mating or artificial insemination. Other methods of biotechnology in reproduction such as embryo transfer, MOET and hormonal induction of estrus are not allowed.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Organic farming is a specific, innovative aspect of production, which brings significant innovations, especially the one relating to veterinary supervision. The regulation is quite strict when it comes to the prohibition of preventive treatment. Health care in organic livestock production is based on the principle of disease prevention. Legislation in this area emphasizes breeding of genetically resistant animals with the improvement of environmental conditions and care. Economical use of well-adapted indigenous animals is achieved by preserving the diversity of domesticated animal species for the selection procedure and as a source of the gene pool that can confront unpredictable immune challenges. A good adaptation of the animals to the local environmental conditions allows a maximal expression of their production potential. This is reflected in the quantity and quality of milk, meat, as well as reproductive features for a given species, breed or strain of animals. In sheep breeding the production is mainly focused on the production of meat. Consequently, the goal is to get a greater number of live, vital lambs per ewe, and for lambs to have some better feed conversion and therefore better growth. This paper presents robustness-related traits of Svrljig type of Zackel sheep which are breeding in several municipalities of Eastern Serbia. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of the locally adapted Zackel sheep, and the possibility of rational utilization and conservation of this strain of sheep as an important element for rural agro-economic development. Materials and methods Animals In total, 342 ewes, 3 to 5 years old, and 412 lambs of Svrljig type of Zackel sheep breed, traditionally reared in Eastern Serbia, Homolje region, were examined for health status, body score condition, reproductive and lamb growth traits. The evaluation was performed during the winter and spring. During the spring and summer, the sheep were grazed on mountain natural pastures. On the other hand, during the autumn and winter the diet of ewes was based on hay and concentrate. The lambs remained with their mother until weaning at 90 days and fed ad libitum with hay and concentrate with 18% of protein. Studied traits Reproductive and lamb growth traits analyses included litter size at weaning (LSW), the sum of the birth weight of all lambs born per ewe lambed (TLWB- total litter weight at birth), the sum of the weights off all lambs on one month of age (1TLMW - total litter weight at 30 days) and the sum of the weights off all lambs weaned per ewe lambed (TLWW - total litter weight at weaning-90 days). Statistical analysis The software package Prism Pad v. 6.0 (Graph Pad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) was used for statistical calculations. Reproductive and lamb growth traits were presented by descriptive statistical parameters. Student t-test was used to examine the differences of weight between male and female lambs, twins and single lamb of every measured period (TLWB, 1TLMW, TLWW). Results and Discussion The first stage in this study was the evaluating the body condition scoring of sheep. The results of this analysis have shown that all examined sheep were right BSC considering the stage of production.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Monitoring of sheep health carried out based on the Program of animal health protection measures. Based on that, animals are monitoring for Brucellosis (B. melitensis, B. ovis), transmissive spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) and the diagnostictestsin case ofabortions. Percentage of abortionsin the herdwas not asignificant. No one abortionwas notcaused byinfectiousdisease (brucellosis, leptospirosis, listeriosis, and Q fever). Analysis of the reproductive characteristics of Svrljig sheep shown regular fertility. Reproductive traits were in accordance with breed standards. The results of the constitutional and reproductive traits of ewes as well as body weight of lambs at birth (TLWB), on 30 days (1TLMW) and 90 days (TLWW) are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of descriptive statistics for constitutional, reproductive and lambs growth traits. Lambs

Ewes

TLWB (kg)

1TLMW (kg)

TLWW (kg)

Body weight (kg)

LSW (lamb)

x̄ ± SE

3.39 ± 0.03

8.90 ± 0.04

26.62±0.11

56.25 ± 0.17

1.20 ± 0.02

SD

0.58

0.78

2.16

3.42

0.40

IV

2.0 – 4.7

6.9– 13.0

22.0 – 35.0

48.0 – 67.0

1.0 – 2.0

CV

17.28%

8.78 %

8.10%

6.09%

33.47 %

TLWB- total litter weight at birth, 1TLMW- total litter weight at one-month age, TLWW total litter weight at weaning, LSW - litter size at weaning The average TLWB, 1TLMW and TLWW were 3.39 kg, 8.90 kg and 26.62 kg, respectively. In the study of Caro Petrović et al. (2012), performed on the Svrljig type of Zackel sheep, the average birth weight of lambs and weight at 30 days was higher than in our study. On the other hand, the average weight of lambs at 90 days was lower. Indirect lamb selection based on TLWW could be efficient for the studied traits (Roshanfekr et al., 2015). The mean body weight of ewes on lambing, measured was 56.25 kg. The result is in agreement with study which reported that birth weights of lambs depend on the weight of ewes (Petrović et al., 2011). In this study litter size at weaning, LSW was 1.20, which is an agreement with Zackel breed characteristics. Differences in reproductive performance could be explained by many factors like genetics, maternal behavior of ewes at different ages, nursing and the differences in maternal effects (Roshanfekr et al. 2015). The influence of sex of lamb, birth type and lambs` body weight are presented in this study.

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Table 2.The differences in body weight of lambs, based on sex and birth type Male lamb Female lamb Singles Twins (n=38) (n=374) (n=274) (n=138) AA AA BB TLWB 4.14±0.39 3.01±0.55 3.76±0.27 2.64±0.23 BB 1TLMW

10.14±1.22 AA

8.78±0.60 AA

9.05±0.79 BB

8.60±0.67 BB

TLWW 30.73±2.72 AA 26.14±2.00 AA 26.66±3.01 26.15±1.91 TLWB- total litter weight at birth, 1TLWM- total litter weight at one-month age, TLWW total litter weight at weaning: AA, BB - (P < 0.001) In the Table 2. The average body weight at birth (TLWB), at one month of age (1TLMW) and at weaning (TLWW) of both sexes of lambs and birth type were presented. The differences in TLWB, TLW1 and TLWW between male and female lambs were statistically significant (P < 0.001). Likewise, the differences in TLWB, 1TLMW between singles and twins were statistically significant (P < 0.001). On the other hand, there was difference in TLWW between birth type, but not statistically significant (P > 0.05). This is in agreement with the results of the other researchers (Abdullah and Tabbaa, 2011.). Gamasaee et al. (2010) stated that the effect of birth type was significant on birth weight of lambs and can be explained by limited uterine space and nutrition of lamb during pregnancy. The difference in weight between single and twin lambs increased from birth to weaning, which could be attributed to that singles were more capable of suckling their mothers than twins. The growth traits are important in productivity and are the major selected traits in sheep breeds. They are influenced by genetic and environmental factors as shown in numerous studies (Behzadietal., 2007, Dass et al., 2008.). Conclusion Homolje territory is an important natural resource of great potential, with specific characteristics of HNV (High Nature Value) region. Flora and fauna of Homolje region is particularly rich and abundant in many plant and animal species which, some of them being relict. Under agricultural land is 36 880 ha or 48% of the territory. Of that 42.9% of meadows, 26% of pastures and 31.1% is arable land. Meadows and pastures represented from the lowest level parts to the highest parts of the mountain ranges, which is a great potential for organic sheep production. Considering the results Svrljig sheep is identified as a good potential for further development of organic sheep husbandry in East Serbia hilly mountain ecoregions. Svrljig sheep reared in a sustainable production system, and since it uses well natural pastures and meadows, its diet is based on existing plant resources. For achieving better productive results of Svrljig sheep, an integrated approach is necessary. The approach must contain all aspects of sheep keeping, feeding, breeding and disease prevention, as well as pasture management. Acknowledgement This study was supported the Ministry of Education and Science of Republic of Serbia, Grant No. TR 31085 and The Norwegian Programme in Higher Education, Research and Development in the Western Balkans HERD/Agriculture Project 09/1548, 332160 UA.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Reference Abdullah M.B. and Tabbaa J.M. (2011): Comparison of body weight and dimensions at birth and weaning among Awassi and Chios sheep breeds and their crosses. Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Volume 7, No.4. Behzadi R., Shahroudi F. E. and Van Vleck L. D. (2007): Estimates of genetic parameters of growth traits in Kermani sheep. J. Animal Breeding and Genetic. 5: 296- 301. Caro Petrović V., Petrović M. P., PetrovićM. M., Ilić Z., Maksimović N., Ružić Muslić D., Stolić N. (2012): Estimation of phenotypic and genetictrends of the growth traits in Lipska and Svrljig sheep. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry 28 (4), p 743-749. Cojkić A., Savić M., Becskei Z., Dimitrijević V., Trailović R. Petrujkić B., Vegara M. (2014): The possibility of organizing an organic sheep breeding in the Municipality of Žagubica, In: Book of The International Symposium on Animal Science, September 23-25, pp. 519-523, Zemun, Serbia, ISBN 978-86-7834-199-1, Publisher: Faculty of Agriculture, University in Belgrade Dass G, Prasad H, Mandal A, Singh MK, Singh N.P. (2008): Growth characteristics of Muzaffarnagari sheep under semi-intensive feeding system. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 78(9): 1032-1033. Gamasaee V. A., Hafezian S. H., Ahmadi A., Baneh H., Farhadi A.,Mohamadi A. (2010): Estimation of genetic parameters for body weight atdifferent ages in Mehraban sheep. African Journal of Biotechnology. 9, 5218-5223 Petrović P. M., Ružić-Muslić D., Maksimović N. (2009). Evaluation of genetic potential of sheep in different production systems. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry Vol. 25 (5-6), pp. 421-429. Petrovic P.M., RuzicMuslic D., Caro Petrovic V., Maksimovic N. (2011): Influence of environmental factors on birth weightvariability of indigenous Serbian breeds of sheep. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 10(22), pp. 4673-4676. Roshanfekr H., Berg P., Mohammadi K., Mirza Mohamadi E. (2015): Genetic parameters and genetic gains for reproductive traits of Arabi sheep. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry 31 (1), p 23-36. Savić M., Becskei Z., Dimitrijević B., Vučković S., Prodanović S., Vegara M. (2014): Organic lamb meat production in Serbia based on autochtonous Zackel breed: opportunities and challenges, In: Book of The International Symposium on Animal Science, September 23-25, pp. 485-490, Zemun, Serbia, ISBN 978-86-7834-199-1, Publisher: Poljoprivredni Fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. Zakon o organskoj proizvodnji Republike Srbije (Law of Organic Production of the Republic of Serbia) (2010): „Službeni glasnik“, br. 30/10

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Review paper 10.7251/AGSY15051156B SEASONAL CHANGES OF MICROBIAL POPULATION IN MAIZE AND SOYBEAN RHIZOSPHERE UNDER CONVENTIONAL AND ORGANIC GROWING SYSTEMS Dragana BJELIĆ*, Nastasija MRKOVAČKI, Jelena MARINKOVIĆ, Branislava TINTOR, Ivica ĐALOVIĆ Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21 000 Novi Sad, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare abundance of microorganisms in the rhizosphere of maize and soybean grown under conventional and organic management. The trial was set up on the chernozem soil at the experimental field of Bački Petrovac, Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad. Rhizosphere samples were collected in two sampling terms during 2014 (July 7 and August 14) and analysed by the indirect dilution method followed by plating of soil suspension on selective nutritive mediums: soil agar for the total number of microorganisms, meat peptone agar for the number of ammonifiers, Waksman-Carey medium for the number of cellulolytic microorganisms, synthetic medium for the number of actinomycetes, Czapek Dox agar for the number of fungi, and N-free medium for the number of azotobacters and free N-fixers. The results showed significant differences in microbial abundance between plant species, growing systems and sampling terms. Significantly higher number of microorganisms was found in rhizosphere of soybean compared to maize, as well as in organic growing system compared to conventional. Significant differences between sampling terms were recorded for the number of ammonifiers, azotobacters, fungi and actinomycetes, while the number of most tested microbial groups was higher in the second sampling term. Keywords: maize, microbial abundance, organic and conventional growing system, rhizosphere, soybean Introduction Agricultural intensification as one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity, leads to largescale ecosystem degradation and loss of productivity in the long term (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). Management practices (tillage, cropping rotation, use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers, irrigation) strongly influence the quality and fertility of agricultural soils and consequently, the size, composition, and function of the soil microbial community (Shannon et al., 2002). In turn, despite of their small volume in soil, microorganisms play a definitive and very useful role in soil fertility through the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and decomposition of organic residues (Nannipieri et al., 2003; Singh et al., 2011). In addition to the effect on nutrient cycling, microorganisms also affect the physical properties of the soil via production of extracellular polysaccharides and other cellular debris, and thereby help in maintaining soil structure as well as soil health (Bastida et al., 2008). Conventional farming systems have been associated with loss of soil fertility, soil erosion and ground water pollution (Pimentel et al., 2005). Low-input systems such as organic farming, substantially reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, energy and mechanic stress, and mitigate these negative impacts in order to improve sustainable production (Gomiero et al., 2011). Earlier studies have shown that incorporation of organic amendments increase biomass, activity and diversity of soil microorganisms (Gelsomino et al., 2004; Girvan et al., 2004). According to Hartmann et al. (2015), fertilization scheme, the application and quality

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ of organic fertilizers in particular, is the major determinant of microbial diversity. The addition of animal or green manures on organic plots provides a significantly greater input of organic carbon which increases microbial population (Reeves, 1997). Microbial processes within the rhizosphere of crop plants are crucial to agriculture. The relation of soil microbial community to cropping system, yield, and soil quality is unclear at present. Seasonal inputs of crop roots, rhizosphere products, and crop residues significantly altered soil microbial biomass and mineralizable C and N of this soil, illustrating the dependence of N dynamics on short-term C inputs and association of soil C/N ratio with changes in microbial community composition across different treatments (Carney and Matson, 2012). Beside management practices and soil environmental factors, the diversity and composition of microbial community in the rhizophere also depend on several other factors including plant species (Mahmood et al., 2005). Plants can influence composition and stimulate activity of soil microorganisms by producing labile carbon compounds through root exudation (Marschner et al., 2004). Valid evaluation of soil quality requires better understanding of short- and long-term responses of key biochemical and microbiological soil properties to seasonal changes and types of management practice in the cultivation of various crops. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the seasonal changes in rhizosphere microbial population of maize and soybean grown under conventional and organic growing systems. Materials and Methods The trial was set up on the chernozem soil at the experimental field of Bački Petrovac, Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad. Rhizosphere samples were collected in two sampling terms during 2014 (July 7 and August 14) and analysed by the indirect dilution method followed by plating of soil suspension on selective nutritive mediums: soil agar for the total number of microorganisms (dilution 107), meat peptone agar for the number of ammonifiers (dilution 106), Waksman-Carey medium for the number of cellulolytic microorganisms (dilution 105), synthetic medium for the number of actinomycetes (dilution 104), Czapek Dox agar for the number of fungi (dilution 104), and N-free medium for the number of azotobacters (dilution 102) and N-fixers (dilution 106) (Jarak and Đurić, 2006). Incubation temperature was 28°C, while incubation time depended on the tested microbial group. All microbiological analyses were performed in three replications, and the average number for all samplings was calculated per 1.0 g of absolutely dry soil. The results were analyzed in accordance with three–way model of analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistica software (StatSoft Inc. 2012), followed by mean separation according to Fisher’s LSD test (Steel and Torrie, 1980). Results and Discussion In a long-term field trial in which organic and conventional growing systems were compared, a significant influence of organic agriculture on microbial biomass, diversity and microbial community structures was reported (Esperschütz et al., 2007). Our research focused on comparison of microbial abundance between rhizosphere of maize and soybean grown under conventional and organic management. At the first sampling term, the number of examined microbial groups in soybean rhizosphere was higher in the organic farming system. Significant differences between systems were recorded for the total number of microorganisms, number of ammonifiers, free N-fixers and cellulolytic microorganisms. At the second sampling term, higher microbial abundance was also obtained in the organic farming system, except for total and free N-fixers, while significant differences were observed within the number of ammonifiers, azotobacters and cellulolytic microorganisms (Table 1). In study of Das and Dkhar (2012), addition of organic

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ amendments affected the soil physicochemical properties, which in return affected the microbial characteristics in soybean rhizosphere. The number of microorganisms in maize rhizosphere, was higher in organic management system at the first term of sampling, while significant differences between the systems were recorded only for the number of ammonifiers. At the second sampling term, for all tested groups except ammonifiers and free N-fixers exhibited the highest number in the organic management system, while significantly higher number between systems was recorded only for the number of actinomycetes and cellulolytic microorganisms (Table 1). Similar results were reported by Orr et al. (2010), indicating that the larger number of free nitrogen-fixers in conventional system was obtained due to higher concentrations of phosphorus from mineral fertilizers. On the contrary, Buyer and Kaufman (1997) showed that total number and diversity of microorganisms in maize rhizosphere were not significantly different for conventional and low-input systems suggesting that conventional agricultural practices may maintain high indices of microbial diversity in the rhizosphere. Table 1. Number of microorganisms in rhizosphere of soybean and maize Number of microorganisms in 1 g of absolutely dry soil (CFU g-1) Growing system Organic Conventional Microbial group Sampling/Plant I II I II a a bc Soybean 155.53 146.22 76.19 159.63a Total microbial number x107 Maize 105.67abc 117.92ab 49.62c 65.01bc Soybean 99.47b 162.13a 40.85cd 56.66c Ammonifiers x 106 c cd d Maize 60.44 44.82 18.49 51.34cd Soybean 122.10bc 198.34a 90.83cd 145.49b Azotobacters x 102 Maize 25.79e 47.18de 7.81e 12.24e a ab bc Soybean 106.46 95.43 58.78 99.19ab N-fixers x 106 Maize 72.81abc 73.14abc 34.52c 73.41abc Soybean 11.62a 11.88a 6.01ab 8.65ab Fungi x 104 b a b Maize 3.41 10.63 3.14 6.99ab Soybean 19.48abc 30.87ab 2.24c 17.28abc Actinomycetes x 104 Maize 6.85bc 31.90a 1.58c 2.83c a a c Soybean 30.39 31.22 8.16 14.95bc Cellulolytic microorganisms x 105 Maize 5.73c 24.46ab 5.55c 6.62c Means with the same letter are not significantly different at the P = 0.05 level of significance

This research showed significant differences in microbial abundance between plant species, growing systems and sampling terms (Table 2). Higher microbial number was recorded in soybean rhizosphere compared to rhizosphere of maize. Significant differences in microbial abundance were found between plant species, for all microbial groups except actinomycetes. These results are in agreement with those of Carney and Matson (2012) who revealed that microbial community composition differed between plant species. Similarly, significant differences in the soil microbial biomass were not visible during the wheat growing season, as a result of application of mineral and organic fertilizers, whereas fertilizer application significantly increased this parameter during the maize growing season (Mahmood et al., 2005). Growing system demonstrated a significant impact on the total number of microorganisms, number of ammonifiers, free N-fixers, actinomycetes and cellulolytic microorganisms.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Significantly higher number of microorganisms in the organic farming system compared with conventional was also determined by Mrkovački et al. (2012). However, their study reports the higher number of microorganisms in rhizosphere of maize compared to soybean, which is contrary to our results, and indicates that variations in the number of microorganisms depend on the year of research. Studies of Kong et al. (2011) confirmed the highest total microbial biomass in the organic management, and similar values between the conventional and low-input systems, while Bettiol et al. (2002) obtained similar effects of organic and conventional growing system on soil microbial populations. Various findings confirmed that stimulative effect of organic amendments on biomass, activity and diversity of soil microorganisms depends on numerous factors, such as soil type, plant species, soil management practices and other environmental variables. Franzluebbers et al. (1994) indicated that crop management strategies can affect the short-term dynamics of the active C and N pools of soil organic matter by altering the timing, placement, quantity, and quality of crop root and residue input, as well as nutrient status and environmental conditions. Fließbach and Mäder (2000) also interpreted higher microbial biomass in soils of the organic systems as an enhanced decomposition of the easily-available light fraction pool of soil organic matter with increasing amounts of microbial biomass. Table 2. Effect of plant species, growing system and sampling term on microbial population Number of microorganisms in 1 g of absolutely dry soil (CFU g-1) Plant species Growing System Sampling term Microbial group Soybean Maize ORG CON I II 134.39 84.59 131.33 87.61 96.75 122.20 Total microbial number x107 ** ** NSD 89.78 43.77 91.72 41.84 54.79 78.73 Ammonifiers x 106 *** *** ** 139.19 23.25 98.35 64.09 61.63 100.81 Azotobacters x 102 *** ** ** 89.97 63.47 86.96 66.47 68.14 76.13 N-fixers x 106 * NSD NSD 9.54 6.04 9.38 6.20 6.04 9.54 Fungi x 104 * NSD * 17.47 10.79 22.27 5.98 7.54 20.72 Actinomycetes x 104 NSD * * 21.18 10.59 22.95 8.82 12.46 19.31 Cel. microorganisms x 105 ** *** NSD NSD indicates no significant difference at the P = 0.05 level of significance; *, ** and *** indicates significant differences at the P < 0.05, P < 0.01 and P < 0.001 levels

Significant variations in microbial number in relation to the growing season were recorded for the number of ammonifiers, azotobacters, fungi and actinomycetes, while higher abundance was obtained at second sampling term. Shi et al. (2013) recorded seasonal fluctuations in soil microbial biomass C and N, in dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphomonoesterase activities, and in total phospholipids fatty acid (PLFA) level under different tillage and phosphorus management practices, concluding that soil environmental factors and tillage had a greater effect than fertilization on microorganisms (biomass and activity) and community structure. Bossio et al. (1998) observed sustained increases in microbial biomass resulting from high organic matter inputs in the organic and low-input systems that were significantly different during growing season. Same authors ranked the relative importance of various environmental variables in governing the composition of microbial communities in the following order: soil

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ type ˃ time ˃ specific farming operation (e.g. cover crop incorporation or sidedressing with mineral fertilizer) ˃ management system ˃ spatial variation in the field. Conclusion The increase in the number of microorganisms in rhizosphere of two different crops grown under organic management system confirm the positive effect of this agricultural practice on soil microbial population and biological health of soil compared to conventional management. Acknowledgements This study is part of the TR031073 project supported by the Ministry Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. References Bastida F., Zsolnay A., Hernández T., García C. (2008): Past, present and future of soil quality indices: a biological perspective. Geoderma 147: 159–171. Bettiol W., Ghini R., Abrah J., Galvao H., Ligo AVM., de Carvalho Mineiro JL. (2002): Soil organisms in organic and conventional cropping systems. Scientia Agricola 59(3): 565-572. Bossio DA., Scow KM., Gunapala N., Graham KJ. (1998): Determinants of soil microbial communities: effects of agricultural management, season, and soil type on phospholipid fatty acid profiles. Microbial Ecology 36: 1–12. Buyer JS., Kaufman DD. (1997): Microbial diversity in the rhizosphere of corn grown under conventional and low-input systems. Applied Soil Ecology 5 (1): 21-27. Carney KM., Pamela A. (2006): Matson the influence of tropical plant diversity and composition on soil microbial communities. Microbial Ecology 52 (2): 226-238 Convention on Biological Diversity (2010): Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. UNEP/Earthprint: Montréal, Canada. Das BB., Dkhar MS. (2012): Organic amendment effects on microbial population and microbial biomass carbon in the rhizosphere doil of soybean. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 43 (14): 1938-1948. Esperschütz J., Gattinger A., Mäder P., Schloter M., Fließbach A. (2007): Response of soil microbial biomass and community structures to conventional and organic farming systems under identical crop rotations. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 61 (1): 26-37. Fließbach A., Mäder P. (2000): Microbial biomass and size-density fractions differ between soils of organic and conventional agricultural systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32 (6): 757–768. Franzluebbers AJ., Hons FM., Zuberer DA. (1994): Seasonal changes in soil microbial biomass and mineralizable C and N in wheat management systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26 (11): 1469-1475. Gelsomino CC., Ambrosoli A., Minati R., Ruggiero P. (2004): Functional and molecular responses of soil microbial communities under differing soil management practice. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36: 1873-1883. Girvan MS., Bullimore J., Ball AS., Pretty JN., Osborn AM. (2004): Responses of active bacterial and fungal communities in soils under winter wheat to different fertilizer and pesticide regime. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70: 2692-2701. Gomiero T., Pimentel D., Paoletti MG. (2011): Environmental impact of different agricultural management practices: conventional vs. organic agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 30 (1-2): 95-124. Hartmann M., Frey B., Mayer J. Mäder P., Widmer F. (2015): Distinct soil microbial diversity under long-term organic and conventional farming. The ISME Journal 9: 1177–1194.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Jarak M., Đurić S. (2006): Laboratory Manual of Microbiology. Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad. Kong AY., Scow KM., Córdova-Kreylos AL., Holmes WE., Six J. (2011): Microbial community composition and carbon cycling within soil microenvironments of conventional, low-input, and organic cropping systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43(1): 20–30. Mahmood T., Ali R., Hussain F., Tahir G.R. (2005): Seasonal changes in soil microbial biomass carbon under a wheat-maize cropping system receiving urea and farmyard manure in different combinations. Pakistan Journal of Botany 37(1): 105-117. Marschner P., Crowley D., Yang CH. (2004): Development of specific rhizosphere bacterial communities in relation to plant species, nutrition and soil type. Plant and Soil 261: 199–208. Mrkovački N., Đalović I., Marinković J., Červenski J., Najvirt B. (2012): Microbial abundance in the rhizosphere of maize and soybean: conventional and organic system production. Proceedings of Third International Scientific Symposium „Agrosym 2012“, Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, p. 241-244. Nannipieri P., Ascher J., Ceccherini M.T., Landi L., Pietramellara G., Renella G. (2003): Microbial diversity and soil functions. European Journal of Soil Science 54: 655–670. Orr C., Leifert C., Cummings PS., Cooper MJ. (2012): Impacts of organic and conventional crop management on diversity and activity of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria and total cacteria are subsidiary to temporal effects. PLOS ONE 7(12): e52891. Pimentel D., Hepperly P., Hanson J., Douds D., Seidel R. (2005): Environmental, energetic, and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. BioScience 55 (7): 573-582. Reeves DW. (1997): The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in continuous cropping systems. Soil and Tillage Research 43: 131-167. Shannon D., Sen AM., Johnson DB. (2002): A comparative study the microbiology of soils managed under organic and conventional regimes. Soil Use and Management 18: 274283. Shi Y., Lalande R., Hamel C., Ziadi N., Gagnon B., Hu Z. (2013): Seasonal variation of microbial biomass, activity, and community structure in soil under different tillage and phosphorus management practices. Biology and Fertility of Soils 49 (7): 803-818. Singh JS., Pandey VC., Singh DP. (2011): Efficient soil microorganisms: a new dimension for sustainable agriculture and environmental development. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 140 (3-4): 339-353. Steel RGD., Torrie JH. (1980): Principles and procedures of statistics: a biometrical approach. 2nd Edn. Mc Graw Hill, New York, USA.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Review paper 10.7251/AGSY15051162V EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FARMING ON SOIL COMPACTION Jovica VASIN1*, Milorad ŽIVANOV1, Jordana NINKOV1, Stanko MILIĆ1, Branislav ŽEŽELJ2 1

Institut of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Serbia Meling doo, Goce Delčeva 13, 11080 Beograd, Serbia *Correspondig author: [email protected]

2

Abstract Soil compaction, an important dynamic and physical property of soil, is represented by the force needed for the compression of soil by the working components of an instrument, and can be quantitatively expressed as МРа. The use of heavy machinery and a large number of cultivation practices increase soil compaction. When soils are subjected to external pressure, soil compaction (increase in soil density) occurs, during which the liquid and gas phases of soil are partly or completely extracted. Anaerobic conditions and water stagnation in the active part of rhizosphere can also occur, resulting in the constrained development of the root system, unwanted chemical processes, anaerobic and slow organic matter decomposition. Soil compaction was tested on agricultural plots under certified organic and conventional farming systems, as part of the project supported by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Serbia. Regardless of their utilization, a high level of soil compaction was generally observed in soils examined at the territory of Central Serbia, caused by high content of clay fraction in the mechanical composition of soil. Identical values of soil compaction were found in the initial 10 cm layer (at the optimal level of 1,0 - 2,5 MPa) both in soils under organic and conventional farming, which can be explained by timely soil management. With the increase in soil depth, compaction of soils under organic farming was lower compared to soils under conventional farming. This result is attributed to higher content of organic matter which was determined in this research. Keywords: compaction, organic and conventional farming, soil Introduction Organic farming is a system of ecological management which promotes and improves biodiversity, circulation of matter, biological activity and soil fertility. One of the prime principles of organic management is preservation and increase in soil fertility level ( Republic of Serbia, 2010). Organic farming is one version of a sustainable management system, which uses crop rotation, intercropping, mulches, green manure, organic waste, and above all, integration of plant production and animal husbandry. Considering the principles of organic production, this system of production is expected to ensure preservation and improvement of soil properties, and prevent soil degradation (Nešić et al., 2014). Soil compaction is one of the main problems of modern agriculture. Increased soil compaction is caused by overuse of heavy machinery for tilling, harvesting, and transport on excessively wet soils, intensive management practices, improper crop rotation and unsuitable soil use. Compaction is defined by increased soil firmness and decreased fertility, caused by the deficiency in soil supplies and inaccessibility of water and plant nutrients. Tilling compacted soils results in increased energy costs, with decrease in yield and quality of crops grown on compacted soils. Furthermore, tilling compacted soils results in runoff and destruction of agricultural machinery, ultimately resulting in increased costs of production on these soils. Compacted soils are also unsuitable as habitats for soil flora and fauna. Since the soil compaction process and its effects on physical characteristics, plant growth, chemical and 1162

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ ecological processes are still inadequately researched, this study focuses on causes and effects of compaction occurring on agricultural soils, and the possible solutions to this problem (Gajić, 2006). The aim of the study is to review the effects of organic and conventional farming systems on soil compaction. Materials and methods The research was conducted on five locations in Central Serbia. Locations were chosen based on the concentration of plots under organic farming (data taken from the database of Serbia Organica). Area reconnaissance, field survey, and soil sampling were performed in the period from August to October 2013. The tested soil plots under organic and conventional farming systems are nearby, and a after a review of field reports and through conducting a producers' survey, it was confirmed that the same tilling operations had been applied on the plots during a longer period of time. Soil compaction was determined with the use of “Penetrologger – Eijkelkamp Agrisearch Equipment” supported by software “Eijkelkamp PenetroViwer Software” . The machine operates on the principle of measuring soil resistance to penetration of the working cone (expressed as МРа (1 МРа = 100 N/cm2)). Penetration is performed through the opening on the reference metal board on the surface, whose function is to reflect the signal of the ultrasound sensor, precisely showing the depth of measurement. Reference board also serves to emit the signal which controls the speed of penetration. Soil compaction is determined up to 80 cm of soil depth. Total of 100 samples were collected at 14 localities, from the plots under both certified organic and conventional farming systems (Figure 1).

Figure 1 – Locations of plots under organic and conventional farming

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ For the purpose of conducting analyses within this study, soils were sampled in disturbed condition using the agro-chemical probe at two soil depths (0-30 and 30-60 cm). The collected samples were tested for soil mechanical composition (pipette method, sample preparation using Na-pyrophosphate according to Thun) and humus content (Turin method), at the Laboratory for Soil and Agroecology at the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops. The research applied standard methods of the Laboratory accredited by the Serbian Accrediation Body Акредитационог according to the standard SRPS ISO/IEC 17025:2006. Results and discussion Observed values of soil compaction (Graph 1) at the depth of 10 cm were classified as moderately or highly compacted soil (according to reference values used to estimate the relative compaction of a soil (Birkás, 2008).

Graph 1 – Compaction (penetrometric resistance) of soils The obtained high values result from heavier mechanical composition of the tested soil (Graph 2), which is in accordance with the results of Baham (2005), Gajić et al. (2005), and Hettiaratchi (1987). These authors state that mechanical composition of soil is in direct proportion to the intensity of soil compaction, hence heavy soils (soils with a higher clay content) are more compacted.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ organic farming 0-30 cm 30-60 cm

conventional farming 0-30 cm 30-60 cm

24 %

27 %

44 %

32 %

26 % 33 %

sand

41 %

32 %

dust

41 %

29 % 29 %

42 %

clay

Graph 2 – Mechanical composition of the tested soil (percentage of sand, dust, and clay) However, concerning that all sampled soils exhibited an equally heavy mechanical composition, it did not make any difference in soil compaction between soils under organic and conventional farming. At the depth of 10-35 cm, which is the depth of organic manure application, there was a clear difference in soil compaction levels between soils under organic and conventional farming. The lower level of soil compaction in soils under organic farming is caused by application of organic fertilizers, and higher humus content in soils (Graph 3, Table 1). Sample soils were divided into four groups according to their humus content: low 1-3 %, average 3-5 %, high 5-10 %, and >10 % very high humus content. organic farming 0-30 cm 30-60 cm

6% 5% 47 %

42 %

conventional farming 0-30 cm 30-60 cm

20 %

36 %

80 %

20 % 64 %

low humus content average humus content high humus content very high humus content Graph 3 – Percentage of sample soils classified by the humus content

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80 %


Farming systems Organic Conventional

Table 1 – Humus content in sampled soils Humus (%) Depth (cm) Mean ± SD 0-30 4,09 ± 2,50 30-60 2,23 ± 0,76 0-30 2,92 ± 0,56 30-60 2,00 ± 0,65

Range 1,88 – 10,81 1,66 – 3,97 2,04 – 3,84 1,40 – 3,00

Gajić (2006) also reports that soils with higher humus content are more resistant to compaction, due to their elasticity and better structure. The increase in soil depth by over 60 cm resulted in soils exhibiting similar values of penetrometric resistance (soil compaction) under both farming systems. Conclusion The results obtained from testing soil compaction and comparison of results between soils under organic and conventional farming indicate significant differences between these two concepts of farming. Soils under organic farming exhibited lower values of soil compaction compared to soils under conventional farming, which should be attributed to the use of organic fertilizers (mainly manure). Higher content of humus (organic substances) was found in soils under organic farming. This claim is also supported by the differences observed between soil depth of 10 cm and the depth of organic fertilizer application (about 30-35 cm), while the same levels of soil compaction were observed in deeper soil layers within both farming systems. References Baham J. (2005): Soil compaction in west. Oregon vineyards: Soil compaction survey conducted in the spring of 1999. Crop and Soil Science 2005 Birkás M. (2008): Erviromentally-sound adaptable tillage, Akadémiai Kiadó, 351. Čuvardić M., Belić M., Nešić Lj., Vasin J., Šeremešić S. (2005): Uticaj organske i konvencionalne proizvodnje na sadržaj organske materije u černozemu (Effects of organic and conventional production systems on organic matter content in chernozem). Letopis naučnih radova, god. 29 (2005), broj 1, Poljoprivredni fakultet Novi Sad, 187-195 Gajić B., Milivojević J., Bošnjaković G., Matović G. (2005): Zbijenost zemljišta različitih teksturnih klasa u zasadima malina ariljskog malinogorja (Compaction of the soils of various textural classes in raspberry plantations of raspberry growing region of Arilje). Poljoprivredna tehnika 30(2): 25-30. Gajić B. (2006): Uzroci i posledice zbijanja njivskih zemljišta (Causes and consequences of arable soil compaction). Poljoprivredna tehnika, vol. 31, br. 2, str. 47-54 Hettiaratchi, D.R.P. (1987): A critical state soil mechanics model for agricultural soils. Soil use manage. 3, p. 94-105. Nešić Lj., Belić M., Savin L., Ćirić V., Stefanović M., Manojlović M. (2014): Effects of organic production on soil structure. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 20(5): 1168-1174. Republic of Serbia (2010): Zakon o organskoj proizvodnji (The Law on Organic Production). Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije, broj 30/10 od 7.5.2010., Član 6, str 3-4 http://www.serbiaorganica.info/downloads/Zakon%20o%20organskoj%20proizvodnji. pdf Pristupljeno 01.07.2015. http://www.dnrl.minpolj.gov.rs/download/dokumenta/organska.pdf Pristupljeno 30.08.2015. 1166

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051167U CROP INTERACTIONS IN GREEN BEAN INTERCROPPING WITH LETTUCE AND RADISH Milan UGRINOVIĆ1, Snežana OLJAČA2*, Nebojša MOMIROVIĆ2, Željko DOLIJANOVIĆ2, Milka BRDAR JOKANOVIĆ3, Mladen ĐORĐEVIĆ1 1

Institute for Vegetable Crops, Karađorđeva 71, 11420 Smederevska Palanka, Serbia University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia 3 Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia *Correspondig author: [email protected]

2

Abstract The scope of improving vegetable production through suitable intercrop combinations has not yet been exploited to its full potential. Research goals were to evaluate crop suitability for intercropping systems, to evaluate the effect of fertilization and sowing dates on productivity of green bean, lettuce and radish and to study the main factors responsible for crop performance when intercropped under field conditions in 2009–2010. A field trial was set up in a random block system with four repetitions on experimental field of the Institute for Vegetable Crops in Smederevska Palanka, Serbia. Green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as a main crop was intercropped with leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and radish (Raphanus sativus var. radicula L.). Also, all crops were grown in pure stands. The intercrops were created according to the method of replacement series. The treatments of fertilization consisted of following variants: control treatment without fertilization, microbiological and mineral fertilizers and farm yard manure. All the treatments were examined for two sowing periods, spring and summer.Yield variation was significantly affected by the year of sowing, fertilization and interaction of these factors. LER values were always larger than 1 in intercropping systems. The mechanisms involved in the overyielding were the green bean canopy plasticity and its temporal deployment asynchrony when compared with lettuce and radish, allowing reduction of competition for light and production factors. The study showed that green bean based intercrops might provide the higher total yields. Keywords: intercropping, green bean, lettuce, radish, LER index Introduction Intercropping is a traditional cultivation practice widely used all over the world (Carruthers et al., 2000; Ghosh et al., 2009). As a type of mixed cropping, it is defined as a cultivation of two or more crops in the same space at the same time (Vandermeer, 1989; Oljača et al., 2000 a). Legume species are the most common members of intercrops, due to their ability to provide nitrogen through the sybiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Comparing to corresponding sole crops, higher productivity was approved in many legume based intercrops, such as wheat and chickpea (Betencourt et al., 2012), barley and pea (Launay et al., 2009), maize and peanut (Xiong et al., 2013), maize and soybean (Dolijanović et al., 2013; Oljača et al., 2014) and especially maize and bean (Oljača et al., 2000 a; Mucheru-Muna et al., 2010; Worku 2014). The most of intercropping experiments were related to field crops. However there is lack of data for vegetable intercrops and only a few papers are strictly related to vegetable species (Yildirim and Guvenc 2005; Tosti and Thorup-Kristensen 2010). Green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is very popular and widely grown vegetable species all over the world (Gepts 1998). As a member of Fabaceae family, green bean is in sybiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the majority of short green bean varieties mature after 50 to 60 days (Lešić et al., 2004). Lettuce and especially radish are also fast 1167

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ ripening vegetable species (Lešić et al., 2004). During winter and spring, lettuce and radish are the first fresh vegetables on the market. Green bean, lettuce and radish are mentioned as good or bad neighbours in gardens (Lazić et al., 1991), but there is lack of data related to these intercrops analysed with contemporary scientific methods (Oljača et al., 2000b). This study was conducted with a purpose to investigate the effects of intercropping green bean with lettuce and radish, different types of fertilizers and different sowing dates on green bean, lettuce and radish yields and productivity of intercrops evaluated using RY and LER indices. Materials and methods A two year (2009-2010) field experiment was conducted at the Institute for vegetable crops, Smederevska Palanka (44o 22' N, 20o 57'E, altitude 101 m above sea level), in order to evaluete vegetable intercropping systems based on green bean, lettuce and radish. Soil type was vertisol with pH 6.7, 3.13% of organic matter, 0.16% of nitrogen, 0.0% of calcium carbonate, 374.2 ppm of available phosphorus and 335.6 ppm available potasium (Egner et al. 1960). The experiment was set up as a completely randomized block design with four replications. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. ''Neva'') and radish (Raphanus sativus var. radicula L. cv. ''Non plus ultra'') were grown as a sole crops and intercropped with green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. ''Palanačka rana''). Green bean was also grown as a sole crop. Four fertilization treatments used were: a) control treatment without fertilization (C), b) microbiological fertilizer (MB), c) mineral fertilizer (NPK) and d) farm yard manure (FYM). All treatments were examined for two sowing periods, spring and summer. The size of experimental plot was 12,5 m2, with 0,5 m spacing between different experimental plots. Green bean sole crop experimental plots consisted of 12 rows (0.4 m inter-row spacing) and sowing density was 250 x 103 plants per hectare. Lettuce and radish sole crops experimental plots consisted of seedbeds, 1.0 m width, with 0.5 m spacing between seedbeds and sowing densities were 177x103 and 758x103 plants per hectar, respectively. For intercropping treatments, the method of replacement series was used (de Wit 1960). Two rows of green bean (0.4) were associated with seedbed of lettuce or radish (0.8 m with). Plant spacing in mixtures was the same as in pure stands of examined crops. The number of plants per unit area in intercrops were 125 x 103, 114 x 103 and 525 x 103 plants per hectare of green bean, lettuce and radish, respectively. Previous crop was wheat. The common tillage practices, such as plowing and disking were applied during the winter. Before additional tillage, certain experimental plots (fertilization treatments) were fertilized with mineral fertilizer (75 kg of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium per hectare) or composted farmyard manure (40 t/hectare). Harrow with elastic spikes was used for presowing cultivation. Sowing (lettuce and radish: 13.04.2009. and 13.04.2010; green bean: 14.04.2009. and 16.04.2010.) and weeding were performed manualy. Plots were watered several times during the growing season. With exception of certain plots mineral fertilizing, all cultivation measures were in accordance with organic production standards. The microbial fertilizer Slavol (containing: Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus subtilis, Azotobacter chrocoocum, Azotobacter vinelandi, Derxia sp.) was applied during the first true leaf stage of green beans. The application was performed using 1,5% microbial fertilizer aqueous solution in the amount of 6 l/ha. The treatment was repeated after 10 days. At radish, lettuce and green bean maturity stage, iner rows were harvested and used to calculate yields per hectare, Relative yields (RY) and Land equivalent ratio (LER). LER is sum of the relative yields (RY) of intercrops (Vandermeer, 1989), green bean with lettuce

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ (LER = RYgreen bean + RYlettuce) and green bean with radish (LER = RYgreen bean + RYradish). The relative yields of green bean, lettuce and radish were calculated by following equation: RY = I / M (I is yield of some crop per hectare in intercrop and M is its yield per hectar in monoculture). Results and discussion Average monthly temperatures and rainfalls during the two experimental years, are shown in Figure 1. Comparing to long-term average, both experimental years were characterized by higher temperature values and rainfalls. In 2009 annual temperature mean (12,42oC), and average monthly temperatures (except november) were significantly higher than long term temperature means for Smederevska Palanka. Annual rainfall sum was 788 mm, but in april and may, extreme drought, uncommon for spring time, was noticed. Another drought period with less rainfalls occured in august and september. In 2010, similarly as the previos year of trial, annual temperature mean (12,6oC), and average monthly temperatures (except october and november) were significantly higher than long term temperature means. Despite the higher annual rainfall sum (730 mm), drought period appeared in august.

Figure 1. Average monthly temperatures (oC) and monthly rainfall summs (mm) during the two experimental years (2009-2010) Green bean, lettuce and radish yields were affected by tested fertilizers, as shown in Table 1. Comparing to control treatment, higher green bean, lettuce and radish yields were recorded on the plots treated with microbiological fertilizer and farmyard manure. Similar results were already reported for green bean (Stone et al., 2003) and lettuce yields (Okur et al., 2008). Radish yield was also affected by tested fertilizers but, in this trial it was lower than yield reported by Miladinović et al. (1997). The highest green bean, lettuce and radish yields were recorded on treatments with the mineral fertilizer, probably due to a high availability of major nutrients. Table 1. Yields of sole crops (SC), relative yields (RY), standard errors (SE) and land equivalent ratio (LER) of intercropped (IC) green bean with lettuce and radish, treated with different fertilizers, during the two growing seasons (two years average: 2009-2010)

IC

Treatment

SC yield

SE 1169

RY

SE

LER

SE

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ First sowing date (spring) Green bean 9,17 0,194 0,54 0,014 Control 1,2 0,014 Lettuce 15,14 0,715 0,66 0,013 Green bean 10,04 0,149 0,52 0,01 MB 1,17 0,014 Lettuce 17,84 1,158 0,65 0,008 Green bean 10,47 0,132 0,53 0,006 NPK 1,2 0,005 Lettuce 20,53 0,812 0,67 0,008 Green bean 9,92 0,197 0,52 0,012 FYM 1,17 0,018 Lettuce 17,94 0,77 0,65 0,01 Green bean 9,17 0,194 0,54 0,012 Control 1,23 0,015 Radish 5,03 0,228 0,69 0,011 Green bean 10,04 0,149 0,51 0,009 MB 1,2 0,01 Radish 5,45 0,265 0,69 0,009 Green bean 10,47 0,132 0,51 0,008 NPK 1,2 0,008 Radish 5,86 0,119 0,69 0,004 Green bean 9,92 0,197 0,5 0,017 FYM 1,21 0,031 Radish 5,66 0,19 0,71 0,017 Second sowing date (summer) Green bean 9,99 0,154 0,49 0,013 Control 1,16 0,014 Lettuce 13,8* 0,215 0,66 0,01 Green bean 10,23 0,093 0,51 0,009 MB 1,17 0,004 Lettuce 14,91* 0,522 0,66 0,009 Green bean 11,33 0,13 0,51 0,018 NPK 1,17 0,027 Lettuce 16,45* 0,338 0,66 0,017 Green bean 10,3 0,236 0,51 0,015 FYM 1,2 0,027 Lettuce 15,72* 0,495 0,69 0,012 Green bean 9,99 0,154 0,5 0,014 Control 1,21 0,017 Radish 6,58* 0,311 0,71 0,008 Green bean 10,23 0,093 0,48 0,013 MB 1,19 0,009 Radish 6,86* 0,107 0,71 0,011 Green bean 11,33 0,13 0,5 0,005 NPK 1,2 0,011 Radish 7,33* 0,304 0,7 0,007 Green bean 10,3 0,236 0,52 0,019 FYM 1,25 0,016 Radish 7,45* 0,231 0,72 0,006 Control – without fertilizer; MB – microbiological fertilizer; NPK – mineral fertilizer (15:15:15); FYM – highly decomposed farmyard manure; * - blossom emergence; Subjected to the sowing season, green bean and radish yields were higher in the second sowing date but lettuce yields were higher in the first sowing date. That was not in accordance with results of Ferreira et al. (2006) who reported lower green bean yields in later sowing periods. Also, in second sowing period, green bean treated with FYM, achieved higher yields than those treated with microbiological fertilizer. It was presumably caused by better soil properties and water accumulation, improved with high amounts of organic matter, contained in FYM. However, in second sowing period, in lettuce and radish sole crops and intercrops, regardless to fertilizing treatments, frequent blossom emergence was noticed. High temperatures and long day terms could promote blossom emergence (Miladinović et al. 1997), so the lettuce and radish yield quality was significantly reduced. Green bean relative yields (RY) varied about 0,5 in both intercrops, i.e. relative yields of green bean were not significantly affected by intercropping, regardless of another intercropped species. Slightly higher green bean RY values were recorded in the first sowing

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ season but it is not definetly clear what caused these differences. Lettuce and radish RY were above 0,5 and influenced LER index values higher than one. LER is usually used for an intercrop efficacy evaluation. LER index higher than 1, sugests that the intercropping is much more efficient than sole crops and that the competition for light, water and soil resources among intercropped species is not significant (Vandermeer 1989). Oppositly to first sowing period, in the second sowing period, LER index values of intercrops treated with FYM were higher than untreated or those treated with other fertilizers. It is probably corelated with soil water availability during the drought period. Hati et al. (2006) reported better rooting of soybean and improved physical properties of the soil after farmyard manure application. Conclusion Examined intercrops approved as a better choice, comparing to related sole crops. They could be useful in achieving higher total yields, regardless to applied fertilizer or sowing date. However different lettuce and radish genotypes should be used because the tested genotypes are not suitable for late season production. Application of microbiological fertilizers and highly decomposed farmyard manure are suitable for organic green bean/lettuce or green bean/radish intercropping production and also could lead to yield enhancing. Acknowledgement This research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Republic of Serbia, Project TR31059. References Betencourt E., Duputel M., Colomb B., Desclaux D., Hinsinger P. (2012). Intercropping promotes the ability of durum wheat and chickpea to increase rhizosphere phosphorus availability in a low P soil. Soil biology and biochemistry 46: 181–190. Carruthers K., Prithiviraj B., Fe Q., Cloutier D., Martin R.C., Smith D.L. (2000). Intercropping corn with soybean, lupin and forages: yield component responses. European Journal of Agronomy, 12(2): 103–115. Dolijanović Ž., Oljača S., Kovačević D., Simić M., Momirović N., Jovanović Ž. (2013). Dependence of the productivity of maize and soybean intercropping systems on hybrid type and plant arrangement pattern. Genetika, 45(1), 135-144. Egner H.A.N.S., Riehm H., Domingo W.R. (1960). Untersuchungen uber die chemische bodenanalyse als grundlage fur die beurteilung des nahrstoffzustandes der boden. II. Chemische extraktionsmethoden zur phosphor und kaliumbestimmung. Kungliga lantbrukshogskolans annaler, 26: 199-215. Gepts P. (1998). Origin and evolution of common bean: past events and recent trends. HortScience 33(7): 1124-1130. Ghosh P.K., Tripathi A.K., Bandyopadhyay K.K., Manna M.C. (2009). Assessment of nutrient competition and nutrient requirement in soybean/sorghum intercropping system. European journal of agronomy, 31(1): 43–50. Hati K.M., Mandal K.G., Misra A.K., Ghosh P.K., Bandyopadhyay K.K. (2006). Effect of inorganic fertilizer and farmyard manure on soil physical properties, root distribution, and water-use efficiency of soybean in Vertisols of central India. Bioresource Technology, 97(16), 2182-2188. Launay M., Brisson N., Satger S., Hauggaard-Nielsen H., Corre-Hellou G., Kasynova E., Ruske R., Jensen E.S., Gooding M.J. (2009). Exploring options for managing strategies for pea–barley intercropping using a modeling approach. European journal of agronomy, 31(2): 85-98.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Lazić B., Đurovka M., Marković V., Jasnić S., Sekulić P. (1991). Dobit iz zaštićene bašte. Krstin, Novi Sad, 1-225. Lešić R., Borošić J., Buturac I., Herak-Ćustić M., Poljak M., Romić D. (2004). Povrćarstvo. Zrinski, Ĉakovec, 1-656. Miladinović T., Damjanović M., Brkić S., Marković T., Stevanović D., Sretenović-Rajičić., Zečević B., Đorđević R., Čorokalo D., Stanković Lj., Zdravković M., Zdravković J., Marinković N., Mijatović M., Obradović A., Starčević M., Milić B., Todorović V. (1997). Gajenje povrća. Institut za istraţivanja u poljoprivredi Srbija, Beograd, 1-486. Mucheru-Muna M., Pypers P., Mugendi D., Kung’u J., Mugwe J., Roel Merckx, Bernard Vanlauwe (2010): A staggered maize–legume intercrop arrangement robustly increases crop yields and economic returns in the highlands of Central Kenya. Field crops research, 115(2): 132–139. Okur N., Kayikcioglu H.H., Okur B., Delibacak S. (2008). Organic amendment based on tobacco waste compost and farmyard manure: influence on soil biological properties and butter-head lettuce yield. Turkish journal of agriculture and forestry, 32(2): 91-99. Oljača S., Cvetković R., Kovačević D., Vasić G., Momirović N. (2000a). Effect of plant arrangement pattern and irrigation on efficiency of maize (Zea mays) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) intercropping system. Journal of Agricultural Science Cambridge, 135, 261-270. Oljača S., Cvetković R., Kovačević D., Milošev D. (2000b). Diverzifikacija agroekosistema kao naĉin zaštite i oĉuvanja neobnovljivih prirodnih resursa. Zbornik radova, Ekokonferencija 2000: Zdravstveno bezbedna hrana. Knjiga II, Novi Sad, 81-86. Oljača S., Dolijanović Z., Simić M., Spasojević I., Dragićević V., Oljača M. (2014). Effects of intercropping pattern and fertilizers on weediness of red maize-black soyabean intercropping system. Proceedings of the Fifth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2014“, Jahorina, 295-299. Stone A.G., Vallad G.E., Cooperband L.R., Rotenberg D., Darby H.M., James R.V., Stevenson W.R., Goodman R.M. (2003). Effect of organic amendments on soilborne and foliar diseases in field-grown snap bean and cucumber. Plant disease 87(9): 10371042. Tosti G., Thorup-Kristensen K. (2010). Using coloured roots to study root interaction and competitionin intercropped legumes and non-legumes. Journal of plant ecology, 3(3): 191–199. Vandermeer J. (1989). The Ecology of Intercropping. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1-237. Worku W. (2014). Sequential intercropping of common bean and mung bean with maize in southern Ethiopia. Experimental agriculture, 50(1): 90-108. Xiong H., Shen H., Zhang L., Zhang Y., Guo X., Wang P., Duan P., Ji C., Zhong L., Zhang F., Zuo Y. (2013). Comparative proteomic analysis for assessment of the ecological significance of maize and peanut intercropping. Journal of proteomics, 78: 447-460. Yildirim E., Guvenc I. (2005). Intercropping based on cauliflower: more productive, profitable and highly sustainable. European Journal of Agronomy, 22(1): 11-18.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051173D THE IMPACT OF BIOCHAR ON HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE SOIL Jana DOMANOVÁ*, Dušan IGAZ, Tomáš BORZA, Ján HORÁK Department of Biometeorology and Hydrology, Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Hospodárska 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia *Coresponding author mail: [email protected]

Abstract Biochar as a highly porous material, thus its application to soil is thought to improve a range of soil hydro-physical properties. However, compared to these properties, little is known about the impact of biochar on soil hydraulic conductivity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of biochar on soil hydraulic conductivity of sandy loam soil. Research study was undertaken at experimental site of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (locality Malanta, near Nitra). Nine plots were set out on the experimental area. The field experiment consisted of 3 levels of biochar application 0, 10 and 20 tha-1. Biochar was applied in March 2014 into the depth 0 – 10 cm of soil in 3 replications. Samples of soil were taken 53 days after applications of biochar. Saturated soil hydraulic conductivity was measured using Falling Head Method (FHM), based on measurement with variable hydraulic slop. After 53 days biochar amendment improved soil hydraulic properties. The rates of biochar significantly increased soil hydraulic conductivity. Keywords: biochar, saturated hydraulic conductivity, Introduction Carbon plays very important role in soil. It has the potential to influence physical, hydrophysical and chemical processes in soil (DeLuca et al., 2006; Glaser et al., 2001). It has also been shown to affect soil productivity, quality and fertility and nutrient cycling, which all affect crop production (Skjemstad et al., 2002; Lal, 2004). The understanding how the addition of carbon may influence the soil is essential. The products produced from pyrolysis include a gaseous material referred to as “syngas” and a carbon (C) rich, charcoal material known as biochar (Lehmann, 2007). Biochar is a stable, recalcitrant organic carbon material created by pyrolysis of biomass at temperatures between 300 and 1000°C under low or no oxygen conditions (Jeffery et al. 2011; Krull 2011; Verheijenet al.2010). The application of biochar made to the soil has the potential to reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizer, as well as enhance soil chemical and physical properties (Krishnakumar et al, 2013). Biochar is highly porous, thus its application to soil is considered to improve arrange of soil physical properties including; total porosity, pore-size distribution, soil density, soil moisture content, water holding capacity or plantavabter content (PAWC) and hydraulic conductivity (Atkinson et al. 2010; Major et al. 2009; Sohi et al.2010; Sohi et al. 2009b; Zwieten et al. 2012). The possible mechanisms by which coal-derived humic acids improve soil physical properties are the formation of organic-mineral complexes by functional groups of the humic acids. The hydrophobic polyaromatic backbone reduces the entry of water into the aggregate pores leading to an increased aggregate stability and water availability. Given the importance of hydraulic conductivity in determining the partitioning of precipitation between infiltration and overland flow (Mishera et al. 2003), which impacts water storage in the subsurface and thus plant available water, it is necessary to understand the effects of biochar on the hydraulic properties of different soil types. Deveraux et al. (2012) estimate that biochar significantly decreased saturated hydraulic conductivity, on the other hand biochars produced from the pyrolysis of corn stover feedstock 1173

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ at 350 and 550 °C temperatures significantly increased K of the Typical Fragiaqualf soil (Herath et al. 2013). Biochar amendment decreased saturated hydraulic conductivity by 92% in sand and 67% in organic soil, but increased K by 328% in clay-rich soil (Barnes et al. 2014). This manuscript provides detailed assessment of the effects of applying 10 and 20 t/ha paper fiber sludge and grain husks biochar to a sandy loam soil in Nitra region of Slovakia. Materials and methods Experimental area This field trial was conducted in March 2014 at the experimental site of SAU-Nitra (NitraMalanta) in Nitra region of Slovakia (lat. 48°19´00´´; lon. 18°09´00´´). The soil type is classified as OrthicLuvisol (FAO, 1998). The average annual air temperature was 10.3°C and annual precipitation was 640mm during the studied year (2014).

Fig. 1 Experimental site of SAU-Nitra (Nitra-Malanta) in Nitra region of Slovakia (lat. 48°19´00´´; lon. 18°09´00´´) The field experiment consisted of treatments: Control (without adding biochar), B10 (soil+biochar in rate 10 t/ha) and B20 (soil+biochar in rate 10 t/ha). Every plot was in 3 replications. There were 9 plots (4m x 6m), separated by a protection row 0.5 m. Biochar was applying into the soil in March 2014 and 53 days after application there were taken the samples of soil for measuring of satured hydraulic conductivity.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Biochar characterization Biochar used for the field experiment was produced from paper fiber sludge and grain husks (1:1 w/w) (company Sonnenerde, Austria) by pyrolysis at 550°C for 30 minutes in a Pyreg reactor (Pyreg GmbH, Dörth, Germany).

Biochar

C/% 53.1

-1

C / g kg 531

Tab. 1 Characteristics of biochar N / % N / g kg-1 H / % H / g kg-1 1.4 14 1.84 18,4

O / % O / g kg-1 5.3 53

Determination of hydraulic conductivity using falling head method There was used device working on principle of measurement with variable hydraulic slope (i.e. above the measured soil sample changes the water level during time) to determine the hydraulic conductivity in laboratory condition. Soil samples were taken into non-corrodible metal rollers with volume of 100 cm3. It is necessary to have soil moisture at the value close to field capacity for taking undisturbed soil samples so therefore the sampling date was 2 days after intensive precipitations. Soil sample roller was lightly pressed into to soil using lever lifter. Soil sample was saturated by water before taking a measurement. The saturation lasted for 24 hours. The value of hydraulic conductivity coefficient was calculated according to equation:

K

H L . ln 2 t H1

(cm.s-1)

where: L is the length of roller (cm), t is time of water drop from height H2 to H1(s), H2 is an initial height of water in the extension piece, it is another roller whose flow surface is equal to flow surface of soil sample (cm), H1 is the height of water in the extension piece after drop of water level (cm). Statistical analysis The statistical processing of the data included the determination of means and standard deviations. One-way analysis of variance (ANNOVA) at p 50 pollen grains per m3 of air, the birch pollen > 30 pollen grains per m3 of air while in acse the of hazel pollen it is enough > 12 pollen grains per m3 of air to cause an allergic reaction. In addition to daily concentrations during the sampling of Betulaceae aeroallergenic pollen it was determined seasonal dynamics of pollination species Betula, Alnus and Corylus, or beginning and end of the season with the maximum concentration values present aeroallergens in the area of Banja Luka. Obtained data are presented to the public media in the form of aeropalynological reports or so called pollen semephore (tab. 1).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Tab. 1. Number of trees pollen grains in the air with the corresponding percentage of people with a possible symptoms occurence of allergic reactions (Forsyth County Environmental Affairs Department Pollen Rating Scale, PRS) Pollen value

No of pollen grains/m3 air trees

Symptoms occurence of allergic reactions

Not present

0

No simptoms

Low

1-15

Only in extremely sensitive individuals

Medium

16-90

In 50% sensitive individuals

High

91-1500

Almost all allergic individuals

Very high

>1500

All allergic individuals

Results and discussion Beginning of season pollination of aeroalergenic species of family Betulaceae (Alnus glutinosa, Betula pendula and Corylus avellana) in Banja Luka, during the seven years of monitoring, has been recorded since the second week of March for the period 2008 - 2011 and from the third decade of February for the period 2012 - 2014. According to the literature in Italy (Tedeschini et al., 2003), the beginning of pollination in plants that bloom in winter, like Corylus may occur later, which is exactly the case in the area of Banja Luka during 2008 2011, while earlier pollination of hazel was recorded during the three-year period 2012 2014. On the other hand for the species Alnus glutinosa and Betula pendula in the area of Banja Luka during the seven-year monitoring was recorded early pollination, from the end of the first decade and the beginning of the second decade of March, which also states in areas of northern Europe (Van Vliet et al., 2002). However occurence of alder and birch pollen grains is characterized by the appearance of actually low concentrations or absence of pollen grains from the beginning of pollination, which means that the allergic reaction could occur only in extremely sensitive individuals (Photo 1-7). According to the monitoring more than 70% of pollen species in the family Betulaceae were sampled during March and April. However pollination season through seven years monitoring lasted until the third decade of May, which is actually longer pollination season for Betulaceae aeroallergen, and in such circumstances, or during long periods of pollination the risk of cross reactions between Betulaceae pollen and pollen of fruit species could increase (Radisic et al., 2003). On anually level total recorded Alnus glutinosa pollen number/m3 was 315 p/m3 (2008), 294 p/m3 (2009), 261 p/m3 (2010), 252 p/m3 (2011), 208 p/m3 (2012), 359 p/m3 (2013) and 426 p/m3 (2014). Total recorded Betula pendula pollen number /m3 was 1006 p/m3 (2008), 957 p/m3 (2009), 951 p/m3 (2010), 1223 p/m3 (2011), 703 p/m3 (2012), 982 p/m3 (2013) and 457 p/m3 (2014). In cas of Corylus avelana total recorded pollen number /m3 was 126 p/m3 (2008), 118 p/m3 (2009), 108 p/m3 (2010), 100 p/m3 (2011), 168 p/m3 (2012), 130 p/m3 (2013) and 311 p/m3 (2014) (Photo 8).

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Photo. 1. Seasonal dynamic of Betulaceae species pollination in 2008






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Photo. 8. Concentration of Betulaceae pollen species in Banja Luka during 2008 - 2014


Conclusion During seven year monitoring (2008 - 2014) pollen of three species in the family Betulaceae, it was established dominance of birch pollen and proportionally significantly lower total recorded hazel and alder pollen value in the Banja Luka city. On the dominance of birch pollen indicates the number of days with a concentration of pollen that exceeds the level of occurrence of allergic reactions because the birch pollen ranged between 5-12 days, 2-4 days for the hazel pollen, while in case of alder pollen in seven monitoring was not determined a concentration of pollen that exceeds the level of allergic reactions occurrence. In addition to birch pollen dominance among species in the family Betulaceae, according to results of monitoring the birch pollen season has shown significant variation in terms of the total amount of pollen on annualy level and the dynamics during the period of pollination, which is why monitoring is still necessary, especially for people with high sensitivity to Betulaceae species. References Corsico, R. (1993). L‘asthme allergique en Europe. (Allergen asthma in Europe). In: F.T.M. Spieksma, N. Nolard, G.Frenguelli & D.Van Cronquist, A. (1988). The evolution and classification of flowering plants. 2d ed. New York Botanical Garden, New York. Hirst, J.M. 1952. An automatic volumetric spore trap. Ann Appl Biol, 39: 257. Ianovici N, Juhasz M, Kofol-Seliger A, Sikoparija B. 2009. Comparative analysis of some vernal pollen concentrations in Timişoara (Romania), Szeged (Hungary), Novi Sad (Serbia) and Ljubljana (Slovenia). Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 37: 49-56. Łukasz, G., Dorota, J., Małgorzata, N., Adriana, P., Bogdan, J., Magdalena C.O., Matt S. (2014). Clinical relevance of Corylus pollen in Poznań, western Poland. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine 2014, Vol 21, No 1, 64–69. Radišič, P., Sikoparija, B., Juhász, M., Ianovici, Nicoleta (2003): Betula pollen season in the Danube – Kris – Mures – Tisa Euroregion (2000-2002), ISIRR, Hunedoara, Romania, Section 4, Annals of the Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara, Tome I, Fascicole 2, 197200. Rodkiewicz B., Śnieżko R., Fyk B., Niewęgłowska B., Tchór z ewska D. 1996. Embriologia Angiospermae rozwojowa i eksperymentalna. (Embryology Angiospermae developmental and experimental). Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin. Scamoni, A. 1955. Beobachtungen uder den Pollenfl ug der Waldbäume in Eberswalde. ( Observations of the Pollen of the forest trees in Eberswalde) Z. Forstgenet, 4: 113-122.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Tedeschini, E., Dioguardi, D., Frenguelli, G. (2003). L’inizio della pollinazione di alcuni taxa come indice dei cambiamenti climatici.( The beginning of the pollination of some taxa as an index of climate change.) In Org. Comm. (Ed.), 98° Congr. Soc. Bot. Italiana, Catania 2003. Abstr. (No 78). Catania: SBI & Catania Univ. Vik H, Florvaag E, Elsayed S. 1991. Allergenic significance of Betula (birch) pollen. In: G. D’Amato, F.T.M. Van Vliet, A. J. H., Overeem, A., De Groot, R., Jacobs, A. & Spieksma, F. T. M. (2002). The influence of temperature and climate change on the timing of pollen release in the Netherlands. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 1757-1767.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051248B OCCURENCE AND DISTRIBUTION MAPPING OF INVASIVE WEED SPECIES HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS L. IN NORTH WESTERN AREA OF REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA Gordana BABIĆ*, Vojislav TRKULJA PI Agricultural Institute of Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Species Helianthus tuberosus L., as many belonging to the Helianthus genus, are caracterised by their successful vegetative propagation, allelopathy or shading, aggressive spreading, elimination of other species of the natural habitats, changing the structure of plant communities, and even behave as dangerous weeds. Considering species habitat requirements, Republic of Srpska is definitely one of the area for potential distribution of Jerusalem artichoke as invasive weed species. In this sense main goal of this study was to investigate the occurence and carry out distribution mapping of Jerusalem artichoke in north western part of Republic of Srpska (RS). Distribution and abundance parameters were done for 40 Helianthus stands based on Blanque Braun (1964) method and GIS software. A wide-spread distribituion reveal a high spreading and renewal potential of the species which turns it into a real threat to native flora and wildlife habitats, watercourses etc. By current research in the north western part of RS Jerusalem artichoke is in significant expansion, resulting in negative ecological, economic and social impact. Regarding to those research priorization process for mentonied area on local level is of a great importance. Key words: Jerusalem artichoke, occurence, distribution, mapping, Republic of Srpska Introduction The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.), native to temperate regions of North America, has been grown in Europe since the 17th century (Slimestad et al., 2010) mainly for tubers. In the mid-18th century it was widely replaced by the potato as a staple food in central Europe (Hartmann et al., 1995). But this species, as many belonging to the Helianthus genus, are caracterised by their successful vegetative propagation, allelopathy or shading, they spread aggressively, eliminate other species of the natural habitats, change the structure of plant communities, and even behave as dangerous weeds. Another major issue related to the invasive taxa of this genus is that by their getting wild, they earn phenologic plasticity, probably hybridize, so their taxonomic position is uncertain and largely debated (Balogh, 2006). The first escaped plants were found in the mid 19th century in some countries, the invasive spread began mostly around 1900 and became more rapid in central Europe in the 1930s (Hartmann et al., 1995). Thus in many European countries H. tuberosus allready have invasive status or it was placed on watch-list wich comprises invasive alien species that have potential to cause damage and therefore their spread should be monitored (photo 1, http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26716).

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= Widespread; = Localised; =Confined and subject to quarantine; = Occasional or few reports;  = Evidence of pathogen; = Last reported; = Presence unconfirmed; = See regional map for Photo 1. Naturalised distribution of Jerusalem artichoke:

=

Present, no further details;

distribution within the country (source http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26716)

According to EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) the Jerusalem artichoke (H. tuberosus L.) is one of the 34 invasive taxa (source www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/ias_plants.htm). The species is invasive even in its native country, disturbing natural forest communities (Balogh, 2006). It is considered an invasive species in Poland, Austria, Italy, Germany, France and Hungary (Wittenberg, 2005). According to Nature protection and biodiversity - State and impacts (Bosnia and Herzegovina) (Eropean Enviroment Agency) from 2010 the same status Jerusalem artichoke has in BiH. Among the invasive weed species Helianthus tuberosus, is one the most common in our area. This species also have a negative effect on the habitats of hygrophilous woods of willow, alder and poplar, which are particularly common in the Posavina area of Bosnia and Herzegovina (source www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/ba/nature-protection-andbiodiversity-state). In spreading of invasive species one of the aggravating circumstances are floods. According to Fehér (2001), the floods also distort riparian vegetation and thus creating new opportunities for colonization by invasive species and forming a source population for spreading invasive species into the surrounding landscape. As an invasive species on river banks, H. tuberosus can result in increased flood erosion, as it has fewer fine roots than native river bank vegetation and leaves the soil bare and unprotected after it dies back in autumn. In addition, its tubers are dug after by rodents resulting in further damage to river banks and flood protection dams (Hartmann et al., 1995; Kowarik, 2003). Regarding to those research in Rebublic of Srpska, with already conolized area by invasive Jerusalem artichoke, flooding waves recorded during 2010 and 2014 are aditional threath for further spreading. Spreading potential, aggressiveness and invasiveness of Jerusalem artichoke as invasive weed species, as well as all facts mentonied above were the background to the main goal of this study which was to evaluate the occurrence, as well as to carry out distribution mapping of invasive species Helianthus tuberosus in north western part of RS.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Material and method The current research mainly focuses on the north western part of RS in relation to species habitat requirements and main environmental features. Field survey was conducted during the vegetation period 2014 in the area of a large number of municipalities of the Republic of Srpska, with emphasis on the territory of the municipalities of Banja Luka, Čelinac, Kotor Varoš, Gradiška, Srbac, Prnjavor and Derventa. Assessment of the occurrence and distribution of Jerusalem artichoke were taken along the roads in the urban areas, between the settlements in ruderal and less arable land, and on the edges of farmland, on arable land, along the river Sava and Vrbanja, as well as along the fish pond, in ditches and on the edges of forests. Quantitative distribution, study species density measure was assessed based on Blanque Braun (1964) method. During fieldwork Helianthus stands were mapped and recorded with GPS, while polygons were digitized using GIS software. All stands have been assigned to size classes (0-10m2; 10-100m2; 100-1000m2; >1000). Species habitat requirements H. tuberosus prefers certain habitat types (Fehér and Končeková, 2001). It is best adapted to rich, moist soil that can be found along roadways, in wasteland areas and gardens (Wyse et al., 1986). According to Hartmann et al. (1995) H. tuberosus is completely naturalized on moist, nutrient-rich, sandy or loamy soils, especially along rivers. The most substantial site of occurrence includes riparian nitrophilic vegetation along watercourses, but also a variety of anthropogenic sites. In the landscape, it spreads very aggressively and settles more and more areas. It is contributed not only by spreading through generative diaspores, but also by vegetative propagation of broken-off parts of corms washed away by water to new sites along the watercourse (Cvachová et al., 2002). Results and discussion A wide-spread distribution of invasive weed species H. tuberosus was observed in the number of municipality of Republic of Srpska, specialy near the water sources in Banja Luka, Prnjavor, Vrbanja, Čelinac, Kotor Varoš and Derventa but as well between the above mentioned municipalities along the roads in populated areas, between settlements in ruderal and less arable land, on the edges of farmland and arable land, along the river Sava and Vrbanja, as well as along the fish pond, in ditches or even in the urban aerias (photo 2-7).

Photo 2. H. tuberosus between Banja Luka and Vrbanja

Photo 3. H. tuberosus in urban area of Derventa

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Photo 4. H. tuberosus along the fish pond Photo 5. H. tuberosus in corn crop

Photo 6. H. tuberosus on river bank of Vrbanja in Čelinac

Photo 7. H. tuberosus on the edges of near Banja Luka

farmland

Regarding to other regions of Europe, H. tuberosus behaves as an invasive weed species in the studied region. Frequent expansion of the species into the surrounding sites inner town, near agricultural lands and the cultivated field is also noticed, beside the expansion on the river bank of Vrbanja and Sava. The abundance of Jerusalem artichoke points to a high density of individuals e.g. up to 70/m2 along the fish pond between Prnjavor and Derventa, as well on river bank of Vrbanja and Sava (up to 30-40/m2). Helianthus tuberosus can invide a resident plant communities and cause decrase in the number of native species or almost completely eliminate them from patches. As a result of the developing relationship of an invading plant a secondary, repeating combination of species is formed in which alien species play the main role (Falinski, 1998). Only in the north western part of RS was recorded 40 Jerusalem artichoke stand. A half of polygons less than 100 m2 were recorded in urban parts of north western area of Republic of Srpska, 15 polygons (100-1000 m2) were recorded betwen Prnjavor and Derventa, Banja Luka and Čelinac, as well as five polygons (1000-10.000 m2) (Photo 81-34).

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82

81

84

83

85

86

87

88

89

810

811

812

813

814

1252


815

8716 15

817

818

819

820

821

822

823

824

825

826

1253


827

828

829

830

831

832

833

834

Photo 81-34. 34 Helinathus stand in the north western part of Republic of Srpska: polygons less than 100 m2 in urban parts, areas between Prnjavor and Derventa, Banja Luka and Čelinac polygons less than 1000 m2 and from 1000-10.000 m2

Conclusion Considering already conolized area by Jerusalem artichokea, number of finding stands in the studied region, high density of individuals/m2, as well as recorded flooding waves in RS ponit out to certain further spreading of H. tuberosus as an invasive weed species. The most sever areas are in the river banks of Vrbanja and Sava, as well as areas along the fish pond between Prnjavor and Derventa. Regarding to the current research in the north western part of Republic of Srpska jerulasem artichikea is in significant expansion, resulting in negative ecological, economic and social impact. Regarding to those research priorization process for mentonied area on local level is of a great importance. Under the given circumstances, undertaking comprehensive studies on the species characteristics and distribution potential on one hand and developing eradication and control methods, on the other are highly recommended.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Balogh, L. (2006): Napraforgófajok (Helianthus spp.) Pp. 247-305. In: BOTTA-DUKÁT Z. & MIHÁLY B. (eds.). Biológiai inváziók Magyarországon. Özönnövények II. (Biological invasions in Hungary. II invasive plants.)– A KVM Természetvédelmi Hivatalának tanulmánykötetei 10, Budapest, 410 pp. Cvachová, A., Chromý, P., Gojdičová, E., Leskovjanská, A., Pietrová, E., Šimková, A., Zaliberová, M. 2002: Príručka na určovanie vybraných inváznych druhov rastlín (Guide for the determination of selected invasive plant species), ŠOP SR, Banská Bystrica, 2002. 62 p. Braun Blanque, J. (1964): Pflanzensoziologie, Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde (Phytosociology, Broad Vegetation Science), 3rd ed., Springer, Wien-New York, 865 pp. Falinski, J. B. (1998): Invasive alien plants, vegetation dynamics. In: Starfinger, U., Edwards, K., Kowarik, I. And Williamson, W. (eds.), Plant invasions: Ecological mechanisams and Human responses. Plant invasion, pp. 3-21. Buckhuys Publisher, Leiden, The Netherlands. Fehér, A. 2001: Invázne správanie sa rastlín v povodí rieky Nitry (Invasive behavior of the plant in Nitra river), Dizertačná práca, FZKI SPU v Nitre, 2001. 161 p. Fehér, A., Končeková L. (2001): Rozširovanie invázneho druhu Helianthus tuberosus v pobrežných spoločenstvách rieky Nitry (The spread of invasive species Helianthus tuberosus in coastal communities of the Nitra River), Bull. Czech Bot. Soc. (Praha), Mater. 18: 149-159. Hartmann, E., Schuldes, H., Kübler, R., Konold, W. (1995): Neophyten. Biologie, Verbreitung und Kontrolle ausgewählter Arten (Neophytes. Biology, distribution and control of selected species). ecomed, Landsberg. Kowarik, I., 2003. Biologische Invasionen: Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa (Neophytes and invasive species in Central Europe). Stuttgart, Germany: Ulmer. Slimestad, R., Seljaasen, R., Meijer, K., Skar, S.L. (2010): Norwegian-grown Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.): morphology and content of sugars and fructooligosaccharides in stems and tubers. J. Sci. Food Agric., 90(6): 956-964. Wittenberg, R. (ed.) (2005): An inventory of alien species and their threat to biodiversity and economy in Switzerland. 416 pp. Cabi Bioscience Switzerland Centre report to the Swiss Agency for Enviroment, Forests and Landscape. Wyse, D.L., Young, F.L., Jones, R.J. (1986): Influence of Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus teberosus) Density and Duration of Interference on Soybean (Glycine max) Growth and Yield. In: Weed Science, vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 243-247. http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26716 Datasheet: Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke), 2015. http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/ba/nature-protection-and-biodiversity-state. Nature protection and biodiversity - State and impacts (Bosnia and Herzegovina) http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/ba/nature-protection-and-biodiversity-state

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051256F CONTAMINATION OF SOIL AND PLANT MATERIAL IN FLOODED AREAS IN THE LOWER COURSE OF THE RIVER SPREČA (NORTHEASTERN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA) Helena FILIPOVIĆ*, Esad BUKALO, Ahmedin SALČINOVIĆ, Damir BEHLULOVIĆ, Marijana TOMIĆ 1

Federal Institute of Agropedology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Floods in Spreča river basin (northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina) carry all the negative elements that are naturally occurring and through anthropogenic activities. The level of contamination in the soil above the threshold increases the risk of entering the food chain and thus for human health. Particularly at risk is the quality of agricultural crops that are exposed to adverse effects, and there is accumulation of certain toxins in plants. The aim is to study the contamination of soil and plant material caused by floods in the lower course of the river Spreča in the area of municipalities Lukavac and Gračanica. Three profiles were opened on the three different soil types in those municipalities, and soil samples in disturbed and undisturbed condition were taken. General chemical and physical properties of the soil were analyzed in details and the level of the soil contamination with heavy metals and organic pollutants (PAH's) was determined. We also analyzed samples of plant material from cultures that were cultivated at the present microlocalities. Based on determined state of soil and plants contamination, recommendations were given for the introduction of a permanent monitoring system for agricultural soils and plants in this area. Keywords: floods; contamination; heavy metals; PAHs; Introduction The Government of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) adopted the conclusion in which Federal Institute of Agropedology is entrusted to conduct detailed research in the lower course of the river Spreča and to establish a three-year monitoring of the state of pollution of soil and plant material with heavy metals and organic pollutants (PAHs). The main task of the research is to determine the level of contamination of agricultural land and plant material (maize) with organic pollutants (PAHs) and heavy metals, such as: lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg) and copper (Cu). Limit values for heavy metals and organic pollutants were determined in accordance with the Law on Agricultural Land ("Official Gazette of BiH" No. 52/09), the Regulation on determining the permitable amount of harmful and hazardous substances in soil and methods of their usage ("Official Gazette of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina "No. 72/09). For the plant material professional literature was used. The aim of the research is to determine the level of contamination by heavy metals and PAH's in the flooded agricultural lands in the downstream river Spreča and their distribution in corn (root, stem, fruit). It is very important to be able to evaluate the possibilities of agricultural production and the safety of maize in the researched areas near flooded region. Materials and methods In the area of the lower course of the river Spreča we have examined the following parameters: soil texture by the International pipettes "B" method, 1256

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ acidity of the soil in H2O and 1M KCl (on pH meter Eutech PC2700) by method BAS ISO 10390:2009, dichromatic determination of humus (on colorimeter Hach Lange LICO 500), gas-volumetric determination of carbonate (on Scheibler's calcimeter) by method BAS ISO 10693:2000, heavy metals in extracts of soil with aquaregia (on atomic spectrometer AAnalyst 400 Perkin-Elmer) by methods BAS ISO 11466:2000 and BAS ISO ISO 11047:2000), heavy metals in plant material by wet digestion with HNO3-HClO4 mixture, direct determination of Mercury by Thermal Decomposition and Amalgamation (on SMS 100 Mercury Analyzer), PAHs determination by method BAS ISO 18287:2008 (on GC-FID). Results and discussion In the area of the lower course of the river Spreča, downstream of Lake Modrac, 3 pedological profiles on different soil types were opened. Profile 1 was opened in Dobošnica, 35 m away from the Spreča river bed. The plot is sown with maize crops. This locality is represented with marsh Gley soil - Eugley. This land belongs to the class of hydromorphic department of gley soil. This land is characterized by groundwater which is mostly below 80 cm. Groundwater constantly fills the lower part of the profile, creating anaerobic conditions. The upper part of the profile is saturated with water only during one part of the year, and there is alternation between reduction and oxidation processes. (Resulović H.,Čustović H. i Čengić I. 2008). A total of 6 samples were taken in undisturbed condition, 2 samples in a disturbed condition and 1 sample of plant material – maize. Soil profile No.1 (C.P.Dobošnica II) Table 1. Average values of physical properties of the soil The absolute capacity in (vol. % ) for water air

Depth in (cm)

Bulk density (g/cm3)

Volume density (g/cm3)

Pore volume in (%)

0-14

2.56

0.89

64.76

52.09

12.67

0.44485

14-39

2.57

1.05

59.06

45.06

14.00

0.04969

K (cm/sec)

Designation of water permeability Very intensely permeable Very intensely permeable

The true specific density is very uniform in both layers. Bulk density was slightly lower in the first layer then in the second one. The air capacity is good for arable cultures (wheat and oats). Water capacity is in the first layer large, and in the second one slightly smaller. According to Gračanin, the first layer is determined as highly porous. The total porosity of the second layer is slightly lower. Permeability of the soil indicates that it is a very intensely permeable soil in both layers. Table 2. Textural composition of the soil (texture mark by Ehwald) Depth in (cm) 0-14 14-39

The percentage content of soil particles with a diameter Coarse sand Fine sand Powder 2 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.02 0.02-0.002 1.70 39.00 43.80 1.47 39.23 43.70

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in mm Clay < 0.002 15.50 15.60

Texture mark by Ehwald Loam Loam

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ The soil in both layers of this profile, according to the texture composition, belongs to the category of Loam. This profile is represented with coarse sand at smallest, and powder at the most. Table 3. The chemical properties of the soil profile pH value in Depth in (cm) 0-14 14-39

H2O

KCl

The content of humus (in %)

8.53 8.72

8.01 8.02

3.74 3.37

The content of CaCO3 (in %) 32.15 34.13

Chemical analysis of soil indicates that this soil is highly alkaline, with pH value in H2O from 8.53 to 8.72, and in 1 M KCl from 8.01 to 8.02. The humus content is medium. The content of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is very high, so it is a very calcareous soil. Table 4. The content of heavy metals and PAHs in soil and maize Elements in soil (mg/kg of soil) Lead (Pb) Cadmium (Cd) Zinc (Zn) Cobalt (Co) Copper (Cu) Chromium (Cr) Nickel (Ni) Mercury (Hg) Arsenic (As) PAHs

Depth of profile in (cm) Parts of the plant (Corn) 0-14 14-39 Texture mark by Ehwald Root Stem Fruit Loam Loam 43.80 40.83 2.36 0.21 0.06 0.90 0.07 0.02 1.77 1.80 71.80 70.83 19.25 11.75 11.87 28.77 28.27 5.90 0.26 0.04 44.97 44.60 15.50 5.70 2.24 50.33 51.87 0.80 0.69 42.00 0.16 0.02 340.67 321.67 180.20 0.088 0.006 0.005 2.443 2.715 11.22 12.28 1.50 n.d. n.d. Content - organic pollutants PAHs (mg/kg) 4.265 4.837 1.747 1.34 1.481

The contents of lead, zinc, cobalt,chromium, copper, and arsenic are below the limit values for that soil type -Loam. There is an elevated level of cadmium, in both layers, above the limit value of 1,00 mg/kg. Elevated level of nickel, is also present in both layers, and it is above the limit value for clay soil of 45,00 mg/kg. The limit value for mercury in clay soil is 1,00 mg/kg, and its content is elevated in both layers. The content of total PAHs, in both layers, is above the permited limit value of 2,00 mg/kg. According to the available literature (Kloke et al, 1984.), the presence of heavy metals in maize samples has been established. Red color represents content, critical for planth growth. Profile 2 was opened in Donja Lohinja, 30 m away from the Spreča river bed. The plot is located in K.O. Donja Lohinja Pribava, and k.č. is 2897. This plot is represented with Alluvial soil - Fluvisol. This type of soil belongs to hydromorphic department. Formed in the valleys of watercourses, it represents recent river alluviums applied in layers. Build of a profile is Ah - I - II-III. There were taken 12 samples in undisturbed condition, 4 samples in the disordered condition and 1

Soil profile No.2 (C.P.Donja Lohinja) 1258

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ sample of plant material - maize crops. Table 5. Average values of physical properties of the soil The absolute capacity in (vol. % ) for water air

Depth in (cm)



Pore volume in (%)

0-26

2.95

1.32

54.91

40.47

14.43

26-66

2.67

1.62

39.36

28.69

10.67

66-110 110-160

2.76 2.74

1.43 1.49

48.18 45.58

36.01 36.15

12.17 9.43

K (cm/sec) 0.39211

Designation of water permeability Very intensely permeable Medium permeable Very permeable Very permeable

0.00071 0.01661 0.01478

The true specific density is greatest in the first layer of the profile, and lowest in the second. Bulk density is the lowest in the first, largest in the second,and in deeper layers of the profile almost evenly distributed. Water capacity is quite high in the first layer, and decreases in the following layers. According to Gračanin, the first layer is porous, whereas the others have a small porosity and decreases the penetration of the root system in the deeper layers. Permeability of the soil indicates that it is a very intensely permeable soil in the first layer, very permeable in the third and fourth, while in the second layer is medium. Table 6. Textural composition of the soil (texture mark by Ehwald) Depth in (cm) 0-26 26-66 66-110 110-160

The percentage content of soil particles with a diameter in mm Coarse sand Fine sand Powder Clay 2 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.02 0.02-0.002 < 0.002 7.93 54.67 24.70 12.70 5.83 69.27 15.30 9.60 10.12 3.15

73.08 69.95

9.70 16.20

Texture mark by Ehwald

7.10 10.70

Sandy Loam Loamy sand soil Sandy soil Loamy sand soil

In results shown above, least represented are the particles of coarse sand and clay, whereas mostly presented are fine sand particles. Table 7. The chemical properties of the soil profile Depth in (cm) 0-26 26-66 66-110 110-160

pH value in H2O 8.47 8.43 8.44 8.19

KCl 7.63 7.08 7.61 7.49

The content of humus in (%) 1.95 0.56 0.54 0.46

The content of CaCO3 in (%) 4.34 0.16 1.01 0.93

The high pH values of water, in all layers, indicates very alkaline soil. The humus content is weak in all layers. The content of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is low in all layers, and the land is poorly carbonated. The exception is the first layer, which is due to the value of 4.34% CaCO3, determined as medium calcareous soil.

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Table 8. The content of heavy metals and PAHs in soil and maize Elements in soil (mg/kg of soil) Lead (Pb) Cadmium (Cd) Zinc (Zn) Cobalt (Co) Copper (Cu) Chromium (Cr) Nickel (Ni) Mercury (Hg) Arsenic (As) PAHs

0-26 Sandy Loam 19.07 0.97

Depth of profile in (cm) Tekxture mark by Ehwald 26-66 66-110 Loamy sand Sandy soil soil 14.20 10.17 0.70 0.63

Parts of the plant (Corn) 110-160 Loamy sand soil 13.50 0.57

Root

Stem

Fruit

2.15

0.27

0.08

1.00

0.08

0.04

42.73 30.40 23.17 45.83

35.17 28.80 20.70 68.17

30.07 23.57 15.80 60.77

34.33 26.00 19.23 60.73

18.40 10.90 14.05

8.54 0.12 8.14

10.85 0.24 2.20

33.35

0.46

0.30

498.33 0.595

467.00 0.087

352.33 0.082

429.33 0.086

245.70

0.13

0.18

0.252

0.015

0.01

4.828

4.225 3.525 4.15 2.20 Content - organic pollutants PAHs (mg/kg) 0.221 0.017 0.009 0.294

n.d.

n.d.

0.212

0.413

0.786

The contents of lead, zinc, cobalt, copper, mercury and arsenic is below the limit values. Elevated cadmium is present in the last three layers, ranging from 0.57 mg/kg to 0.70 mg/kg. Limit value for sandy soil is 0.50 mg/kg. The content of chromium is increased in the last three layers, ranging from 60.73 mg/kg to 68.17 mg/kg and is above the limit value of 50.00 mg/kg for sandy soil. The increased nickel content is in all layers, ranging from 352.33 mg/kg to 498.33 mg/kg. Limit value of Ni for the sandy soil is 30.00 mg/kg.The total content of PAHs in all four layers of the soil is below threshold limit value of 2.00 mg/kg. According to available literature (Kloke et al, 1984), the presence of heavy metals was categorized in samples of corn. The red color represents the metal content, that is critical for plant growth. Profile 3 was opened in Stjepan Polje, 160 m away from the Spreča river bed. The plot is located in K.O. Gračanica, k.č. 5208. The sowing crop on the land is maize. Eutric brown soil is represented on alluvial deposits. This type of soil belongs to the class of automorphic department of cambic soils. Build of a profile is Ah - BV - IC. We had taken 12 samples in undisturbed condition, 4 samples in the disordered state and 1 sample of plant material - maize crops.

Soil profile No. 3 (C.P.Stjepan Polje)

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 9. Average values of physical properties of the soil Depth in ( cm)



Pore volume in (%)

0-18 18-38 38-76 76-125

2.68 2.54 2.64 2.65

1.25 1.54 1.28 1.35

53.11 39.25 51.50 49.00

The absolute capacity in (vol. % ) for water air

K (cm/sec) 0.09267

39.44 37.25 33.90 39.83

13.67 2.00 17.60 9.17

0.00000 0.01153 0.00328

Designation of water permeability Very intensely permeable Watertight Very permeable Very permeable

The true specific density is the same in all the layers, except for slightly lower value in the second layer. Bulk density is the lowest in the first and the largest in the second layer. The air capacity is good in the first and third layer, while the value in second layer is very small. Water capacity is in all layers quite uniform and this ground can store medium amounts of water. According to Gračanin, soil is porous in the first, third and fourth layer, while the second layer is watertight. Water permeability of soil indicates that it is a very permeable soil except the second layer, where sole is created. This is impermeable layer. Table 10. Textural composition of the soil (texture mark by Ehwald) Depth in (cm)

0-18 18-38 38-76 76-125

The percentage content of soil particles with a diameter in mm Coarse Fine sand Powder Clay sand 0.2 – 0.02 0.02-0.002 < 0.002 2 – 0.2 1.79 40.52 34.20 23.50 0.63 35.97 38.80 24.60 0.46 35.45 38.20 25.90 0.30 29.10 40.30 30.30

Texture mark by Ehwald

Loam Loam Loam Loamy clays

At least represented are the particles of coarse sand. The values of fine sand particles decreases with depth. According to the texture composition, soil is characterized as Loam. Table 11. The chemical properties of the soil profile Depth in (cm) 0-18 18-38 38-76 76-125

pH value in H2O 7.52 7.18 7.46 7.17

KCl 6.72 6.32 6.48 6.36

The content of humus in (%) 2.55 1.79 1.30 1.18

The content of CaCO3 in (%) 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.09

The values of pH in H2O range from 7,17 to 7,52, respectively in 1M KCl from 6,32 to 6,74, and they indicate a neutral to slightly alkaline soil. The humus content is medium in the first layer, and its value decreases with depth. The content of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is low, so it is a poor calcareous soil.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 12. The content of heavy metals and PAHs in soil and maize Elements in soil (mg/kg of soil)

0-18 Loam

Lead (Pb) Cadmium (Cd) Zinc (Zn) Cobalt (Co) Copper (Cu) Chromium (Cr) Nickel (Ni) Mercury (Hg) Arsenic (As)

22.27 1.03 52.83 35.37 32.67 84.27 475.00 0.141 6.493

PAHs

0.400

Depth of profile in (cm) Texture mark by Ehwald 18-38 38-76

Parts of the plant (Corn)

76-125 Root Loamy Loam Loam clays 20.23 21.00 23.47 1.18 0.90 0.83 0.93 0.80 51.87 52.63 54.57 15.50 36.80 36.83 36.33 3.40 35.17 36.37 40.20 14.00 74.23 73.53 74.47 33.35 547.33 542.00 539.33 142.90 0.113 0.121 0.140 0.04 6.742 6.813 5.803 0.60 Content - organic pollutants PAHs (mg/kg) 0.049 0.002 0.001 0.275

Stem

Fruit

0.30 0.02 29.30 0.44 6.40 0.46 0.15 0.01 n.d.

0.11 0.01 14.10 0.19 2.05 0.30 0.11 0.01 n.d.

0.267

0.23

The content of lead, zinc, cobalt, copper, mercury and arsenic is below the treshold value. Cadmium content of 1,03 mg/kg in the first layer is slightly above the treshold for a loam soil (1,00 mg/kg). The content of chromium in the first layer is above the limit value of 80,00 mg/kg for loam soil.The increased nickel content is present in all layers. Limit value of Ni for loam soil is 45,00 mg/kg. The total content of PAHs in all layers is below the treshold limit value of 2,00 mg/kg. According to available literature (Kloke et al, 1984), the presence of heavy metals is categorized in samples of corn. Yellow color represents content that exceeds the normal value, and red the content critical for plant growth. Conclusions Within conducted monitoring of land in the downstream river Spreča, three soil profiles on different soil types were processed. Profiles 1 and 2 are very alkaline, while the profile 3 is neutral. In all profiles, the soil has medium to low humus content. Very calcareous soil is represented in profile 1, while low carbonated is in profiles 2 and 3. Organic and inorganic pollutants were examined througout soil depths and in plant material. The profile 1 is recorded with increased content of cadmium, mercury and nickel, and the content of PAHs. In plant material, critical values of chromium and nickel at the root of maize and PAHs in all plant organs were detected. In the profile 2 there was an increased content of cadmium, chromium and nickel. PAHs are below the limit value. At the root of maize critical values of cobalt, chromium and nickel, and PAHs in all plant organs were detected. In the profile 3 we found an increased content of cadmium, chromium and nickel. PAHs are below the limit values. At the root of maize increased values of cobalt, a critical value of chromium and nickel, and PAHs in all plant organs were detected. In the stem and fruit of the maize, in all three soil profiles, the tested heavy metals values are within permissible limits, according to the available literature (Kloke et al, 1984). Elevated levels of cadmium, chromium, nickel and PAHs in this area are most likely caused by the anthropological influence, while for nickel it can be attributed to the lithological origin. References Tomić M., Behlulović D., Salčinović A. i saradnici (2014). Izvještaj o monitoringu donjeg toka rijeke Spreče. Federalni zavod za agropedologiju. Sarajevo. (A report on the monitoring of the lower course of the river Spreča); Resulović H.,Čustović H. i Čengić I. (2008). Sistematika tla/zemljišta. Univerzitetski udžbenik. Univerzitet u Sarajevu. (Systematic of soil / land);

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Kloke A., Sauerbeck DR. and Vetter H. (1984). The contamination of plants and soils with heavy metals and the transport of metals in terrestrialfood chains. In: “Changing metal cycles and human health” (Nriagu JO ed). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 113-119; Pravilnik o utvrđivanju dozvoljenih količina štetnih i opasnih materija u zemljištu i metode njihovog ispitivanja (“Službene novine Federacije BiH” broj 72/09) (Regulations on determining the allowable amount of harmful and hazardous substances in soil and methods of testing); “Službene novine Federacije BiH” broj 52/09. "Official Gazette of FBiH" No. 52/09.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051264Z THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANALYZED PHYSICAL, WATER AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL SOIL TYPES IN TUZLA CANTON Jasminka ŽUROVEC, Sabrija ČADRO Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Canton Tuzla with a total area of 2,650 km2 (265,000 ha), of which 68.37% (149,966.7 ha) is agricultural land, represents a very important basis for long-term development of agriculture and food industry in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Despite its importance however, the physical and chemical properties of the most important agricultural soils in this area make them less suitable for intensive agricultural production. A better understanding of soil physical, chemical and water properties of the most important agricultural soils in Tuzla Canton and analysis of their relationships, which is the main objective of this work, was done through analysis of: (i) chemical and physical properties of agricultural soils in this area; (ii) soil water properties through process of soil water retention and conductivity; (iii) correlation between the most important properties of selected agricultural soil types. Used research methods in order to meet the set goals were field work, laboratory work and data processing. Due to the obtained high value of the correlation coefficient between the analyzed physical, chemical and water characteristics for three types of agricultural soils in Tuzla Canton, one can say that usage of physical and chemical characteristics for the assessment of water characteristics in this area is justified. From the aspect of physical characteristics, this especially refers to content of clay, silt and sand, with which volumetric water content achieved strong or very strong correlations, such as correlation between clay content and plant water capacity (0.893 – 0.986). Keywords: Tuzla canton, soil characteristics, agriculture, correlation coefficient Introduction Canton Tuzla with a total area of 2,650 km2 (265,000 ha), of which 68.37% (149,966.7 ha) is agricultural land, represents a very important basis for long-term development of agriculture and food industry in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is characterized, in its properties and quality, with very uneven land fund with dominant IVa, IVb, V and VI soil quality group (118,096.5 hectares or 78.8%) (Resulović et al. 2000). Most agricultural soils within the area are medium to heavy textured with high clay content (Vlahinić et al. 1967, Mehmedbašić, 1974). This Canton is an area rich in water, but also an area with a wide range of water issues, especially in agriculture. Unfavorable soil water - air regime is primarily due to its poor soil water and physical properties (Resulović, 2000). The rational and sustainable management of water and soil water regime is among the most powerful means of increasing agricultural production, while reducing its oscillations. Such management is achieved primarily by comprehensive analysis of physical, water and chemical properties of the soil and then, based on them, construction of adequate hydro-ameliorative facilities, which include facilities for drainage, irrigation and conservation of land and water. The possibility of different soil types for adsorption and retention of water, especially readily available water (RAW) is of great importance for agriculture. It is widely known (Jamieson 1958, Vlahinić 1967, Peterson 1967, Saxton 2006) that the texture, structure and content of organic matter in the soil have direct influence on its water - air properties. Research done by Debnath et al. (2012), based on analysis of influence of different physical and chemical characteristics of soil on its water 1264

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ capacity, and taking into account the altitude, indicate that organic carbon, clay content, sand content and porosity directly affect the water capacity of the soil. A significant positive correlation was found between the water capacity of soil and organic carbon (r = 0.811 **) and clay content (r = 0.669 **), while a negative relationship was found with the bulk density (r = -0.315), sand content (r = -0.232), silt content (r = -0.252) and total porosity (r = -0.228). Also, higher pH values resulted in higher values of water capacity (r = 0.211). A better understanding of soil physical, chemical and water properties of the most important agricultural soils in Tuzla Canton and analysis of their relationships, which is the main objective of this work has been carried out through analysis of: (i) chemical and physical properties of agricultural soils in this area; (ii) soil water properties through process of soil water retention and conductivity; (iii) correlation between the most important properties of selected agricultural soil types. On the basis of above mentioned analyses and goals, possibility of indirect determination of curtain soil characteristics, especially soil water characteristics, based on other relatively easy to determine soil characteristics can be defined. Materials and methods Soil map of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Institute for Agropedology Sarajevo, 1990) was used to select three most important soils for agricultural production in the research area. On these three selected soils (Luvisol, Pseudogley and Fluvisol), nine soil profiles (up to 1 m deep) were opened. Undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were taken from each soil profile and each horizon in three replicates, making it 81 samples in total. Analyses of soil physical, water and chemical characteristics were carried out in laboratories of Institute for Pedology, Agrochemistry and Melioration at the Faculty of Agriculture and Food-science and the Federal Institute for Agropedology, Sarajevo. The following analyzes had been carried out: Soil physical characteristics through analysis of soil texture (international pipette B method) and bulk density (gravimetric method in Kopecky cylinders); Soil water characteristics through soil water retention (Ɵv) at a given matric potentials using a pressure-membrane extraction apparatus and Richards method (1941). Following matric potentials (Ψ) were used: -0.33 bar (pF 2.54: field water capacity), -6.25 bar (pF 3.8: lento-capillarity point) and -15.5 bar (pF 4.2: permanent wilting point). Totally (TAW) and readily (RAW) available water capacity of soil was calculated from following relation between filled water capacity (FWC), lentocapillary point (LCP) and permanent wilting point (PWP): TAW = FWC – PWP; RAW = FWC – LCP. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (KSAT), was analyzed using undisturbed soil samples in Kopecky cylinders. KSAT was measured in laboratory permeameter apparatus and calculated on basis of Darcy law. Analyzed soil chemical characteristics were active (H2O) and substitution (KCl) pH reaction (electrometrically in suspension 1:2.5 - pH meter) and content of humus, using colorimetric method (spectrophotometry). Data processing was performed using correlation analysis in MS Excel. Strength of correlation is defined by the Roemer-Orphal scale.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and discussion After the insight into soil map of BiH (1:50.000) and reviewing the situation in terms of spatial distribution and the importance for agricultural production, three soil types in the area of Tuzla canton were selected for this research: Luvisol, Pseudogley and Fluvisol. These are soils that are often used in agricultural production, occupying significant areas, mostly in the lowland part of the Canton (intensive agriculture favorable relief forms), and require a certain degree of melioration improvement. Figure 1 shows soil profiles and sampling locations in Tuzla canton. Profiles P3, P5 and P7 represent luvisol; Profiles P1, P8 and P3 pseudogley; and profiles P2, P4 and P6 fluvisol. After taking soil samples from the field and the laboratory analysis, the following average soil physical characteristics (Table 1) for these three soil types are determined. All three soils in general are heavier textured, with significant clay content (28.21 - 59.55 %) which increases with depth. Fluvisol has a slightly higher sand content and the presence of skeleton compared to the other two soil types. Bulk density is within the limits of normal agricultural production. However, higher values in the second horizon (1.34 to 1.41 g/cm3) in all the three soils, and a high content of clay (29.82 - 35.27%) indicate near surface presence of impermeable soil layer. The average value of the volumetric water content (%) at different soil water capacity levels or matrix potentials (Ψ), as well as hydraulic conductivity (cm/h) for the three analyzed soil are shown in Table 2. Figure 1: Soil profiles and sampling locations Table 1: Soil physical characteristics Soil type

Luvisol

Pseudog.

Fluvisol

Horizon Ap E Bt Ap Sw Sd Ap I II

Depth (cm)

Skeleton (%)

0 - 20 20 - 45 45 - 100 0 - 23 23 - 55 55 - 100 0 - 20 20 - 60 60 - 100

0.13 0.97 0.18 0.21

3.18 6.86 5.95

Send (%) 27.45 25.71 15.66 25.74 24.73 20.95 43.27 45.20 41.31

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Silt (%) 41.55 39.02 25.79 46.05 40.81 36.40 29.92 26.62 28.57

Texture Clay (%) 31.00 35.27 59.55 28.21 34.46 42.64 29.28 29.82 31.39

Class Clay loam Clay loam Clay Clay loam Clay loam Clay Clay loam Clay loam Clay loam

Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.22 1.36 1.25 1.15 1.34 1.41 1.34 1.41 1.43

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2: Soil water characteristics Soil type

Luvisol

Pseudogley

Fluvisol

Horizon

Ap E Bt Ap Sw Sd Ap I II

Depth (cm) 0 - 20 20 - 45 45 - 100 0 - 23 23 - 55 55 - 100 0 - 20 20 - 60 60 - 100

MWC

FWC

LCP

PWP

TAW

RAW

-

2.54 (-0,33)

3.8 (-6,2)

4.2 (-15,5)

-

-

54.26 51.26 55.11 55.37 50.43 48.36 50.58 47.35 46.56

43.68 44.91 51.78 44.64 47.73 44.73 43.08 43.53 39.95

21.30 23.85 32.02 19.75 22.67 26.24 24.61 24.80 24.81

15.89 17.65 28.09 12.25 15.25 19.55 15.42 16.92 18.21

27.80 27.26 23.68 32.39 32.49 25.18 27.67 26.60 21.75

22.38 21.06 19.76 24.89 25.07 18.49 18.47 18.72 15.15

KSAT (cm/h) 5.65 0.22 3.11 10.06 2.87 0.65 30.25 24.52 18.14

MWC – maximum water capacity, FWC – field water capacity, LCP - lentocapillary point, PWP – permanent wilting point, TAW – totally available water, RAW – readily available water, KSAT – saturated hydraulic conductivity

The highest average value of a volumetric water content (VWC) at MWC is in the surface horizon (Ap) of Pseudogley, respectively 55.37%. Field water capacity (FWC) is the highest in the lowest (Bt) horizon of Luvisol (51.78%). In the case of VWC at the plant wilting point (PWP) the maximum value is in the Bt horizon of Luvisol (28.09), and the minimum at the surface horizon (Ap) of Pseudogley (12.25%). The amount of water at RAW capacity represents the most accessible form of soil water for plants and it is the main indicator of its retention characteristics. Pesudogley has the best retention properties from three analyzed soils. The Ap and Sw horizons of this soil can hold up to 25.07% of the volumetric water content. In terms of saturated hydraulic conductivity (KSAT), the most permeable soil is Fluvisol, where average filtration coefficient in Ap horizon reaches 30 cm/h and gradually decreases with depth (down to 18.14 cm/h). Luvisol has the lowest values of KSAT, especially in the second horizon (0.22 cm/h). Average basic chemical characteristics of three analyzed types of agricultural soils are shown in Table 3. Fluvisol proved to be the soil with best chemical characteristics. pH reaction of this soil ranges from slightly acid to neutral (6.16 – 6.91), and high humus content (3.31 %) slightly decreases with depth. Humus content is also high in Ap horizon of Pseudogley, strongly decreases with depth. Table 3: Soil basic chemical characteristics Soil type Luvisol

Pseudogley

Fluvisol

Horizon Ap E Bt Ap Sw Sd Ap I II

Depth (cm) 0 - 20 20 - 45 45 - 100 0 - 23 23 - 55 55 - 100 0 - 20 20 - 60 60 - 100

pH H2O 6.09 6.26 5.94 5.48 5.02 5.73 6.96 7.29 7.69

KCl 5.13 5.33 5.07 4.65 4.21 4.75 6.16 6.44 6.91

Humus (%) 2.87 1.63 1.14 4.25 1.64 0.62 3.31 2.19 1.52

On the basis of the results for all the analyzed soil characteristics (physical, chemical, and water), and based on all the individual measurements (27 for each soil type), the correlation analysis had been conducted for each type of soil in particular (Tables 4, 5 and 6). We will mainly focus on the impact of physical and chemical characteristics on the soil water properties. In Luvisol (Table 4), higher clay content results in higher values of the LCP, PWP, FWC and MWC and lower values of TAW and RAW. According to the strength of correlation, clay

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ content has the following effects on water characteristics of Luvisol: LCP (r = 0.937) > PWP (r = 0.932) > FWC (r = 0.895) > TAW (r = -0.558) > MWC (r = 0.454) > RAW (r = -0.266) > KSAT (r = -0.191). Bulk density has a strong negative relationship (r = -0.911) with the MWC, and the greatest impact (r = -0.406) on the hydraulic permeability compared to all other observed soil characteristics. Regarding soil chemical characteristics, pH does not have any significant effect, except to RAW with a middle correlation coefficient (r = -0.427). However, the humus content has a strong negative impact on the water content in the LCP (r = 0.613), FWC (r = -0.595) and PWP (r = -0.552). In case of Pseudogley (Table 5), the higher clay content means higher values of LCP and PWP and lower values of MWC, TAW and RAW. The sand and silt content in this soil have a reverse effect. More of these particles means lower values of LCP and PWP and higher values of TAW and RAW. Of the three textural elements of soil, clay content has the greatest impact on water properties, in this order: PWP (r = 0.986) > LCP (r = 0.977) > TAW i RAW (r = 0.754) > MWC (r = -0.724) > KSAT (r = -0.284) > FWC (r = 0.245). Bulk density also has a significant impact on the water properties of Pseudogley, behaving similarly as clay content. Table 4: Correlation coefficient (r) between different soil characteristics in Luvisol LUVISOL Clay Silt Sand Bulk Density MWC FWC LCP PWP TAW RAW KSAT pH H2 O pH KCl Humus

C

S

Sa

Bd

1 -0.979 -0.965 -0.217 0.454 0.895 0.937 0.932 -0.525 -0.266 -0.191 -0.468 -0.373 -0.725

1 0.890 0.185 -0.453 -0.892 -0.931 -0.952 0.582 0.256 0.116 0.431 0.319 0.715

1 0.245 -0.426 -0.843 -0.886 -0.846 0.418 0.261 0.277 0.485 0.419 0.693

1 -0.911 -0.108 -0.050 -0.091 0.011 -0.182 -0.406 0.441 0.442 -0.053

MWC FWC LCP PWP TAW RAW K SAT pH H pH K

-0.911 -0.881 -0.812 0.203 0.023 0.282 0.152 0.100 0.496

1 0.955 0.919 -0.290 0.014 -0.198 -0.417 -0.342 -0.595

1 0.970 -0.501 -0.282 -0.215 -0.274 -0.195 -0.613

1 -0.643 -0.299 -0.131 -0.237 -0.125 -0.552

1 0.755 -0.067 -0.236 -0.361 0.184

1 0.083 1 -0.427 0.041 1 -0.452 0.044 0.978 1 0.143 0.256 0.655 0.585

H

1

C – Clay, S – Silt, Sa – Sand, Bd – Bulk density, MWC – maximum water capacity, FWC – field water capacity, LCP - lentocapillary point, PWP – permanent wilting point, TAW – totally available water, RAW – readily available water, KSAT – saturated hydraulic conductivity, pH H – pH in H2O, pH K – pH in KCl, H - Humus

Higher bulk density or greater soil compaction results in lower values of MWC, TAW, RAW and KSAT and higher values of LCP and PWP. Regarding soil chemical characteristics, strong negative correlation between pH in H2O and TAW (r = -0.597) and RAW (r = -0.566) can be noted. The humus content has a significant impact on the soil water properties and behaves similarly to silt, and inversely to the clay content. Humus, of all the analyzed characteristics, has the biggest positive impact on saturated hydraulic conductivity (r = 0.499), which means the higher humus content, the better soil permeability.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 5: Correlation coefficient (r) between different soil characteristics in Pseudogley PSEUDOGLEY

C

S

Sa

Bd

MWC FWC LCP PWP TAW RAW K SAT pH H pH K

H

Clay Silt Sand Bulk Density MWC FWC LCP PWP TAW RAW KSAT pH H2 O pH KCl Humus

1 -0.921 1 -0.415 0.027 1 0.702 -0.576 -0.457 1 -0.724 0.708 0.203 -0.928 1 0.245 -0.292 0.053 0.155 -0.207 1 0.977 -0.874 -0.465 0.746 -0.732 0.298 1 0.986 -0.868 -0.502 0.738 -0.711 0.223 0.991 1 -0.754 0.615 0.497 -0.582 0.524 0.435 -0.724 -0.781 1 -0.754 0.623 0.479 -0.598 0.549 0.424 -0.738 -0.783 0.995 1 -0.284 0.236 0.179 -0.571 0.573 -0.316 -0.339 -0.313 0.087 0.098 1 0.529 -0.556 -0.061 0.023 -0.187 -0.229 0.425 0.487 -0.597 -0.566 0.143 1 0.240 -0.255 -0.022 -0.332 0.156 -0.243 0.113 0.172 -0.315 -0.280 0.316 0.819 1 -0.751 0.593 0.539 -0.891 0.747 -0.112 -0.762 -0.789 0.657 0.645 0.499 -0.056 0.282 1 C – Clay, S – Silt, Sa – Sand, Bd – Bulk density, MWC – maximum water capacity, FWC – field water capacity, LCP - lentocapillary point, PWP – permanent wilting point, TAW – totally available water, RAW – readily available water, KSAT – saturated hydraulic conductivity, pH H – pH in H2O, pH K – pH in KCl, H - Humus

In Fluvisol (Table 6), content of the silt particles have reversed effect compared to the other two soil types. In this soil, silt increases the value of the LCP (r = 0.936), FWC (r = 0.888) and PWP (r = 0.750), and reduces the value of RAW (r = -0.419). According to the strength of the correlation, clay content has the following effect on water properties of fluvisol: LCP (r = 0.991) > FWC (r = 0.907) > PWP (r = 0.893) > RAW (r = -0.535) > MWC (r = 0.493). Increased bulk density results in smaller values of VWC at all water capacities. Substitution (KCl) pH reaction has a strong negative relationship with the TAW (r = -0.726) and a very strong negative relationship with the FWC (r = -0.790). The content of humus in fluvisol, in relation to luvisol and pseudogley, except MWC (r = 0.700) and TAW (r = 0.493) also have a positive effect on values of FWC (r = 0.726), LCP (r = 0.596) and PWP (r = 0.345). Table 5: Correlation coefficient (r) between different soil characteristics in Fluvisol FLUVISOL Clay Silt Sand Bulk Density MWC FWC LCP PWP TAW RAW KSAT pH H2 O pH KCl Humus

C

S

Sa

Bd

1 0.934 -0.979 -0.510 0.493 0.907 0.991 0.893 0.001 -0.535 0.193 -0.550 -0.563 0.515

1 -0.988 -0.658 0.619 0.888 0.936 0.750 0.168 -0.419 0.293 -0.607 -0.619 0.662

1 0.603 -0.574 -0.911 -0.976 -0.826 -0.098 0.477 -0.256 0.592 0.604 -0.608

1 -0.947 -0.577 -0.540 -0.375 -0.260 0.071 -0.374 0.550 0.530 -0.748

MWC FWC LCP

PWP

TAW RAW K SAT pH H pH K

1 0.565 0.513 0.325 0.312 -0.018 0.423 -0.530 -0.542 0.700

1 -0.392 -0.674 -0.082 -0.249 -0.238 0.348

1 0.713 0.334 -0.679 -0.726 0.493

1 0.944 0.718 0.359 -0.143 0.229 -0.766 -0.790 0.726

1 0.868 0.085 -0.461 0.172 -0.640 -0.650 0.596

1 0.009 1 -0.141 -0.152 1 -0.177 -0.220 0.988 1 0.165 -0.003 -0.790 -0.772

H

1

Conclusion All three soils in general are heavier textured, with significant clay content (28.21 - 59.55 %) which increases with depth. Higher values of bulk density in the second horizons (1.34 to 1.41 g/cm3) in all the three soils, and a large content of clay (29.82 - 35.27%) indicate near surface presence of impermeable soil layer. In average, Pseudogley has the biggest capacity for the plant readily available water (RAW) and good permeability of the surface layer. This soil compared to other analyzed soils showed the best soil water characteristics in terms of agricultural production. Although it has good retention properties, Luvisol has highly impermeable second layer, while Fluvisol has poor retention capabilities due to high hydraulic conductivity. Due to the obtained high value of the correlation coefficient between the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ analyzed physical, chemical and water characteristics for three types of agricultural soil in Tuzla Canton, one can say that usage of physical and chemical characteristics for the assessment of water characteristics in this area is justified. From physical characteristics, this especially refers to content of clay, silt and sand, with which VWC achieved strong or very strong correlation. From the chemical characteristics aspect, content of humus has the greatest impact on water characteristics of these analyzed soils. References Debnath, P., Deb, P., Sen, D. (2012) Physico-chemical Properties and its Relationship With Water Holding Capacity of Cultivated Soils Along Altitudinal Gradient in Sikkim. 99102 Jamieson, V. C., Kroth, E. M. (1958) Available Moisture Storage Capacity in Relation to Textural Composition and Organic Matter Content of Several Missouri Soils. Soil Science of America. Vol. 22, No. 3. Mehmedbašić, A. (1974) Soil map of Yugoslavia 1:50.000. Bosnia and Herzegovina. The interpreter section Tuzla - 1. Institute for Agropedology - Sarajevo. Peterson, G. W., Cunningham, R. L., Metelski, R. P. (1967) Moisture Tension as Related to Texture. Pennsylvania Agri. Expt. Sta; University Park. Resulović, H., Imamović, Š., Bukalo, E., Biogradlić, K. (2000) The Study Of Soil Potential In The Area Of Tuzla Canton. Agropedology Institute Sarajevo Richards, L. A. (1941) A Pressure-Membrane Extraction Apparatus For Soil Solution’. U. S. Department of Agriculture. SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 51, No. 5, May, 1941 Saxton, K. E., Rawls, W. J. (2006) Soil Water Characteristic Estimates by Texture and Organic Matter for Hydrologic Solutions, Published in the Soil Science Society of America Journal. Vlahinić, M., Resulović, H. Bisić-Hajro Dženana (1967) The Correlation Of Water-Physical Properties Of Pseudogley in The Tuzla Area. III Congress JDZP, 439-446, Zadar.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051271C ASSESSING THE HYDRAULIC SENSITIVITY OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION DELIVERY NETWORKS THROUGH THE MASSCOTE/MASSPRES RATIONAL Salwa CHERNI-ČADRO1*, Daniele ZACCARIA2, Sabrija ČADRO3 1

Hydro-Engineering Institute Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Department of Land, Air and Water Resources (LAWR), University of California, Davis, USA 3 Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected]

2

Abstract The present study aimed at reinforcing an existing methodological framework for Diagnostic Performance Assessment (DPA) of large-scale irrigation systems with an analytical procedure for evaluating the hydraulic response of pipe delivery networks to changes in flow conditions. This framework is named Mapping System and Service for Pressurized Irrigation Systems (MASSPRES) and was originally conceived within a joint effort between FAO and CIHEAM-IAM Bari for Irrigation System Modernization in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region. Sudden changes of flow rate and/or piezometric elevation at the inlet of irrigation distribution systems may impact the water delivery service to farmers at different turnouts or delivery points (hydrants), on the basis of the network’s hydraulic response and sensitivity to those flow changes. The analytical procedure entailed the use of a hydraulic simulation model to generate flow scenarios and assess the hydraulic response of the pipe network to flow changes, and the resulting impacts at different hydrants. Two delivery performance indicators were used, namely the relative pressure deficit (RPD), and its likely expected value (EV), which were combined into a composite operational index (OI). The procedure was applied for validation to an existing pipe irrigation system of southern Italy in need of modernization. Different flow scenarios were simulated for the pipe network under study, followed by an evaluation of its response and impacts to delivery targets at hydrants level. Results showed that the proposed procedure and operational index could be useful to identify critical areas of irrigation distribution networks, where failures are likely to occur, and where the attention of operational staff should focus to ensure adequate and equitable water delivery services throughout the irrigation system. Keywords: irrigation delivery systems, diagnostic performance analysis, hydraulic response, irrigation system modernization. Introduction Worldwide, the agricultural sector is by far the largest user of fresh water, as it accounts for 67% of the world's total fresh water abstraction and 86% of its consumption (Jacobs et al., 2008). However, a major part of the irrigated areas is served by large-scale distribution systems whose performances are often way below expectations (Renault et al., 2007). In this view, improvements are needed in water resources management, irrigated agriculture and asset management. In the Mediterranean countries the agricultural water demand increase over space and time. Blinda and Thivet (2006) report that agricultural water use currently accounts for 63% of the total water demand, thus it is needed to put the available fresh water reserves under increased pressure. The agricultural sector in those countries uses on average more than 70% of total water, with nearly 50% in the Northern Mediterranean countries, and 79% in the southern Mediterranean countries (Jacobs et al., 2008). In the recent years, several scientists (Burt, 1996; Burt and Style, 1999; Clemmens, 2006; Playan and Mateos, 2006) emphasized that managing irrigation systems and improving the performance of existing

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ irrigation schemes are very critical activities to enhance their productivity. In this context, current levels of performance must be systematically assessed and the most effective measures for improvements should be identified. The present study aimed at testing the reliability of the MASSPRESS methodology in analyzing the operation of pressurized irrigation delivery networks for addressing modernization aspects. The study entailed hydraulic simulations on a poor-performing irrigation system located in southern Italy and managed by a local Water Users Organization (WUO), with a focus on analyzing the performance achievable at the hydrant level under different operational scenario, through the application of hydraulic performance indicators. In detail, the study included the following activities: (1) Modeling the capacity and sensitivity of the system; (2) Defining and validating a specific indicator to allow evaluating the hydraulic response of the pipe network to changes in flow conditions; (3) Evaluating how the delivery service at hydrants would be impacted at hydrant level in response to flow changes and to the network’s hydraulic behavior. Materials and Methods Rationale of the proposed methodology For pressurized irrigation distribution networks there is no specific definition or indicator of the hydraulic sensitivity, which is a relevant parameter for system design and modernization to evaluate the network’s behavior in propagating/attenuating flow perturbations. The approach utilized within the present study entailed simulating and analyzing the performance achievable by the pipe distribution network in terms of delivery service at hydrants. The COPAM simulation model (FAO, 2008) was utilized in this study for the performance evaluation on the basis of the hydraulic behavior of the pipe distribution network. The network’s hydraulic behavior and resulting impact on irrigation delivery service at hydrants can be investigated by means of hydraulic simulation models, and can be physically represented in terms of flow rates and pressure heads available to farmers for adequately operating their on-farm irrigation systems downstream of delivery hydrants. In detail, irrigation delivery performance at hydrants can be represented by the values of the relative pressure deficit (RPD) in a plan where the abscissas correspond to the hydrant numbering and the ordinates to the RPD value. This can provide a good understanding of the hydraulic behavior of each hydrant during operation, showing (1) How much pressure head is available at each hydrant under different flow configurations (2) How often the hydrant is unsatisfied with respect to minimal conditions for adequate operation of the on-farm irrigation system by farmers (3) How much variation of pressure head occurs at hydrants as a result of different flow configurations. Operational index An innovative approach was tested during the present study that is based on the combination of the hydraulic indicator of relative pressure deficit (RPD), used within the COPAM software package, and a statistical parameter; “the expected value” (EV) of the RPD. Specifically, the EV was integrated with the variation of the RPD values in one equation for the determination of a combined index named Operational Index (OI), which could provide meaningful and detailed information about the impact of flow changes on irrigation delivery service at hydrants. The expected value of a random variable is the weighted average of all possible values that this random variable can take. The weights used in computing this average correspond to the probabilities in case of a discrete random variable, or the densities in case of a random variable. From a theoretical standpoint, the expected value is the integral of the random variable with respect to the measure of its probability. Supposed that the random variable X can take value x1 with probability p1, value x2 with probability p2, and so on, up to value xk with probability pk, and then the expected value of the random variable X is defined as: 1272

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ EV ( X )  x1 p1  x 2 p 2  ...  x k p k (1) Since all probabilities pi add up to 1 (p1+p2 + ... +pk= 1), the expected value can be viewed as the weighted average, with pi’s being the weights

 xp EV ( X )   p k

i

1

(2)

i

k

1

i

Where: EV(X) is the expected value of a random variable With Xi being the value of the variable (in our case the RPD values); pi is the probability of occurrence of each value Xi The use of EV for evaluating the effects of the network’s hydraulic behavior at hydrant level thus allows computing the weighted average of the entire set of RPD values accounting for their probability of occurrence. However, the use of EV alone could not provide comprehensive and exhaustive information on the network performance and sensitivity, as more than one hydrant could have the same EV, thus not allowing a comparative evaluation of their sensitivity. In the same value of expected value which means that we can’t understand which one is more sensitive comparing to others. As such, the EV must be combined with other indicators to allow determination of hydrants’ sensitivity and get information about the most sensitive areas of the network as a result of external changes. Given that the RPD provides detailed information on the spatial variability of the hydrant pressure, and also the range of fluctuation of the pressure head occurring at the different hydrants, it is the most suitable indicator to be combined with the EV. The parameter resulting from the aboveindicated combination is named Operational Index (Oi) and is obtained through equation 3 in such a way to indicate how changes in flow conditions affect the hydrants both in terms of available pressure head and range of its variation. Adequacy  EV RPD OI  ( ) * 10  ( ) (3) MaxRPD

MaxEV

Where: OI: is the operational index (unit less); Adequacy is the zero-value line of the relative pressure deficit, corresponding to the minimum pressure head necessary for adequate on-farm irrigation (ex. Adequacy = 15 m); EV is the expected value of RPD (m); ∆RPD is the range of variation of the RPD value at each hydrant (m). The equation 3 produces values of the OI ranging in a scale between – 10 and + 10 The operational index ranges As explained in the previous section, the OI provides information about the hydrant’s RPD value with respect to the adequacy line; and it also allows knowing the relative distribution of RPD values according to their probability of occurrence. As such, it allows comparisons between hydrant’s performance under the same flow conditions (where the hydrant’s performance can vary as a result of the different configuration of hydrants in simultaneous operation), and when flow changes occur in the network. A tentative set of reference standard values was identified to allow ranking and classifying hydrant’s performance based on their sensitivity to changes in network’s operating conditions. The ranking procedure is composed of the following elements: The maximum range of variation of the OI values set between -10 and +10. An upper boundary calculated on the basis of the nominal operating pressure stood by the most commonly used pipes for on farm irrigation system downstream of the delivery hydrants. In case of plastic pipes with nominal operating pressure limit of 6 bars (~ 60 m), the upper boundary can be calculated as 15  60 (4) OI  ( ) 10  7.5 60

A range of “Highly Sensitive” is defined by OI values between -7 and -10 A lower boundary is set according to the minimum value of pressure head at hydrants that is compatible with the proper operation of farm irrigation networks (~ 20 m). The lower boundary is thus calculated as: 1273

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ 15  20 OI  ( )  10  2.5 20

(5)

A field of “Slightly Sensitive” is defined by OI values between 0 and -2.5, whereas the hydrant will be classified as “Sensitive” if the value of OI results between -2.5 and -7. The field of “Poorly performing” is when the pressure head available at hydrant (H) is lower than the minimum required for proper operation of farm irrigation system. Table 1. Tentative values of OI for ranking hydrants in terms of sensitivity -10 -7 -2.5 0 Highly sensitive (HS) Sensitive (S) Slightly sensitive (SS) Poor-performing (PP)

10

+ + + +

Description of the study area The Sinistra Bradano irrigation scheme is located in southern Italy, in the western part of the province of Taranto and covers a total topographic area of 9,651 ha. The system is divided into 10 operational units called districts, each of them subdivided into sectors. The present study focused on the District 10, which is composed of three sub-areas that are served by three distribution sub-networks originating from as many different diversions along the last section of the main canal, namely the Diversion 7 (D7), 8-North (D8-N) and 8-South (D8-S). The various simulations and performance analysis were conducted on the sub-network 7. Application of the proposed methodology to the selected irrigation districts A number of simulations were conducted on the irrigation delivery sub-network 7 that entailed three main scenarios described hereafter: (1) a fixed upstream piezometric elevation at 60 m a.s.l. and different values of the available flow rate at the network inlet, varying from Qup1 = 220 l s-1,to Qup2 = 240 l s-1 and Qup3 = 260 l s-1; (2) the upstream discharge is fixed at 240 l s-1 and different values of the upstream piezometric elevation, varying from Zup0 = 60 m, to Zup1 = 70 m, Zup2 = 75 m, and Zup3 = 80 m. (3) this scenario consists in evaluating the sensitivity at hydrants without changing the flow parameters at the network inlet. In this case, only the configuration of hydrants in simultaneous operation could change for the same value of flow rate and piezometric elevation at the network inlet. This scenario will provide information on the variability of delivery performance at hydrants within the network as a result of the changes in configuration of hydrants in operation. The three scenarios will result in different delivery performance at hydrants, which can be evaluated and ranked through the Operational Index. Values of the OI can be presented in a plot and show the effect on the hydrants resulting from changes in the flow parameters at the network inlet. The analysis of the above-defined scenarios allowed (i) Identification of “weak” areas within the distribution network, which require operational attention (ii) information about the delivery performance at hydrants when the flow conditions in the network deviate from a specific set point, i.e. changes in available flow rate or piezometric head at the network inlet; (iii) testing the applicability of the set of proposed reference values of the OI, for ranking and classifying hydrants on the basis of their sensitivity to flow changes. Results and Discussion Figure 1 show the results of simulations conducted on the first sector, compared by the first thirteen hydrants, showed identical three values of OI, these hydrants are not sensitive to the changes made, while the rest of hydrants showed different OI values as resulting from changes of upstream flow rate. So, passing from Qup1 to Qup2 and Qup3 a similar pattern was observed for hydrants having different OI values. Figure 2 shows that if the upstream piezometric elevation Zup is progressively increase of 5m increments, the OI values will shift

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10.00 6.00 2.00 -2.00 -6.00 -10.00

S1 Q= 220 l/s S2 Q=240 l/s S3 Q=260 l/s 3 10 17 24 31 38 44 53 61 68 75 85 91 98 105 112 120 127 133 143 149 155

Operational index

upwards meaning that the network reacts to piezometric elevation increases with higher pressure heads at the delivery hydrants, as expected.

Figure.1.Values of OI resulting from the changes indicated in the first scenario (Zup fixed and Variation of Qup) Operational Index (OI)

10.00 6.00 2.00 -2.00 -6.00 -10.00

Z=60 Z=70 Z=75 Z=80

3 9 15 20 27 32 38 43 51 57 63 69 75 82 89 95 100 107 112 119 125 130 138 144 149 154

S1 S2 S3 S4

Figure.2. Patterns of the OI values that result from progressive increases of the upstream piezometric elevations (Qup fixed and Variation of Zup)

10.00 6.00 2.00 -2.00 -6.00 -10.00

run1 run 2 3 9 15 20 27 32 38 43 51 57 63 69 75 82 89 95 100 107 112 119 125 130 138 144 149 154

Operational index (OI)

Lamaddalena and Sagardoy (2000) report that at certain number of configurations with respect to the number of hydrants in the network, the system stabilizes and don’t react regarding to the changes made. Indeed, this was confirmed by this scenario where three sets of 500 configurations were generated, indicated in Figure 3. Thus, it can be noticed that three curves are identical, meaning that the network stabilizes and there is no changes with respect to the changes made.

Figure.3. Values of the OI within the configurations for the third scenario (No changes in inputs) Figure 4 shows the case of hydrants having the same EV but different RPD variation. The hydrants with number 74 and 98 have both EV of -0.14, a range of variation of the RPD Thus, the OI values allow ranking the hydrants in order of sensitivity as follows: Hydrant 98 > Hydrant 74. Figure 5 refers to the case of hydrants having different EV and different values of RPD variation. The hydrants numbered 24 and 127 were compared, that have EV of 0.9 and 0.84, RPD variations of 0.43 and 0.93, whereas the OI values are -1.55 and -0.22, respectively. Based on OI values, the hydrant 24 is considered more sensitive to the changes than the hydrant 127. Figure 6 presents the case of the hydrants with different EV and the same RPD variation. The hydrants numbered 23 and 76 are compared, with EV of 0.22 and

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Figure.4. Case of hydrants having same EV and different ranges of RPD variations (Scenario1, Simulation 1)

Figure.5.Case of hydrants having different EV and different ranges of RPD variations (Scenario2, Simulation1)

Figure.6. Case of hydrants having different EV and same ranges of RPD variations (Scenario3, Simulation 2)

0.17, RPD variation for both of 0.34, whereas the OI values are -0.13 and 0.01, respectively. Based on OI values, hydrant 76 is considered more sensitive to changes than the hydrant 23. Conclusions The operational index developed and applied in this study allowed to better understand the impact of flow changes on delivery performance at hydrants in the pressurized irrigation distribution network analyzed. In addition, it enabled to combine different performance indicators into one single index which includes (a) the probability of occurrence of different values of the RPD, through the statistical parameter of the expected value, (b) the range of fluctuation of the pressure head occurring at hydrants through the variation of the relative pressure deficit (RPD) and (c) the possibility to rank the hydrant performance based on the operational index. This composite index provides information about the relative position of the pressure head occurring at each hydrant with respect to the adequacy line (zero RPD), and indications on the hydrant’s sensitivity to changes of flow conditions through the irrigation distribution network. References Blinda M. and Thivet G.(2006). The Blue Plan notes in environment and development Mediterranean: Facing water stress in the Mediterranean. Plan Bleu. France. Burt C.M. and Styles S.W. (1999). Modern water control and management practices in irrigation; Impact on performance. Water report 19. IPTRID-FAO. Rome. Burt C.M. (1996). Modern water control and management practices in irrigation: Methodology and criteria for evaluating the impact on performance. Ph.D. FAO conference. Clemmens A.J. (2006).Improving irrigated agriculture performance through an understanding of the water delivery process. Irrigation and drainage.55:223-234. FAO.(2008). Sensitivity analysis of irrigation structures. FAO.Rome.(Draft version 05.2008). Jacobs C., Wolters W., Todorovic M. and Sacarding A. (2008). Mitigation of water stress through new approaches to integrating management, technical, economic and institutional instruments. Aquastress integrated project: water saving in agriculture, industry and economic Lamaddalena N. and Lebdi F. (2005). Diagnose of pressurized irrigation systems. Options méditerranéennes, CIHEAM – Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy. 52(B): 7-23. Playan E. and Mateos L. (2006). Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1-3): 100-116.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Renault D., Facon T. and Wahaj R. (2007). Modernizing irrigation management, the MASSCOTE approach, Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 63. FAO. Rome.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051278S LAND SUITABILITY EVALUATION FOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN PLOVDIV REGION, BULGARIA, USING GIS APPLICATION Vera STEFANOVA, Zhulieta ARNAUDOVA, Krasimir MIHOV Agricultural University-Plovdiv, 12 Mendeleev Blvd, Plovdiv, Bulgaria *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Land suitability evaluation is a way of systematically collecting and analyzing different kind of information. It contains interdisciplinary information that involves integration of criteria from different branches of science. All gathering data analysed and converted into spatial database. Level information is arranged by classifying the main factors for vegetable growing, especially green beans one. The area of this research is Perushtitza Village, Plovdiv Region, Bulgaria. This is a report of multi-criteria land suitability evaluation, in which variety dimensions are incorporated into GIS technical tool. For ranking and important judgment of the criterias, pair-wise comparison using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), developed by Saaty (1977), was carried out. The results are portrayed in the thematic map of the Perushtitza Village. The main objective of this study is to classify available agricultural land area of Perushtitza valley into different suitable classes for vegetable crop cultivation, using GIS application. The core of process is to create assessment map by calculating important indicators for sustainable vegetable cultivation. Keywords: vegetables, land suitability evolution, GIS, assessment, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Introduction Horticulture is one of the most spread cultivation practice in Bulgaria. Its good natural and environmental factors make possible to increase yield over the years. Vegetable production systems in Plovdiv region is land form, farm size and intention of cultivation. Sustainable vegetable farming system is associated with good practices related to people cantered development, sustainable livelihood, agro-ecological practices, sustainable forestry system, community based natural resources management, participatory policy development, indigenous farming system, fair labour condition, good agricultural practises, equitable access to water and others (Baniya, 2008). Farming system corresponds closely with the land use planning. Physical land suitability evaluation is carried out with analysis of soil characteristics, land characteristic and climate characteristic. Sustainability is the ability of an agricultural system to meet evolving human needs without destroying and, if possible, by improving the natural resource base on which it depends (USAID, 1988). Land suitability evaluation can also be defined as the assessment or prediction of land quality for specific use. This process includes identification, selection and description of land use types relevant to the area under consideration; mapping and description of the different types of land that occur in the area and the assessment of the suitability of the different types of crops. In this research selected area is Plovdiv Region and especially Perushtica Village. This region is selected by its plane relief and suitable environmental parameters for vegetable growing. This study presents the influence of physical land characteristics on green beans development. It includes deeply analyses on soil and relief parameters, needed for successfully crops growing.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Materials and methods Initially used based information about green beans developing is soil maps, digital cadastral maps into appropriate coordinate system, climate characteristics, summarized parameters for established crops growing. The methodology is based on matching soil and relief characteristics, both named as Physical land characteristics and agronomical requirements of green beans. Using GIS tools for analysing the suitability classification will be assessed. Based on analysing tools and recommended crops parameters are made maps of land suitability accordingly to soil and relief parameters. The organization of database is presented by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), introduced by Saaty (1977). By making pair-wise comparisons at each level of the hierarchy, participants can develop relative weights to differentiate the importance of the criteria (Hossain et.al. 2007). Structure of assessment about criteria and sub-criteria is made by the alternatives, indicating the degree of suitability with respect to a criterion. Final thematic maps of every one of the studied parameters present level of land suitability for green beans development. By AHP method all parameters are compared using matrix for physical land criteria and subcriteria about soil and relief. The local priorities are multiplied by the weights of the respective criterion. The results are summed up to get the overall priority of each alternative. For each level in the hierarchy it is necessary to know whether the pair-wise comparison has been consistent in order to accept the results of the weighting. The Consistency Ratio (CR) is a measure of how much variation is allowed for reasonable results that is expected to be less than 10 per cent for the reasonable result. CR calculation is described as in following formula from the matrix Goal calculation, λmax value can be gained and later it is used to count Consistency Ratio (CR) and Wi which becomes the priority vector. The formula of Consistency Ratio (CR) got from the Consistency Index (CI) is as follows: CI = (λmax - n) / (n – 1) and CR = CI / RI Where: λmax: The maximum value; CI: Consistency Index; CR: Consistency Ratio ; RI : Random Index; n: The numbers of criteria or sub-criteria in each pairwise comparison matrix Random Index (RI) says that the average of consistency of comparative matrix in pairs is 110, got from the experiment of Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Wharton School. The bigger the matrix is, the higher the inconsistency level will be (Permadi, 1992). Matrix Random Index can be seen in table below. Table 1 Average Random Consistency Index (RI) (Permadi, 1992)

AHP finally set out the priorities of the alternatives and the weights of each criterion with respect to the Physically land suitability map. GIS technology is used for analyzing information about development characteristics and requirements of green beans. Final thematic map is important for decision-making and prediction of land suitability, accordingly to specific crops, that are green beans ones. Results and discussion Agricultural crop land suitability is one of the interdisciplinary approaches that involve integration of criteria from different branches of science. Criterion may be both qualitative as well as quantitative and are involved in analysing different alternatives. Decisions have to be taken at various levels starting from selecting the land utilization types or crops till the allocation of the land utilization types or crops for area that suit best. So the suitability evaluation is a multiple criteria decision making process

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Figure 1. Conceptual model of AHP technique in GIS application AHP technique presented the structuring of the criterias and sub-criterias required for the land suitability necessary for green beans development and set them in a hierarchical form. The overall goal of the research is suitability evaluation which occupies the top most level in the hierarchy. The next level consists of the main criteria set out to support the goal, and subcriteria of the criteria occupy position in the next hierarchical level. Such structure allows the incorporation and accommodation of both qualitative and quantitative criteria for assessing land suitability. Step on the research of assessment rate of soil and relief characteristics for green beans, named “Creating of land assessment database for vegetable crops in Plovdiv Region, Bulgaria” by authors Zh. Arnaudova, V. Stefanova, D. Haytova, comparing between database using matrix structure can be done. Hierarchical organization is followed by the comparison in pairs with respect to each factor of the next higher level. It allows expressing the comparisons in verbal terms which are then translated in the corresponding numbers. The next two tables present sub-classes of soil characteristics and relief ones, using matrix pair-wise comparison.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2: Pair wise comparison matrix of Soil criteria in AHP Factor soil type soil texture organic matter % Ph soil depth

soil type

soil texture

organic mater Ph soil depth 0,2 0,167 0,333 0,167 1 3 0,25 1 1 3 0,333 1 0,333 0,333 0,333 1 4 3 3 1

1 5 6 3 6

∑

21

6,533

5,503

10,336

2,083

Table 3: Pair wise comparison matrix of Relief criteria in AHP Factor altitude slope% aspect

altitude

slope %

∑

aspect

1 4 7

0,25 1 4,0

0,143 0,25 1

12

5,250

1,393

Using matrix for presenting compare between every one sub-criteria in value, we transform all information into numbers and put it on GIS tools. For achieving weight assessment of land parameters, all values have to be calculated by using the above mentioned formulas. The results are in the next two tables. Table 4: Weighted parameters of Soil criteria in AHP Factor

soil type

soil texture

organic matter

soil type

0,048

0,031

0,030

soil texture organic matter %

0,238

0,153

0,182

0,285

0,153

0,182

Ph

0,143

0,051

0,061

soil depth

0,285

0,612

0,546

soil Ph depth 0,03 2 0,080 0,29 0 0,120 0,29 0 0,160 0,09 7 0,160 0,29 1 0,480

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Tota Averag consistency l e measure 0,22 1 0,044 0,98 3 0,197 1,07 0 0,214 0,51 1 0,102 2,21 4 0,443 CI RI CR

5,142 5,335 5,277 5,078 5,520 0,068 1,12 0,06

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 5: Weighted parameters of Relief criteria in AHP Factor altitude slope % aspect

altitude slope% aspect Total Average consistency measure 0,083 0,048 0,103 0,234 0,078 3,015 0,334 0,190 0,179 0,703 0,234 3,062 0,583 0,762 0,718 2,063 0,688 3,156 CI 0,039 RI 0,58 CR 0,07

Giving priority for every one of the physical environment criteria is calculated and based on expert knowledge and farmer opinions. Local conditions assessment and crops requirements were also made use for this. Accordingly to the expert opinions, the soil characteristics are more imported than relief parameters. Accepted it weight for these two parameters are 80% for soil and 20% for relief. Rated criteria maps are combined with the weightings to provide suitability value for each land unit corresponding to green beans. The score of the criteria obtained from the AHP will be stored as attribute data of each of the land unit of study area. ArcGIS is used to combine spatial data with suitability index so that a continuous land suitability map is generated. Final thematic maps are created and edited, overlaid and visualized on ArcGIS software of ESRI. The results from calculated parameters are presented in Soil and Relief thematic maps.

(a) weighted soil map (b) weighted relief map Figure 1: Land assessment rate of Soil and Relief parameters for Phaseolus vulgaris L. in Perushtitza Village

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Figure 2: Physical Land Suitability Map for Phaseolus vulgaris L. in Perushtitza Village Once the weight value assigned for each class of each map, all of maps of factors for each land use type will be multiplied together. This study conducted calculations of the weight and fact value of each criteria and sub-criteria, produced the theme layers of each subcriteria, overlaid all the theme layers for having the final suitability classification. The thematic map with suitability value will be generated for every one level and overlaid for final suitability classification accordingly to the study area. As a result the most suitable soil characteristics in the Perushtitza Village are presented with best rated. Multidisciplinary natural resources teams are required to make GIS systems an effective tool in support of land evaluation and land use planning. Each map demonstrates information, spatial and non-spatial attributive relating to land evaluation objective. Good and positive land assessment of physical parameters in Perushtitza Village is established for green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). This state is proven by employing GIS technique. Using AHP method of dealing is complex decision making and can assist with weighting selection criteria, analysing the data collected for the criteria, and expediting the decision-making process. All this information can be beneficial for predictions, planning and getting more increasingly profitable yield by green beans growing. Conclusion The aim of land evaluation is to determine the suitability of land for alternative, actual or potential, land uses that are relevant to the area under consideration. Land evaluation is the process of predicting the use potential of land on the basis of its attributes. It is interdisciplinary activities that rely on large amounts of information from different sources. Finally the results with reports and maps have to be dynamic, considering the continuous refinement of the whole land evaluation process. The results are intended to be used for land resource related decision making, both strategic land use planning by the direct land users, that is, the farmers. Acknowledgement The report and participations on the congress was financial supported by Project 05-14 of Research Centre in Agricultural University, Plovdiv (Bulgaria).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Baniya N. (2008), Land suitability evaluation using GIS for vegetable crops in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. p. 244, Berlin (also available at: http://edoc.huberlin.de/dissertationen/baniya-nabarath-2008-10-13/PDF/baniya.pdf) Saaty, T. L (1977), A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structure: Journal of Mathematical Psychology 15.3: 34-39 Stefanova, V., Arnaudova, Z., Haytova, D. Bileva, T. (2014): Multi-criteria evaluation for sustainable horticulture. Turkish Journal of Agricultural and Natural Sciences. Special Issue: 2, 2014. P. 1694-1701 USAID, 1988. The transition to sustainable agriculture: an agenda for A.I.D: Committee for Agr. Sust.for Developing Countries, Washington D.C. Hossain, M. S. S. R. Chowdhury, N. Gopal Das and M. M. Rahaman, 2007. Multi-criteria evaluation approach to GIS-based land-suitability classification for tilapia farming in Bangladesh, Journal of the European Aquaculture Society Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007 Permadi, 1992, inharited from Chuong, M, 2007. Multi-criteria Land Suitability evaluation for selected fruit crops in Hilly Region of Central Vietnam. PhD dissertation submitted to Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany. Prakash, T. N. 2003. Land Suitability Analysis for Agricultural Crops: A Fuzzy Multicriteria Decision Making Approach, MSc thesis, ITC, Netherlands: 6-13.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051285A CREATING OF LAND ASSESSMENT DATABASE FOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN PLOVDIV REGION, BULGARIA Zhulieta ARNAUDOVA, Vera STEFANOVA, Dimka HAYTOVA Agricultural University-Plovdiv, 12 Mendeleev Blvd, Plovdiv, Bulgaria *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Development of vegetable crops is height and increased procession in Bulgaria. Plovdiv region is special area because of its green beans production. The main purpose of this report is investigating and analysing some of important factors for sustainable vegetable cultivation, especially green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) . The volume of data include information about biological requirements for cultivation: climate, climatic conditions, terrain and soil characteristic, monitoring and agricultural facilities, socio-economic conditions like existing irrigation systems, road systems, mechanization, production transporting, etc. Gathering date from different kind of sources and then presented it on tables, makes work and analyzing easier to be used. Transform all non-spatial information into spatial using computer technology can be made by GIS applications. All information is prepared for using of GIS application by converting it into spatial database. According to specify crop requirements and surrounding environment, GIS analyzing presented more hopefulness and predicted way to show dependence to vegetable characteristics on nature. Land parameters and climate characteristics are part of the physical land characteristics, necessary for vegetable growing. All information is collected from different kind of resources- experiences, researches, literatures, etc. This report emphasize on physical land characteristics and especially soil and relief parameters, which is more important for crops development. About soil characteristics are discussed soil type, soil texture, organic matter, soil pH and soil depth. Accordingly to relief are presented altitude, slope and aspect. Their dependency and spatial transformation are presented by thematic maps Key words: vegetable crops, GIS, assessment, spatial database. Introduction Horticulture is one of the most approached cultivation branch in Bulgaria country. Establishing appropriate suitability factors is the construction of suitability analysis. Careful planning of the use of land resources is based on land evaluation, which is the process of assessing the suitability of land for alternative land uses (Fresco et al, 1994). Information on land resources is a key to their careful and effective evaluation. Farming systems involve a complex combination of inputs, managed by farm households but influenced by environmental, political, economic, institutional and social factors. Good knowledge of crop necessaries is one of the steps to be good and profitable farmer. Among the horticultural subsectors, vegetable production increased at the fastest rate, especially during the last decade. High rate of vegetables depends on necessaries of the people and natural resources. Most horticultural commodities are commercially produced for the market (except from homegarden), which creates substantial demand for marketing activities. The aim of this research is to create database for land assessment and analysing some of important factors for sustainable vegetable culture, especially green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Land parameters and climate characteristics are part of the physical land characteristics, necessary for vegetable growing. All information is collected from different kind of resources- experiences, researches, literatures, etc. This report emphasize on physical land

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ characteristics and especially soil and relief parameters, which is more important for crops development (Kumanov, 1988). About soil characteristics are discussed soil type, soil texture, organic matter, soil pH and soil depth. Accordingly to relief are presented altitude, slope and aspect. Their dependency and spatial transformation are presented by thematic maps. Study area Study area is Perushtica Village, Plovdiv Region, Bulgaria where topography, slope, aspect, etc develop considerable difference in the micro-climatic regime within study area the land unit can carefully be delineated. This study includes information from the climate, meteorology and environmental characteristics of the Perushtitza Village, Bulgaria. This region covers 4871.6 ha, including 2298.9 ha land using area. Elevation changes from 150m to 800 m. The relief is various from plane to hilly. The urban part is situated on plane and agricultural land. There is concerned most of the useful area for vegetable growing (Arnaudova, 2011, Popov 2011).

Figure 1. Study area Material and method The research needed information on physical land characteristics - climate, topography, soil, land cover and land use. In addition to these, data were collected to assess indicators of land assessment suitability. All necessary information is complex characteristics and depends on biologically requirement of vegetables. Geographic information Digital administrative maps of the region, municipality, digital cadastral maps and maps of reclaimed property in the studied area. The digital model formats are ZEM, CAD. Information source: the Geodesy, Cartography and Cadastre Agency. (Arnaudova, 2010) Digital soil map of the area in scale M 1:10000. Soil maps reflect in detail the boundaries between the separate soil types. Information source: The Soil Resources Agency and the Institute of Soil Science “Nikola Pushkarov”. Topographic maps in scale M 1:25000 and digital elevation models Attribute information Air temperature in °C for period of 10 years (2004-2013), especially the months from April to October. This period is enough to establish dependence between variety of maximum, minimum and average temperatures.

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Figure 2. Distribution of air temperature for period of 10 years (2004-2013) Crop requirements for green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are presented on Table 1. It includes one of the most important characteristics, on which depends good vegetables development. Table.1 Crop requirements for suitability of green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Parameters Temperature ( ° C ) Soil texture (%) Organic matter content ( %)

High 22 -25

Potential Ratings Moderate Low 15 -22, 25 -28 < 10 & > 30

25-30

30-40

>40

>2,5

1.5-2 < 4.5-6.6 & 7.5 >8.2 Partly available 50-80cm 1-5 South East Moderate

80 cm Flat to 1 South High

Rained t(n-2, 1-α/2), H0 is rejected and a significant trend exists in the time series. Sen’s estimator of slope The importance of the trend is estimated with the help of the Sen’s estimator. In this case, a linear trend is present and thus the true slope is estimated by this method. Here, the slope (Ti) for all pairs of data is first calculated as (Sen, 1968): (15) where xk and xj are represented as data values at times j and k (j>k), respectively. The median of these N values of Ti is considered as the Sen’s estimator of the slope which is given as:

(16) The Sen’s estimator is computed as Qi = T*(N + 1)/2 if N is odd and as Qi=[TN/2+T(N+2)/2]/2 if N is even. Finally, Qi is estimated by a bilateral test at the confidence interval of 100*(1 α)% and thus a true slope may be derived from the non-parametric test Qi with a positive value of Qi indicating an increasing trend and a negative value meaning a decreasing trend. Conclusions and recommendations The research on historical changes in the climate system is a necessary component of research on CC because the historical climate records provide context on natural variation in order to

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ detect the CC forced by anthropogenic activity. A reliable study of the CC requires, beforehand, climatic series of quality that could be identified by statistical tests of homogeneity. Then, one should ensure the absence of autocorrelation in the climatic series; otherwise, we should manipulate these series to eliminate this serial correlation using, for example, the pre-whitening or variance correction approaches. The next step is to test the normality of the climate series; in the affirmative, trend analysis will be performed by the use of parametric tests such as Pearson correlation and linear regression. If, in contrast, the normality condition is not met, we should use the non-parametric tests such as the Spearman rank correlation, the Mann-Kendall test, or the Sen’s estimator of slope. References Alexandersson H and Moberg A. (1997). Homogenization of Swedish temperature data. Part I: A homogeneity test for linear trends. Int. Jour. Climat., 17: 25–34. Buishand TA. (1982). Some methods for testing the homogeneity of precipitation records. Jour. Hydrol., 58: 11–27. Chen J and Gupta AK. (2000). Parametric Statistical Change Point Analysis. Birkhäuser. Dahmen ER and Hall MJ. (1990). Screening of hydrological data: Tests for stationarity and relative consistency, Publication #49, ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands. IPCC. (2013). Summary for policymakers, in: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Kendall MG. (1975). Rank Correlation methods. Griffin: London, UK. Khaliq MN and Ouarda TBMJ. (2007). On the critical values of the standard normal homogeneity test (SNHT). Int. Jour. Climat., 27: 681–687. Sen PK. (1968). Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s tau. Jour. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63: 1379–1389. Sneyers R. (1990). On the statistical analysis of series of observations. Technical Note 143, WMO no. 415, World Meteorological Organization, 1990. Wu H, Svoboda MD, Hayes MJ, Wilhite DA, and Wen F. (2007). Appropriate application of the standardized precipitation index in arid locations and dry seasons. Int. Jour. Climat. 27: 65-79. Yu PS, Yang TC, and Kuo CC. (2006). Evaluating long-term trends in annual and seasonal precipitation in Taiwan. Water Reso. Mgmt, 20: 1007–1023. Yue S, Pilon P, and Cavadias G. (2002). Power of the Mann-Kendall and Spearman’s rho tests for detecting monotonic trends in hydrological series. Jour. Hydrol. 259: 254– 271.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051353A HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE IN MOROCCO: AN EXPLORATORY SURVEY Aziz ABOUABDILLAH1*, Roberto CAPONE2, Lahcen EL YOUSSFI3, Philipp DEBS2, Ahmed HARRAQ1, Hamid EL BILALI2, Mohamed EL AMRANI4, Francesco BOTTALICO2,5, Noureddin DRIOUECH2 1

Department of Agronomy, National School of Agriculture of Meknes, Morocco Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Department, International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies of Bari (CIHEAM-Bari), Valenzano (Bari), Italy 3 Environmental Engineering and Agrobiotechnologies Department, High School of Technology of Khénifra, Moulay Ismaïl University, Khénifra, Morocco 4 Department of Development Engineering, National School of Agriculture of Meknes, Morocco 5 Parthenope University of Naples, Department of Science and Technology, Naples, Italy *Corresponding author: [email protected] 2

Abstract Food losses and waste is generated in important amounts across the food chain, from production to consumption, imposing serious environmental, social and economic costs. More attention is paid in Morocco to food losses while food waste (FW) is generally overlooked. There are few research activities on this problem in the kingdom. This exploratory study aims to evaluate household FW in Morocco. An online survey with 122 Moroccan households was conducted in February-May 2015 to assess the knowledge and relative importance of FW; attitudes towards FW; impacts of behaviors regarding food and food management; quantity and value; as well as barriers and willingness to behavioral change. Sample is genderbalanced (52% female and 48% male) and rather young (80% are less than 44 years old) while most of respondents have high education level. Results show that household’s planning and shopping activities are important predictors of FW. On the other hand, attitudes may change according to periods especially in Ramadan (87% declare that FW is higher during this month) and also to the category of food (most wasted product groups are cereals and bakery products, fruits and vegetables). Most of the respondents have a good understanding of food labels. It seems that FW is widespread in Morocco as only 3.3% of respondents declare that they do not waste any food. About two-fifths (39%) declare that their households throw away at least 250 g of still consumable food each week. The economic value of FW generated each month is more than 60 Moroccan Dirham (≈ 6 US$) for 54% of respondents’ households. In order to change consumers and household’s FW behavior, efforts should be directed towards providing consumers with skills and tools to deal with their food-related activities and to consider environmental and economic impacts of food waste. Keywords: Food waste, Online survey, Household behavior, Morocco Introduction Reducing food losses and waste (FLW) is attracting growing public attention at the international, regional and national levels, and is widely acknowledged to contribute to abating interlinked sustainability challenges such as food security, climate change, and water shortage. However, the pattern and scale of food waste throughout the supply chain remains poorly understood, despite growing media coverage and public concerns in recent years (Bagherzadeh et al., 2014). FLW is generated in important amounts across the food chain, from production to consumption, imposing serious environmental, social and economic costs (Gustavsson et al., 2011). FLW is also an issue in Mediterranean countries. In the final declaration of the 10th meeting of the CIHEAM member states’ agriculture ministers, held in Algiers in February 2014, the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ relevance of food waste issue in the Mediterranean countries was strongly stressed (CIHEAM, 2014). The lack of data concerning the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries means that research and cooperation on this matter need to be improved (Charalampopoulos et al., 2014). Regarding Morocco, more attention is paid to food losses while food waste (FW) is generally overlooked. There is a need of research to bridge the knowledge gap on this problem. However, some recent initiatives have been promoted by some public institutions to address this important issue in the kingdom. For instance, on June 11th 2015, the Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) launched a strategic project in order “to develop a national strategy and an action plan to reduce FLW in Morocco”. The main activity consists on a study on FLW in the country for a selected key food supply chains. The study aims to develop a vision and strategic directions that will conduct into an action plan to reduce FLW by 50 % by 2024 (Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2015). This current exploratory survey anticipated the abovementioned study and aims to evaluate household FW in Morocco. The specific objectives concern knowledge and perceived relative importance of FW; attitudes towards food waste; impacts of behaviors regarding food and food management on food wastage; quantity and value of food wasted; and barriers and willingness to behavioral change. Materials and Methods The present paper is based on the results of a voluntary survey in Morocco using a questionnaire that was adapted to Moroccan context from previous questionnaires and studies on FW carried out by the Office of Environment and Heritage in 2011 in the State of New South Wales (NSW), Australia (OEH, 2011), and by the University of Bologna (Last Minute Market, 2014). The tool used to conduct the survey is a self-administered questionnaire. It was made available in English, French and Arabic languages from February till the end of May 2015 through the Survio website (www.survio.com). Participation was entirely volunteer bases and responses were analyzed only in aggregate. The questionnaire consisted of 26 one option and multiple choice questions structured in 6 sections: food purchase behavior and household food expenditure estimation; knowledge of food labeling information; attitudes towards food waste; extent of household food waste; economic value of household food waste and willingness and information needs to reduce food waste. In the introductory part of the questionnaire the concept of FLW was introduced to inform the respondents. Various institutional communication channels were used to disseminate the survey, such as: institution website (National school of Agriculture of Meknes); professional forums (https://fr.groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/tech_agro/info); social media: (https://www.facebook.com/groups/aniphop) and mailing lists. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (e.g. means, max, min), in order to get a general picture of frequencies of variables, using Microsoft Excel. Out of 129 questionnaires received, 7 were not considered because there were missing data. Therefore, the total number of the sample is 122 adult Moroccans. The sample is almost gender-balanced (52% female and 48% male), rather young (80% are less than 44 years old) and most of the respondents (more than 69%) have high education level. More than half of the respondents are married with children (55.7 %). As for household composition, half of the respondents lives in households with up to 3 members, while the rest of the sample with 4 to 6 members at home.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and Discussion The survey showed that respondents use to buy food products in different shopping places but more from small and minimarkets and rarely on farm. In fact, the market or what is called “souk” (traditional market place in Morocco) takes the first rank with 37%. This could be due to the fact that most consumers look for good quality products with low price. Another point that would be highlighted is that the fact of visiting the souk (mainly the weekly one) is considered as an inherited custom since a large number of Moroccans goes to the traditional market place not only to do shopping but also to meet friends and relatives. At the second rank, come minimarkets with 34%. Actually, one or two minimarkets could be found at each living hood street mainly in big cities of the country. Therefore, the proximity as well as the long working days (i.e. lack of time) for many consumers encourage them to purchase the foodstuff from the closest minimarket. During the last decades, the number of hypermarkets has increased and a competition on presenting different deals begins to get underway, which gives more confidence to consumer to go through. The wide range of available food products at the same location would be also a positive feature that persuades consumers to choose this shopping. Services, which are better on supermarkets than in other shopping places, would be a further reason for resorting at supermarkets. Only 2% of the respondents opt for the farm as a place of food shopping. It is an unusual habit of shopping in Morocco mainly for people from big cities. Furthermore, the supply chain is not well organized, which make direct sale by farmers quite complicated. Only in few places in the kingdom, fresh fruit and veggies start to be sold on the farm. Regarding food shopping frequency, most of the respondents purchase food once a week (31%) or twice per week (25%) but only 15% respondents do their food shopping every day. This frequency could be related to the working and living conditions of every respondent. In addition, this frequency is highly related to the place of food shopping as discussed before. The survey results highlighted that the food budget exceeds the level of 900 Moroccan dirham, MAD (10 MAD ≈ 1US $) per month in more than 65% of the cases. This category corresponds probably to households composed of 4-6 members and more. However, for the purpose of the present research, rather than considering the total food budget, it makes more sense to focus on the percentage of food budget that is lost when food is wasted. The use of shopping list does not appear as a usual technique for most interviewees (30%). Only 25% of the respondents use always a list for purchasing food. The remaining people (45%) resort sometimes to using the list depending on shopping purpose. Consequently, there is a greater awareness that the use of a list can make shopping smarter, and hence contribute, likely, to a reduction of food waste. Regarding attraction to offers, an important number of respondents are always interested (34%) or sometimes (42%) by good deals. The influence of these offers would have sometimes a great impact on the purchased quantity of food. This happens very often in Morocco during some specific periods of the year (Ramadan, religious holidays and other occasions). Therefore, a large part of the purchased foods will eventually have to be stored. This would increase the probability of throwing food thereafter. Much attention is thus to be paid on food labeling predominately the expiry date. Concerning “use by” food label; only 85% of respondents understand and have knowledge about this label as they think that food should be consumed or discarded by this date. While 13% consider that the food is still safe to eat after that date if it is not damaged or spoiled. In the case of “best before” label, it is surprising that 68% of respondents confuse this label with “use by” one as they think that food should be discarded after this date. Only 31% of the survey sample showed good understanding of the meaning of this label. This shows that there is a difficulty in understanding of the two label dates by Moroccan consumers and clear

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ confusion between the two. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that “best before” label is not widespread in Morocco, and, consequently, not well known by Moroccan consumers. Luckily, most respondents (88.5%) expressed a high concern on food waste and the attitude to avoid it as much as possible. This could be due to the fact that the Moroccan culture, customs and traditions, which are dominated by a religious character, make the act of throwing food something outrageous. About 7% of them are aware of the problems associated with food waste, but they do not think they will change their behavior in the near future. Nevertheless, a very low percentage (4.5%) of them considers FW as a non-relevant problem. Food waste amount changes from a period of the year to another. In fact, according to 87 % of respondents FW increases during the fasting month of Ramadan. This is due to increased difficulty of planning meals during this month. In fact, many households in Morocco use to cook more than what they can eat for fast breaking. Therefore, this highlights the importance of organizing awareness rising campaigns before and during the month of Ramadan in order to reduce FW. Concerning of the quantity of food waste, 50% of the respondents estimated that a very small amount of food is wasted in their household in comparison with 20% of them who consider that they waste much more than it should not. A quarter of them assume that the food waste quantity at the household is reasonable. This result shows that Moroccan consumers are, in general, aware of FW issue. In fact, only 3% of them considered that no food is wasted in their household. The uneaten food is managed in different ways by respondents’ households. Sometimes, the same household uses different uneaten food management strategies. The study showed that, unfortunately, 69% of respondents throw the uneaten food in the trash. However, an important part of respondents (24%) manage uneaten food in good way by giving it as donation. Meanwhile, some respondents use uneaten food to feed animals (24%) or to produce compost (2.5%). While, these two last uneaten food management strategies are clearly better than throwing it in the trash, they do not represent anyway good strategies for FW reduction as also food fed to animals or used to produce compost is to be considered as wasted food. The frequency of throwing away leftovers or food considered as not good has been also pointed out in the survey. The results showed that only 12% of the respondents don’t throw leftovers in comparison with more than 46% of them who declared throwing food for less than one time a week. On the other hand, more than 26% of the respondents throw food leftovers 1 to 2 times a week. However, 15 % throw away food leftovers even more than 2 times a week. To sum it up, a high percentage of respondents (88%) throw at least once per week leftovers or food considered not good. Different actions towards food undertaken by the respondents affect the amount and extent of household FW. Among the actions that likely have a negative effect on FW can be mentioned using the leftover and the remaining food as well as eating outdoor. In fact, the survey result showed that 92% of respondents consume at least a meal remaining day before. This practice is certainly good for reducing FW. The survey showed also that 80% of respondents eat out or eat a takeaway at least once a week. This action can reduce also household FW but not necessarily FW in general. In fact, FW can be generated in this case also in food services (i.e. restaurant) that show the importance of involving food services in FW reduction strategies and initiatives. The percentage of respondents of people eating outdoor is quite high taking in consideration the Moroccan context as the Moroccan society still has a traditional and conservative character thus preferring to eat, especially mean meals, at home. This high percentage may not be representative, for the Moroccan context, as the sample considered in this survey is young and has a high education level; so that respondents can be highly influenced by western food habit and consumption pattern.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ The result of the survey show that the main reason behind waste of food is due to bad food management at home so under the responsibility of final consumer. As the matter of fact, according to 67% of respondents, foods are wasted because they are left in the fridge for a long time. In this case, food is throwing away because it has bad smell or taste, has mold, and does not look good or expired. Poor conservation is a factor determining the increase of FW also for foods that are not stored in the fridge. Bad food management at home, such as errors in meal planning (30%), implies that there are often remains of cooked dishes and that portions are too heavy. Therefore, it is crucial to organize communication campaigns, especially through mass media (Radio, TV), on food management with a particular reference to good practices and rules regarding food storage and preservation at home. Reasons that are due to the food industry and food retail mentioned by respondents are that labels generate confusion and the package does not have always good size. The quantity of thrown food per week depends on different factors inculing houshold composition. About the half of respondents (45%), declared that they never throw food which is still consumable, while (39%) of respondents affirm that their households throw away at least 250g of still consumable food each week. It is worth highlighting that according to the survey results, 55% of respondents waste food even if the quantity wasted is generally small. Hence, urgent measures are needed to address the issue of FW in Morocco as FW is also considered as a waste of resources (land, water, and energy) as well as money. Table 1: Quantity of thrown food per household and per week Ratio (%)

Answer choices I do not throw food that is still consumable

45.1

Less than 250g

15.6

Between 250 and 500 gr

21.3

Between 500 gr and 1 kg

8.2

Between 1 kg and 2 kg

5.7

More than 2 kg

4.1

Source: Authors’ elaboration based on the survey results.

The extent of FW varies from a food group to another. In general, perishable products are the most wasted food. This result is in line with the outcomes of FAO’s promoted study on global FLW (Gustavsson et al., 2011). In particular, the survey showed that the most wasted food group in the Moroccan context is cereals and the bakery products, followed by fruits, vegetables. Meanwhile, the least wasted food group is roots and tubers, dried vegetables and oilseeds, meat and meat products, and fish and sea food. Milk and milk products are moderately wasted. The high percentage of cereal and bakery products that is wasted is a big environmental and economic problem considering the high amount of these products, especially consumed by Moroccans. This is also a political issue in Morocco, as bread is subsidized in the Cherifian kingdom, so bread waste is considered also as a waste of public budget and, consequently tax payers’ money. It is interesting to notice that, not only perishability, but also price is an important factor in determining the extent FW. In fact, meat and meat products, and fish and sea food that are also perishable products, but quite expensive, are among the least wasted foods.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2: Ratio of thrown food per group Food waste ratio

Less than 2%

3 to 5%

6 to 10%

11 to 20%

More than 20%

Cereals and bakery products (bread, rice, pasta, etc.)

33.6

20.5

13.1

13.9

18.9

Roots and tubers (potatoes, etc.)

63.1

18.0

11.5

2.5

4.9

Dried vegetables and oilseeds (e.g., peas, chickpeas, olives, sunflower)

78.7

12.3

4.9

Fruits

49.2

27.0

15.6

6.6

1.6

Vegetables

32.8

40.2

16.4

4.9

5.7

Meat and meat products

78.7

11.5

8.2

1.6

0

Fish and seafood

85.2

9.0

4.1

1.6

0

Milk and milk products

59.0

23.8

9.0

5.7

2.5

Food groups

0.8


Economic value of household food waste depends not only on waste amount (so also on household composition), and the composition of FW, but also on household food habits and consumption patterns. According to the survey, the value of household FW generated each month is more than 60 Moroccan dirham for 54% of respondents’ households. The weighted average economic value of the monthly FW generated by each responding Moroccan household is about 100 MAD. This value represents of around 13% of the weighted food budget for the considered sample. Table 3: Economic value of food waste generated each month by household Ratio (%)

Answer choices Less than 5 US$

45.9

Between 6 and 20 US$

42.6

Between 21 and 50 US$

10.7

More than 51 US$

0.8


Better information is the key to reduce household FW. In fact, among the necessary conditions to waste less food mentioned by responds are to be better informed about the negative impacts of food waste on the environment (44%) and on the economy (38%). Food industry and food retail can play an important role in food waste reduction by improving packaging and making food labeling clear. Government actions to reduce FW can include introducing a new taxing system penalizing food wastage making it inconvenient from the economic point of view. However, implementing such a system is not an easy task in Morocco, giving the inefficient waste management system. According to the exploratory survey, information about different issues are needed, sometimes even simultaneously, by respondents for reducing food waste such as advices on how to properly store food (59%), organizations and initiatives that address the prevention and reduction of food waste (49%), recipes prepared with leftovers (38%). Also

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ information about how to assess the freshness of products is needed by about a third of respondents (35%). Conclusion Food-related behavior and attitude are important factors in determining the amount and extent of food waste. Food habits change according to year’s periods, as during the fasting month of Ramadan, with implications in terms of FW. However, the amount of household FW is affected not only by food habit and behavior, but also depends on food groups. In fact, most wasted foods are cereals and bakery products. This fact is alarming taking into consideration that these are the most consumed products in Morocco. It seems that there is still some confusion regarding food labels, which increases the amount of FW. This result represents a big problem as our sample has good education, so it is legitimate to assume that the situation is worse especially considering the relatively high percentage of illiterates in the kingdom. The estimated economic value of FW is rather low but still a source of concern taking into consideration its share in the household food budget. In order to reduce household FW, effort should be directed towards changing consumer behaviors and habits especially household management practices (i.e. fridge management), by providing consumers with knowledge and information to deal with their food-related actions, while fully considering economic and environmental impacts of food waste. The recent initiative of the Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture - in collaboration with FAO - is a step in the right direction, but it is not sufficient. There is a high need for more initiatives (targeting not only FW reduction, but also FW prevention) especially awareness rising campaigns. For that a multi-stakeholder approach and active involvement of all key actors of the food chain, including the private sector as well as civil society, is highly recommended in the future to effectively, efficiently, and sustainably address the issue of FLW in Morocco. This should be put high on the government agenda taking into consideration the environment and economic implication of FLW. References Bagherzadeh, M., M. Inamura and H. Jeong (2014). Food Waste Along the Food Chain. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, No. 71, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxrcmftzj36-en Charalampopoulos N., Tristram Stuart T. and Ian Wilkey I. ( 2014). Solving the Global Food Waste Scandal: Opportunities in the Mediterranean. CIHEAM, “Food Losses and Waste in the Mediterranean,” Watch Letter 30 - September 2014. CIHEAM, Paris. CIHEAM (2014). 10th meeting of the Ministers of Agriculture of CIHEAM’s Member Countries: Final declaration. February 6, 2014, Algiers. http://www.ciheam.org/index.php/en/cooperation/ministerial-meetings Gustavsson J., Cederberg Ch., Sonessonet U. (2011). Global food losses and food waste: extent, causes and prevention. FAO, Rome. Last Minute Market (2014). Last Minute Market - Trasformare lo spreco in risorse. http://www.lastminutemarket.it. Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (2015). Lancement du projet d’élaboration d’une stratégie nationale et d’un plan d’action de réduction des pertes et gaspillages alimentaires au Maroc en partenariat avec la FAO. http://www.agriculture.gov.ma/pages/actualites/lancement-projet-elaborationstrategie-nationale-et-d%E2%80%99un-plan-d%E2%80%99action-reduction-pertegaspillage-alimentaire . Accessed on 20/06/2015. OEH (2011). Food Waste Avoidance Benchmark Study. Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH), Department of Premier and Cabinet, State of New South Wales (NSW), Australia. ISBN 978 1 74293 252 1. Waste Watcher Report.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051361H ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF STANDARD OF LIVING: A CASE STUDY OF MARDAN DISTRICT, KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA IN PAKISTAN Anwar HUSSAIN*, Asma SAEED Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), Islamabad, Pakistan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Household income plays an important role in the improvement of the standard of living. However as the standard of living of the household improves, it also causes environmental degradation. This study investigates the environmental impacts of living standard of the households in the Mardan District. The impact of other factors such as household size, location of the household (urban or rural) and education of the households is also estimated. The study used primary data of 267 households collected through a questionnaire. The sample has been proportionally allocated between two sub-districts namely, Mardan and Takhtabhai. Accordingly the sample size for each Tehsil is 193 and 74 households respectively. Further, the sample size for each Tehsil is allocated to rural and urban areas proportionally. Accordingly, from the whole Mardan districts, 54 households from urban and 213 households from rural areas were selected. The respondents in both rural and urban areas have been selected randomly. The analysis was made through descriptive statistics and regression model. Findings show that household income is significant factor in increasing CO2 emissions in Mardan District. A positive relationship is also found between household size, education and CO2 emissions. Findings also revealed that Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is valid in case of rural areas but not in urban areas because the urban consumers use more carbon intensive commodities. Hence an effective policy formulation stressing on public awareness programs, incentives of tax reductions, and better public transport network is conducive to the reduction of CO2 emissions in the selected District. Keywords: Standard of living, Environmental impacts, Environmental Kuznets Curve, Household awareness, Emission factors Introduction The standard of the living is the degree of wealth available to an individual or family with which they can satisfy their wants/consumption of goods and services necessary for wellbeing. There are many factors that influence the standard of living of an individual or family. The higher the income, the higher is the standard of living because people will be able to buy more goods and services (Perry, 2013). Improvement in the standard of living always remained the priority of the governments but it is also well known fact that improvement in the standard of living or income of the people the usage of vehicles, refrigerators, air conditioners and other fuel items and electrical appliances increases, which ultimately adds to the carbon dioxide emission in the economy. Similarly, household income, urbanization, age of the main income provider and type of the house are the strongly influencing factors of CO 2 emissions (Baiocchi, Minx, and Hubacek (2010); Li and Wang (2010). Similarly, as the food expenditures increases, the solid wastes also tend to increase (Feng, Zou, and Wei (2011). The GDP per capita increased in Pakistan from US $631 in the year 2004 to US $1024 in the year 2010 (World Bank, 2014) but on the other hand the mean estimated annual cost of environmental and natural resource damage is about 365 billion Rs. per year or 6 percent of GDP. Also, the per capita emissions have been increased from 0.84 metric tons per capita in the year 2004 to 0.93 metric tons per capita in the year 2010 (World Bank, 2014).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Mardan is a typical district of Pakistan where, in the year 2013, about 98% of the household are using electricity for lighting without having much rural urban variation. The usage of gas/oil for lighting in rural and urban areas is 1% and 2% respectively. Similarly, the usage of gas as fuel in urban and rural areas in the year 2013 was 92% and 18% respectively while wood/charcoal usage was 7% and 56% respectively (Government of Pakistan, 2014). In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, the per capita consumption of gas in year 2010 was 1422 Cubic Meters but has grown to 2494 cubic meters in the year 2013 (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2014). In the year 2006-07, 65% of the household used gas/oil for cooking in urban areas of District Mardan (Government of Pakistan, 2007) while in the year 2012-13, it increased to 92% (Government of Pakistan, 2014). Similarly in rural areas, 9% of the household used gas/oil for cooking in the year 2006-07 (Government of Pakistan, 2007) , increasing to 18% in the year 2012-13 (Government of Pakistan, 2014). In this District, the total population of registered motor vehicles was 115814 in the year 2012 (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2014) while this was 98576 in the year 2011 (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2012). Apart from these the population of the District also increased significantly over the years. Based on these facts, this study looks how much environmental degradation (CO2 emissions) takes place followed by estimating the impact of income and non-income factors on carbon dioxide emissions at household level in rural and urban areas of District Mardan. The literature is rich about the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation based on secondary data such as (Grossman & Krueger, 1991) who also proposed the idea of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) the first time. The same was also concluded by Hung and Shaw (2004). Some studies validated the EKC hypothesis for some countries such as Ubaidillah (2011) and (Uddin, 2014). While some didn’t validate the hypothesis of EKC such as Mrabet, Achairi, and Ellouze (2013) and Akpan and Chuku (2011). The validity of EKC is not similar for each environmental quality while varies across environmental indicators. Ni, Lu, Lan, Gao, and Pan (2010) found that the indicators of surface water mostly support the EKC, while ambient air and near-shore water’s indicators do not support it. Similarly, Shaw, Pang, Lin, and Hung (2010) investigated that EKC hypothesis confirmed by SO2 and total suspended particulates while it does not confirmed in the case of NOX. The present study advances to literature through estimating the CO2 emissions using emission factors followed by estimating its determinants at household level in rural-urban areas of District Mardan. Materials and Methods To assess the impact of the standard of living on the environment the present study is based on primary data that have been collected through a questionnaire. The household has been selected randomly for getting information. The questionnaire consists of the information relevant to the household’s energy consumption in the form of electricity, natural gas, firewood, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder, electrical appliances (refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, air coolers, fans, washing machine, bulbs, energy savers, electric heater, geyser, iron, vaccume cleaner, television, desktop computer, laptop computer and microwave oven), fuel (petrol and compressed natural gas) used in personal vehicles (car and motorcycle), wastes produced by the household and the household characteristics including household income, family size, location (urban or rural) and education of the main income provider of the household. The total estimated number of the households during the year 2014 was 330544 (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2014). Keeping the confidence level as 95 percent and confidence interval at ±6 percent, the required sample size calculated was 267 households. The sample has been proportionally allocated between two sub-districts namely, Mardan and Takhtabhai.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Accordingly the sample size for each Tehsil is 193 and 74 households respectively. Further, the sample size for each Tehsil is allocated to rural and urban areas proportionally. Accordingly, the calculated sample size for urban and rural areas of Tehsil Mardan is 45 and 148 households, respectively. The sample for urban and rural areas of Tehsil Takhtabhai is 9 and 65 households respectively. The respondents in both rural and urban areas have been selected randomly. The study used household income as an indicator for the standard of living as proposed by Government of New Zealand (2007), OECD (2013) and Perry (2013). Apart from income, the other variables included are the household size, location of the household (urban or rural) and the education of the main income provider of the household. The household consumption has been converted into carbon emissions through emission factors proposed by DEFRA (2012), Carbon Neutral Company (2014), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2006). This procedure has also been used by Zhao and Cui (2013) and Kavi and Viswanathan (2013). The conversion formula is given as: CO hh2e  Ci * EFi

Where, CO hh 2e = The household carbon dioxide emissions Ci = The household consumption of the ith energy in the form of electricity, natural gas, firewood, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder, electrical appliances (refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, air coolers, fans, washing machine, bulbs, energy savers, electric heater, geyser, iron, vaccume leaner, television, desktop computer, laptop computer and microwave oven), fuel (petrol and compressed natural gas) used in personal vehicles (car and motorcycle) and wastes produced by the household. And EFi = The CO2 emission factors of the ith energy The emission factors for electricity, natural gas, waste, LPG, firewood and fuel (petrol and CNG) used in personal vehicles (car and motorcycle) with reference to Pakistan have been taken from Carbon Neutral Company (2014), DEFRA (2012) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC's) (2006). Regression analysis has also been carried out to show the impact of household income (standard of living) and other socioeconomic and demographic factors as independent variables on carbon dioxide emissions estimated as dependent variables (Buchs & Schnepf, 2013; Kavi & Viswanathan, 2013). To this end, the following model has been estimated: 2 ln CO hh 2e   0  1Yh   2Yh   3 HS   4 HS * Yh   5 ED   6 ED * Yh   i Where CO hh 2e are the household CO2 emissions in kg per month used as an indicator of the environmental degradation. Yh is the household income in rupees per month used as an indicator for household standard of living and its expected sign is positive. Y 2 h is the squared term of the household income to estimate the existence of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) at household level. The expected sign of the squared term of the household income is negative. HS is the household size in number and its expected sign is positive. HS * Yh is the interaction term of the household size with household income. The expected sign of this is positive. ED is the number of years in education of the main income provider and its expected sign is negative. ED * Yh is the interaction term of education of the main income provider with household income and the expected sign of this is negative and  i is the error

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ term. Firstly the model is estimated for overall district Mardan and then estimated for rural and urban households of district Mardan separately. Results and Discussion In urban areas, the average CO2 emissions were higher from the usage of air conditioner, refrigerator and freezer because these are mainly used by urban households and also because of the energy-intensive lifestyle of the urban households (Table 1). This means that in the electrical appliances the more polluting items are air conditioner, refrigerator and freezer in urban areas of district Mardan. Similarly the usage of personal transportation also results in higher CO2 emissions. This is due to the fact that majority of the households have personal transportation facility in their homes. Table 1. Average household size, income, education and CO2 emissions in Mardan district Variable Unit Rural Urban Monthly household income Rs. 46285.211 66727.300 Household size Number 6.671 5.722 Education of the main income provider Years 11.427 12.056 CO2 Emissions of HH (kg) per month kg CO2e Sui Gas 0.734 0.842 kg CO2e Firewood 164.645 15.748 kg CO2e LPG 13.035 4.892 kg CO e Personal Transport 535.769 68.997 2 kg CO2e Waste 17.431 8.639 Electrical Appliances kg CO2e Fans 38.689 16.726 kg CO2e Air Conditioner 106.951 129.016 kg CO2e Air Cooler 19.358 18.180 kg CO2e Energy Saver 6.522 7.357 kg CO e Bulb 37.706 25.629 2 kg CO2e Washing Machine 2.506 1.559 kg CO e Refrigerator 96.810 96.582 2 kg CO2e Freezer 64.773 123.082 kg CO2e Television 22.554 15.768 kg CO2e Iron 8.301 8.759 kg CO2e Vacuum Cleaner 37.297 6.993 kg CO e Geyser 54.703 75.528 2 kg CO2e Electric Heater 31.648 55.158 kg CO2e Computer 20.975 13.203 kg CO2e Laptop 10.949 12.110 kg CO2e Microwave oven 44.757 46.000 On the other hand, in rural areas of district Mardan, the lowest CO2 emissions are from Sui gas. The usage of personal transportation has higher average CO2 emissions than urban areas of district Mardan. This is due to the fact that rural households are far away from different types of facilities like school, colleges, hospitals, etc. which are situated in urban areas. Therefore majority of the households have personal transportation in their homes. The firewood emissions are also higher in rural than in urban areas because of the low access of Sui gas to rural areas. The average CO2 emissions of waste in rural area is higher than in urban area because of the large household size.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ In the overall Model, the coefficient of income is positive and significant depicting that with the increase in household income, CO2 emissions increases (Table 2). An inverted U shaped relationship exists between CO2 emissions and income at household level. This means that as household income increases, the CO2 emissions also increases, ultimately reaching to a turning point where the household CO2 emissions then start to decline with a further increase in household income. So, as standard of living improves the environmental degradation increases. Household size is also positive and significant which is in line with the results of Wu, Liu, and Tang (2012) but in contrast to the findings by Li and Wang (2010). The interaction term of income and household size is negative and significant. The education coefficient is positive and significant showing that if the main income provider of a household is educated then the household emits more CO2 emissions. This finding is in contrast to Baiocchi et al. (2010) but in accordance to Buchs and Schnepf (2013). This positive link between education and household CO2 emissions is due to the fact that as the households are getting more educated, they move to a high social status and a more carbon intensive consumption pattern. The interaction term of income and education is negative and significant which is also in line with Grunewald, Harteisen, Lay, Minx, and Renner (2012). Table 2. Regression results of the influencing factors of CO2 Emissions in Mardan Variable Overall Urban Rural Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Income 0.0000177*** 0.0000173** 0.0000152** 2 Income -0.00000000002** 0.0000000000019 -0.000000000036*** Household size 0.1304098*** 0.120808** 0.1278079*** Income*Household size -0.00000105** -0.00000121** -0.00000081* Education 0.0261412* 0.0472491** 0.000293 Income*Education -0.000000688* -0.000000401** -0.0000000973 Constant 5.636288*** 5.718356*** 5.803158*** 2 R 0.1371 0.0825 0.1822 F-Statistics 10.22 2.73 7.65 Prob. F-Statistics 0.0000 0.0146 0.0000 Note: *, **, *** 10%, 5% and 1% level of significance respectively. Dependent Variable = CO2 Emissions (Kg). In the urban areas, the coefficient of income is positive and significant. The coefficient of income squared term is positive and insignificant implying that the hypothesis of Environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) does not hold true in urban areas of district Mardan. This result is in line with the result of Kavi and Viswanathan (2013). The reason for this is that the urban households follow a carbon intensive lifestyle which restricts the relationship between income and CO2 emissions to the upward sloping segment of the EKC. The coefficient of household size is also positive and significant. The interaction term of income and household size is also negative and significant in urban areas showing that higher income and larger household size contribute to less CO2 emissions. Because as the household become wealthier they prefer a clean environment. The coefficient of education in urban areas is positive and significant. Similarly, the coefficient of interaction term of income and education is negative and significant in urban areas. In rural areas, the coefficient of income is positive and significant further implying that there exists an inverted U shaped relationship between income and CO2 emissions and so, the EKC exists in rural areas of district Mardan. The coefficient of household size in rural areas is also 1365

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ positive and significant. The interaction term of income and household size has a negative and significant coefficient. The coefficient of education is positive and insignificant in rural areas. The coefficient of the interaction term of income and education is negative and insignificant. Both education and the interaction term of income and education are insignificant showing that the education level of rural households is not high so the resulting social status is also not high which is associated to a high level of education. As the social status of the rural households is not high so their consumption pattern is also less energy intensive, therefore, contributing to less CO2 emissions. Conclusion Based on findings it is concluded that environmental degradation increases with improvement in the standard of living. Both household size and education positively and significantly affect the CO2 emissions. The EKC is valid in rural areas but not in urban areas. The influencing factors CO2 emissions at household level were mainly income, household size and education in district Mardan. To have sustainable standard of living, households should be aware of the environmental impacts of their consumption choices and activities. This can be done through media and public campaigns. Consumers should be given incentive for choosing energy saving goods and services. These incentives can be given in the form of tax reductions for rewarding them to save the energy. References Akpan, U. F., & Chuku, A. (2011). Economic Growth and Environmental Degradation in Nigeria: Beyond the Environmental Kuznets Curve, news. Baiocchi, G., Minx, J., & Hubacek, K. (2010). The Impact of Social Factors and Consumer Behavior on Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the United Kingdom. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 14(1), 50-72. Buchs, M., & Schnepf, S. V. (2013). UK Households' Carbon Footprint: A Comparison of the Association between Household Characteristics and Emissions from Home Energy, Transport and other Goods and Services. Carbon Neutral Company. (2014). The Carbon Neutral Company Calculation Methodology for the Carbon Calculator. DEFRA. (2012). Guidelines to Defra / DECC's GHG Conversion Factors for Company Reporting. Feng, Z.-H., Zou, L.-L., & Wei, Y.-M. (2011). The Impact of Household Consumption on Energy Use and CO2 Emissions in China. Energy, 36(1), 656-670. Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. (2012). Development Statistics of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Peshawar. Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. (2014). Development Statistics of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 2014. Peshawar. Government of New Zealand. (2007). Qulaity of life in twelve of new zealand's cities. New Zealand,. Government of Pakistan. (2007). Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2006-2007. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan. (2014). Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2013-2014. Islamabad. Grossman, G. M., & Krueger, A. B. (1991). Environmental Impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement: National Bureau of Economic Research. Grunewald, N., Harteisen, M., Lay, J., Minx, J., & Renner, S. (2012). The Carbon Footprint of Indian Households. Paper presented at the the 32nd General Conference of The International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, Boston, USA.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Hung, M.-F., & Shaw, D. (2004). 13. Economic Growth and the Environmental Kuznets Curve in Taiwan: A Simultaneity Model Analysis. Human Capital, Trade, and Public Policy in Rapidly Growing Economies: From Theory to Empirics, 269. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC's). (2006). Guidlines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kavi, K. K., & Viswanathan, B. (2013). Household Level Pollution in India: Patterns and Projections. Climate and Development, 5(4), 288-304. Li, J., & Wang, Y. (2010). Income, Lifestyle and Household Carbon Footprints (CarbonIncome Relationship), A Micro-Level Analysis on China’s Urban and Rural Household Surveys. Environmental Economics,, 1(2), 42-71. Mrabet, A., Achairi, R., & Ellouze, A. (2013). The Two-Way Relationship between Economic Growth and CO2 Emissions. Paper presented at the International Conference on Business, Economics, Marketing and Management Research. Ni, X., Lu, J., Lan, L., Gao, F., & Pan, C. (2010). Interactions between Environmental Quality and Economic Development in Shanghai, China. International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 2(7). OECD. (2013). OECD Framework for Statistics on the Distribution of Household Income,Consumption and Wealth. Perry, B. (2013). Using Household Income to Measure Living Standards. Shaw, D., Pang, A., Lin, C.-C., & Hung, M.-F. (2010). Economic Growth and Air Quality in China. Environmental economics and policy studies, 12(3), 79-96. Ubaidillah, N. Z. (2011). The Relationship between Income and Environment in UK's Road Transport Sector. Is There an EKC? International Proceedings of Economics Development & Research, 4. Uddin, M. M. (2014). Carbon Emission and Economic Growth of SAARC Countries: A Vector Autoregressive (VAR) Analysis. Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research, 14(3). World Bank. (2014). World Bank Statistical Database. Wu, G., Liu, T., & Tang, M. (2012). Analysis of Household Energy Consumption and Related CO2 Emissions in the Disregarded Villages of Lijiang City, China. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 19(6), 500-505. Zhao, T., & Cui, R.-h. (2013). Study on Carbon Footprint of the Household Consumption in Tianjin Based on Input-Output Analysis. Paper presented at the Proceedings of 20th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051368D BIODIVERSITY POTENTIAL IN CAMPING DESTINATIONS CORBU AND VADU FROM DANUBE DELTA BIOSPHERE RERSERVE Ionela DOBRIN, Emilia Brînduşa SĂNDULESCU, Cosmin-Alexandru MIHAI, Mala-Maria STAVRESCU-BEDIVAN* University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Faculty of Agriculture, 59 Mărăşti Blvd., 011464, Bucharest, Romania *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Corbu and Vadu, two villages from Constanţa County, Romania are recently camping destinations for those tourists seeking natural beauty and the concept of virgin beaches on the Black Sea. In July 2013 and August 2014, we observed, studied and collected some biological material from these sites situated in the southern part of Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. Considering the biodiversity potential, we have compiled for the Corbu-Vadu are an inventory of over 23 vegetal families representative for local vascular flora and eight insect orders (Coleoptera, Heteroptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea, Neuroptera, Orthoptera), with special insight on insect-host associations like Eurydema spectabilis – Crambe maritime, Carpocoris pudicus – Eryngium maritimum, Rhagonycha fulva – Daucus carota. From mollusks species, we found the rarer razor clam Solen marginatus along the Vadu beach. As regarding the avifauna, in the summer of 2013, we recorded in the Vadu area 92 species belonging to 13 orders and 35 families of birds. The most abundant in species composition was the order of Charadriiformes. The impacts of human activities on the protected landscapes and the hygienic conditions of the camping trips in these seaside areas are also discussed. Keywords: Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, biodiversity, anthropogenic impact, beach Introduction The Corbu and Vadu areas, as parts of Black Sea shore, found in the south limit of Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve and in the central Dobroudja region, are home for protected species of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds but also for insects and vascular flora (Dinu et al., 2009; Făgăraş and Jianu, 2007). Făgăraş (2008) recorded for Corbu-Vadu seacoast, an area with a surface about 50 hectare, 24 plant associations and 173 number of plant taxa. Unfortunately, in Dobroudja, the natural vegetation has been deeply affected due to the long-termed anthropogenic influence, like tourism and agricultural activities (Nonev, 2008). In Dobroudja and Danube Delta, there are the highest concentrations of birds in Romania and even in Europe, due to preferred migration corridors and favorable areas for feeding, resting and breeding. The localities from Corbu commune (Corbu, Luminiţa and Vadu) there are just on two from the three main migration routes in Dobroudja, namely Sarmatic route – crossing the Danube Delta and following the seashore, and Sarmatic Maritim, branching directly across the Black Sea to the north. These corridors are used by both spring and autumn migrations (Dinu et al., 2009; Ion et al., 2009). At the same time, the aestival season represents a disturbing factor for the nesting birds in the Romanian coastal area (Bănică, 2008). It is well known that tourism could have a negative effect on the natural resources in camping destinations from DDBR (http://www.danubeparks.org/). The dunes habitats can be destroyed through the expansion of the touristic activities (Făgăraş et al., 2008). 1368

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Regarding the Vadu area, a recent report (TRANSDANUBE, 2014) drew attention to the fact that currently there is an uncontrollably camping activity, that threatens the conservation status for the coastal habitats. Material and method Our observations were made in field trips carried out in: 22.07.2013-29.07.2013 (Corbu area – 44°22'44.01"N, 28°42'43.51"E; 44°22'46.64"N, 28°42'43.67"E) and 25.07.2013-30.07.2013, 15.08.2014-17.08.2014, 22.08.2014-27.08.2014 (Vadu area – 44°25'41.70"N, 28°45'53.99"E; 44°25'46.64"N, 28°46'1.41"E; 44°25'47.53"N, 28°46'0.20"E; 44°25'48.73"N, 28°46'4.75"E; 44°25'58.17"N, 28°46'8.98"E; 44°26'38.19"N, 028°44'45.01"E; 44°28'07.14N", 028°45'01.77E"). Biological material, like insects associated with vascular flora, was observed in situ and collected from the following categories of habitats: sandy beaches, sand dunes with psammophile vegetation, ruderal places, coastal wetlands and ponds, bushes area along the marine shore line. Direct observation was the most used method in this type of qualitative research, in order to focus on normal behavior and adaptations of the living organisms in their natural environment (Dobrin et al., 2013). Like any qualitative data analysis, our survey was non-statistical, its methodological approach being guided by the concrete material at hand; sample selection was based on smaller cases, compared to a quantitative research (http://atlasti.com/quantitative-vsqualitative-research/). Numbers were used to describe a sample and to generate meaning from the data (Sandelowski, 2001). This technique, applied for collecting data about various features and processes, included photographing and videotaping; scientific and vernacular names of the recognized biological specimens were mentioned in a field notebook. Some steps in sorting and classification of species were conducted in the field, other in laboratory. The nomenclature for the vascular flora identified in the studied areas is in accordance with the Romanian Flora and Flora Europaea (Ciocârlan, 2000; http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgibin/nph-readbtree.pl/). Plant specimens were harvested by hand pulling, some being dried and pressed in a herbarium or preserved in alcohol, in order to identify them in the laboratory work. Insect species, captured with an entomological net, have been identified according to Leraut (2012); some of them were whole preserved in alcohol, prior to study them in UASVM Bucharest laboratories. For the ornithological study, were used binoculars and spotting field telescopes, working out visual transects to identify birds. The book-guides used are Bruun et al. (1999) and Svensson et al. (2010). In July 2013, the observations were made twice a day, around 7 a.m. and 5 p.m., in various points from Vadu area, such as: the beach, accumulations basins, swampy habitats, village and the area around the neighboring forest. Also, some bird species included in this research have been reported since the summer of 2007 (Mihai, unpublished data), in the camps organized by the Romanian Ornithological Society (ROS), an organization that aims to study and protect the wild birds. It is already know that the objectives of these camps include monitoring of the bird migration through ornithological observations and ringing activities, and at the same time popularization of ornithology and environmental protection (http://www.sor.ro). Results and discussion Our survey presents findings descriptive in nature, involving recording presence of flora and fauna species and the relationship between these components of biological diversity. Similar

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ approaches were used worldwide by researchers like Bieler and Mikkelsen (2004), Golodets et al. (2013) or Grant and Shepard (1985). Vascular flora. In the Corbu area, the following plant taxa have been identified in our survey conducted in July 2013: Asteraceae (Artemisia herba-alba, Centaurea sp., Cichorium intybus, Cirsium vulgare, Xeranthemum annuum); Apiaceae (Eryngium maritimum); Caprifoliaceae (Scabiosa argentea); Convulvaceae (Cuscuta campestris); Cyperaceae (Scirpoides holoschoenus); Elaeagnaceae (Elaeagnus angustifolia); Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia nicaeensis ssp. dobrogensis); Fabaceae (Astragalus varius, Melilotus albus); Gramineae (Calamagrostis epigejos, Leymus racemosus ssp. sabulosus, Phragmites sp.); Labiatae (Teucrium polium ssp. capitatum); Linaeceae (Linum austriacum); Lythraceae (Lithrum salicaria); Rosaceae (Potentilla anserina, Crataegus monogyna). In the Vadu area, the following plant families and species have been identified in August 2014: Asteraceae (Achillea millefolium, Artemisia arenaria, Centaurea arenaria., Onopordum acanthium, Scolymus hispanicus, Senecio grandidentatus, Senecio jacobaea, Xanthium italicum, Xeranthemum annuum); Amaranthaceae (Salicornia herbacea, Salsola kali, Suaeda maritima); Apiaceae (Eryngium maritimum); Apocynaceae (Cynanchum acutum); Brassicaceae (Crambe maritima); Caprifoliaceae (Scabiosa argentea); Caryophyllaceae (Dianthus bessarabicus); Elaeagnaceae (Elaeagnus angustifolia, Hippophae rhamnoides); Fabaceae (Astragalus varius); Gramineae (Leymus racemosus ssp. sabulosus, Phragmites sp.); Juncaceae (Juncus sp.); Labiatae (Ajuga genevensis, Teucrium polium ssp. capitatum); Linaceae (Linum perene); Lythraceae (Lithrum salicaria, Trapa natans); Plantaginaceae (Linaria genistifolia); Plumbaginaceae (Limonium ramosissimum); Polygonaceae (Polygonum arenarium); Potamogetonaceae (Potamogeton crispus, Zannichellia palustris); Rosaceae (Crataegus monogyna); Scrophulariaceae (Verbascum nigrum); Typhaceae (Typha sp.). As ROS/BirdLife showed (http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/danubedelta_tcm9-227929.pdf), Crambe maritima, Leymus racemosus ssp. sabulosus and Eryngium maritimum, parts of the herbaceous vegetation of the coastal dunes, are globally threatened plant species, being affected by the inadequately controlled economic development and tourism. Within the coastal wetland of Corbu-Vadu area Lythro-Calamagrostetum epigeix represents a main mesophilous plant association, while Scirpo-Phragmitetum is among the most important hygrophilous plant communities, as Făgăraş (2008) also mentioned in a previous research. Insect records. The insect taxons from Corbu, sampled in particular in the reed of the neighboring beach are: Coleoptera (Cantharidae: Rhagonycha fulva, Curculionidae: Apion apricans, Tenebrionidae: Blaps mucronata, Coccinelidae: Coccinella septempunctata, Meloidae: Mylabris floralis, Melolonthidae: Polyphylla fullo); Heteroptera (Pentastomidae: Ancyrosoma albolineatum, Aelia acuminata, Dolycoris baccarum, Scutelleridae: Eurygaster spp., Lygaeidae: Lygaeus equestris, Nepidae: Ranatra linearis, Rhopalidae: Rhopalus spp.); Homoptera (Cicadellidae: Asiraca clavicornis); Orthoptera (Tettigonidae: Decticus verrucivorus, Acrididae: Dociostaurus maroccanus); Neuroptera (Chrysopidae: Chrysopa perla). From the dune vegetation of Vadu area, we sampled and identified so far the following insect taxons: Coleoptera (Chrysomelidae: Cassida nebulosa); Heteroptera (Pentatomidae: Dolycoris baccarum, Eurydema spectabilis); Homoptera (Cicadellidae: Macrosteles sexnotatus); Hymenoptera (Vespidae: Vespa velutina); Lepidoptera (Lymantriidae: Leucoma salicis, Penthophera morio); Mantodea (Mantidae: Mantis religiosa); Orthoptera (Acrididae: Calliptamus italicus; Gryllidae: Gryllus campestris; Tettigonidae: Decticus verrucivorus, Tettigonia viridissima). Mollusk fauna. On both beaches, we noticed species of Gastropoda (Cyclope neritea, Hinia reticulata, Rapana venosa) and Bivalvia (Anadara spp., Cerastoderma edule, Chamelea

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ gallina, Donax trunculus, Mya arenaria, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Ostrea taurica, Spisula spp., Tellina tenuis). The empty shells of european razor clam, Solen marginatus, characteristic for slightly muddy fine sands, was found in Vadu beach and has been reported so far only in few sites from the Romanian coastline (NIMIRD Report, 2011). Avifaunistic diversity in Vadu area. In recent years, this area has been constantly visited, in individual filed trips or as active member (Mihai, unpublished data, 2007-2013) in the ornithological camps organized by ROS. At the end of July 2013, were recorded 92 species of birds belonging to 35 families, as follows: Podicipedidae (Podiceps cristatus, P. nigricollis, Tachybaptus ruficollis); Pelecanidae (Pelecanus crispus, P. onocrotalus,); Phalacrocoracidae (Phalacrocorax carbo, P. pygmeus); Ardeidae (Ardea cinerea, A. purpurea, Ardeola ralloides, Casmerodius albus, Egretta garzetta, Ixobrychus minutus, Nycticorax nycticorax); Threskiornithidae (Plegadis falcinellus, P. leucorodia); Ciconiidae (Ciconia ciconia); Anatidae (Cygnus olor, Anser anser, Anas plathyrynchos, A. strepera, A. penelope, A. crecca, A. clypeata, Tadorna tadorna, T. feruginea, Aythya ferina, A. nyroca); Accipitridae (Buteo buteo, B. rufinus, Circus aeroginosus); Falconidae (Falco subbuteo, F. tinnunculus); Rallidae (Fulica atra, Gallinula chloropus); Haematopodidae (Haematopus ostralegus); Charadriidae (Charadrius alexandrinus, C. dubius, C. hiaticula, Vanellus vanellus); Scolopacidae (Actitis hypoleucos, Calidris alba, C. ferruginea, C. minuta, C. temminckii, Gallinago gallinag, Limosa limosa, Limicola falcinellus, Numenius arquata, Philomachus pugnax, Tringa stagnatilis, T. totanus); Recurvirostridae (Himantopus himantopus, Recurvirostra avosetta); Glareolidae (Glareola pratincola); Laridae (Larus argentatus, L. melanocephalus, L. ridibundus); Sternidae (Chlidonias hybridus, C. leucopterus, C. niger, Sterna albifrons, S. hirundo, S. sandvicensis); Columbidae (Streptopelia decaocto); Cuculidae (Cuculus canorus); Strigidae (Athene noctua); Meropidae (Merops apiaster); Coracidae (Coracias garrulus); Picidae (Jynx torquilla); Alaudide (Galerida cristata); Hirundinidae (Hirundo rustica); Motacillidae (Motacilla alba, Motacilla flava); Laniidae (Lanius collurio); Sturnidae (Sturnus vulgaris); Corvidae (Corvus corone cornix, C. monedula, Pica pica); Sylviidae (Acrocephalus arundinaceus, A. schoenobaenus, Locustella luscinoides, Phylloscopus collybita, P. sibilatrix, Sylvia curruca); Muscicapidae (Muscicapa striata); Turdidae (Erithacus rubecula, Oenanthe oenanthe); Timaliidae (Panurus biarmicus); Passeridae (Passer domesticus, P. montanus); Emberizidae (Emberiza schoenilus). It should be noted that, over the years, in Vadu area we had the opportuniy to observe, in different seasons, extremely rare species of birds for Romanian fauna. In order to highlight the importance of this area for global avifauna, some birds worth mentioning are terek sandpiper (Xenus cinereus), observed in 16.08.2007 and also yellow-browed warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) which could be seen in 29.09.2013. Besides the Scolopacidae, other abundant in species composition were Anatidae and Ardeidae bird families. Our results can be compared with those of Dorosencu et al. (2004), who observed 177 species of birds in Vadu area, between 18.08.2003 and 01.09.2003. Like in this previous study, we found that the most well represented was the order of Charadriiformes. Ecological relationships in the study area. In both observed sites, the associations of bushes with Eleagnus angustifolia and Hippophae rhamnoides, which grow along the sand banks, are important feeding and resting place during the migration of the passerines species (Dorosencu et al., 2004). The sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), whose distribution is due to frugivorous birds and vegetative spreading, it is now considered a plant species for dunes formations and stabilization (Strat, 2013). A typical plant adapted to sand and salt soil, the sea holly (Eryngium maritimum), represents an important shelter for insect populations, the main source of food for insectivorous (Sylvia curruca, Phylloscopus collybita, Phylloscopus sibilatrix, Muscicapa striata, Oenanthe

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ oenanthe, Erithacus rubecula) and omnivorous (Passer domesticus, Sturnus vulgaris, Cuculus canorus) birds (Ion et al., 2009). As regarding insect-plant associations, we encountered the trophic relationships between the shield bug (Eurydema spectabilis) and the bushes of sea kale (Crambe maritima) (Figure 1 a, b) and also between Carpocoris pudicus and the sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) (Figure 1 c). Both pentatomid species populate the terrestrial littoral biotopes like beach strips with herbaceous vegetation (Skolka, 2008). Also, in the neighboring wetlands of the Corbu beach, the common red soldier beetle (Rhagonycha fulva) is a pollinator visiting the inflorescence of the wild carrot (Daucus carota) (Figure 1 d).

a.

b.

c.

d.

Figure 1. Insect-plant associations in the study area: a, b: Eurydema spectabilis on sea kale (Vadu), c. Carpocoris pudicus on sea holly (Vadu), d. Rhagonycha fulva on wild carrot (Corbu). Anthropogenic impact. The human impact is signaled in particular by the garbage thrown by tourists near their tents, cars or trailers parked on the beach. Travelling by cars, motorbikes or boats near the birds’ colonies, waste and camping are among the pressures involved in VaduCorbu area (TRANSDANUBE, 2014). As informative and awareness panels installed on Corbu and Vadu beaches recall, camping is permitted only in authorized campsites of the DDBR, properly equipped according to sanitary requirements (www.ddbra.ro/). Also, abandoning waste and plastic packaging, paper, metal or glass is not allowed and is financially penalized. However, every year, the behavior of some tourists proves otherwise (Figure 2). In addition, the disgusting exposed feces, surrounded by used toiled paper, randomly thrown in vegetation, besides the deterioration of the beauty and the balance of natural landscape, could also have negative implications upon the human health. In terms of helping the affected ecosystems, a good thing seems to be the involvement of volunteers in greening activities. It is a tradition that the Romanian Ornithological Society organizes in the Danube Delta and the sea shore area Vadu-Chituc each year the National

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Ornithological Camp, whose members conducting a campaign of collecting the trash on the beach (Figure 3). Unfortunately, measures to protect the biodiversity of this area are almost nonexistent. Access to the Corbu-Vadu area was not restricted in the last years, leading to abuses made by poachers and people who vandalize plants and any creatures they meet.

Figure 2. Human waste persists in the protected areas of DDBR, despite warnings.

Figure 3. Waste collection campaign in Vadu area, organized by Romanian Ornithological Society. On the other hand, as there is no management plan in this area, travelers departing leave behind mountains of trash, which mostly affect wildlife fauna or birds that can swallow nondigestible pieces of rubbish, like sharp plastic or glass shards. Moreover, there are Romanian and foreign companies interested in developing residential and leisure complex on the Vadu beach. The Romanian media and the environmental NGOs make desperate efforts to bring to light the abuses from political and administrative environment. First, these constructions violate the administrative laws of the protected areas and perhaps most important is that such buildings in the protected area of DDBR will have negative and irreversible effects upon the important natural heritage worldwide. Conclusion Without being exhaustive, the present study still brings a solid contribution to the knowledge of the recent biodiversity in Corbu-Vadu protected zones from the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. As other papers and reports pointed out, these sites of the Romanian seacoast offer excellent opportunities both for responsible camping in nature and specialists research (botanists, zoologists, ecologists). The biological inventory compiled during the summers of 2013 and 2014 included vascular flora, invertebrates (insects, mollusks inhabiting the sandy beaches) and birds.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ In terms of the numbers of species, best represented were the following taxons: Asteraceae, Heteroptera and Charadriiformes. Regarding the clams, in Vadu seashore we found empty shells of Solen marginatus, a rare presence on Romanian coastline. Our qualitative survey highlighted also few trophic adaptations of some living organisms in Corbu-Vadu area, like pentatomid bugs associated to their wild plant hosts. Among ecological relationships established in the studied zones, we found that sea buckthorn bushes are important feeding and resting place for the passerines species, while the sea holly represents a good shelter for insect populations, the main source of food for insectivorous and omnivorous birds. Unfortunately, the anthropogenic impact (feces and toilet paper thrown in vegetation, garbage left by tourists near their tents or cars parked on the beach) is destroying the human health and natural ecosystems. Thus, typical plants of the coastal dunes, Eryngium maritimum and Crambe maritima seem to be affected by the inadequately controlled economic development and tourism. Luckily, the members of the National Ornithological Camp organized each year by the Romanian Ornithological Society, lead a campaign of collecting the human waste on the Vadu beach. Considering the species richness in the area, in near future it should be considered special management measures, in order to protect the environment and limiting the access of the tourists. References Bănică, G. (2008). Study on the avifaunistical diversity in the coastal area between Cape Midia (Romania) and Cape Kaliakra (Bulgaria). Volum cu lucrările Conferinţei de la Mamaia (26-28 septembrie 2008), Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa, 111-122. Bieler, R., Mikkelsen, P. (2004). Marine bivalves of the Florida Keys: a qualitative faunal analysis based on original collections, museum holdings and literature data. Malacologica, 46 (2), 503-544. Bruun, B., Delin, H., Svensson, L., Munteanu, D. (1999). Păsările din România și Europa, S.O.R., Determinator Ilustrat, Hamlyne Guide. Octopus Publishing Group Ltd., London. Ciocârlan, V. (2000). The ilustrated Flora of Romania. Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta (in Romanian), Editura Ceres, Bucharest. Dinu, C., Cuzic, V., Cuzic, M. (2009). The diversity of fauna in the Vadu area. http://www.icr.ro/bucharest/animalia-ro-33-2009/the-diversity-of-fauna-in-the-vaduarea.html Accesed on 21.06.2015. Dobrin, I., Săndulescu, E. B., Stavrescu-Bedivan, M. M. (2013). Summer field trip to Sfântu Gheorghe branch at Ilganii de Jos (Tulcea County, Romania): a naturalistic approach. Agrolife Scientific Journal, vol. II (2), 79-82. Dorosencu, A., Pocora, V., Ion C. (2004). Considerations about the observations and the performed ring putting on birds in Furtuna-Maliuc and Vadu (The Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve). Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii „Al.I.Cuza” Iaşi, s. Biologie animală, Tom L, 303-309. Făgăraş, M., Jianu, L. (2007). Cape Midia - Corbu seacoast area, a potential new natural reserve. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii “Al. I. Cuza” din Iaşi (serie nouă), secţiunea II, Biologie vegetală, tom LIII, 114-123. Făgăraş, M. (2008). Several wetlands from the Romanian Black Sea shore and their specific plant communities. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, vol. 9 (2), 344350.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Făgăraş, M., Anastasiu, P., Negrean, G., Nanova, Z. (2008). Types of habitats of conservative interest and important plant associations on the sandy beaches between Cape Midia and Cape Kaliakra. Volum cu lucrările Conferinţei de la Mamaia (26-28 septembrie 2008), Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa, 16-24. Golodets, C., Kigel, J., Sapir, Y., Sternberg, M. (2013). Quantitative vs qualitative vegetation sampling methods: a lesson from a grazing experiment in a Mediterranean grassland. Applied Vegetation Science, 16 (3), 502-508. Grant, J., Shepard, M. (1985). Techniques for evaluating predators for control of insect pests. Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 2 (1), 99-116. Ion, C., Dorosencu, A., Baltag, E., Bolboacă, L. (2009). Migraţia Paseriformelor în estul României, Editura Universităţii “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi. Ion, C. (2009). Passerines migration along the habitats from the Danube Delta Biosphere Reservation. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, s. Biologie animală, Tom LV, 173-181. Leraut, P. (2012). Le guide entomologique. Delachaux et Niestle SA Paris. Nonev, S. (2008). The ornithofauna of seaside Bulgarian Dobroudja. Volum cu lucrările Conferinţei de la Mamaia (26-28 septembrie 2008), Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa, 123129. Sandelowski, M. (2001). Real qualitative researchers do not count: the use of numbers in qualitative research. Research in Nursing and Health, 24 (3), 230-240. Skolka, M. (2008). Invertebrate diversity in the western part of Black Sea coast: Cape Midia Cape Kaliakra zone. Volum cu lucrările Conferinţei de la Mamaia (26-28 septembrie 2008), Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa, 90-110. Strat, D. (2013). Human induced alterations in plant biodiversity of Sărăturile Strand Plain Delta Dunării. Analele Universităţii din Oradea – Seria Geografie Year XXIII, no. 2, 348-354. Svensson, L., Zetterström, D., Mullarney, K. (2010). Birds of Europe. Second Edition. Princeton University Press. TRANSDANUBE (2014). Sustainable Transport and Tourism along the Danube. Prefeasibility study on the development of a sustainable transport network in Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. http://www.adrse.ro/Documente/Externe/Transdanube/.Accesed on 21.06.2015 http://www.danubeparks.org/.Accesed on 21.06.2015 http://atlasti.com/quantitative-vs-qualitative-research/.Accesed on 16.08.2015 http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/.Accesed on 21.06.2015 www.ddbra.ro/ Accesed on 27.06.2015 http://www.sor.ro/Accesed on 27.06.2015 http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/danubedelta_tcm9-227929.pdf. Accesed on 27.06.2015

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051376M THE RECYCLING AND EVALUATION OF LF SLAG FOR SOIL ACIDITY NEUTRALIZATION Mircea MIHALACHE*, Leonard ILIE, Doru Ioan MARIN, Roxana Maria MADJAR, Gina VASILE SCĂEŢEANU Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Romania *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The aim of the current research was to investigate the properties of some new materials in order to improve the soil acidity and to evaluate to effect of slag from steel refinery on chromic luvisol physico-chemical properties. Yearly, in Romania are produced from 0.18 up to 0.2 million tonnes of ladle slag that is classified as a dangerous waste due to increased alkalinity. Ladle slag (LF slag) results from steel secondary refinery and cannot be recycled in the process because the iron content is too small. In the same time, ladle slag contains high percent of calcium oxide and other calcium compounds. Having in view those above mentioned, was developed an experiment at the experimental field from Moara Domneasca using ladle slag as amendment that induce a correction of acidic reaction of soil. The experiment was designed with five experimental variants with three replicates for each variant: V1 (control), V2(1 t/ha), V3(2 t/ha), V4(3 t/ha) and V5(5 t/ha). The biological material used in this experiment was maize in 2013 and wheat in 2014. The results indicated that slag can be used successfully to correct soil acidity, to improve the main physico-chemical properties of soil and the increase of soil fertility. Slag from the steel industry brings increases of calcium and micronutrients levels in the soil. There was an increase in the reaction of chromic luvisol with increasing rate from 5.7 to 6.72 at 20-40 cm depth. The highest yield of maize, 7.97 t ha-1, was obtained in V4 (5 t/ha) and biomass production was higher in treated variants compared to the control variant. Largest wheat yield increases were achieved as a consequence of the rate of 5 t/ha with nitrogen mineral fertilizers. Keywords: recycling, LF slag, soil, acidity, wheat, maize Introduction Utilization of industrial waste materials in order to improve problematic soils is cost efficient and environmental friendly method, as well; it helps in reducing disposal problems caused by the various industrial wastes. The surface of the soil suffers an acidification process especially under no liming conditions, soil pH values less than 5.5 ensuring conditions for strong solubilization of pollutants and their translocation into plants. In Romania more 2 million ha are soils with moderately acid and highly acid reaction (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1. Soil reaction in agrochemical layer from Romania Yearly, about 45 million tons of LF slag are generated in Europe (www.euroslag.com). The steel industry produces not only metal, but also by-products which have been successfully used for construction and/or agriculture purposes. The awareness of environmental considerations and more recently the concept of sustainable development as well as the need for recycling of by-products for economic and environmental reasons has led to rapid development of slag utilization. The use of fertilizers and liming materials produced from blast furnace and steel slag has a long tradition. For example Thomas phosphate had been used for more than hundred years. Silicate lime fertilizers (blast furnace lime and converter lime) are approved fertilizers in Germany for more than 60 and 30 years, respectively. They contain elements with useful properties for plant nutrition and soil quality. The solubility of silicate from slag is often higher than from many other silicate containing soil improvers or rock powders. Blast furnace lime has a mild effect on soil pH. Therefore, it is recommended especially for use on humus, sandy and peat soils. In addition, the high silicate and magnesium content which is readily available to plants promotes yields and plant qualities. The basicity of the calcium and magnesium compounds in the slag improves soil pH. Both elements also serve as plant nutrients and stabilisers for soil aggregates. Magnesium in slags especially in blast furnace slag has a better solubility than that of magnesium carbonate in limestone and dolomite. Silicate has beneficial effects on plant health, phosphate availability and soil structure. The content of trace elements like manganese, copper, zinc, boron or cobalt satisfies both plant and animal demands (Rex M., 2010). Mohammadi T. concluded that these materials used on the acid soil increased soil pH and DTPA extractable P more than paper mill sludge (PMS) and increased Mn proportional to the slag application rate, while PMS decreased it. Aim of this study was testing impact of LF slag application on soil properties and yields of maize and wheat in rotation.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Materials and methods The field experiment The stationary field experimental was started in autumn 2012 in the experimental field of the Faculty of Agriculture from Moara Domneasca on chromic luvisol (Fig. 2 and 3). Four rates of LF slag (1, 2, 3 and 5 t-1) and control (without LF slag) were applied. The experimental was performed by randomized block in three replicated (basic plot has 30 m2). Maize (LG 30.489 hybrid) was grown in the first year (2013) while winter wheat ( Glosa variety) was grown in the second year of the experiment (2014). The experimental plot was fertilized as follows (kg/ha-1): without mineral fertilized at maize and 100N+0P2O5+0K2O (wheat).

Figures 2,3. Experimental field from Moara Domnească, Ilfov County (2013) Soil characteristics before starting of the experiment The chromic luvisol is characterized by a clay loam texture, organic matter content of 2.4% and a low acid pH with values of 5.0-5.4 (Mihalache et al., 2013). Sampling, chemical and statistical analysis Samples of LF slag were analyzed by Optic Spectometry with plasma inductively coupled ICP-OES, for iron, magnesium, aluminium, silica etc. In order to show the amendment effect on the main chemical properties of chromic luvisol, soil samples on two depths were taken (0-20 cm and 20-40 cm) from all basic plot. The following soil measurements were performed: the soil reaction (pH) was carried out through potentiometric method, in an aqueous suspension, 1:2.5 (w/v). For determining the reaction of the soil it was used WTW 750 pH-meter; organic carbon was determined using the WalkleyBlack-Gogoasa method; humus content was calculated (Corgx1.724); phosphorus content was evaluated by spectrophotometric molybdenum blue method, using ammonium acetate-lactate (AL) as extractive solution, at pH 3.7 (Egner-Riehm-Domingo method); total form of nitrogen was determined using Kjeldahl method, meanwhile total phosphorus was assessed spectrophotometrically (as molybdenum blue) and potassium using flame photometry method. Soil samples were collected in the 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm depth for all experimental variants to follow influence on soil reaction and the wheat yield. The obtained data were statistically processed by analyses of variance.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and discussions The material used as amendment has a high content of Ca 43.50% and reaction is strongly alkaline (pH=11.08). In addition, to the high content of calcium, the material has a high content of magnesium and iron, as well. The chemical composition of LF Slag used in experimental field is presented as it follows: Fe 10.55%; Mg 4.10%; Al 2.27%; Si 8.70% and Na 0.034%. The heavy metals found content is less than maximum allowable limits. Amendment application on the chromic luvisol from Moara Domneasca produced an increase of soil reaction at 0-20 cm depth from 5.51 in control variant up to 6.01 in variant with 5 t/ha of ash applied (table 1). A significant increase of soil reaction was recorded since at the first year of slag application at 20-40 cm depth the pH rised from 5.55 in control variant to 6.35 in variant with 5 t/ha of LF slag applied. Table 1. The effects of LF slag upon main chemical properties of chromic luvisol (2013) LF slag t/ha-1

pH H2O

Soil depth 0-20 cm Percent mg kg-1 C org N P K

pH H2O

Soil depth 20-40 cm Percent mg kg-1 C org N P K

0 1 2 3 5

5.51 5.68 5.80 5.78 6.01

1.21 1.35 1.28 1.25 1.32

0.147 0.157 0.153 0.151 0.157 LSD values

74 106 97 85 78

230 225 298 299 311

5.55 5.77 5.92 5.95 6.35

1.23 1.31 1.23 1.21 1.25

5% 1% 0.1%

0.016 0.024 0.036

0.019 0.028 0.042

0.0011 0.0016 0.0024

1.68 2.45 3.68

1.64 2.40 3.60

0.015 0.023 0.035

0.023 0.034 0.051

0.158 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.132 LSD values 0.003 0.004 0.006

87 108 105 87 89

235 270 287 326 317

2.062 3.001 4.509

1.898 2.762 4.150

At 20-40 cm depth the phosphorus content increased from 87 mg kg-1 to 108 mg kg-1in the case of application of 1 t/ha of amendment. Significant increases of soil phosphorus content were recorded in all experimental variants in comparison with control variant (no limestone amendment application). Maize yield was positively influenced by the application of different rates of LF slag, in the control variant being 72.15 q/ha; in variant V5 (5 t/ha) the yield increased to 79.66 q/ha. Yield growth was 4.13 q/ha to V2 (1 t/ha), 2.83 q/ha to V3, 2.1 q/ha to V4 and 1.50 q/ha to V5 (5 t/ha).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2 Impact of LF slag application on maize (the 2013 crop year) and wheat (2013/2014 crop year) LF slag t/ha-1

Maize (2013) yield t/ha-1

0 1 2 3 5

7.22 7.63 7.78 7.85 7.97

5% 1% 0.1%

0.31 0.45 0.68

Wheat (LF slag +0 N and LF slag +100 kg N ha-1) Winter wheat yield Ears number per square t/ha-1 meter 0N 100 N 0N 100 N 4.6 6.8 482 615 4.9 6.9 509 643 5.3 7.2 522 640 6.1 7.3 582 650 6.3 7.9 600 664 LSD Values 0.32 0.46 0.70

0.30 0.45 0.67

3.36 4.90 7.36

7.69 11.19 16.89

Soil pH (H2O) 0N 100 N 5.88 5.69 6.04 5.84 6.13 5.73 6.19 5.91 6.89 6.22 0.06 0.09 0.14

0.13 0.19 0.29

In 2014, the amendment application improved the chemical properties of chromic luvisol by increasing soil reaction with slag application rate (Table 2).

Figures 4. The variation of soil reaction on the depth 0-20 cm (2014) High yields were obtained due to the residual effect of amendment and application of 100 kg of nitrogen. The highest yield was obtained by applying a LF slag rate of 5 t/ha. Our opinion is that applying LF slag rates of 3 t/ha are recorded yield increases that are significant under soil and climatic conditions of Moara Domneasca (Fig. 4). Direct application of various rates of slag caused, depending on the rate applied, better wheat crop development, a greater number of ears and a significant increase of wheat yield in 2014 from 4.6 t ha -1 at control variant to 6.3 t ha -1 in the variant with 5 t/ha LF slag. The number of wheat ears was between 482-600 ears/m2. Research conducted with various plants showed an increase of production, due to better use of plant nutrients by changing the soil reaction. The highest yield in climatic conditions of the year 2014, were recorded by applying slag and fertilization with 100 kg nitrogen, respectively by applying the LF slag rate of 2 t/ha the yield was 7.3 t ha -1 and 7.9 t ha -1 for LF slag rate of 5 t/ha. To obtain high yields are recommended amendment and mineral fertilizers application.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Conclusions These wastes from secondary refinery of the steel can be used with good results in agriculture and with positive influences on the maize and wheat crops. LF slag resulted from the refinery of the steel may be used as amendment for correction of the acidic soil reaction. Slag from the steel industry brings increases of calcium and micronutrients levels in the soil. There was an increase in the reaction of chromic luvisol with increasing rate from 5.7 to 6.72 at 20-40 cm depth. The harvest increase per tonne of LF slag was 0.4 t ha-1 at a rate of 1 t/ha and 0.15 t ha-1 at a rate of 5 t/ha. The highest yield of maize, 7.97 t ha-1, was obtained in V4 (5 t/ha) and biomass production was higher in treated variants compared to the control variant. Yield increases registered on chromic luvisol under conditions of 2014, on the wheat crop, was significant due to better recovery of nutrients. Largest yield increases were achieved as a consequence of the rate of 5 t/ha with nitrogen mineral fertilizers. The presented research have revealed that there is a residual effect of slag reflected by soil reaction and increased yields at rates above 2 t/ha. The research that was carried out allowed us to recommend applying slag to 3-4 years this depending on the chemical composition of the slag and heavy metals content, in order to avoid environmental issues. Acknowledgments The researches carried out for the elaboration of the present paper were financed by Romanian Program “Partnerships for Priority Domains”, project PN-II-PT-PCCA-2011-3.20807 “Amelioration Acid Soils using Waste from Metallurgical Industry” (AMELSOL), Contract no. 122/2012. References Abou Seeda, M., El-Aila, H.I. and El-Ashry, S., 2002 - Assessment of basic slag as soil amelioration and their effects on the uptake of some nutrient elements by radish plants, Bulletin National Res. Centre (Cairo), 27: pp. 491-506. Mohaammadi, T.A., Shahram, S.H., 2007 - Converter slag as a liming agent in the amelioration of acid soil, International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, pp. 715720. Ulmanu, Mihaela, Gamenț, Eugenia, Mihalache, M., Popescu, Lavinia, Anger, Ildiko, Zaman, F., Plopeanu, Georgiana, Ilie, L., 2013 - A new process for acid soil amelioration using a metallurgical waste. I. Preliminary data, XV Balcan Mineral Processing Congres, June 12-16, Sozopol, Bulgaria, Congress Proceedings, vol. II, pp. 10191021. Mihalache, M., Ilie L., Marin, D.I., Madjar, Roxana, Scăețeanu, Gina, 2014 - Use of new amendments in agriculture for soil acidity neutralization, Proceedings of 14th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConferences - SGEM 2014, 17-26 June, Albena, Bulgaria. Vol. II, pp. 289-294. Mohaammadi, T.A., Shahram, S.H., 2007 - Converter slag as a liming agent in the amelioration of acid soil, International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, pp. 715720. Popescu, Lavinia, Zaman, F., Volceanov, Eniko, Ene, Mariana, Ulmanu, Mihaela, Anger, Ildiko, 2014 - Assessment on LF slags characteristics used for agricultural acidic soils improvement, Romanian Journal of Materials, 44(2), pp. 141-146. Rex, M. 2010 - Blastfurnace and steel slags as liming materials for sustainable agricultural production, EUROSLAG publication No. 1, pp. 137-149.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Rex, M. 2010 - Environmental aspects of the use of iron and steel slags as agricultural lime, EUROSLAG publication No. 2, pp. 137-150. Ulmanu, Mihaela, Gamenț, Eugenia, Mihalache, M., Popescu, Lavinia, Anger, Ildiko, Zaman, F., Plopeanu, Georgiana, Ilie, L., 2013 - A new process for acid soil amelioration using a metallurgical waste. I. Preliminary data, XV Balcan Mineral Processing Congres, June 12-16, Sozopol, Bulgaria, Congress Proceedings, Vol. II, pp. 10191021. ***www.euroslag.com.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Professional paper 10.7251/AGSY15051383S GRANULOMETRY FEATURES IN MOUNTAIN SOILS Iraida SAMOFALOVA Perm State Agricultural Academy, Perm, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Grain size distribution is an important physical characteristic of the soil and one of the characteristics of its dispersion. We studied the grain size distribution of mountain soils in subalpine zone in the Middle Urals. Results show grain size distribution of the soil varies from medium loamy to clay, depending on the location of the formation of soils and dominant vegetation type. In the soils under subalpine meadows marked accumulation of large and medium content of sand in the profile, which indicates that the prevalence of physical weathering and sand particles can bring to the surrounding areas as a result of denudation. Soils have a stable same structure particle size distribution with predominance of the average content of coarse dust in the structure. Statistical distribution analysis is determined for the content of sand, silt and clay fraction. The average content of clay particles in the soil under the crooked and subalpine meadows is slightly more than 15%, and in the soils of park woodlands – 30% with a maximum variation in space. Thus, the distribution of size fractions in the soil profile and their relationship to each other are diagnostic indicators of elementary soil-forming processes in the burozems, litozems, organo-accumulative soils of the subalpine zone, which are expressed in the title of the classification of soils. Keywords: mountain soils, subalpine meadows, elementary soil particles, clay, grain size distribution Introduction Grain size distribution is a basic soil property as so as it defines all the major soil processes. Grain size distribution (GSD) expressed in terms of content of the grain size fractions is an important physical characteristic of the soil and one of the characteristics of its dispensability. The soil GSD also provides insight into the genesis, evolution and use of soils (Tatarintsev, 1998. Tatarintsev et al., 2008. 2012). Soil physical properties depend not so much on the content of physical clay (FC) but on the ratio of the grain size fractions that determine the characteristics of structure and function at higher levels of organization of the soil. The ratio of size fraction in grain size distribution, particularly sand, coarse dust, and the average amount of fine dust and sludge, N.A. Kaczynski (1958) refered to as a soil type, V.P. Panvilov (1973) and V.L. Tatarincev (1998) as structure, I.V. Mikheeva (2001, 2005, 2012) as formula, and E.V. Shein (Theories and techniques of soil physics, 2007) as a texture of grain size distribution. By the distribution of particle content by size, we can characterize the studied object detailed enough and compare different soil sites. The purpose of the research is to determine the particle size characteristics of mountain soils in the subalpine belt in the Middle Urals. Materials and methods We carried out the investigations in 2012-2014 on the territory of "Basegi" State National Reserve. Soil cross sections were made on the mountain of North Basegi (height 951.9 m asl) in the subalpine belt (crooked forest, subalpine meadows, parkland at an altitude of 920557 m asl on the western macroslope of the Northern Urals. A total of 36 cross sections were made in a subgoltsy belt (8 cross sections in the crooked forest sub-belt, 18 in subalpine

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ meadows, 10 in parkland). Russian profile-substantive soil classification of year 2004 was used to describe and identify the names of the soils. We measured soil grain size distribution with pipette method, version of N.A. Kaczynski (with pyrophosphate method of soil preparation to the analysis). Statistical analysis of study data was performed in the "Data Analysis" software in Microsoft Excel and the STATISTICA 5.0 software. The investigated mountain soils belong to the stem of postlitogenic soil forming. Based on morphogenetic characteristics of soils, the following formations were identified: lithosoils (layer thickness less than 30 cm), structural and metamorphic (picked horizon BM), organicaccumulative (median horizon is not pronounced as an independent genetic formation). Results and discussion Soil grain size distribution in the subalpine belt is lightweight medium loamy and light loamy in humus horizons and becomes heavier, heavy loamy and clay in roach. The ratio of elementary soil particles (ESP) in soil content is a result of manifestation and interaction of soil-forming processes and physical weathering. ESP distribution through the soil profile is given by sub-belts (Fig. 1). The minimum of the average index by the content of the sand fraction is typical of soils in subalpine meadows, but the variation of the index is maximum (Fig. 1a). The minimum variation of the sand fraction is noted in soils in crooked forest. The minimum value of the average content of coarse-silty fraction is typical of soils in crooked forest and the maximum of park woodland soils (Fig. 1b). Less index variation is noted for soil in subalpine meadows and greater for parkland soil. The minimum value of the average index for the clay fraction is typical of soils in subalpine sub-belt (Fig. 1c). The maximum variation of the index observed in the soils of parklands and the minimum in the soils of sparse forest. Box & Whisker Plot

Box & Whisker Plot

Box & Whisker Plot

60

60

60

50

50

50

40

40

40

30

30

30

20

20

Mean

20

0 crooked forest parkland subalpine meadow

a)

Mean Mean±SD Mean±1,96*SD

Mean±1,96*SD

10

10

10

Mean±SD


b)

Mean Mean±SD Mean±1,96*SD


c)

Fig. 1. Statistical diagrams (Box Plots) of distribution range of grain size fractions content: a) sand fraction, 100-50 mkm; b) coarse-silty fraction, 50-10 mkm; c) clay fraction, ˂10 mkm (crooked forest n=9, subalpine meadow n=16, parkland n=8) Thus, the content and the ratio of ESP factions is different within the subalpine belt. Sand and clay fractions content is more stable in crooked forest soils. Subalpine meadows soils have a smaller variation of the clay fraction. In parklands, soils are characterized by diversity of all factions content. ESP accumulation and removal throughout the soil profile varies in the Middle Urals. At higher elevations (920 m) in crooked forest there is a sharp reduction of the clay fraction content, while the the silt fraction content in the profile does not change and the sand and coarse-silty fraction increase down the profile (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Size fractions in grain size distribution of crooked forest soils At an altitude of 750-800 m in the middle of the soil profile accumulation of coarse-silty fraction is marked. In litho-gley soils (c. 56) there is depletion of silt and clay fractions and a sharp increase of their content in roach. Thus, different elementary soil particles ratio in the grain size distribution is formed in crooked forest soils depending on the conditions of soil forming. In subalpine meadows soils (Fig. 3) grain size fractions distribution in organic-accumulative soils (c. 69, 68, 63, 66) proceeds as follows: accumulation of silt and depletion of sand fraction in the upper horizons, followed by a decrease and an increase in roach, correspondingly. Organic-accumulative soil at an altitude of 700 m (c. 5) has the lowest content of coarse-silty and clay fractions.

Fig. 3 Grain size fraction distribution in subalpine meadows soils Fossil organic-accumulative soil at an altitude of 589 m (c. 60) has complex fractions distribution. In the humus horizon there is an accumulation of sand fraction, followed by a decrease in it, but in the fossil horizon [AY] there is an increase in sand content. The content of silt and clay fraction increases with depth, and in the horizon [AY] a reduction in the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ content of these fractions occurs with a subsequent increase in roach. Thus, this ESP distribution leads to the conclusion that the soil is polygenetic. In grey metamorphic soils, elementary soil particles content have a different ratio. So, in c. 61 there is a reduction in clay and sand fraction and an increase in coarse-silty and silty fraction, and in c. 62 all fraction increase and then decrease in roach. In brown soils (c. 58, 59), more diversified ratio of the particles is observed and an increase of the clay fraction in roach occurs. In organic-accumulative soils (c. 55, 73, 72) of parklands (Fig. 4) sand fraction content decreases and accumulation of coarse-silt fraction occurs. At an altitude of 570 m (c. 1) the soil is depleted with sand fraction, and clay fraction increases with depth, but then reduces again in roach. Clay-elluvial brown soil (c. 57) has a low content of clay fraction. Grey humus lithosoil is depleted with silt and clay fractions through the profile and, on the contrary, enriched with sand and coarse-silt particles.

Fig. 4. Size fractions in grain size distribution in parkland soils We have conducted a correlation analysis to determine the relationship between the content of GSD fractions and soil properties. Thus, in crooked forest soils contents of all fractions is primarily dependent on the altitude. In addition, the sand fraction content has a close inverse relationship with the profile thickness (r = 0.85). The content of the clay fraction has a very close relationship with the profile thickness and medium relationship with the soil rubbility, and the average inverse relationship with the altitude (r = -0.47). In subalpine meadows sub-belt the content of coarse-silty fraction has an inverse strong relationship with the altitude (r = -0.73). The content of the clay fraction in soils of subalpine meadows is most strongly related to the profile thickness (r = 0.73) and average with soils rubbility (r = 0.45). In soils of parklands, a close inverse relationship with the profile thickness observed for the silt and coarse-silt fraction, and the average relationship for clay and sand fraction. The content of silt fraction has close inverse relationship (r = -0.92) with area altitude, and sand fraction has an average inverse relationship with it. Conclusion Grain size distribution is an important soil diagnostic feature, because it helps to determine the degree of profile elluviality and illuviality. Soil profile differentiation by grain size

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ distribution is a result of regular changes in the activity profile of chemical and physical weathering, and relations between them. Location of soil at an altitude affects the grain size distribution due to different manifestations of denudation and steepness of the slope which affects the processes occurring in the soil and respectively the distribution of elementary soil particles. The following features can be distinguished based on soil grain size in subalpine belt: grain size distribution is loamy; high content of coarse-silty fraction associated with the presence of physical processes of rocks and minerals weathering; distribution of coarse silt through the profile is very poorly differentiated; soil profile is mostly differentiated by the content of sand and silt fractions; ratio of elementary soil particles depends on the area altitude and vegetation at this altitude, as well as on the soil profile thickness. References Kachinskiy N.A. (1958) Mechanical and Microaggregate Soil Composition and Methods of its Study. – Moscow: Publishing House of USSR Academy of Sciences. 192 p. Mikheyeva I.V. (2005) Probabilistic and statistical evaluation of stability and variability of natural objects with modern processes (at an example of chestnut soils of Kulunda steppe) / Rus. Acad. of Sciences, Siberian Dep-t, Institute of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry. – Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the SB RAS. 103 p. Mikheyeva I.V. (2001) Probabilistic and statistical models of soil properties. – Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the SB RAS. 200 p. Mikheyeva I.V. (2012) Probabilistic and statistical modeling of soil properties and processes: results and prospects // Proceedings of the VI Congress of Soil Science Society n.a. V.V. Dokuchaev (Petrozavodsk – Moscow, August 13-18, 2012). – Petrozavodsk: Karelian Research Centre of RAS. Vol. 1. P. 168-169. Panfilov V.P. (1973) Physical Properties and Water Regime of Kulunda Steppe. – Novosibirsk: Science Siberian Dept. 259 p. Tatarintsev V.L., Tatarintsev L.M. (2008) Physical State of Agricultural Soils in Steppe With Kolkis Depending on the Grain Size Distribution Texture // Bulletin of the Altai State Agrarian University. № 10 (48). P. 33-38. Tatarintsev V.L. (1998) The Structure of the Grain Size Distribution and Its Effect on the Physical Condition of the Frable Soils of the Altai Ob: dissertation of the candidate of agricultural Sciences. – Barnaul. 185 p. Tatarintsev V.L., Tatarintsev L.M, Rassypnov V.A.(2012) Grain Size Distribution of Soils of the Altai Ob and Agroecological Evaluation // Bulletin of the Altai State Agrarian University No. 6 (92). Barnaul: Altai State Agrarian University. P. 36-40. Theories and techniques of soil physics.(2007) Multi-authored monograph / Ed. E.V. Shein and L.O. Karpachevsky. – Moscow: "Grif and K". 616 p.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Review paper 10.7251/AGSY15051388G THE USE OF CRAB BY-PRODUCTS OF RAW CRUSTACEANS IN THE TECHNOLOGY OF RECYCLING OF RESOURCES IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION Irina A. GLOTOVA, Elena E. KURCHAEVA, Vladimir S. BALABAEV, Vladislav N. IZMAILOV Voronezh State Agrarian University, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Chitosan is a promising component for modification of the prescription food due to functional-technological and bio-correction properties. Traditional resource base of chitosan nibs from the shells of crab - has a high cost and limited resources. The evaluation of process efficiency in the use of alternative raw materials - shells of freshwater crayfish, shrimp, industrial waste recycling oyster mushroom for dietary chitosan. Technological parameters in assessing the effectiveness of various types of raw materials were the number of stages in the production of chitosan, the total duration of the process of chitosan and the output of the finished product. Chitosan from various sources received by traditional technology, comprising the sequential steps of deproteinization and demineralization of chitin-containing raw material obtained by deacetylation of chitin. The results show that for dietary chitosan to use the most technologically advanced crab by-products raw shrimp in comparison with other sources available in the regions remote from the pool of the king crab catch. The rational dosage of chitosan in compoundings of the meat chopped semi-finished products focused on a segment of the market of consumers with average level of the income is proved. It is shown that chitosan from an armor of a shrimp provides increase of functional and technological properties of mincemeat in the range of concentration of 1-4%. On the basis of an organoleptic assessment of products its dosage – 2% to the mass of meat raw materials is defined. Quality of the developed meat chopped semi-finished products with addition chitosan conformed to requirements of normative documents. Keywords: Chitin, chitosan, polymers, degree of deacetylation, functional properties. Introduction Actual problem at the present stage of the development of engineering and technology is the safety of biological systems. This problem is directly linked to the health of the person in modern conditions, which are characterized by unfavorable environmental conditions over large areas, pollution from human waste, especially waste of polymeric materials. The most important task facing the food industry - the preservation and maintenance of human health through nutrition. Another important task is to ensure the safety and sustainability of products and industries, which is to develop effective and efficient ways for processing of secondary resources sector of agriculture. Perspective raw material for the decision of tasks is a natural biopolymer – chitosan [Alieva, 2001; Antipova et al., 2004; Varlamov, 2002]. This polymer has many unique properties: high biological activity and compatibility with the tissues of humans, animals and plants, does not pollute the environment, because it is destroyed by enzymes of microorganisms, can be widely applied in environmental protection [Nikitenko et al, 2013; Slivkin et al, 2013]. Objective: to evaluate the technological efficiency in the use of alternative raw materials shells of freshwater crayfish, shrimps, industrial waste recycling of oyster mushroom for production food chitosan and for its appropriate dosage with the composition of meat stuffing.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Materials and methods We used crab shell containing raw material (SCRM) obtained in the industrial processing of freshwater crayfish, Arctic shrimp, as well as chitin-containing industrial wastes of mushrooms of the genus Pleurotus, meat minced systems based on beef and pork from only one variety of trimming, which was used as the basis for the development of modified recipes of meatballs and schnitzels and burgers and schnitzels culinary readiness with the use of chitosan in the range of concentrations from 1 to 4 % by weight of raw meat. The definition of functional and technological properties of multicomponent meat stuffing systems with chitosan, organoleptic and physico-chemical indicators of the quality of meat products culinary readiness conducted according to the recommendations [Antipova et al., 2004]. Mass fraction of moisture in raw materials and finished products was determined by drying the samples at 100-105 °C for 5 h [Antipova et al., 2004]. Mass fraction of protein in raw materials and products was determined by Kjeldahl method. Mass fraction of fat in the raw materials was determined by the extraction method for defatted residue in accordance with the recommendations [Antipova et al., 2004]. Mass fraction of mineral substances was determined after combustion of organic matter in a muffle furnace at the temperature of 500-700 °C for 5-6 h to constant mass in accordance with the recommendations [Antipova et al., 2004]. For the isolation of chitin dry crushed raw material was mixed with water in the ratio 1:10, after which the mixture portion has made a concentrated hydrochloric acid at room temperature. At the stage of demineralization the pH change was controlled, at the increasing of pH to 7 the following portion of the acid was added. The demineralization process was considered complete at the pH 3-3,5, not changing for 30 min. It was established experimentally that the total amount of acid introduced at the stage of demineralization, corresponds to a solution of hydrochloric acid with a mass fraction of 4-4,5 %. The period of time during which the portioned acid was added amounted to 60-65 min. Then demineralized SCRM was washed with tap water to pH 6,5-7,0. For removal of protein fractions (deproteinization) from demineralized SCRM we used the solution of sodium hydroxide with mass share of 5 % at 100 °C for 1,5 hours. Processed with alkali the chitin-containing raw material was cooled to ambient temperature and washed with distilled water to pH 7.0 at a water ratio of 1:6. The obtained chitin was washed and air-dried for 24 hours. Then there was made the deacetylation of chitin. To dried chitin was added a sodium hydroxide solution with a mass fraction of 50 % and heated in a water bath for 2 h. The solid residue was separated from the liquid fraction by centrifugation and washed with distilled water to pH 7,0. The obtained chitosan was washed with an aqueous solution of ethanol with a volume fraction of 20 % and acetone until colorless, repeatedly washed with distilled water to neutral reaction and dried in air. The quality of the obtained chitosan was adjusted on a complex of indicators. The content of minerals was established by dry ashing. The degree of deacetylation was determined by potentiometric titration on universal ionometer EV-74 using a glass electrode. The molecular weight of chitosan was determined by a standard viscometric method. The measurements were carried out at 250 °C in a capillary viscometer Ubbelohde, the diameter of which is equal to 0.54 mm. Calculation of molecular weight was carried out according to equation of Mark-Kuhn-Houwink [Gartman et al, 2013]. Residual protein in chitosan was determined by the colorimetric method with biuret reagent. Functional and technological properties of model force meat with chitosan from crab byproducts of raw shrimp were determined in accordance with the recommendations of [Antipova et al., 2004].

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and discussion The process of allocation of chitin and chitosan was preceded by a general analysis of the chemical composition of raw materials (table 1). The next stage of the study was the determination of the mass fraction of chitin in raw materials of animal and vegetable origin (table 2). Chitin refers to insoluble polymers, therefore, to its separation from the fruiting bodies of mushrooms, crabs and shrimp need a consistent and complete removal of protein and mineral parts of the material – deproteinization (DP) and demineralization (DM). Table 1 - Total chemical composition of a crayfish shell, and mushrooms of oyster kind. Object

of

investigation

Mass share, % Moisture

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrate

Ash

64,54

11,43

0,45

-

13,97

Shrimp SCRM

73,43

8,37

2,12

-

8,98

Oyster

89,22

1,67

0,52

6,78

0,81

Crayfish (SCRM)

mushrooms

Table 2 - Content of chitin in SCRM of crayfish and oyster mushrooms Object of investigation

Mass share of chitin, %

Crayfish (shell)

9,61

Shrimp SCRM

7,18

Oyster mushrooms

0,52

The release of chitosan from various raw material sources was carried out in accordance with the traditional technological scheme which includes crushing stages of the initial raw material, deproteinization, demineralization and deacetylation of obtained chitin [Gartman et al, 2013]. Characterization of physicochemical properties of chitosans obtained by a general process scheme from various sources, illustrates the data presented in table 3. Physico-chemical properties of the obtained products of the deacetylation of chitin identified as meeting the requirements for food chitosan (JC-067-00472124). As it follows from the data presented in table 3, the chitosan from shrimp shell has physicochemical properties similar to the properties of chitosan of other crustaceans, forming in acetic acid solution with a mass fraction of 2% more viscous solutions, and also under the same conditions of obtaining isdistinguished by a higher degree of deacetylation.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 3 - Comparative characteristics of physico-chemical qualities of chifosan from different sources Indices

Permissible meanings food

Sources of chitosan for SCRM of Shrimp

chitosan

SCRM

of Biomass of oyster

crayfish fresh

mushrooms

(TC 9289-06700472124) Characteristic

Is not normed

11,56

10,7

10,15

Is not normed

56,0

52,0

43,0

78

76

75

0,4-0,45

0,4-0,5

0,1

5,9

6,0

6,5

0,01-0,05

0,04

8-10

8-9

viscosity (in the 2

%

solution

of

acetic acid), dl/g Molecular mass, to Degree

of Not less

deacetitisation, %

than 75

Ash,%

Not more 0,7

pH of 1 % solution Not more 7,5 in 2 % of CH3COOH Protein residue, %

Not more than 0,05-0,1 0,1

Mass share

Not more than 9-10

of moisture, %

0,1

Appearance

Scales size

Scales size

Scales size

The

1-3 mm

1-2 mm

1-2 mm

particles

size

of

0,1-0,2 mm Bulk mass

Is not normed

0,25-0,4

0,15-0,4

0,6-0,7

These functional properties of chitosan from SCRM shrimp allow to consider it as perspective functional-corrective component of food products. The introduction of chitosan into the water, which does not interact chemically with it, provides a rapid swelling of the polymer, and every bit of chitosan swells separately from the others and the resulting mass (Sol) is homogeneous (free of lumps).It was established that chitosan from shrimp shell has a fast swelling properties: water absorption was 10,9 cm3/g for 4-5 minutes. The fact that chitosan of shrimp SCRM is a hydrocolloid, determines its potential functionality processing for food purposes of livestock products in branches of meat, fish and dairy industries. Technological efficiency in the use of SCRM of crawfish, shrimp, industrial waste recycling of mushrooms of the genus Pleurotus for food chitosan was assessed by the following indicators: the number of stages in the production of chitosan, the total duration of the process of obtaining chitosan and the product yield (table 4).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 4 - Evaluation of technological efficiency of different kinds of raw materials for obtaining of chitosan Technological

Kind of raw materials

parameters Quantity

of

stages

Shrimp

Crayfish

Mushroom

3

4

5

5

6,5

7

5,03

4,91

0,45

chitosan production Total time of chitosan production, h Output of chitosan, % to mass share of the raw material

The results indicate that for the production of food chitosan is technologically better to use SCRM shrimp in comparison with other sources. This is actual for regions that are geographically distant from traditional and new basins of the king crab catch. Testing of chitosan was performed in the concentration range from 1 to 4% for multicomponent forcemeat systems for meatballs and schnitzels with a ratio the price – quality oriented on consumers with average income. It was investigated the effect of chitosan on functional and technological properties of meat model systems – water-binding capacity (WCC), water-holding capacity (WHC), fat-holding ability (FHA), emulsifying ability (EA) and emulsion stability (ES). In model meat systems we used the stuffing from one-grade beef and pork chopping on the mincer with a hole diameter of the lattice 2-3 mm at the following ratio: 2:1 for meatballs, 5:4 for schnitzel. It was established that chitosan improves functional and technological properties (FIP) of meat systems. Values of the FIP model stuffing for meatballs and schnitzels had no significant differences. The nature of the effect differed for individual indicators. So, the WCC has increased by 20% on average for the tested systems at the concentration of chitosan 2 %, further increase did not give significant effect. Increase WBC was 14,5 %; stabilization of this indicator occurred at 3 % of chitosan. FHC increased by 21,7 and 22,7 %; EA – 26,05 % 23,11 % for model force meat of for meatballs and schnitzels, respectively, when the mass fraction of chitosan 4 %. Similar curves were obtained for emulsifying ability, it increased by 26,1 and 23,1 %. In the next phase of research were defined organoleptic characteristics of molded film from model force meat of meat products after cooking. The addition of chitosan in the amount of 1 % does not affects the organoleptic characteristics, 3 % leads to a slight deterioration of taste, and the dose increased to 4 % leads to considerable deterioration. Conclusions The established identity of the physico-chemical properties of chitosan, obtained under similar conditions from SCRM of shrimp and freshwater crayfish, testify to their similar chemical nature and molecular structure. Chitosan obtained from mushrooms of the Pleurotus genus, is distinguished by the following characteristics: intrinsic viscosity (in 2 % acetic acid), molecular weight, degree of deacetylation, primarily due to the formation of the chitin, the chitin-glucan complex (CGC). Technological indicators characterize the chitosan from shrimp SCRM as polymorphic system with a dominant fraction of particles of 1-2 mm, a moisture content of not more than 10 %,

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ with poor flow ability and a very small bulk mass. The viscosity of chitosan solution in acetic acid solution with a mass fraction of 2 % and the ability to swell in aqueous environments are considered as a perspective functional food component, including for the prevention of alimentary-dependent diseases. Thus, SCRM shrimp can be processed in conditions compatible with conditions of food, including fish processing enterprises with obtaining food chitosan in the form of additional marketable products. Using of chitosan in the amount of 2 % by weight of raw meat does not deteriorate the organoleptic characteristics of the products. It can be used to obtain a wide spectrum of meat and food products, with high quality and mass yield. The content of chitosan in an amount of 2 g per 100 g of the product is 40 % of the adequate level of consumption of chitosan per day, and allows to meet the daily requirement of dietary fiber fiber on 10 % [Rosstat, 2015]. Such products can be recommended for people with obesity, with a lack of function of the digestive system, diseases of the pancreas; for elderly people. References Alieva L. (2001). Chitin and chitosan: structure, properties and applications, Soros Educational Journal, No. 1, P. 51–56. Antipova L. / I. Glotova, I. Rogov (2004). Research Methods of meat and meat products, Kolos, Moscow. http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/population/poverty/ Accessed on 12/05/2015 Gartman R. / V. Vorobyeva (2013). Technology and properties of chitosan from crustacean gammarus, Fundamental research, No. 6-5, P. 1188-1192. Nikitenko P. / L. Hrustitskaya (2013). Chitosan is a polymer of the future, Science and innovation, No. 9 (127), P.14-17. Slivkin D. / V. Lapenko, O. Safonova, S. Syslina, A. Belenova (2013). Chitosan for pharmacy and medicine, Proceedings of the Voronezh State University. series: chemistry. biology. pharmacy, No. 6, P. 728-730. Varlamov V. (2002). Chitin and chitosan. Preparation, properties and application / under the edition G. Skryabin, G. Vikhoreva, , Nauka, Moscow.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051394K BUFFERING PROPERTIES OF MOUNTAIN SOILS TO ACID EFFECTS, AND THEIR ABSORPTION CAPACITY Maria KONDRATEVA, Iraida SAMOFALOVA, Alena SOBOLEVA, Nataliay SOKOLOVA Perm State Agricultural Academy, Perm, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Mountain Soil in subalpine zone of the Middle Urals formed in specific environmental conditions associated with the mobility of rock debris on the slopes, a failure in intensive filtering the wash water regime, a significant number of herbaceous litter. A specific feature of these soils is the high acidity: pH salt extracts slightly vary within 3.7-4.2, indices hydrolytic acidity 10-22 mEq / 100 g. Buffer properties of soils were determined by continuous potentiometric titration of salt suspensions prepared in ratio of 1: 2,5. According to the results of potentiometric titration determined by calculation methods the number of protons absorbed. Graphical methods helped to calculate buffer area and the degree of reduced buffer capacity. The pH dropped to an average of 2,50-3,16; ΔpH figure was 0,91,45. The amount of absorbed protons averaged 70-90 mg / kg of soil, which corresponds to 75-95% of the amount added. In general, the buffer properties of the soils in relation to acid are low. This is confirmed by the reduced buffer capacity indicator constituting 7-27% of the reference area with absolute buffering capacity. This figure corresponds to very low and low buffer capacity of soils to acid attack. Keywords: mountain soils, buffer, protons, absorption, acidity Introduction Acid-base buffering capacity is one of the measures of soil adsorption capability. Studying of acid-base buffering capacity of soils is of great theoretical and practical significance in connection with the progressive acidification of soils in some regions of the world due to both natural and anthropogenic factors. Studying of buffering capacity is recommended in order to gather data on modern soil formation and soil genesis (Zayzheva, 1987; Savchenko, 1989; Ponizovskiy, Pampura, 1993; Pevnuy, Sokolova, 1997; Nadtochiy, 1998;, ,Shamrikova et al., 2002; Shamrikova et al., 2003; Ufimtseva, Pokatilova, 2005; Ushakov, 2005; Tolstokaeva, Zharikova, 2009; Shamrikova et al., 2011; Shamrikova, Sokolova, 2013; Soil and soil cover…, 2013; Lyzhenko et al., 2014). Most of natural soils in humid regions of the taiga-forest zone is characterized by acid pH and low bases saturation (Podzol Soil…, 1980; Podzol Soil…, 1981; Forest Soil…, 1997). This is a wide range of soils: podzolic, sod-podzolic, sod-gley, brown forest, swamp-podzolic, glebous swamp. In addition to the natural acidic background of forest soils, there is a source of anthropogenic acidification: acid rain. Most of researchers believe it is one of today's most important regional problems (Acidification today and tomorrow, 1982; Wisniewcki, Keitz, 1983; Tamm, David, 1989; Acidification research…, 1991; Derome, 1991). The problem of acid rain is related to the phenomenon of transboundary transport of acid-forming pollutants from industrial regions of Central Europe, as well as air pollution from its own sources of emissions (Makarov et al., 1994). Acidic solutions have both direct and indirect impact that is reflected in imbalances in elements intake by plants due to different intensity of their desorption into soil solution under the influence of acid rain (Sokolova et al., 2012). The main mechanisms of buffering reactions are studied mainly using potentiometric titration (continuous potentiometric titration – CPT). The chemical reactions that cause buffering are

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ very diverse and include the interaction of H + and OH- ions with solid components of the soil body and the components of soil solution (Filep, Radley, 1989). Each soil type is characterized by its own set of mechanisms of such interactions. The effectiveness of acidbase buffering capacity is determined by the capability of soil systems to extinguish high amplitude activity of protons in reactions in soil according to the scheme: acid → base+proton (Nadtochiy, 1998). Investigation of acidity and cation exchange properties being the most informative indicators of forest soils condition is an important part of their monitoring (Grishina et al., 1991; Makarov et al., 1994; Kopzhuk et al., 2001). This paper is particularly relevant for the soils of protected areas because of the specific characteristics and objectives of their functioning (Kopzhuk, Livantsova, 2003). Protected areas preserve habitat forming functions and biodiversity of ecosystems (Dobrovolskiy et al., 2003). In addition, the safety of PAs themselves depends on the state of the environment and its protection both in neighbouring and fairly remote areas. PAs can compensate for adverse anthropogenic impact since nature is capable of autoregeneration. There are two major national parks in Perm region with protected natural forests of the Middle and Northern Urals. Studies on the soil cover of the Urals began later than in other mountain areas and were neither permanent or systematic and isolated (Samofalova et al., 2014). The most unique mountain landscapes in the Urals are believed to be those of the subalpine (subgoltcy) belt, where the mountain soils are formed under special environmental conditions associated with mobility of debris on the slopes, a collapsing filtering at intensive percolative regime, and a significant number of herbaceous litter (Samofalova et al., 2013, 2014). The high acidity is a specific feature of the soils, and therefore they are unstable for potential acid effects caused by industrial centers of Perm region. From this point of view, it is important to study the acidic properties of these soils and their buffering capability in relation to acid effects. Materials and methods The subject of the research are subgoltcy belt soils on Basegi mountain range located between 58о 50' and 60о N, to the west of watershed of the Urals, a part of the "Basegi" State Natural Reserve. This territory is located in an area of ridge-residual low-hill terrain in Middle Urals. The meridionally elongated range consists of three mountains: North Basegi (951.9 m), Middle Basegi (994.7 m) and South Basegi (851 m). Cold and wet climate with continental features. According to zonal distribution of vegetation, the area is located in the middle taiga subzone of boreal forest zone and the following belts can be isolated here: mountain forest, subgoltcy (subalpine) and mountain-tundra (goltcy). Subalpine belt is mild and includes three subbelts: parkland, subalpine meadows, and crooked forest. The reserve is located far from industrial centres. There are Kizel-Gubakhinsky and Lysvensky-Chusovskoy industrial centres within 42-73 km to the west of the crest with a developed mining, chemical and metallurgical industries which are the sources of pollution and since the prevailing wind direction is west and south-west the air transport of pollutants in the protected area is possible. Soil cross sections were made in subgoltcy belt on the North Basegi and Basegata mountains. Russian soil classification of year 2004 was used. Analytical studies were performed at the Department of Pedology of the Perm State Agricultural Academy. Buffering properties of the soils were determined by CPT of salt suspensions prepared at a ratio of 1:2.5. The titration was performed with 0.1 n solution of HCl; the total amount of acid of 10 ml corresponds to a load of 100 mmol/kg soil. Time of reaction of the acid with the suspension was 2 minutes. Based on CPT results, the number of absorbed protons was calculated; buffer areas and the extent of the reduced buffering capacity were calculated graphically. Based on the graphical

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ analysis, the buffer area was determined, as well as the reduced rate of buffering capacity, which is determined relative to the absolute buffering capacity set as 100%. The graph of buffering capacity of the sample looks like a horizontal line with pH = 7. The scales given in (Glazovskaya, 1990; Bogdanova, 1994; Nadtochiy, 1998) were used to estimate soils buffering capacity. Results and discussion Soils have a truncated profile mildly differentiated on horizons with a high content of gravel. The investigated soils belong to the stem of postlitogenic soil forming. Based on morphogenetic characteristics of soils, the following formations were identified: lithosoil (layer thickness less than 30 cm), organic-accumulative (median horizon is not pronounced as an independent genetic formation), structural and metamorphic (picked horizon BM) (see Table 1). Table 1. The natural conditions of soil formation Cross section number, alt, m; E, G, soil name C. 54, 755, south, 20, Gray humus lithosoil C. 49, 617, southern, 3-5; Organic-accumulative

Horizons

PT, cm North Basegi mountain AY1-AY2-AY3 17 AY-Aym-CLM

40

Vegetation, relief

Birch crooked forest; moderately drained levelled area Miscellaneous grass and gramineous meadow; slightly drained levelled area

Basegata C. 62, 641, western, 5, AY-AEL-BM1-BM2-CLM 65 Silk and miscellaneous grass meadow; Grey metamorphic drained gentle C. 58, 597, western, 5, AY1-AY2-AYel-BM-CLM 91 John's-wort and miscellaneous grass Elluvial brown soil meadow; drained gently sloping area C. 60, 589, western, 5, AY-AYm-AY(CLM)-[AY]- 56 Silk and miscellaneous grass meadow; Fossil, organic-accumulative [CLM] slightly drained gently sloping area Note: E – slope exposition; G – slope gradient; PT – profile thickness.

Actual acidity in soils is characterized by pH of 4.8-5.6. The higher pH value in cross section 54 is probably related to the nature of plant litter in birch croocked forest where base saturation is higher. pH values of salt extracts vary from 3.5 to 4.2 within the profile. Hydrolytic acidity values are 10-22 mEq/100 g. Soil absorbing complex is significantly not saturated with bases, in some cross sections the degree of unsaturation reaches 80-90%. Biological accumulation of bases does not compensate for their removal with the groundwater flow, although some reduction in the degree of unsaturation has been noted in the humus horizons. The CPT method allows to register mostly fast proceeding buffering reactions, which include ion exchange, protonation and deprotonation of pH-dependent exchange positions and dissociation of organic and mineral compounds in the solid body. Based on CPT results, the number of absorbed protons was calculated with the following formula: Н+absrpd. = Н+src. + Н+add. - Н+fin., where Н+src. is the source number of Н+ protons in suspension; Н+add. is the added number of protons; Н+fin. is the final number of protons in suspension after reaction with the solid body of the soil. The pH of soil suspension decreased to an average of 2.50-3.16 after adding of the maximum amount of acid (Fig. 1). In the acid exposure on the first (top) humus horizons, pH shifted 1.11.3 units relative to the initial values. In the lower humus horizons, ∆рН was 0.90-1.45. The highest pH value noted in grey humus lithosoil (c. 54) with less apparent acidic properties. According to scale (Glazovskaya, 1990) such ∆рН value means that buffering capability of

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ mountain soils is above average. Lowering the pH results in the soil properties deterioration, as aluminum and iron ions at concentrations toxic to biota emerge in the soil solutions. In humus horizons, ∆pH largely depends on the level of hydrolytic acidity (r = -0.85), content of clay (r = -0.89) and silt (r = -0.83) fractions, and also on removal of the silt fraction (r = 0.92) and accumulation of the sand fraction (r = 0.65), as well as conservative part of organic matter content (r = -0.71). The amount of protons absorbed at the end of titration averaged 70-90 mmol/kg of soil, which corresponds to 75-95% of the amount added. The absorption capacity decreases as the proton concentration in the solution grows. In suspensions from humus horizons it decreases from 97 to 70%. Increasing the intensity of the absorption observed at pH below 3.9-3.6; 3.0; 2.5. The absorption of protons in these pH ranges is a result of reactions of displacement of exchange bases, dissociation of organic and mineral complexes followed by protonation of organic ligands, mineral dissolution. 92

89

87

77

80

77

75

99

4

75

3

60 40

2

20 0

1 0

99

99

97

100

рН

Н+ absorb., %

94

96

97

95

96

91

83 5

80

4

60

рН

96

Н+ absorb., %

97 100

3

40

2

20 0

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

1 0

Н+added, mol/kg

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Н+added, mol/kg

a) AY1

b) AY2

97

95 80

91

85

83

81

73

77

100

4 3 2

96

89

80

93

92

90

76

4 67 3

60 40

2

20 0

1 0

1 0

рН

96

Н+absorb., %

96

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

рН

Н+ absorb., %

Gray humus lithosoil (c. 54)

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Н+added, mol/kg

H+ added, mol/kg

c) AY

d) AEL Grey metamorphic (c. 62)

84

87

89

84

81

79

97

4 3 2.5 2 1.5

97

97

96

94

93

90 4

80 3

60 40

2

20 0

1 0

98

100

71 3.5

рН

96

Н+ absorb., %

97

рН

Н+ absorb., %

97 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1 0

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

Н+added, mol/kg

Н+added, mol/kg

g) AY1

e) AY1 Elluvial brown soil (c. 58)

Figure 1. Change in the adsorption capability and pH at the acid titration of soil suspensions of humic soil horizons in subalpine belt In general, these areas are characterized by high capacity, as indicated by ∆рН (see Table 2). The buffering area is low which indicate that the soil "buffers" mildly. The buffer capacity was 7-27% of the area of the sample with absolute buffering capacity, which corresponds to a

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ very low and low buffer capacity of soils to acid effects. It should be noted that buffering capacity of mountain soil to acid effects decreases along with altitude decrement (r = 0.76). Table 2. The buffering area and the degree of reduced buffering capacity of mountain soils Cut № 54 49 62 58 60

Horizon, depth, см АY1 2-9 АY1 5-14 АY АY1 2-25 АY2 AY

рН CPT 4,3 3,7 3,6 3,9 3,8 3,3

The buffering area, sm2 9,0 6,0 7,0 6,0 4,3 1,1

The degree of reduced buffering capacity 27,0 (low) 20,0 (very low) 22,0 (low) 19,2 (very low) 15,8 (very low) 6,8 (very-very low)

∆рН 1,4 1,2 1,2 1,5 1,2 1,9

Reduced buffering capacity is largely dependent on the content of alluvium (r = 0.73), medium and fine dust (r = 0.53), and also on the accumulation of dust (r = 0.82) and removal of the sand fraction (r = -0.56). Buffering properties of soils in subalpine belt have an average dependence on the silicon content (r = 0.46) and inverse dependence on the iron content (r = 0.68). Thus, buffering properties are associated with mineralogical composition of the soil as indicated by the relationship between reduced buffering capacity and the entropy of the bulk composition (r = -0.70). At the most non-uniform distribution of the system components, entropy tends to zero thereby increasing the buffer soil resistivity. The reduced buffering capacity has a direct relationship with the content of organic matter (r = 0.76) and its conservative part (r = 0.64), and a reverse relationship with a degree of humification (r = 0.67). In the studied humus horizons, buffering intensity peaks are well defined in the pH range of 2.7-2.45. At the same time the pH values are consistent with humus content. Obviously, the buffering reactions in this range are associated with organic and mineral derivatives of humic acids. Decrease of the solution pH causes a decrease in negative charge of organic compounds due to attenuation of ionization of COOH groups and reducing the protonation of clay minerals in soils. Scientists believe that at recharge of colloidal particles of Fe(OH)3 and Al(OH)3 and organic colloids of amphoteric nature their positive charge also increases (Motuzova, 1994). As a result, base exchange capacity, strength of bond between metal and soil and selectivity coefficient decrease, which in turn results in elevated proportion of metals in soil adsorption complex, so elements adsorption decreases in general. 20 to 80 mmol/kg acid we spent on suspension titration in pH fange 2.7-2.45. Among the analyzed soils structurally metamorphic soils had the maximum buffering capacity to the acid: elluvial brown soils (c. 58), grey methamorphic (c. 62). Organic-accumulative soil and grey humus lithosoil show less resistance to acid. Conclusion Increasing the acid load of mountain soils in the subalpine belt reduces their adsorption capability. Thus the soils of mountain landscapes are sensitive to acid effects. In the buffering structure, pH values of 3.9-3.0 and 2.5 are thresholds. In pH interval from the start point of titration to 3.0 in all horizons the main buffering reaction is displacement of exchangable cations by a proton. In the horizons containing organic material the dissociation reaction of organic and mineral complexes is added to them followed by protonation of organic ligands. At lowering pH below 2.5 units dissolution of iron sesquioxide occurs. Reactions associated with dissolution of mixed-layer clay minerals are possible in mineral horizons (AEL). Soils in subalpine belt have low and very low buffering capacity and as a consequence low environmental and geochemical resistance to acid effects. Reduced buffering capacity is the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ most objective indicator to evaluate the buffering properties that allows to compare soils formed under different environmental conditions. At the same time the use of the relative pH shift to assess buffering capacity is justified for soils with similar acidity values. Evaluation of buffering capacity and absorption capability of soils can be used as an objective criteria for qualitative assessment of the soil state for soil and environmental monitoring. References Acidification research in Finland. (1991) Review of the results of the Finnish Acidification Research Programme (HAPRO). 1985-1990. Helsinki. 48 p. Acidification today and tomorrow (1982). A Swedish study prepared for the 1982 Stockholm conference on the acidification of the environment.. 231 p. Bogdanova М.D. (1994) Comparative Characteristics of Russian Soil Buffering Relative to Acid Effects // Soil Science. № 5. P.93-101. Derome J. (1991) Atmospheric deposition and the mobility of cations in forest soil // Environmental geochemistry in Northern Europe. Espoo. P. 29-39. Dobrovolskiy G.V., Chernova O.V., Bykova E.P., Matekhina N.P. (2003) The Soil Cover of the Protected Areas. Condition, State of Knowledge, Organization of Research // Soil Science, 2003. № 6. P. 645-654. Filep D., Radley M. (1989) An Acid and an Acid-Base Buffering Forms in Soil // Soil Science. 1989. № 4. P. 40-45. Forest Soil Conditions in Europe (1997). Results of a Large-Scale Soil Survey. EC-UN/ECE. Brussels, Geneva. 261 p. Glazovskaya М.А. (1990) Experiment on the World Soil Classification by Resistance to Anthropogenic Acid Influences // Soil science. № 9. Р. 82-96. Grishina L.А., Kopzhuk G.N., Morgunov L.V. (1991) Organizing and Carrying Out Soil Investigations for Environmental Monitoring. M.: MGU. 82 p. Kopzhuk G. N., Kopzhuk S.V. Murashkina-Mies M.A. (2001) Changes in the Chemical State of Litter in Forest Ecosystems Under the Influence of Air Pollution // Forest Science. № 6. P. 12-20. Kopzhuk G. N., Livantsova S.U. (2003) Acidity and Base Exchange Properties of Soils in Forest Ecosystems of the "Russian North" National Park // Soil Science. № 6. P. 670681. Lyzhenko T.N. et al. (2014) Dissolved Organic Matter of Lysimetric Water in Mountain Forest Soils of Southern Sikhote-Alin // Soil Science. № 6. P. 705-715. Makarov M.I., Nedbaev N.P., Okuneva R.M., Chuyenkova V.V. (1994) Transformation of Aluminum and Iron Compounds in Forest Soils Under the Influence of Acid Rain // Soil Science. № 4. P. 129-136. Motuzova G.V. (1994) The Nature of the Soil Buffering to External Influences // Soil Science. № 4. P. 46-53. Nadtochiy P.P. (1998) Acid-Base Buffering Capacity of the soil as a Measure of Its Quality Status // Soil Science. № 9. P. 1094-1102. Nadtochiy P.P. (1993) Determination of Acid-Base Buffering Capacity of Soils // Soil Science. № 4. P. 34-39. Pevnuy A.A., Sokolova T.A. (1997) Acid-Base Status of the Soil Watershed Areas in the Middle Taiga Area of Komi Republic // Soil Science. № 8. P. 943-951. Podzol Soil of the Central and Eastern Areas of the European Territory of the USSR (in Loamy Soil-Forming Rocks). Leningrad: Science. (1980). 301 p. Podzol Soil of the Central and Eastern Areas of the European Territory of the USSR (in Sand Soil-Forming Rocks). Leningrad: Science. (1981). 200 p.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Ponizovskiy A.A., Pampura T.V. (1993) Application of the Potentiometric Titration Method to Characterize the Buffering Capacity of Soils // Soil Science. № 3. P. 106-113. Samofalova I.A., Lyzuanina O.A. (2014) "Basegi" reserve soils and their classification // Perm Agricultural Gazette. № 1 (5). P. 50-60. Samofalova I.A., Lyzuanina O.A. (2013) Ecological and genetic characteristics of soils of mountain forest zone in the Middle Urals // Proceedings of the Samara Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. V. 15. № 3(4). P. 1426-1431. Samofalova I.A., Lyzuanina O.A., Sokolova N.V. (2014) Morphological and Genetic Features of Soils in the Subalpine Zone (Middle Urals) // Actual Problems of Humanities and Natural Science. № 1 (60). Pt. I. P. 24-28. Savchenko T.I. (1989) Buffering and Factors of Soil Acidity // Chemicals Used in Agriculture. № 2. P. 40-43. Shamrikova E.V., Sokolova T.A., Zaboyeva I.V. (2002) Identification of Buffer Reactions in the Titration of Aqueous Suspensions of Virgin and Arable Horizons of Podzolic Soils by Acid and Base // Soil Science. № 4, p. 412 – 423. Shamrikova E.V., Kazakov V.G., Sokolova T.A. (2011) Varying ov Acid-Base State Indicators in Automorphic Loamy Soil of Taiga and Tundra Zones of the Komi Republic // Soil Science. № 6. P. 1-14. Shamrikova E.V., Sokolova T.A. (2013) The Relationship Between Various Forms of Acidity in Automorphic Loamy Soils of Tundra and Taiga // Soil Science. № 5. P. 556-569. Shamrikova E.V., Sokolova T.A., Zaboeva I.V. (2003) Acid-Base Buffering Capacity of Organic Horizons of Podzolic and Swamp-Podzolic Soils of the Komi Republic // Soil Science. № 7. P. 797-807. Soil and soil cover of Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve (Northern Urals) (2013) / Ed. S.V. Dyogtyeva, E.M. Laptyeva. Syktyvkar. 328 p. Sokolova T.A., Pakhomov A.P., Tererekhin V.G. Studying (1993) Acid-Base Buffering in Podzolic Soils Using Continuous Potentiometric Titration // Soil Science. № 7. P. 97106. Sokolova T.A., Tolpeshta I.I., Trofimov S.Y. (2012) Soil Acidity. Acid-Base Buffering Capacity of Soils. Aluminium Compounds in the Soil Solid Body and in the Soil Solution. Tula: Grif and K. 124 p. Tamm C.O., David M.B. (1989) Effect of Acid Treatment on Dissolved Organic Carbon Retention by a Spodic Horizon // Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. V. 53. P. 1242-1247. Tolstokaeva E.N., Zharikova E.A. (2009) Buffering to the Base of Natural and Anthropogenically Modified Dark Humus Gley Soils of Primorye // Soil Science. № 9. P. 1066-1072. Ufimtseva L.V., Pokatilova A.N. (2005) Methodological Aspects of Assessing Acid-Base Buffering Capacities of Soil // Bulletin of RAAS. № 6. P. 37-39. Ushakov R.N. (2005) Buffering capacity of grey forest soils to acidification depending on their fertility // Fertility. № 1. P. 28-29. Wisniewcki J., Keitz E. (1983) Acid Rain Deposition Patterns in the Continental United States // Water, Air, Soil Pollut. V. 19. P. 327-339. Zayzheva T.F. (1987) Soil Buffering and Diagnostic Issues // Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Siberian Department. Biol. sci. series. № 14. Issue 2. P. 69-80.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051401M IMPACT OF THE CONTENT OF MOBILE PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM ON BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF THE SOIL Natalya M. MUDRYKH Department of Agrochemistry, Perm state agricultural academy, Perm, Russia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The studying of the soil biological activity is one of the most important criteria for evaluating the direction of soil processes. Biological activity of the soil allows about a condition of fertility of the soil. Microbiological activity depends on the type of soils, properties and many other factors. Anthropogenic loading in bigger or smaller intensity can cause suppression of the functions which are carried out microorganisms that leads to violation of their activity. In Perm Krai sod-podzolic soils of heavy granulometric composition occupy 69.6 % of the area of an arable land. Features of these soils – sour reaction of the environment, the relative poverty in elements and organic substance, is poorly expressed by structure, the availability of the inert podzolic horizon, and also flushing type of the water mode. All it determines the low level of biological activity of this type of soils. We have investigated the change in the biological activity of sod-podzolic soils with different content of available phosphorus and potassium. Mathematical processing of experimental results testifies the direct dependencies of content of mineral nitrogen in the soil on the content of available phosphorus and potassium (r = -0.415-0.952). Studies have shown that the content of mineral nitrogen in the soil depends on the content of labile phosphorus and potassium, which suggests an ability to predict the future availability of nitrogen for crop seeds. The best conditions for nitrification are marked on variants A2B1 (80.1 mg NO3/kg/14 days) and A3B2 (77.0 mg NO3/kg/14 days), worst on A1B1 (54.4 mg NO3/kg/14 days) and A3B1 (51.3 mg NO3/kg/14 days). Sodpodzolic soils of heavy granulometric composition have low biological activity, but when creating the optimal conditions for microbial, their activity increases. Keywords: Sod-podzolic soil, biological activity, phosphorus, potassium Introduction The studying of the soil biological activity is one of the most important criteria for evaluating the direction of soil processes and allows to judge about change of the nitric mode of soils. Anthropogenic impact on soil not only can cause suppression of microorganisms functions, which leads to violation of activities of the latter, but can also improve the conditions for the occurrence of positive microbiological processes in the soil (Mudrykh et al., 2013, 2014; Kizilkaya et al., 2012, 2013). Long-term studies established that the majority of arable crops most vigorously consume nitrate nitrogen from the soil. Scientists attribute this to the fact that the intake of nutrients (in the form of cations) into the plant is greater at the nitrate assimilation and to change in the ratio of ammonium and nitrate at the cultivation of the soil. Improving the physical and chemical properties tends to raise the proportion of nitrate in mineral nitrogen reserves: from 20 % in soils with low fertility to 60 % in well-cultivated soil. Nitrogen fertilization increases this number to 90 %, which is due to the intensification of nitrification in soils. Creating optimal conditions for the cultivation of arable crops improves conditions for the nitrification process, as these conditions are similar. So that is not a coincidence that the high nitrifying

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ activity has long been used as an indicator of good soil fertility (Koren'kov, 1990, Kidin, 2008). The purpose of the study is to determine the effect of labile phosphorus and potassium on the soil nitrification process. Materials and methods Perm Krai is situated in Western Predural’e region and defined by 56°06-61°39 of northern latitude and 51°47-59°03 eastern longitude (Fig. 1). From north to south the territory of the Krai stretches for 600 km, from west to east in the southern part of the Krai – for 200 km, in the northern part – for 500 km (Ashkin et al., 2012, 2013: Mudrykh et al., 2014).

Figure 1. Location of the experimental field in Perm, Russia The soil samples (56) was taken from experimental field at the Experimental Station of Perm State Agricultural Academy, Perm, Russia (57°5600N, 56°1459E) in 2011. A composite surface soil sample from 0-20 cm depth was collected from the experimental site before initiating the experiment and analysis of soil samples on agrochemical indicators was carried out by standard techniques (Peterburgskii, 1981). Soil samples were air dried at room temperature; sieved with < 1 mm screen. An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of available phosphorus and potassium on soil enzyme activities under laboratory conditions. The laboratory experiment was carried out according to the procedure described by Kravkov. Table 1. Scheme of laboratory experiment carried out to Petrburgskii (1981) Factor B: Soil potassium range B1 (41-80) B2 (81-120)

Factor A: Soil phosphorus ranges (mg kg-1) A1 (101-105) A2 (151-200) A1B1 A2B1 A1B2 A2B2

A3 (over 200) A3B1 A3B2

There was a double replication of the experiment variants. The experiment lasted for 14 days. Levels of labile phosphorus and potassium in the soil were formed artificially in experiments performed by the staff of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry with the use of organic and organic-mineral fertilizers. Analysis of soil samples for agrochemical parameters was carried out according to the standard procedures (Arinushkina, 1961; GOST, 1991, 1994; Mineev, 2001). The intensity of the nitrification was measured by the difference between the content of nitrate in the soil before and after incubation. Soil samples have subacid pH close to neutral (5.3-5.6). Total exchangeable bases are within 18.2-20.2 mg-eq./100 g of soil. The soil is base-saturated (88-89 %), content of phosphorus 112.3-328.3 mg/kg, potassium 57.3-116.0 mg/kg of soil. Deviation of physic-chemical parameters values for variants of the experiment are within analytical error. Analysis of soil

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ samples taken before experiment beginning has shown that in major agrochemical parameters the soil in the experiment variants differ only in the content of phosphorus and potassium. All data were analyzed using statistical software STATISTICA 7.0 and MINITAB 14. Results and discussion Petersburgsky (1991) has established that, in the non-chernozemic zone, 50 % in obtaining arable crops yield is due to nitrogen. Such a high increase in yield is due to the fact that the flushing regime of sod-podzolic soils, acid medium reaction, and the relatively low amount of organic matter determine low levels of nutrients in the soils of this type and, in particular, nitrogen. The content of mineral nitrogen in the soil depends on many factors. To improve the plants nitrogen supply, it is necessary to determine the mineral nitrogen content in the soil at certain stages of plant development to allow fertilizing, if necessary. Optimal conditions of nitrogenous nutrition of plants can be accomplished in two ways: soil cultivation (increasing reserves of nitrogen, controlling its transformation in soil) and application of mineral nitrogen fertilizers. The first one is the cheapest way to provide plants with nitrogen, as it requires no additional expenses and the method is environmentally safe (Koren'kov, 1990). Soil samples were taken to determine the amount of mineral nitrogen in the soil in the tillering stage of winter rye before fertilization. Analysis of soil samples showed that the content of mineral nitrogen in the soil is very low (Fig. 2, 3). The maximum content of N-NH4 (13.5 mg/kg of soil) was observed in variants with an average content of labile phosphorus Box & Whisker Plot (Fig. 2). Box & Whisker Plot

11

22

10 20

9 18

8 16

7 14

6 12

5 10

4 8

3 6 Mean Mean±SE Mean±SD

4 A1B1

A1B2

A2B1

A2B2

A3B1

A3B2

2

Mean Mean±SE Mean±SD

1 A1B1

A1B2

A2B1

A2B2

A3B1

A3B2

Figures 2. Impact of mobile phosphorus and potassium on the content of amount nitrogen (left) and nitrate nitrogen (right) in the soil, mg/kg

The increasing of labile phosphorus is followed by decreasing of amount of N-NH4 up to 11.2-11.4 mg/kg of soil. Elevation of labile potassium level from low to average has led to a 2.1 mg/kg of soil increase of studied index. Detailed analysis and mathematical treatment of the results showed that the greatest range of variability of ammonium nitrogen was observed in the A1B1 variant, the lowest in A3B2. On variants A1B2 and A2B1 a close correlation between the content of labile phosphorus and ammonium nitrogen was established: r = -0.555 and -0.710. It should be noted that the amount of ammonium nitrogen in the soil is less dependent on the content of labile phosphorus, and more on potassium. The increase of potassium in the soil is followed by some increase in ammonium amount. The content of nitrate nitrogen in the soil, as well as ammonia, is very low (Fig. 2). On a variant with average content of labile phosphorus the amount of nitrate nitrogen was 5.8 mg/kg soil. An increase of labile phosphorus to high level was followed by slight increase of nitrate nitrogen content up to 6.2 mg/kg of soil. A further increase in the level of phosphorus in the soil led to some reduction in nitrate concentrations up to 4.9 mg/kg of soil. 1403

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ In contrast to ammonium nitrogen, increase of the amount of potassium in the soil was followed by decrease in nitrate nitrogen amount. Thus, on variants with low potassium level the content of N-NO3 was equal to 6.1 mg/kg of soil, and with the average level to 5.1 mg/kg of soil. Closer examination of the data indicated that the maximum content of nitrate (7.8 mg/kg of soil) is on the variant with a high labile phosphorus and low potassium content. Mathematical analysis showed that the greatest range of variability of the ammonium nitrogen is on variant A1B2, the lowest on A2B2. With the increase of labile phosphorus in soils, in contrast to ammonium nitrogen, nitrate concentration decreases slightly. It is worth noting that the close correlation was noted on variant A1B1 between the content of labile phosphorus and nitrate nitrogen: r = -0.952. A similar dependence was observed in variants A2B2 and A3B1, the correlation coefficients were -0.517 and -0.415, respectively. Evaluation of plants nitrogen nutrition was carried out on the basis of the content of mineral nitrogen in the soil (N-NH4+N-NO3). Comparison of mineral nitrogen accumulation in the soil in the tillering stage at different levels of labile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium shows that the Impact of the studied factors is not clear (Fig. 3).

Figures 3. Impact of mobile phosphorus (x) and potassium (y) on the content of mineral nitrogen (z) in the soil, mg/kg Thus, at an average labile phosphorus level the maximum accumulation of mineral nitrogen up to 19.3 mg/kg of soil was observed. Increased labile soil phosphorus causes a reduction of the content of mineral nitrogen to 16.3-17.4 mg/kg of soil. Changing of labile potassium level in the soil from low to medium provides some increase in studied index from 17.1 to 18.2 mg/kg of soil. According to the providing group by the soil mineral nitrogen in the spring the amount of nitrogen in the experiment relates to class III, i.e. average. This indicates that mineral nitrogen level is sufficient for the initial development and growth. But for subsequent periods it is necessary to fertilize with additional nitrogen. So, field data indicate a low biological activity in the soil, as the accumulated amount of nitrogen is not enough for the entire growing season, and additional expenses for feeding with nitrogen fertilizers are required for normal growth and development of winter rye. Let's see if optimal conditions for biological activity will allow to achieve a sufficient, for winter rye, level of mineral nitrogen in the sod-podzolic soil. To determine the intensity of the nitrification process under optimum conditions, was determined a content of nitrogen before and after incubation in samples for options of laboratory experiment. Analysis of the intensity of nitrification in sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil showed that the maximum microbial activity is observed in variants with a high content of labile phosphorus and medium content of potassium. On the variant with a high content of 1404


Mineral nitrogen, mg/kg

labile phosphorus in the soil, nitrifying activity was 70.4 mg NO3/kg of soil for 14 days. Decrease in labile phosphorus to an average and increase to high level led to a decrease in activity, respectively, to 59.7 and 64.2 mg NO3/kg/14 days. Increasing potassium level from low to medium provided some increase in nitrifying activity from 61.9 to 67.6 mg NO3/kg/14 days. The best conditions for nitrification are marked on variants A2B1 and A3B2, worst on A1B1 and A3B1. Creation of optimal conditions for nitrification causes some accumulation of mineral nitrogen (Figure. 4). 40 30 20 10 0 А1В1

А1В2

А2В1

А2В2 А3В1 А3В2 Variants Before incubation After incubation Figure 4. Impact of mobile phosphorus (A) and potassium (B) on the content of mineral nitrogen in the soil, mg/kg Thus, prior to incubation mineral nitrogen content was 19.3 mg/kg of soil in variant А1В1, and after incubation 26.9 mg/kg of soil. A similar trend was also noted in other variants of the experiment. The most significant difference in the content of mineral nitrogen is marked in the variant А2В1 17.4 mg/kg of soil. The data indicate that under conditions favorable for the soil nitrification process a significant amount of mineral nitrogen can be accumulated. However, even those created favorable conditions for the accumulation of mineral nitrogen in the soil do not provide a sufficient amount of nitrogen for winter rye. Conclusion Activity of microorganisms in sod-podsolic the heavy loam soils the very low. The content of mineral nitrogen in the soil depends on the content of labile phosphorus and potassium, which suggests an ability to predict the future availability of nitrogen for winter rye. On soils with average, elevated and high phosphorus content and low and medium potassium under optimal conditions an amount of mineral nitrogen sufficient for the growth and initial development is accumulated. The best conditions for nitrification are marked on variants A2B1 and A3B2, worst on A1B1 and A3B1. For cultivation of winter rye on sod-podzolic soils of heavy texture with phosphorus level above average and potassium level low to medium, growing technology should provide nitrogen fertilizer that will provide the plant with necessary nitrogen. References Arinushkina, E.V. (1961). Rukovodstvo according to the chemical analysis of soils. Moscow: publishing house of MSU.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Ashkin T., Kizilkaya R., Samofalova I., Mudrykh N., Olekhov V., Turkmen F. (2013). Dtpaextractable micronutrients: a geostatistical study in Perm (Russia). In: Proceedings of the International scientific and practical conference dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Perm Agricultural Research Institute. Vol. 1. Chemistry and agriculture. Perm: TO and DO, Part 2, pp. 211-223. Askin T., Kizilkaya R., Olekhov V., Samafalova I., Mudrykh N. (2012). Soil Exchangeable Cations: A Geostatistical Stady from Russia. In: Proceedings 8th International Soil Science Congress on "Land Degradation and Challenges in Sustainable Soil Management", Izmir, Vol. II., pp. 53-59. GOST 26207-91 (1992). Soils. Definition of mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium on Kirsanov's method in modification of TsINAO. Moscow: Publishing house of standards GOST 26483-85 (1994). Soils. Definition рН salt extract, exchange acidity, exchange cations, content of nitrates and exchange ammonium and mobile sulfur by TsINAO methods. Moscow: Publishing house of standards. Kidin, V.V. (2008). Bases of food of plants and use of fertilizers. Moscow. Kizilkaya, R., Akca I., Ashkin T., Samofalova I., Olekhov V., Mudrykh N. (2013). The effect of azadirachtin on microbial biomass and basal respiration in soil. In: Proceedings of the International scientific and practical conference dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Perm Agricultural Research Institute. Vol. 1. Chemistry and agriculture. Perm: TO and DO, Part 1, pp. 259-266. Kizilkaya, R., Akca I., Askin T., Yilmaz R., Olekhov V., Mudrykh N., Samofalova I. (2012). Effect of soil contamination with azadirachtin on dehydrogenase and catalase activity of soil. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science, http://www.fess.org/eurasian journal of soil science asp, Vol. 1, Issue 2, pp. 98-103. Koren'kov, D.A. (1990). Questions of agrochemistry of nitrogen and ecology. J. Agrochemistry, 11. Mineev, V.G. (2001). Praktikum on agrochemistry. Studies a grant / Under the editorship of Akkad. Russian Academy of Agrarian Sciences. Moscow: Publishing house of MSU. Mudrykh, N., Samofalova I., Gordeeva I. (2014). Ensure environmental sustainability of agriculture in the Perm region. J. Australian science review, 1(5): 528-540. Mudrykh, N.M., Samofalova I.A. (2014). Biological activity of sod-podzolic soils on different kinds of farmland. In: Proceeding 9th International Soil Science Congress on "The Soul of Soil and Civilization". Side-Antalya, Turkey, pp. 713-716. Mudrykh, N.M., Samofalova I.A., Shlykova S.N. (2013). The impact of agricultural land use on the biological activity of sod-podzolic soils. J. Actual problems of humanitarian and natural sciences, 12(1): 142-145. Peterburgskii, A.V. (1981). Agrochemistry and physiology of food of plants. Moscow: Rossel'khozizdat.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051407S SOIL EROSION IN THE ČANČAR BROOK CATCHMENT (WESTERN SERBIA) Gordana ŠEKULARAC1*, Miodrag JELIĆ2, Milena DJURIĆ1, Borivoj PEJIĆ3, Tanja JAKIŠIĆ4, Miroljub AKSIĆ2 1

University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy, Čačak, Serbia University of Priština-Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Agriculture, Lešak, Serbia 3 University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Serbia 4 University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, East Sarajevo, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina *Corresponding author: [email protected] 2

Abstract Soil erosion involves detachment and transport of soil particles from the upper parts of a slope and their deposition at its lower parts. Erosion causes soil degradation and reduces soil productivity. Soil eroded from the upland catchment causes depletion of fertile agricultural soil and the resulting sediment deposited at the river networks creates river morphological change and reservoir sedimentation problems. As regards the initiation of the wearing away of soil particles from the catchment slope, standard methods were used to quantify soil erosion. The aim of this study was to evaluate erosion factors in the catchment area of the Čančar brook, classified as a ravine. The annual erosion intensity is 113.23 m3 km-2 of soil. Based on natural and anthropogenic factors, the Čančar brook catchment area belongs to erosion category IV, weak intensity, deep type, with the erosion coefficient of 0.40. Keywords: soil erosion, erosion intensity, sediment yield, soil, catchment, ravine Introduction Land degradation and soil loss are global events. Human induced pressures on natural ecosystems are still in progress, along with conservation efforts (Hacisalihoğly et al., 2010). The main factor causing soil degradation worldwide is water erosion, which threatens 56% of the world’s arable land (Oldeman et al., 1990). Over 90% of the total land area in the Republic of Serbia suffers from different types and intensities of erosion (Djorović and Kadović, 1997). The erosion process can have both direct and indirect impacts, inducing permanent soil disappearance. The calculated value of the total annual sediment yield suggests that some 16.0 cm of soil are annually eroded off the 21,000 ha of land in Serbia (Spalević, 1997). In the Republic of Serbia (Central Serbia), there are 1.221 million ha of eroded soil, and 36,000 ha are in a steady state, now (Statistical Yearbook, 2008). Erosion has mostly affected strongly sloping, deforested or cultivated shallow soils on slopes, formed on impermeable geological substrates, due to the effects of intense rainfall and fluctuating air temperatures (Spalević, 1997). The tendency of air temperature to increase and of rainfall to decrease is quite evident in the region of Čačak (Šekularac, 2002). Climate change leads to degraded soil physical properties, increases soil erodibility and reduces the protective role of vegetation. The above factors cause intensification of both surface and deep-cutting processes of erosion. Given the above, the objectives of this study are quantitative assessment of soil erosion induced by a range of factors and estimation of sediment yield in one part of the catchment area of the Kamenica River (part of the Zapadna Morava catchment) i.e. its subbasin the Tinja, including its second order left-hand tributary the Čančar brook.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Materials and methods The Čančar brook is located near Čačak (430 53' N; 200 21' E), Western Serbia, and belongs to the catchment of the Zapadna Morava river.

Figure 1. The Čančar brook catchment Natural characteristics of the Čančar brook basin were studied using map data (hydrography, relief, geological substrate and soil), literature data (elements of climate: rainfall and air temperature) and data obtained through an immediate reconnaissance survey of the area (vegetation). Maps of the studied area have the following scale: topographic map (1:25,000, Fig. 1; 1:50,000) by the Military Geographical Institute (1971), geological map (1:500,000) by the Institute of Soil Science (1966) and pedological map (1:50,000) by the Institute of Soil Science (1964). Meteorological parameters for the catchment area were calculated using the method of interpolation of rainfall data (Republic Hydrometeorological Bureau, 1930-1961) by the rainfall gradient (Bonacci, 1984), and air temperature (Centre for Research in Agriculture, 1949-1995) calculations for any altitude (Dukić, 1984). Erosion-induced soil losses can be predicted by various analytical models. However, according to the experience of a number of researchers, the Erosion Potential Method – EPM (Gavrilović, 1972) is the most suitable on catchment level for watershed management purposes in this Region and is used in: Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Italy, Iran, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia (Behzadfar et al., 2014; Spalevic et al., 2014; Kostadinov et al., 2014). This is why quantitative indicators of soil erosion in this research were calculated using the Erosion Potential Method - EPM. The basic analytical equation for the calculation of erosion-induced soil losses, as developed by Gavrilović (1972), is as follows:

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ G yrsp/ 1  T  H yr   Z 3  Ru

(1)

where: Gyr sp-1 – specific annual total erosion-induced sediment yield reaching the confluence, m3 yr-1 km-2 T – temperature coefficient of the catchment Hyr – amount of rainfall, mm π – 3.14 Z – coefficient of erosion Ru – coefficient of retention of soil in the catchment. Results and discussion The size, length, circumference and shape (perimeter) of a catchment area are among major catchment elements of importance for soil erosion. The Čančar brook catchment is 0.54 km2 in area (F), 1.36 km in length (L), and 3.70 km in circumference (C). The major physical and geographical elements of the Čančar brook catchment, relief characteristics, geological substrate features, soil type and soil utilisation method, are quantitative parameters or soil erosion in the catchment. Table 1. The basic parameters of the Čančar brook catchment relief Catchment Name: The Čančar brook The lowest point of the main watercourse and catchment (B), m The highest point of the main watercourse (C), m The highest point of the catchment (E), m Average slope of the main watercourse in the catchment (Ia), % Mean catchment altitude (Am), m Mean catchment altitudinal difference (D), m Mean catchment slope (Im), % Coefficient of catchment relief erosion energy (Er), m/km1/2

619 745 762 8.3 700.74 81.74 20.1 53.16

Table 1 presents the Čančar brook relief which plays a primary role in the occurrence of soil erosion. The mean altitude (Am) of the Čančar brook is 700.74 m and the mean altitudinal difference (D) is 81.74 m. The mean slope (Im) is 20.1%. Relief of a region can also be determined by the coefficient of relief erosion energy (Er), the value thereof for the Čančar brook catchment being 53.16 m km-1/2. An increase in relief parameter values results in increasing intensity of soil erosion in the catchment. Geological substrates contribute significantly to the erosion process within the Čančar brook catchment area (Table 2). Erosion resistance of geological substrates is directly related to water permeability. The geological substrate of the Čančar brook catchment is serpentine (100.00% of the total catchment area) and is with poor permeability. The water permeability coefficient of the serpentine geological substrate (S1) is 1.00, suggesting non-resistance of the geological substrate to the erosion process (Table 2).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2. Geological substrate of the Čančar brook catchment, coefficient of water permeability (S1) and erosion resistance Catchment name: The Čančar brook Fppr-Poorly permeable rocks km2 %

Serpentine Coefficient of geological substrate water permeability (S1) Resistance of geological substrate to erosion

0.54 100.00

1.00 Non-resistant

As an erosion agent, soil and its properties contribute, to a lesser or greater degree, to the erosion process. Due to the effect of pedogenetic factors, the soil type covering the Čančar brook catchment area is humus-siliceous soil on serpentine rock. It is classified as shallow soil. The profile of the humus-siliceous soil on serpentine is of Ah–C type. A strong degree of erodibility is found in the humus-siliceous soil on serpentine (Šekularac, 2000). Table 3. The structure of the Čančar brook catchment according to type of land use and vegetative cover coefficient (S2) Catchment Name: Čančar brook Ff

Forests and coppice of good spacing Orchards

Fg

Meadows Pastures and devastated forests and coppices

fg Аrable land Fb Infertile soil fb Vegetation cover coefficient (S2)

km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 %

0.02 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.07 12.96 0.30 55.56 0.30 68.52 0.03 5.56 0.12 22.22 0.15 27.78 0.84

The most aggressive climate elements inducing and contributing to soil erosion include rainfall, air temperature, and soil temperature (indirectly, through air temperatures). This region has a temperate continental climate. The mean annual rainfall total (R) for the Čančar brook catchment is 799.1 mm, and the mean annual air temperature (T) is 8.10C. The data on rainfall reaching the catchment surface indicate an important role of rainfall as a climate element in soil erosion in the catchment area observed. The contribution of the other soil erosion agents i.e. vegetation, both autochthonous and anthropogenic, and vegetative cover coefficient (S2) is given in Table 3. The total area of land under forests and coppice of good spacing (Ff) in the Čančar brook catchment is 0.02 km2 (3.70%), most of the land – 0.30 km2 (55.56%) is under grass vegetation ( Fg), and 0.15 km2 (27.78%) of land are under bare soil ( fb). These forms of land-use facilitate the protection of the studied area against erosion (vegetative cover coefficient, S2 = 0.84). The devastating potential of the watercourse can be determined from the hydrographic and hydrologic traits of the region analysed. The traits pertaining to the family of the Čančar brook torrent (Fc) are as follows: Fc: F; IV; Z=0.40, meaning that the Čančar brook is a ravine

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ (F) classified as class IV of erosion category (a deep type of erosion) and having an erosion coefficient (Z) of 0.40 (weak erosion intensity). The above traits of the erosion factors in the Čančar brook catchment result in sediment production and soil erosion of particular intensity. The scale of erosion of the Čančar brook catchment is manifested through the mean annual erosion-induced sediment yield, Wyr of 321.80 m3 yr-1. The mean annual volume of the total sediment yield (Gyr) reaching the Čančar brook confluence is 61.14 m3 yr-1, whereas the specific annual total erosion-induced sediment yield reaching the confluence with the Kamenica River (Gyr sp-1) is 113.23 m3 km-2 yr-1. This finding regarding the weak erosion intensity is comparable to that on the low-intensity erosion of the Grliška River region (Eastern Serbia) of (Gyr sp-1) 209.12 m3 km-2 yr-1 (Stefanović et al., 2007). Using the method of EPM, in research of the Djuricka river basin (North of Montenegro), predicted that the soil losses were 645 m3 km-2 per year (Spalevic et al., 2013). The said erosion intensity on the Čančar brook catchment is manifested through the relief erosion energy coefficient of 53.16 m km-1/2, the erosion coefficient (Z) of 0.40, mean annual rainfall of 799.1 mm and average annual air temperature of 8.10C, with about 68.52% of land area under grass vegetation ( Fg), and the dominating humus-siliceous soil on serpentine rock. The above data show that, in view of the annual sediment yield, about 0.03 ha of soil up to 20 cm depth are eroded off the Čančar brook catchment area i.e. about 0.05 t ha-1 of soil are lost annually. The amount of the eroded soil material can be categorised as class I (0-1 t ha-1 yr-1) of permissible or tolerable erosion (Hacisalihoğly et al., 2010). Conclusion The Čančar brook is classified as a ravine. The value of Z coefficient of 0.40 indicates that the river basin belongs to destruction category IV. The strength of the erosion process is weak, and deep erosion dominates in the studied area. These and the other soil erosion agents analysed in the catchment area have resulted in the mean annual erosion-induced sediment yield of 321.80 m3 yr-1, and erosion intensity of 113.23 m3 km-2 yr-1. The erosion observed in this region is of weak intensity, and the anthropogenic factor is the key agent in the process governing soil utilisation, soil conservation and protection from further erosion-induced degradation. Acknowledgement This paper was prepared within the project T. D. 31054 funded by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. References Behzadfar, M., Tazioli, A., Vukelic-Shutoska, M., Simunic, I., Spalevic, V. (2014): Calculation of sediment yield in the S1-1 Watershed, Shirindareh Watershed, Iran. Agriculture and Forestry, 60 (4): 207-216. Bonacci, O. (1984): Meteorological and hydrological data. Manual for Land Reclamation. I st, book 2, Tomic, F. (ed.), Society for drainage and irrigation of Croatia, Zagreb, Croatia. (In Croatian) Centre for Research in Agriculture (1949-1995). Data on air temperature. Čacak, Serbia. (In Serbian) Djorović, M., Kadović, R. (1997): Prospects for Development of conservation lands and waters. Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the Yugoslav Association for the Study of land "Development, use and conservation of land," Hadzic, V. (ed.), Yugoslav Society of Soil Science, Novi Sad, Serbia, 665-677. (In Serbian)

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Dukić, D. (1984): Physical and geographical factors of the river regime. Hydrology mainland. Joković, D. (ed.), Science Book, Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Gavrilović, S. (1972): Engineering of torrential flows and erosion. "Building", Special Issue, Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Hacisalihoğly, S., Mert, A., Negiz Güvenç, M., Muys, B. (2010): Soil loss prediction using universal soil loss equation (USLE) simulation model in a mountainous area in Ağlasun district, Turkey. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9 (24), 3589-3594. Institute of Soil Science (1964): Soil map of the territory of the county of Kraljevo (1: 50,000). Belgrade-Topcider, Serbia. (In Serbian) Institute of Soil Science (1966): Geological map of the western and north-western Serbia (1: 500,000). Belgrade-Topcider, Serbia. (In Serbian) Kostadinov, S., Zlatic, M., Dragicevic, S., Novkovic, I., Kosanin, O., Borisavljevic, A., Lakicevic, M., Mlađan, D. (2014): Anthropogenic influence on erosion intensity changes in the Rasina River watershed - Central Serbia. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 01/2014; 23(1a): 254-263. Military Geographical Institute (1971). Topographic Maps (1:25,000; 1:50,000). Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Oldeman, L. R., Hakkeling, R. T. A., Sombroek, W. G. (1990): World map of the status of human-induced soil degradation: an explanatory note. Second Edition, ISRIC Wageningen and UNEP, The Netherland. Republic Hydrometeorological Bureau (1930-1961). Data on rainfall. Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Spalević, B. (1997): Erosion of Soil in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Conservation of soil and water. Jakovljevic, M. (ed.), Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade-Zemun, Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Spalevic, V., Djurovic, N., Mijovic, S., Vukelic-Sutoska, M., M. Curovic, M. (2013): Soil Erosion Intensity and Runoff on the Djuricka River Basin (North of Montenegro). Malaysian Journal of Soil Science, 17, 49-68. Spalevic, V., Radanovic, D., Behzadfar, M., Djekovic, V., Andjelkovic, A., Milosevic, N. (2014): Calculation of the sediment yield of the Trebacka Rijeka, Polimlje, Montenegro. Agriculture and Forestry 60 (1), 259-272. Statistical Yearbook (2008): Data on eroded areas of soil. Republic Institute for Statistics, Belgrade, Serbia. (In Serbian) Stefanović, T., Bilibajkić, S., Braunović, S., Nikić, Z. (2007). State of erosion in the catchment Grliška River before and after the formation of the reservoir "Grlište". Water management, 39 (5-6), 408-413. (In Serbian) Šekularac, G. (2000): The ratio of the intensity of erosion and degree erodibility of soil of the Kamenica River. Doctoral dissertation. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy in Čacak, Čacak, Serbia. (In Serbian) Šekularac, G. (2002): The Tendency of Climatic Elements and Water Balance in the Soil of the Area of Cacak. Acta Agriculturae Serbica, VIII (14), 39–44.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051413P THE CONTENT OF HEAVY METALS IN THE BULEVARD SOIL IN NOVI SAD, SERBIA Lazar PAVLOVIĆ1*, Ljiljana NEŠIĆ1, Milivoj BELIĆ1, Maja MANOJLOVIĆ1, Vladimir ĆIRIĆ1, Vesna TUNGUZ2, Silvija KRAJTER OSTOIĆ3 1

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina 3 Croatian Forest Research Institute, Jastrebarsko, Croatia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

2

Abstract Urbisols are considered as all soils in urban areas on which formation men had immediate impact. They are formed by mixing natural soil layers with laid down material. Heavy metals in natural soils originate from parent material, while the origin of these elements in urbisols also depends of the laid down material. In addition to these main factors, air pollutants also have influence on the dynamics of heavy metals in urbisols. Probably the biggest influence of air pollutants can be seen in the soils along roads, where the origin of heavy metals can be attributed to car exhaust fumes. Metals which most often occur as contaminants of these soil are cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr) and others. In this paper the results of the total content of heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cd, Co and Cr) in urbisols along the Boulevard of Car Lazar, one of the most frequented roads in Novi Sad, are presented. In topsoil the highest values were found for Pb, Ni and Cr, while the values of Cd and Co are not too different from the control sample. As a control sample it is used soil from the park. The total content of Pb, Ni and Cr in the soil along the Boulevard is on average three to four, in some places five times higher than in the control sample. Compared with the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), the values in the tested samples were enlarged, but do not exceed MPC. Compared to the deeper layers, surface layers of the soil had a higher content of heavy metals. Keywords:urbisols, the total content ofheavy metals Introduction Soil is a mixture of a number of components, including organic matter, mineral constituents, all kinds of soil-borne organisms, water, air and man-made elements (Faiz et al., 2009). Depending on the location, soil can also contain pollutants originating from industrial emissions, waste disposal sites, agriculture, urban centers, or from emissions generated by motor vehicles (Modrzewskaet al., 2014). In urban areas, soils are formed by mixing natural soil layers with laid down material various origin. Urbisols usually have one or more layers and thickness of at least 50 cm, and the layers are composed of different materials that are formed by mixing, compaction, addition of substrate, synthetic materials etc. (Zemlyanitsky, 1963; Craul, 1985). Because of that characteristics urbisols are very various. Soil profiles show abrupt changes from one layer to another depending upon the constructional history of the soil properties while in most natural profiles gradually grade from one layer to the next, lower one (Craul, 1985). Nešić et al. (2014) said that the most vulnerable urban soils are soils next to road and they are almost totally changing by constant human activities. During the year that includes the various works on infrastructure networks, water supply, sewerage and electricity lines, and also to the roads and paths. Except this, roadside topsoil is affected by traffic pollutant which reduces their quality even more. In the past decades the number of motor vehicles has increased dramatically which means constantly rising contamination of the soil environment with heavy metals (Modrzewska et al. 2014). Most of the heavy metals

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ originate from exhaust fumes, oil leaks from cars, the wearing out of tires and brake disks and from corrosion of metal parts of vehicles, claim Faiz et al. (2009), Duong and Lee (2011), and Liu et al. (2012). Heavy metals found in soil are also derived from the lithosphere, being released during soil formation processes and therefore constituting the natural background of their total concentration (Ubavić, Bogdanović, 1995; Manojlović and Singh, 2012). The solubility and therefore the bioavailability of heavy-metal ions are very widely, because many factors influence their concentration in soil solution. The most important factors affecting metal availability are soil pH, clay content and organic matter content (Takáč et al. 2009). The most common heavy metals released from vehicles on road are cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co) and Chromium (Cr) (Faiz et al. 2009). The aim of this research was to determine concentrations of some heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Ni, Co and Cr) in roadside soil along Car Lazar Boulevard in Novi Sad, one of the busiest roads in town. Materials and methods The study was conducted in Novi Sad which is the second largest city in Serbia and the administrative seat of both, the province of Vojvodina and the South Bačka District. Since its founding, the population of the city has been constantly increasing. In the 1990s and 2000s, the city experienced significant population growth and today city has 341,625 inhabitants (Statistical Office of Republic of Serbia). Novi Sad is located in the southern part of the Pannonian Plain, on the border of the Bačka and Srem regions, on the banks of the Danube river, facing the northern slopes of Fruška Gora mountain. Area in which the trial is conducted is in geomorphologic point of view of the alluvial terrace of the Danube. Urbisols, in this area of the city, are formed in natural soil type fluvisol, which is hydromorphic soil and belong to class of under developed fluvial soils with soil profile (A) or G (A)-C. These soils are recent, river, sea and lake deposits with layers. Pedogenetic processes are poorly expressed due to youth of deposit or because of sedimentation prevails pedogenesis. Physical and chemical properties depend on the number of layers and their thickness, texture, origin and sequence. Some typical characteristics are rarely discussed and they are different from profile to profile (Živanov and Ivanisević, 1986, Nešić et al., 2014). By the construction of defensive levees leakage of the river is prevented and consequently the natural process of genesis of fluvisol is stopped. Field studies were conducted in three representative locations, next to the busiest intersections. Sampling was performed at two depths of 0-30 cm and 30-60 cm, as this is the part of the bulk of the solum developing roots. At each location it was taken six samples, three in shallow and three in deeper layer, in a triangle around the tree. Soil from a nearby park was taken as a control site. Soil samples, 24 in total, were air-dried and manually sieved through a 2 mm sieve for chemical and texture analysis. The collected samples were analyzed at the Laboratory of Soil and Irrigation and the Laboratory for Agrochemistry at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, with contemporary, recognized methods used for this type of research. Laboratory studies include the determination of texture according to International B-pipette method with preparation in sodium pyrophosphate; pH value in the suspension of soil with H2O and KCl, and the measurement is carried out using a pH meter "inoLab"; content of humus, the method of Tjurin and concentration of heavy metals extraction from soil using nitric acid by AAS (Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer). For verifying existence of statistically significant differences it is used LSD test. Statistical analysis was performed with Dunnet test at the significance level of 95%. In this way entered data allowed to compare locality - a layer – conc. of metal. All the localities were compared with a control site, and because of that this test was used. The null hypothesis was that there

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ was no significant statistical differences in the content of heavy metals in all localities, while the alternative hypothesis was that content of heavy metals in localities is larger than control site, M> Contr. Results and discussion The results are shown in the Tables 1, 2 and 3. Based on results of soil texture it can be said that the soil of examined localities belong to textural classes of loam, with small variations, texture and composition which ranges from coarse sand to clay loam. In all samples the largest share of the grain-size composition has a sand fraction. The content of the clay fraction of the studied sites in the surface layer ranges from 13.53 to 17.50%, while the deeper layers of soil values range is from 9.83 to 16.18%. At control site clay content is lower, and ranges are from 6.36 to 4.23%. Urbisols of examined localities have a higher clay content than natural fluvisols in a protected part of the Danube at Novi Sad, while the content of this fraction in the control site is not different than natural fluvisols. (Nesić et al. 2014) Humus content is higher in the shallow layer of the tested sites and it ranges from 2.31 to 2.60%. This is understandable, because the soil surface is covered by grass, which enriched surface layer in organic matter. The values in the deeper layers are less, an average of 1%, and the lowest value were in the control site, 1.11%. According to Dugalić and Gajić (2012), surface layers can be classified into medium humus soil, while the deeper layers are light humus soil. Of the soil parameters soil pH is one of the parameters that affect significantly the share of bioavailable forms of metals (Takáč et al. 2009). The pH of tested sites measured in H2O ranges from 7.70 to 8.62 as according Dugalić and Gajić (2012), meaning that these soils belonging to poorly or very alkaline soils. This confirmed the results of measurements of pH and in the suspension with KCl, according to which these soils belong to the alkaline (Ubavić, Bogdanović, 1995). Compared to natural soils in this area, or fluvisol being examined by Pekeč (2010), it can be said that the values of pH are almost identical. Tab. 1: Clay content, humus, pH values and Pb, Ni, Cd, Co and Cr total content in topsoil Heavy metals content pH Clay Humus mg kg-1 Depth content (%) H2O KCl Pb Ni Cd Co Cr 17.50 2.46 7.70 7.55 93.54 25.69 0.74 10.56 19.68 Locality 0-30 16.17 1 30-60 1.41 7.94 7.77 51.75 24.87 0.73 10.02 16.79 13.88 2.44 8.62 7.65 35.71 19.17 0.67 8.46 14.02 Locality 0-30 9.60 2 30-60 1.33 8.30 7.79 18.36 22.72 0.63 8.58 15.02 13.53 2.31 8.12 7.83 53.19 21.76 0.75 8.36 14.61 Locality 0-30 9.73 3 30-60 1.86 8.15 7.92 39.59 18.60 0.68 7.90 12.77 4.23 2.60 7.91 7.23 14.42 20.86 0.41 9.31 17.90 Control 0-30 6.36 site 30-60 1.11 8.01 7.66 6.13 8.51 0.32 4.35 5.53 Limited value 100 50 3 30 100 In the analyzed samples values of lead were within the range of 16.39 to 104.63 mg kg-1, while the control soils have much lower Pb concentrations, from 2.96 to 14.53 mg kg-1. The average values do not exceed the MPC of 100 mg kg-1, but it is evident that the values in the Locality 1 are higher compared to other sites, particularly with shallow layer. The shallow layers have higher levels of lead than deeper. When we compare the results of lead along the Boulevard with average values for southern Bačka (24.4 mg kg-1), which give Manojlović and Singh (2012) we can conclude that they are generally increased by two to three times.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Average values of concentrations of nickel in the research areas ranges from 18.60 to 25.69 mg kg-1 in localities along the boulevard, while the values on the control site are less. In the surface layer of the control site pollution value is 20.86 mg kg-1, and in a layer of 30-60 cm is 8.51 mg kg-1. The MPC of nickel in the soil is 50 mg kg-1. The higher value in the shallow layer is probably caused by air pollution. According to Johansson et al. (2009) or Khan et al. (2011), both lead and nickel come from exhaust fumes. Helmreich et al. (2010) added that another source of nickel contamination of soils near roads is the wearing out of the road surface and use of paints containing lead.

Fig. 1: Total content of Pb, Ni, Cd, Co and Cr in topsoil Because of the very high toxicity of Cd for plants and to wild life, its MPC compared to other heavy metals are low (3 mg kg-1 of soil). On the tested sites content of cadmium is very low and does not exceed 1 mg kg-1 and so there is no danger of a negative effect of this element on the plant. The values of cobalt content in the tested soil are below the MPC is 30 mg kg-1. The highest content of this element has Locality 1 and it was 10.56 mg kg-1. When we are comparing sites on the Boulevard in with the control site, it can be seen that there are no major differences. The maximum level of chromium in the soil is the same like for lead is 100 mg kg-1. In analyzed samples chromium values ranged from 5.53 to 19.68 mg kg-1. When comparing the concentration of the surface and deeper layers it cannot be seen significant differences. Contents of Co at all sites was at a low level because the coefficient of variation was 23.67%. The situation is similar with Cd where the average deviation from the mean value is 26.32%. The coefficient of variation for Ni amounts to 27.24%, and 31,15% for Co, which also indicates a lower average deviation from the mean value. These changes do not indicate greater variation in the amount of these heavy metals in the tested sites and control. Higher deviation of measured values of lead was observed at all sites. Even 70.58% is average standard deviation from the mean measured values. Minimum lead content was measured in a control sample and it was 2.96 mg kg-1 while maximum is measured in Locality 1 and it is showed in Table 2.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Tab. 2: Descriptive Statistics of measured samples Variable Pb Ni Cd Co Cr

Valid N 24 24 24 24 24

Mean 39.09 20.28 0.62 8.44 14.54

Median 35.91 21.62 0.68 8.85 15.69

Descriptive Statistics Minimum Maximum 2.96 104.63 5.99 26.76 0.21 0.81 2.74 10.86 4.06 21.56

Std.Dev. 27.59 5.523 0.16 1.99 4.53

Coef.Var. 70.58 27.24 26.32 23.67 31.15

Considering that the values of Ni, Cr, Co, Cd are far below the MPC, statistical analysis was not performed for these elements. Statistical analysis was performed with Dunnet test at the significance level of 95% for Pb. Some obtained data content of Pb in soil, adjacented to the maximum MPC. At the control site, between the deeper and shallow layers there are not statistical significance. Comparing pairs of site-layer there was a significant difference between contol and other localities, excluding locality 2 in a deeper layer. It can be said 95 % that the alternative hypothesis M> control it is comfimed. Tab. 3: Dunnet test, M>Control Dunnet test; variable Pb Probabilities for Post Hoc Tests (M>Control) Error: Between MS=70.266, df=16.000 Locality 1 0-30 cm 0.000020 0.000020 30-60 cm 0.000177 0.000036 Locality 2 0-30 cm 0.017382 0.001519 30-60 cm 0.676677 0.183114 Locality 3 0-30 cm 0.000125 0.000031 30-60 cm 0.005593 0.000498 Control site 0-30 cm 0.388614 14.425 30-60 cm 0.995850 6.1301

Conclusion Based on the research of texture, pH and humus content it can be said that urbisols on examined localities along Car Lazar Boulevard in Novi Sad belong to textural classes of loam, with small variations, texture and composition which ranges from coarse sand to clay loam. In all samples the largest share of the grain-size composition has sand fraction. As the consequence of the high content of sand fraction urbisols of this area does not have high capacity for cation adsorption. Humus content is at medium level of availability in the shallow layers, and at the low availability in the deeper layers. The pH value of tested samples is classified in the low to very alkaline. The total content of heavy metals is below ranges of MPC, but it can be seen increased content of lead and nickel compared to the control site. Because of that it can be said that the traffic flow had an effect on the content of heavy metals in roadside soils, which indicates increased risk of contamination of the soil with heavy metals in future. Acknowledgement This paper is a result of project of Ministry of Science, Education and Technological Development, Republic of Serbia. Project number: III43007, Name of project: Research of climate change and their impact on the environment: monitoring the impact, adaptation and mitigation.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Craul, P. J., (1985). A description of urban soils and their desired characteristics, journal of arboriculture, vol. 11. 330-339 Dugalić, G., Gajić, B., (2012). Soil science, Faculty of Agronomy Čačak, Serbia Duong, T. T., & Lee, B. (2011). Determining contamination level of heavy metals in road dust from busy traffic areas with different characteristics. Journal of EnvironmentalManagement, 92, 554–562. Faiz, Y., Tufail, M., Tayyeb Javed, M., Chaudhry, M. M., & Siddique, N. (2009). Road dust pollution of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn along Islamabad Expressway, Pakistan.Microchemical Journal, 92, 186–192. Helmreich, B., Hilliges, R., Schriewer, R., Horn, H. (2010).Runoff pollutants of a highly trafficked urban road-Correlation analysis and seasonal influences. Chemosphere, 991–997. Johansson, C., Norma, M., & Burman, L. (2009). Road traffic emission factors for heavy metals. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 4681–4688. Khan,M. N.,Wasim, A. A., Sarwar, A., & Rasheed,M. F. (2011). Assessment of heavy metal toxicants in the roadside soil along the N-5, National Highway, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 182(1–4), 587–595. Liu, Q., Liu, Y., & Zhang, M. (2012). Mercury and cadmium contamination in traffic soil of Beijing, China. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88, 154– 157. Manojlović, M., Singh, B. R., (2012): Trace elements in soils and food chains of the Balkan region, Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B - Soil & Plant Science, 62:8, 673695 Modrzewska, B., Wyszkowski, M. (2014). Trace metals content in soils along the state road 51 (northeastern Poland), Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:2589–2597 Nešić, Lj., Belić, M., Ćirić, V. Pavlović, L., Pejić, B. (2014): Water and physical properties of urbisol. V International Scientific Symposium of Agriculture, "Agrosym 2014", Jahorina, 23-26 October 2014, Bosna and Hercegovina, Book of proceedings, 783788. Pekeč, S., (2010): Doctoral thesis: Soil and hydrological characteristics of the protected part of the alluvial plain in the middle Danube region. Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad Takáč, P. et al. 2009. Heavy metals and their bioavailability from soils in the long-term polluted Central Spis region of SR. Plant Soil Environ. Vol. 55, No. 4: 167-172 Ubavić, М., Bogdanović, D., (1995): Agrochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture Novi Sad, Serbia Zemlyanitsky, L. (1963). Characteristics of the soils in the cities. Sov. Soil sci. Vol.5, 468475. Živanov, N. i Ivanisević, P. (1986). Soils for Poplar and Willow growing, In Monograph "Poplars and Willows in Yugoslavia": 105-121.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051419M PRECIPITATION IN VOJVODINA PROVINCE AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CROP PRODUCTION Livija MAKSIMOVIĆ*, Vladimir SIKORA, Milka BRDAR-JOKANOVIĆ, Dušan ADAMOVIĆ, Janoš BERENJI Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia *Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract Serbian crop production is concentrated in the northern plains of Vojvodina region, inter alia due to the favorable agro climatic conditions. The climate is continental with Danube precipitation regime, with the most rainfall occurring in early summer and the least in the beginning of spring and in the mid-autumn. The precipitation recorded for the past thirty years (1985-2014) at the Bački Petrovac meteorological station had the average annual value of 616 mm (248-973), with 363 mm (103-636) falling in the crop vegetation period. On the thirty-year average, sum of precipitation increased 4.5 mm per hydrological year; respectively 3.4 mm in crop vegetation, 1.0 mm in winter and 0.4 mm in July-August period. However, the eight years with the most extremely high or low precipitation were within the 2000-2014 period, causing frequent fluctuations in crop yields. Average yields were in the intervals of 2.9-8.8 t ha-1 for maize, 1.2-3.6 soybean, 1.5-3.0 sunflower and 24.7-55.6 t ha-1 for sugar beet. The yield variation may be due to the precipitation variation in July-August, when the crops have the highest water demands. Their average monthly water requirement is about 100 mm; however, 83 and 90% (July and August, respectively) of the analyzed thirty years were characterized by the lower sum of the precipitation. Only five and two years were with precipitation in July and August higher than 125 mm. The number of tropical days (maximum daily temperature  30oC) also increased during the analyzed thirty-year period (0.4 per year, on average) affecting crop production. Key words: weather conditions, precipitation, drought, crop production Introduction The agricultural plant production is influenced by numerous factors; soil and climatic conditions, the grown cultivar or hybrid, agro technical procedures, irrigation, pests etc. Out of the listed factors, the climatic conditions are under the least influence of the producers. The precipitation and the distribution of the precipitation during the hydrological year affect soil water balance and plant nutrition processes (Dragović et al., 2004). The lack of precipitation is related to droughts of the various intensity and duration which can cause yield losses (Dragović et al., 2005). Therefore, the monitoring and the analysis of the precipitation are of particular importance for crop production. Frequent variations in rainfall amounts are recorded in Vojvodina province known as our most important agricultural region. Rainfall values in certain smaller geographic areas of Vojvodina province can represent average annual rainfall of its extended area. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the influence of rainfall on the yield of the four most common crops in 30-year period.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Materials and methods The meteorological data used for this analysis are collected from the archive of Bački Petrovac climatological station and include a thirty year period (1985-2014). The measuring point is placed in the central part of the Vojvodina region (N 45º 20É 19º 40´, 82 m elevation). The sum, distribution and trends of precipitation were analyzed, with special reference to summer period when the droughts occur more often. Official data of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia were used for the analysis of maize, soybean, sunflower and sugar beet yields. Results and discussion The analysis of the sum of precipitation noted at the Bački Petrovac measuring point in the thirty year period (1985-2014) showed the average value of 615.5 mm (Tab. 1). However, the interval of variation for the parameter was considerably high (385.8 – 1045.5 mm). Winter precipitation (X-III months) were on average 253.3, and those recorded for crop vegetation period (IV-IX) 362.2 mm. Both parameters were characterized by high intervals of variation. Table 1. Mean annual, seasonal and monthly sum of precipitation (mm); Bački Petrovac, 1984/1985-2013/2014 period Vegetation precipitation

Winter precipitation Month

Month Average

Variation

Average

Variation

3.0 – 2005 0.0 – 2007 47.2 IV 154.9 – 1992 111.0 – 2004 1.5 – 2011 10.2 – 1993 XI 48.1 V 66.6 136.4 – 2004 178.5 – 2014 1.5 – 2013 18.7 – 2000 XII 44.3 VI 80.1 121.6 – 1999 191.1 – 2010 2.8 – 1989 12.6 – 1988 I 37.4 VII 67.1 96.8 – 1987 173.6 – 1987 0.8 – 1998 0.0 – 1992 II 34.6 VIII 49.5 72.6 – 1999 142.1 – 2006 1.8 – 1992 3.1 – 1986 III 36.5 IX 51.7 93.5 – 2001 159.0 – 2001 73.4 – 1988/89 103.0 – 2000 Sum 253.3 Sum 362.2 409.4 – 2009/10 636.1 – 2010 Mean annual sum: 615.5 mm, minimum 385.8 (2011/2012), maximum 1045.5 (2009/2010) X

52.4

Maximum and minimum sum of precipitation for the thirty year period were noted for two consecutive hydrological years (2009/10, 2011/12), implying the unpredictability and inconstancy of the sum of precipitation. Considerably high deviations from the long-term averages are a characteristic of the precipitation in Vojvodina region (Spasova et al., 1999; Maksimović et al., 2013).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2. Five hydrological years with the lowest annual sum of precipitation (mm); Bački Petrovac, 1984/1985-2013/2014 period Month

Hydrological year

Annual

Veg. season

Winter period

2008/2009

X XI 45 7

XII I II III IV V VI 29 37 39 33 5 67 90

VII VIII IX 22 18 4

396

206

190

2011/2012

30

49 41 58 3 68 40 62

44

4

13

414

231

183

1999/2000

29 108 122 13 9 36 25 25 19

20

7

8

421

104

317

1989/1990

36 40

11

6 35 29 39 25 129 28

9

46

433

276

157

2002/2003

85 26

40 47 23 4 15 43 39

53

36

44

455

230

225

Average

45 37

50 29 33 21 30 40 68

33

15

23

424

210

214

Min

29

11

20

4

4

Max

85 108 122 47 58 36 68 67 129 53

36

46

2

2

6

9

3

5 25 19

Out of five the driest years, four are noted after the year of 2000 (Tab. 2). Since winter and early spring droughts are becoming more common, even the deeper roots cannot provide plants with water (Kresović, 2003). Table 3. Five hydrological years with the highest annual sum of precipitation (mm); Bački Petrovac, 1984/1985-2013/2014 period Month

Hydrological year

Veg. season

Winter period

2009/2010

X 72

2004/2005

83 136 38 27 41 39 30

2000/2001

8

28

52 42 25 94 110 81 174 30

16

159

819

570

249

1997/1998

92

42

79 67 1 23 41

98 111 75

84

78

791

487

304

2003/2004

121 26

15 53 46 19 112 136 106 45

51

38

768

488

280

Average

75

59

55 53 37 43 68

87 140 82

80

89

868

547

321

Min

8

26

15 27 1 19 30

39 106 30

16

38

Max

XI XII I II III IV 65 89 74 72 38 47

Annual V VI VII VIII IX 82 191 98 114 104

1046

636

410

39 120 161 137

66

917

553

364

121 136 89 74 72 94 112 136 191 161 137 159

In addition, four of the five hydrological years with the highest sums of precipitation were within the 2001-14 period (Tab. 3), implying a high oscillation in the sum of precipitation (Fig. 1). Extreme years are becoming more often, either dry or rainy. Slight increasing trend was noted for sum of precipitation in hydrological years (4.5 mm per year), vegetation and winter period (3.4 and 1.0 mm per year, respectively). For July-August period this increase is not significant (0.4 mm per year). The results are not in accordance to the reports of Lalić et al. (2011), who used climatic models and scenarios to predict the decrease of annual sum of precipitation in the region of Vojvodina. Spasov and Spasova (2001) analyzed annual and seasonal rainfall time series in Serbia, in the period 1971-2000, and reported a decreasing trend for central Serbia, not only in annual, but, also in average rainfall during the growing season whereas a decreasing trend in rainfall in Vojvodina province over a growing season was less pronounced and no decrease in rainfall on an annual basis was observed.

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1200

700 600

Precipitation (mm)

Precipitation (mm)

1000

800

600

400

a)

200

500 400 300 200

b)

100

0

0

Years

Years

450

350

400

d)

300

Precipitation (mm)

Precipitation (mm)

350 300 250 200 150

250 200 150 100

c)

100 50

50

0

0 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0

Years

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14

Years

Fig. 1 Distribution of precipitation in Vojvodina (Bački Petrovac) – a) hydrological years; b) vegetation (IV-IX); c) winter period; d) July-August Precipitation during vegetation is of particular importance for crop production, especially in July and August when most crops reach the phase of yield formation. Most crops require about 100 mm of woter in this period; therefore the value was used as a borderline between dry and rainy years. For the observed thirty year period, 90% of years were with dry August and 83% with dry July. Only five were rainy (125 mm) in July and two years and August (Tab. 4). Table 4. Dry and rainy years (%), based on sum of precipitation in July-August period; Bački Petrovac, 1985-2014 Rank (mm) 0-25 26-50 51-75 75-100 101-125 >126 Total

July Number of years 5 10 7 3 25 0 5

% 17 33 23 10 83 0 17

August Number of years 8 9 6 4 27 1 2

% 27 30 20 13 90 3 7

Extremely dry Very dry Dry Moderately dry Total dry Moderately rainy Rainy

5

17

3

10

Total rainy

30

100

30

100

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Category

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Crop yields varied with the variation in sum and distribution of precipitation. The yields of four crops that are among the major in Vojvodina (maize, soybean, sunflower, sugar beet) and that are officially reported (Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia) are given in Table 5; for five the driest and five the wettest years. Table 5. Crop yields in Vojvodina region (t ha-1) for five the driest and five the wettest years of the 1985-2014 period (Stat. Yearb. Serb. 1986-2014) Precipitation (mm)-The driest years 247.7-2000 391.1-2011 425.0-1988 455.4-2012 455.6-1986 Precipitation (mm)-The wettest years 972.8-2010 863.4-2004 834.6-2001 807.2-2014 788.9-1999

Maize

Soybean

Sunflower

Sugar beet

2.94 6.01 4.56 3.04 6.99

1.22 2.71 1.61 1.74 2.33

1.52 2.52 2.28 2.24 2.56

24.71 50.96 36.82 36.48 41.72

Maize

Soybean

Sunflower

Sugar beet

6.71 5.88 5.59 8.79 5.35

3.21 2.72 2.39 3.58 2.75

2.25 2.34 1.98 2.97 1.48

50.15 46.76 42.69 55.60 42.32

The distribution of the precipitation is important for crop production. Satisfactory soil moisture in important plant developmental stages provides good yields, at the level of the years with generally good rainfall. The importance of the distribution of the precipitation can be illustrated with maize example: 1986 was dry year (455.6 mm); however, maize yield was higher (6.99 t ha-1) than in four of the five the wettest years. Similar was for soybean and sugar beet, while sunflower yields were better in dry years (in most cases), related to fewer pest occurrence. In addition, the increase in the number of tropical days (maximum daily temperature  30°C) was noted for the analyzed thirty years (Lalić et al., 2011; Maksimović et al., 2014). Conclusion The analysis of the precipitation in the last thirty years (1985-2014, Bački Petrovac, central Vojvodina) showed the increase in the years with water regime which is unfavorable for spring crops. This is due to insufficient or excess rainfall and unfavorable precipitation distribution during the vegetation. Therefore crop yields vary, with significant losses in particular cases, such as the case of insufficient rain in July and August. References S. Dragovic, L. Maksimovic, M. Cicmil, V. Radojevic (2004): Relationships Between Drought Intensity and Crop Production in Serbia and Montenegro. Proceedings, BALWOIS - Conference on Water Observation and Information System for Decision Support, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia, Topic 1, CD, reg. no. 72, 1-13. S. Dragovic, L. Maksimovic, S. Milic, V. Radojevic. (2005): Drought Intensity in Vojvodina Province and Impact on Fields Crop Production. Proceedings of: International conference on sustainable Agriculture and European Integration Processes, Savremena poljoprivreda, 54(1-2): 384-389.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ B. Kresović. (2003): Effect of irrigation and tillage systems on maize production. Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade. B. Lalić, T.D. Mihailović, Z. Podraščanin. (2011): Future state of climate in Vojvodina and expected effects on crop production. Ratar. Povrt. / Field Veget. Crops Res. 48(2): 403-418. L. Maksimović, D. Adamović, V. Sikora (2013): The Effects of weather conditions upon summer moisture of soil planted with medicinal plant species. Bilten za alternativne biljne vrste, Novi Sad, 45(86): 16-23. L. Maksimović, B. Pejić, S. Milić, V. Sikora, M. Brdar-Jokanović, V. Popović (2014): The effect of drought on safe food production. Proceedings of XVIII International ECOConference 2014., 24th-27th September, Safe food, Novi Sad, Serbia, 107-115. D. Spasova, P. Spasov, S. Maksimovic, O. Jovanovic (1999): Characteristics of the Yugoslav Climate. Proceedings: Balkan Drought Workshop, Belgrade, 155-170. P. Spasov, D. Spasova (2001): The occurrence of drought in Serbia and the possibility of its forecasting. Zbornik referata XXXV seminara agronoma, Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad, 393-401. Statistical office of the Republic of Serbia (1986-2014). Statistical yearbook of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051425G SOIL EROSION IN THE ORAHOVACKA RIJEKA WATERSHED, MONTENEGRO Milan GAZDIC1, Srdjan PEJOVIC1, Donaltina VILA2, Dusko VUJACIC3, Goran BAROVIC3, Nevenka DJUROVIC4, Vjekoslav TANASKOVIKJ5, Velibor SPALEVIC6* 1

Department of Forest Ecology, Faculty of Forest, University of Belgrade; Serbia 2 Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania 3 Department of Geography, Faculty of Philosophy Niksic, University of Montenegro 4 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Zemun, Serbia 5 Univ. St. Cyril & Methodius, Agricultural Sciences and Food, Macedonia 6 Institute of Forestry; Novaka Miloseva Street 10, Podgorica, Montenegro *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Erosion caused by water is a natural process and in the studied river basin is generated primarily by rainfall and surface runoff. In defining potential measures to alleviate the environmental effects in certain areas it is important to understand this process and to detect the erosion prone areas. We used analytical model IntErO for the assessment of the soil erosion process, soil loss potential and runoff. Peak discharge from the studied Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed, Q max, was calculated on 174 m3s-1 (for the incidence of 100 years); 155 m3s-1 (incidence: 50 years); 141 m3s-1 (incidence: 25 years); 101 m3s-1 (incidence: 10 years). The value of Z coefficient of 0.478 indicates that the river basin belongs to III destruction category (of five). The strength of the erosion process is medium, and according to the erosion type, it is surface erosion. The calculated real soil losses, G year, were 2923 m³ per year, 256 m³ per square kilometer. This study, being a part of the long-term research in this Region, repeatedly has shown that IntErO model is a useful tool for calculation of sediment yield at the level of the river basin for this part of Southeast Europe. Further studies, in the wider Region where the studied watershed belongs, should be focused on the detailed analysis of the impact of the climate change on the soil erosion intensity and runoff, as well as on the trends of land use changes, closely following responses of soil erosion to the changed land use structure on soil erosion and sediment dynamics. Keywords: soil erosion, erosion potential, IntErO model, sediment yield, peak discharge Introduction Soil degradation and desertification risk is a globally acknowledged issue with ecological, socioeconomic, cultural and political implications at both the regional and local scales. Those processes occur in both developed and emerging countries and affect arid, dry and even subhumid areas (Helming et al., 2011). Soil degradation caused by erosion, together with rapid population increase, are ranked as the most important environmental problems in the world (Stoffel and Huggel, 2012; Ristic et al., 2001) where the erosion is a key driver of land degradation heavily affecting sustainable land management in various environments worldwide (Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2015; Stoffel et al., 2013; Verheijen et al., 2009). Every year, soil erosion leads to the loss of about ten million hectares of cropland, which reduces the limited amount of arable land available for food production, thereby contributing to malnourishment in millions of people (Pimentel, 2006). In addition, the accumulation of large volumes of sediment can cause severe sedimentation in reservoirs and channel beds, resulting in the loss of various functions in these hydraulic projects. Thus, it is important to determine the sediment yield rates in watersheds, which can provide a good basis to facilitate soil erosion control and river basin management (Zhaо et al., 2015).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Soil erosion is serious problem globally, but also in Europe (Yassoglou et al., 1998). Structured information on soil erosion for the Western Balkan countries are missing in the reports for the European continent, but various research results have been recorded by the scientists Kostadinov and Ristic for Serbia (Lukic et al., 2016; Kostadinov et al., 2014, 2007; Ristic et al., 2013), Spalevic for Montenegro (Spalevic et al., 2015a; Spalevic et al., 2015b; Spalevic et al., 2015c; Spalevic et al., 2015d; Spalevic et al., 2015e; Spalevic et al., 2015f; Spalevic et al., 2015g; Spalevic et al., 2015h; Spalevic et al., 2015i; Spalevic et al., 2015k), Blinkov for Macedonia and Albania (Blinkov, 2012; Blinkov and Kostadinov, 2010). Quantitative information on soil loss is needed for erosion risk assessment. The modelling of the erosion process has progressed rapidly, and a variety of models have been developed to predict both runoff and soil loss. The authors of this study used the computer - graphic models (Spalevic, 2011; Spalevic et al., 1999a) for prediction of soil erosion intensity from the catchment area – IntErO model (Spalevic, 2011). The objectives of the study were to compute the sediment yield for the studied Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed of the Polimlje River Basin on the north-eastern part of Montenegro; testing the possibility of application of the IntErO model in the conditions of the Western Balkans Watersheds. Material and methods The study was conducted in the area of the Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed in Montenegro (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Study area of the Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed, Montenegro In terms of geomorphology and climate, it is part of the natural entity of the Polimlje Region (2188 km2 in Montenegro), with the Lim River (the total length of 234 km, 123 km in Montenegro) as a main watercourse. The surface area of the Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed is 11.4 km2 and the shortest distance between the fountainhead and the mouth, Lv, is 5.2 km. The average slope gradient in the river basin, Isr, is calculated on 32% what indicates that in the river basin prevailing very steep slopes. The average river basin altitude Hsr, is calculated on 857 m. Fieldwork was undertaken to collect detailed information on the intensity and the forms of the soil erosion, the status of the plant cover, the type of land use, and the measures in place contributing to the reduction or alleviation of the erosion processes. Morphometric methods were used to determine the slope, the specific lengths, the exposition and form of the slopes, the depth of the erosion base, the density of the erosion rills, the degree of the rills, and other relevant parameters. Different forms: the shape of the slope, the depth of the erosion base and the density of erosion rills were determined (Draganic et al., 2015).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Climatological data were received from the Meteorological Institute of Montenegro. Pedological survey was based on the research of the Agricultural institute from Podgorica led by Fustic and Djuretic (from 1964 to 1988), who analysed the physical and chemical properties of all soils in this Region, including those in the study area of the Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed, but also on the basis of Soil survey conducted by Spalevic (2011). Various methods for erosion risk assessment are used in Europe. Development of erosion risk assessment methods, soil loss calculation and erosion intensity estimation has a long tradition (Blinkov, 2010) applying the three types of approaches: qualitative approach, quantitative approach, and model approach varying in their characteristics and applicability. For the obtaining data on forecasts of peak discharge from the basin and the intensity of the soil erosion we used the program package Intensity of Erosion and Outflow - IntErO (Spalevic, 2011) that is an integrated, second-generation version of the program “Surface and Distance Measuring” (Spalevic, 1999a) and the program “River basins” (Spalevic, 2000). The Erosion Potential Method – EPM (Gavrilovic, 1972) is embedded in the algorithm of this computer-graphic method. The EPM and the IntErO model are currently in use in all the countries of Western Balkans (Barovic et al., 2015; Barovic and Spalevic, 2015; Curovic et al., 1999; Kostadinov et al., 2014; Vujacic and Spalevic, 2015; Spalevic et al., 2014a; Spalevic et al., 2014b; Spalevic et al., 2014c; Spalevic et al., 2014d; Spalevic et al., 2013a; Spalevic et al., 2013b; Spalevic et al., 2013c; Spalevic et al., 2013d; Spalevic et al., 2013e; Spalevic et al., 1999b), but also used by some scientist teams from Brazil led by Pedro Veloso Gomes Batista (2015), Italy led by Alberto Tazioli (2009), Sadeghi, Behzadfar and the others from Iran (Sadeghi, 1993; Amiri, 2010; Behzadfar et al., 2015; Behzadfar et al., 2014a; Behzadfar et al., 2014b, Barovic et al., 2015), Saudi Arabia led by Ali M. Al-Turki (Al-Turki et al.,. 2015). Results and discussion The geological structure and soil characteristics of the area. Our analysis, extracting the geological data from the Geological map of Montenegro, shown that the poor water permeability rocks prevail (92%); and a part of the basin with medium permeable rocks is 8%. The coefficient of the region's permeability, S1, is calculated on 0.98. Based on the research of Fustic and Djuretic (2000); Spalevic (2011) and our own research, the most common soil types in the studied watershed are: Dystric Cambisols (96%) and Eutric Cambisols (4%). There is a highly variable climate and human pressure on the land in the Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed. The climate is continental, with cold winters and warm, dry summers. The average annual precipitation, Hyear, is 873.7 mm; the temperature coefficient of the region, T, is calculated on 0.99; the amount of torrential rain, hb, on 157.6 mm. Vegetation and land use. Good vegetation cover reduces overland flow velocity and increases infiltration by protecting the soil against rain drop impact and reducing the erosive capacity of the rain (Asfaha et al., 2015) whereas deforestation leads to increased peak discharge. According to the available literature, using Google maps, including the records from the field half of the studied area is covered with forests (51%). The rest is under grass (41%), and minor part of the area is plough-land and ground without grass vegetation (9%). The coefficient of the river basin planning, Xa, is calculated on 0.48. The coefficient of the vegetation cover, S2, is calculated on 0.71. Soil erosion and runoff characteristics. The dominant erosion form in this area is surface erosion. Problems with overgrazing are recorded also all over the studied area. The input data for calculation of soil erosion intensity are presented at the (Table 1).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1. Part of the IntErO report for Orahovacka Rijeka Watershed, Montenegro Input data River basin area The length of the watershed Natural length of the main watercourse The distance between the fountainhead and mouth The length of main watercourse with tributaries Basin length measured by a series of parallel lines The area of the bigger river basin part The area of the smaller river basin part Altitude of the first contour line The lowest river basin elevation The highest river basin elevation The volume of the torrent rain Average annual air temperature Average annual precipitation Types of soil products and related types Basin planning coefficient Equivalents of clearly exposed erosion process

F O Lv Lm ΣL Lb Fv Fm h0 Hmin Hmax hb t0 Hyr Y Xa φ

11.4 14.59 5.21 4.07 5.21 6.52 5.73 5.67 600 537 1212 157.6 8.9 873.7 1.1 0.48 0.3

km² km km km km km km² km² m m m mm °C mm

The coefficient of the river basin form, A, is calculated on 0.55. Coefficient of the watershed development, m, is 0.44 and the average river basin width, B, is 1.75 km. (A)symmetry of the river basin, a, is calculated on 0.01 (the river basin is completely asymmetric). The value of G coefficient of 0.46 indicates there is very low density of the hydrographic network. The height of the local erosion base of the river basin, Hleb, is 675 m. Coefficient of the erosion energy of the river basin's relief, Er, is calculated on 116.93. The value of Z coefficient of 0.478 indicates that the river basin belongs to III destruction category. The strength of the erosion process is medium, and according to the erosion type, it is surface erosion. We calculated the soil losses from the Orahovacka Rijeka catchment on 2923 m 3yr-1, specific (per km2) 256 m3yr-1. Peak discharge from the studied, Qmax, was calculated on 174 m3s-1 (for the incidence of 100 years); 155 m3s-1 (incidence: 50 years); 141 m3s-1 (incidence: 25 years); 101 m3s-1 (incidence: 10 years). Conclusions The study was conducted in the area of the Orahovacka Rijeka Basin, the left-hand tributary of the river Lim in Montenegro. We calculated the soil erosion intensity and runoff using the IntErO model. The value of Z coefficient of 0.478 indicates that the river basin belongs to III destruction category. The strength of the erosion process is medium, and according to the erosion type, it is surface erosion. We calculated the soil losses from the Orahovacka Rijeka catchment on 2923 m3yr-1, specific (per km2) 256 m3yr-1 and the peak discharge on 175 m3s-1 (incidence of 100 years). This study further repeatedly confirmed the findings of Spalevic (2011) in possibility of implementing the EPM and the IntErO model in Montenegro and in all the Balkans (Blinkov, 2012; Kostadinov, 2007), but also wider, such as in Italy (Tazioli, 2009), Brazil (Batista, 2015, 2016), Iran (Draganic et al., 2015a; Draganic et al., 2015b; Barovic et al., 2015; Behzadfar et al., 2015; Amiri, 2010; Sadeghi 1993). That leads to the conclusion that the IntErO model may be a useful tool for researchers in calculation of sediment yield for the catchments which don’t have sediment sampling stations.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Ali M. Al-Turki, A.M., Ibrahim, H.M., Spalevic, V., 2015. Impact of land use changes on soil erosion intensity in Wadi Jazan watershed in southwestern Saudi Arabia. Agrosym 2015, Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina; 10/2015 Amiri, F., 2010. Estimate of Erosion and Sedimentation in Semi-arid Basin using Empirical Models of Erosion Potential within a Geographic Information System.Air, Soil and Water Research, 3: 37-44. Asfaha, T. G. Frankl, A. Haile, M., Zenebe, A., Nyssen, J. 2015. Determinants of peak discharge in steep mountain catchments – Case of the Rift Valley escarpment of Northern Ethiopia. Journal of Hydrology. In press. Ballesteros-Cánovas, J.A., Czajka, B., Janecka, K., Lempa, M., Kaczka, R.J., Stoffel, M. 2015. Flash floods in the Tatra Mountain streams: Frequency and triggers. Science of the Total Environment 511: 639–648. Barovic, G. and Spalevic, V. 2015. Calculation of runoff and soil erosion intensity in the Rakljanska Rijeka Watershed, Polimlje, Montenegro. The 6th International Symposium Agrosym 2015, Jahorina, 15-18 October 2015, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Barovic, G., Leandro Naves Silva, M., Veloso Gomes Batista, P., Vujacic, D., Soares Souza, W., Cesar Avanzi, J., Behzadfar M., Spalevic, V. 2015. Estimation of sediment yield using the IntErO model in the S1-5 Watershed of the Shirindareh River Basin, Iran. Agriculture and Forestry 61(3): 233-243 Batista, P. 2015. Modelling soil erosion by water on the Upper Grande River Basin. Master thesis, Federal University of Lavras, Department of Soil Science, Lavras, Brazil. Batista, P. 2016. Application of the IntErO erosion prediction model in the Mortes River Basin, Brazil. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of Lavras, Department of Soil Science, Lavras, Brazil. Behzadfar, M., Curovic, M., Simunic, I., Tanaskovik, V., Spalevic, V. 2015. Calculation of soil erosion intensity in the S5-2 Watershed of the Shirindareh River Basin, Iran. International Conference on Soil, Tirana, Albania; 4-7 May, 2015. Behzadfar, M., Djurovic, N., Simunic, I., Filipovic, M. and Spalevic, V. 2014a. Calculation of soil erosion intensity in the S1-6 Watershed of the Shirindareh River Basin, Iran. International Scientific conference: Challenges in modern agricultural production, December 11, 2014, Skopje, Macedonia. Behzadfar, M. Tazioli, A., Vukelic-Shutoska, M., Simunic, I., and Spalevic, V. 2014b. Calculation of sediment yield in the S1-1 Watershed, Shirindareh Watershed, Iran. Agriculture and Forestry, 60 (4): 207-216. Blinkov I., Kostadinov S., 2010. Application of various erosion risk assemnet methods for engineering purposes, BALWOIS conference 2010, Orhid, Republic of Macedonia Blinkov I., 2012. An approach for conversion of erosion data produced by EPM method in weight measure, International Conference On Land Conservation – LANDCON 1209, Danube Region/Serbia, Sustainable Land Management And Climate Changes Curovic, M., Spalevic, V., Dozic, S., Dubak, D. 1999. Proposal of Anti Erosion Regulation of Department 17 of Husbandry Unit Rudo Polje-Kovren. Agriculture and Forestry, 45 (3-4): 5-23. Draganic, J., Drobnjak, B., Campar, J., Bulajic, B., Zajovic, V., Behzadfar, M. and Spalevic, V. 2015. Calculation of Sediment yield using the IntErO Model in the S1-3 Watershed of the ShirinDareh River Basin, Iran. 9th Congress of the Soil Science Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Draganic, J., Leandro Naves Silva, M., Cesar Avanzi, J., Kisic, I. and Spalevic, V. 2015. Soil Loss Estimation using the IntErO Model in the S1-2 Watershed of the ShirinDareh

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ River Basin, Iran. 9th Congress of the Soil Science Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 23rd – 25th of November 2015, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Gavrilovic, S. 1972. Engineering of torrential flows and erosion. Izgradnja. Beograd. Helming, K., Diehl, T., Kuhlman, T., Jansson, P.H., Verburg, M., Bakker, M., Perez-Soba, L. 2011. Ex ante Impact Assessment of Policies Affecting Land Use, Part B: Application of the Analytical Framework. Ecology and Society 16 (1): 29-38. Kostadinov, S., Zlatic, M., Dragicevic, S., Novkovic, I., Kosanin, O., Borisavljevic, A., Lakicevic, M., Mladjan, D., 2014. Anthropogenic influence on erosion intensity changes in the Rasina river watershed - Central Serbia. Kostadinov, S., 2007. Erosion and torrent control in Serbia: hundred years of experiences. In: Proceedings of the International Conference “Erosion and Torrent Control as a Factor in Sustainable River Basin Management” (Kostadinov S, Bruk S, Walling D eds). Belgrade (Serbia), 25-28 Sep 2007. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia, pp. 1-14. Lukic, S., Pantic, D., Simic, S., Borota, D., Tubic, B., Djukic, M., Djunisijevic-Bojovic, D. 2016. Effects of black locust and black pine on extremely degraded sites 60 years after afforestation – a case study of the Grdelica Gorge (Southeastern Serbia). IForest (early view). Pimentel, D., 2006. Soil erosion: a food and environmental threat. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 8, 119–137. Ristic, R., Ljujic, M., Despotovic, J., Aleksic, V., Radic, B., Nikic, Z., Milcanovic, V., Malusevic, I., Radonjic,J., 2013. Reservoir sedimentation and hydrological effects of land use change - Case study of the experimental Dicina river watershed. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 8 (1): 91- 98. Ristic, R., Kostadinov, S., Malosevic, D., Spalevic, V. 2001. Erosion aspect in the assessment of soils of hydrologic classes and determination of CN number of runoff curve. Acta biologica Iugoslavica - serija A: Zemljiste i biljka. 2001, vol. 50, No 3, p.165-174. Sadeghi, H. 1993. Comparison of some erosion potential and sediment yield assessment models in Ozon-Dareh sub-catchment. Proceedings of the National Conference on Land Use Planning, Tehran, Iran, pp. 41-75. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Barovic, G., Florijancic, T., Boskovic, I., Kisic, I. 2015a. Assessment of Sediment Yield in the Tronosa River Basin of Montenegro. The 9th International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH. October 18-23, 2015, Dubrovnik, Croatia. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Barovic, G., Vujacic, D., Tunguz, V., Djurovic, N. 2015b. Soil erosion in the River Basin of Provala, Montenegro. Agrosym 2015, Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina; 10/2015. Spalevic, V., Vujacic, D., Barovic, G., Simunic, I., Moteva, M. and Tanaskovik, V. 2015c. Soil erosion evaluation in the Rastocki Potok Watershed of Montenegro using the Erosion Potential Method. 2nd International Symposium for Agriculture and Food ISAF 2015, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food – Skopje, 7-9 October, 2015, Ohrid, Macedonia. Spalevic, V., Frankl, A., Nyssen, J. Curovic, M. and Djurovic, N. 2015d. Calculation of soil erosion intensity in the Sutivanska Rijeka Watershed of Montenegro using the IntErO model. 2nd International Symposium for Agriculture and Food - ISAF 2015, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food – Skopje, 7-9 October, 2015, Ohrid, Macedonia. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Barovic, G., Vujacic, D., Djurovic, N. 2015e. Soil erosion in the River Basin of Kisjele Vode, Montenegro. International conference: Land Quality and Landscape Processes, Keszthely, Hungary; 06/2015

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Spalevic, V., Barovic, G., Vujacic, D., Bozovic, P., Kalac, I., Nyssen, J. 2015f. Assessment of soil erosion in the Susica River Basin, Berane Valley, Montenegro. International Conference on Soil, Tirana, Albania; 4-7 May, 2015. Spalevic, V., Barovic, G., Mitrovic, M., Hodzic, R., Mihajlovic, G., Frankl, A. 2015g. Assessment of sediment yield using the Erosion Potential Method (EPM) in the Karlicica Watershed of Montenegro. International Conference on Soil, Tirana, Albania; 4-7 May, 2015. Spalevic, V., Blinkov, I., Trendafilov, A., Mukaetov, D., Djekovic, V., Djurovic, N. 2015h. Soil erosion assessment using the EPM method: A case study of the Ramcina River Basin, Montenegro. International Conference on Soil, Tirana, Albania; 4-7 May, 2015. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Vujacic, D., Barovic, G., Frankl, A., and Nyssen, J. 2015i. Assessment of soil erosion at the Brzava small watershed of Montenegro using the IntErO model. Geophysical Research Abstracts. Vol. 17, EGU2015-15007, 2015. EGU General Assembly 2015. Spalevic, V. Curovic, M. Tanaskovic, V., Djurovic, N., Lenaerts, T. and Nyssen, J. 2015k. Application of the IntErO model for the assessment of the soil erosion intensity and runoff of the river basin Dragovo Vrelo, Montenegro (invited speaker). Balkan Agriculture Congress, 8-10 September 2014. Edirne, Turkey. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Andjelkovic, A., Djekovic, V., Ilic, S. 2014a. Calculation of soil erosion intensity in the Nedakusi Watershed of the Polimlje Region, Montenegro. International Scientific conference: Challenges in modern agricultural production, December 11, 2014, Skopje, Macedonia. Spalevic, V., Tazioli, A. Djekovic, V., Andjelkovic, A., and Djurovic, N. 2014b. Assessment of soil erosion in the Lipnica Watershed, Polimlje, Montenegro. The 5th International Symposium “Agrosym 2014”, Jahorina, 23-26 October 2014, Bosnia and Herzegovina, p 723-729. Spalevic, V., Hübl, J. Hasenauer, H. and Curovic, M. 2014c. Calculation of soil erosion intensity in the Bosnjak Watershed, Polimlje River Basin, Montenegro. The 5th International Symposium Agrosym 201”, Jahorina, October 2014, Bosnia and Herzegovina, p 730-738. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Billi, P., Fazzini, M. Frankl, A., and Nyssen, J. 2014d. Soil erosion in the Zim Potok Watershed, Polimlje River Basin, Montenegro. The 5th International Symposium Agrosym 2014, Jahorina, October 2014, Bosnia and Herzegovina, p 739747. Spalevic, V., Djurovic, N., Mijovic, S., Vukelic-Sutoska, M., Curovic, M. 2013a. Soil Erosion Intensity and Runoff on the Djuricka River Basin (North of Montenegro). Malaysian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 17: p.49-68. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M. Tanaskovik, V., Oljaca, M., Djurovic, N. 2013b. The impact of land use on soil erosion and run-off in the Krivaja river basin in Montenegro. The 1st International Symposium on Agricultural Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia, VI: 1-14. Spalevic, V., Nyssen, J., Curovic, M., Lenaerts, T., Kerckhof, A., Annys, K. Van Den Branden, J., Frankl, A. 2013c. Тhe impact of land use on soil erosion in the river basin Boljanska Rijeka in Мontenegro. In proceeding of the 4th International Symposium “Agrosym 2013”, p. 54-63. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Uzen, N., Simunic, I., Vukelic-Shutoska, M. 2013d. Calculation of soil erosion intensity and runoff in the river basin of Ljesnica, Northeast of Montenegro. In the Proceeding of the 24th International Scientific-Expert Conference on Agriculture and Food Industry, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Spalevic, V., Curovic, M., Tanaskovik, V., Pivic, R., Djurovic, N. 2013e. Estimation of soil erosion intensity and runoff in the river basin of Bijeli Potok, Northeast of

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Montenegro. In proceeding of the 1st International Congress on Soil Science, XIII Congress of Serbian Soil Science Society “Soil–Water–Plant”, Belgrade, Serbia. Spalevic, V. 2011. Impact of land use on runoff and soil erosion in Polimlje. Doctoral thesis, Faculty of Agriculture of the University of Belgrade, Serbia, p 1-260. Spalevic, V. 1999. Application of computer-graphic methods in the studies of draining out and intensities of ground erosion in the Berane valley. Master thesis. Faculty of Agriculture of the University of Belgrade, Serbia (in Serbian). pp-131. Spalevic, V., Dlabac, A., Jovovic, Z., Rakocevic, J, Radunovic, M., Spalevic, B., Fustic, B. 1999a. The Surface and distance Measuring Program. Acta Agriculture Serbica, Vol IV, 8, p.63-71. Spalevic, V., Dubak, D, Fustic, B, Jovovic, Z, Ristic, R. 1999b. The Estimate of the Maximum Outflow and Soil Erosion Intensity in the Kaludra River Basin. Acta Agriculture Serbica, Vol.IV, 8, p.79-89. Stoffel, M., Huggel, C., 2012. Effects of climate change on mass movements in mountain environments. Progress in Physical Geography 36, 421–439. Stoffel, M., Corona, C., Ballesteros-Cánovas, J.A., Bodoque, J.M. 2013. Dating and quantification of erosion processes based on exposed roots. Earth-Science Reviews, 123:18-34. Tazioli, A. 2009. Evaluation of erosion in equipped basins: preliminary results of a comparison between the Gavrilovic model and direct measurements of sediment transport [electronic resource] Environmental Geology 56, no. 5: 825-831. Verheijen, F.G.A., Jones, R.J.A., Rickson, R.J., Smith, C.J., 2009. Tolerable versus actual soil erosion rates in Europe. Earth-Science Reviews 94, 23–38. Vujacic, D and Spalevic, V. 2015. Assessment of runoff and soil erosion in the Radulicka Rijeka Watershed, Polimlje, Montenegro. The 6th International Symposium Agrosym 2015, Jahorina, 15-18 October 2015, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Yassoglou, N., Montanarella, L., Govers, G., Van Lynden, G., Jones, R.J.A., Zdruli, P., Kirkby, M., Giordano, A., Le Bissonnais, Y., Daroussin, J. & King, D. 1998. Soil Erosion in Europe. European Soil Bureau. Zhaо, G., Klik, A., Mua, X., Wang, F., Gao, P., Sun, W. 2015. Sediment yield estimation in a small watershed on the northern Loess Plateau, China. Geomorphology 241: 343–352.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051433S COMBINED APPLICATION OF CROP ROTATION AND LOW RATES OF HERBICIDES FOR WEED CONTROL IN MAIZE Milena SIMIC1*, Igor SPASOJEVIC1, Vesna DRAGICEVIC1, Milan BRANKOV1, Zeljko DOLIJANOVIC2 1

Maize Research Institute Zemun Polje, Belgrade, Serbia Unuversity of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

2

Abstract Three maize growing systems are nowadays most present in Serbia: continuous maize cropping (15%), two crop rotation (maize -winter wheat - 60% and maize - soybean - 15%) and three crop rotation (maize - winter wheat - soybean - 5%). Despite to economic reasons, extended rotations are more sustainable than short-terms rotations, especially those one with legume crops that support reduction of N inputs and increase maize grain yield. Crop rotations facilitate the rotation of herbicides with different mode of action and are more effective in terms of planed weed control. The aim of the research was to test effectiveness of combined application of crop rotation maize continuous cropping, maize-winter wheat rotation and maize-soybean-winter wheat rotation and herbicides that are applied in recommended and reduced rates on maize weed control. Number of weed species and weed individuals per species and fresh biomass of manually uprooting weeds, were estimated in maize. Weed estimation was done four and six to seven weeks after the application of herbicides. Weed association was composed of eleven most distributed species in all cropping systems: Datura stramonium, Solanum nigrum and two species from genera Chenopodium and Amaranthus and perennials Convolvulus arvensis and Sorghum halepense. Number of weed individuals and weed biomass were significantly lowered with herbicide application in all cropping systems and half of the full dose appears to perform nearly as well as the full dose. Key words: weeds, maize, rotation, herbicides Introduction System or program of measures for Integrated Weed Management is usually define by the specific situation and level of weed infestation in the production area. In this regard, the preventive measures are used to prevent the spread of weeds and the introduction of new species while direct measures suppressing weeds directly. Among cropping measures it is important to properly complete the crop rotation (Spasojević et al., 2012; Simić et al., 2015). Crop rotation is effective and basic measure within Integrated Weed Management System (IWMS), (Bastiaans, 2010). By rotation of row and narrow crops and systems of measures for their production, including application of herbicides with different mode of action, weed community has no opportunity to become adapted and stabile. In Serbia, there are three major maize growing systems: continuous maize cropping (15%), two crop rotation (maize -winter wheat - 60% and maize - soybean - 15%) and three crop rotation (maize - winter wheat - soybean - 5%) (Videnovic et al., 2013). Extended rotations involving legume crops reduce N inputs, increase maize grain yield and are more sustainable than current short-terms rotations (Stranger and Lauer, 2008). On the other hand, herbicides in recent time have to fulfil many tests during registration process in order to become approved as more environmentally friendly. They need to be effective and selective and do not make serious changes in weed community balance and encourage some troublesome weed species such as alien or perennial weeds, or emphasize resistant biotypes. For preservation of their 1433

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ efficacy on the long term, IWM is also necessary (Claerhout et al., 2015). Studies showed that Echinochloa cruss-gally plants are more susceptible to some post-em herbicides than plants from long-term monocropping. Previous studies also showed that IWM tools such as crop rotation, provided sufficient weed control without any significant differences in yield and greatly reduced maize reliance on herbicides (Simić et al., 2012; Vasileiadis et al., 2015). Crop rotation determinates weed community composition, influences abundance of individuals and even seed bank richness (Simić et al., 2014b). Even, in crop rotations, competition pressure of weeds is weaker than in maize continuous cropping and highly dependent on herbicide application (Simić et al., 2015). The aim of the research was to test effectiveness of combined application of crop rotations and herbicides that are applied in recommended and reduced rates on maize weed suppression. Material and Methods A field experiment was conducted during six years, 2009-2014, as a split-plot trial on slightly calcareous chernozem on the experimental field of the Maize Research Institute Zemun Polje, Belgrade, Serbia. The basic treatment was a plant production system: maize continuous cropping (MC), maize-winter wheat rotation (MW) and maize-soybean-winter wheat rotation (MSW). The hybrid ZP606, wheat variety Takovčanka and soybean variety Lana were conventionally sown within optimal periods in all production systems. Conventional tillage was used in the trial. A total of 30 t ha-1 of manure was incorporated in autumn of 2008 and then every third year in maize monoculture and MSW. In autumn of 2008 and 2010, 20 t ha-1 of manure was incorporated in two-crop rotation variant and every second year after. Different herbicide rates represented treatments in sub-plots. After sowing and prior to maize emergence the combination of isoxaflutole and acetochlor (Merlin 750WG+Trophy 768-EC) was applied in two rates: HR- recommended (105 g a.i. + 1536 g a.i.) and ½ HR - half of the recommended rate (52.5 g a.i. + 768 g a.i.), while herbicides were not applied in the control. Each treatment had four replications. In wheat and soybean usual combination of herbicides for broadleaf and grass weed control was applied in whole variant. Weed estimation was done four and six to seven weeks after the application of herbicides (I and II estimation). Samples were drawn randomly by the one square meter. Number of weed species and weed individuals per species and fresh biomass of manually uprooting weeds were estimated in maize. Meteorological conditions were similar for maize production in 2009, 2011 and 2013. In 2013, in the middle of growing season (Jun and July), there were a lower amount of precipitation than in same period in 2009 and 2011 year. 2012 was extremely dry and hot, with absolutely unfavourable conditions for maize production. Results and Discussion

Weed association was composed of eleven most distributed species in all cropping systems. Between them, annual broadleaf species Solanum nigrum, Datura stramonium and two species from genera Chenopodium and Amaranthus were dominant (Tables 1, 2 and 3). Number of individuals of perennial species S. halepense was even higher after some years in maize continuous cropping and in untreated control variants while Convolvulus arvensis was present as almost uncontrolled species even in a three crop rotation. In MSW crop rotation species Hibiscus trionum and Cirsium arvense were not detected after one rotation cycle. Results shows that, in avreage for all herbicide treatments and years, the number of weed individuals decreased from MC (53.8 plants per m2), trough MW (28.7 plants per m2) to the MSW production system (16.9 plants per m2), whic makes three crop rotation very effective measure for maize weed control (Simić et al., 2015).

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Table 1. Weed species and number of their individuals (plants m-2) in maize continuous cropping (I evaluation) Weed species CHEHY DATST CHEAL ABUTE SOLNI AMARE AMAHY CONAR SORHA CIRAR HIBTR Total

C 32 10 10 5 2 3

2009 1/2HR 3 5

HR 1 1

3

2

10

4

4 2 73

2 2 26

1 7

C 20 19 17 3 55 23 19 8 10 10 4 195

2011 1/2HR 9 2 3 5

HR 1 1

2 6 2

6 5

3 35

2 16

C 10 8 4 4 25 5 7 19 18 5 2 108

2013 1/2HR 4 2 1 3

HR 1

7 8

6 5

3 29

13

Average 8.9 5.3 3.9 2.7 9.1 3.7 2.9 7.6 5.3 2.4 2.0 53.8

Table 2. Weed species and number of their individuals (plants m-2) in maize-winter wheat rotation (I evaluation) Weed species CHEHY DATST CHEAL ABUTE SOLNI AMARE AMAHY CONAR SORHA CIRAR HIBTR Total

C 7 12 11 5 1 1 1 8 3 57

2009 1/2HR 1 5

HR 1

C 8 13 7

2011 1/2HR

HR

1

2 15

6 2 3 22

12 2

15

3 2

49

1

1

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1

2

C 7 9 7 2 17 55 3 4 12 1 123

2013 1/2HR 2 2

HR

1

2

5

2

Average 2.8 4.7 2.9 1.0 3.7 6.2 0.4 4.2 2.0 0.7 0.1 28.7

Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 3. Weed species and number of their individuals (plants m-2) in maize-soybean-winter wheat rotation (I evaluation) Weed species CHEHY DATST CHEAL ABUTE SOLNI AMARE AMAHY CONAR SORHA Total

2009 1/2HR 1 5 1 1

C 11 9 9 4 4 3

HR

2012 1/2HR

C 11 8 12 4 15 9 4 1 3 83

2

1

6 2 63

5 1 19

5 1 8

Average

HR 4 1 2 2

1

3 1 13

1

3.1 2.8 2.7 1.2 2.1 1.4 0.4 2.3 0.9 16.9

2

Weed individuals of perennial species participated in total weed individuals’ number with 28.44% in maize continuous cropping, 24.04% in MW rotation and 18.93% in three crop MSW rotation, which illustrate the weed control efficacy on each cropping system. Weed species richness decreased from untreated control to the HR treatments in all cropping systems and years, especially in MW and MSW production systems. After two cycles of double MW crop rotation, number of weed individuals was almost two times smaller comparing to maize continuous cropping, in the same years. c

Fresh biomass of weeds, g/m2

LSD0.05 C = 1342.0 LSD0.05 1/2 HR = 377.3 5400 4800 4200 3600 3000 2400 1800 1200 600 0

LSD0.05 HR = 325.1

b

b ab

HR 1/2 HR

a

a

b c

b MC 2009

c

b

a

b MW

b MC

c c

a a

MW 2011

C

MC

MW 2013

Figure 1. Biomass of weeds in maize continuous cropping (MC) and maize-winter wheat rotation (MW) independence of herbicide rates (II evaluation)

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Fresh biomass of weeds, g/m2


5400 4800 4200 3600 3000 2400 1800 1200 600 0

LSD0.05 C = 1092.0 LSD0.05 1/2 HR = 620.1

LSD0.05 HR = 340.4

ab c

HR 1/2 HR

ab

a a b

b

b

C

b b a

MC MSW 2009

MC 2012

a

MSW

Figure 2. Biomass of weeds in maize continuous cropping (MC) and maize- soybean- winter wheat rotation (MSW) independence of herbicide rates (II evaluation) Weed biomass was analysed in II evaluation, when present species and their individuals were fully developed and maize crop stand was almost completed (Figure 1 and 2). Weed individuals abundance and weed biomass were significantly lowered with herbicide application in cropping systems. According to statistical analysis, differences in weed biomass between MC and MW, were higher after some rotation cycles (2013) than in the beginning of the experiment (2009). Similarly, the same regularity was observed between MC and MSW. Extremely dry and hot 2012 is exception and all measured values in this year were low. In most of the years, half of the full dose appears to perform nearly as well as the full dose. Crop rotation and, due to it, the application of different herbicides, significantly contributes to control of annual, and especially of perennial weeds (Simic et al., 2014a). Weed species richness averaged over the rotation tended to decrease with herbicide application rate (Meziere et al., 20015). Wheat as a preceding crop, alongside with herbicides applied during the growing season as well as glyphosate-based herbicides applied to stubble fields after wheat harvest, greatly contribute to the reduction of weed infestation of maize as the following crop (Spasojevic et al., 2014). Even in especially dry 2012, when weeds tended to compete for water more than crops, the wheat x herbicide rate showed a great efficacy. Soybean as a component of three crop rotation system and herbicides applied during it’s growing, did not show significant effect on weed biomass decreasing probably because of completion of only one cycle of rotation. Conclusion

The weed infestation level of maize crop can be successfully reduced by combined application of herbicides and crop rotation, even the simplest one such is maize-winter wheat rotation. Winter wheat as a cereal crop, together with an herbicide used for its production, was very effective for weed control. According to presented results, reduced herbicide rates together with rotations that include cereals or legume crops can facilitate suppression of weeds. The crop rotation should be implemented in a longer period of time in order to achieve reductions in weed abundance and higher maize yields.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ References Bastiaans L. (2010): Crop rotation and weed management. Proceedings of the 15th European Weed Research Society Symposium, July 12-15, Kaposvar, Hungary, 244. Claerhout S., Reheul D., De Cauwer B. (2015): Sensitivity of Echinochloa cruss-gally populations to maize herbicides: a comparision between cropping systems. Proceedings of the 17th European Weed Research Society Symposium, June 23-26, Montpellier, France, 179. Simić M., Dolijanović Ž., Maletić R., Stefanović L., Filipović M. (2012): Weed suppression and maize productivity by different arrangement patterns. Plant, Soil and Environment, 58 (3): 148-153. Simic M., Spasojevic I., Brankov M., Dragicevic V. (2014): The influence of crop rotation on annual and perennial weeds control in maize field. Proceeding of the NJF Seminar 471 Recent advances in IWM of perennial and annual weeds, with a special emphasis on the role of crop-weed interactions, 10: 16-18. a Simic M., Spasojevic I., Brankov M., Dragicevic V. (2014): Weeds seed bank richness in maize field: effects of crop rotation and herbicides. Proceedings of the 5th International Scientific Agricultural Symposium “AGROSYM”, Jahorina, BiH, 501507. b Simić M., Dragičević V., Spasojević I., Brankov M. (2015): Integrated effects of cropping system and herbicides on maize competitiveness. Proceedings of the 17th European Weed Research Society Symposium, June 23-26, Montpellier, France, 203. Spasojević I., Simić M., Dragičević V., Brankov M., Filipović M. (2012): The reductions of maize weed infestation induced by crop rotation and herbicide dose. Herbolgia (Sarajevo, BiH), 13(1): 73-82. Spasojević I., Simić M., Kovačević D., Dolijanović Ž., Momirović N., Dragičević V. (2014): Importance of two-crop rotation in maize weed control. Proceedings of the 5th International Scientific Agricultural Symposium “Agrosym”, Jahorina, BiH, 209-214. Stranger F.T., Lauer G.J. (2008): Corn grain yield response to crop rotation and nitrogen ove 35 years. Agronomy Journal, 100: 643-650. Vasileiadis V.P., Otto S., VAN Dijk W., Urek G., Leskovšek R., Verschwele A., Furlan L., Satin M. (2015): On-farm evaluation of integrated weed management tools in maize production: agronomic efficacy, herbicide use reduction and economic sustainability. Proceedings of the 17th European Weed Research Society Symposium, June 23-26, Montpellier, France, 180. Videnović Ž., Jovanović Ž., Dumanoviž Z., Simić M., Srdić J., Dragičević V., Spasojević I. (2013): Effects of long term crop rotation and fertilizer application on maize productivity. Turkish Journal of Field Crops, 18(2): 233-237.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Professional paper 10.7251/AGSY15051439J INTERNET COMMUNICATIONS IN THE STATE ENTERPRISE FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT „SRBIJAŠUME“ Gordana JANČIĆ, Milka ZELIĆ State Enterprise for Forest Management "Srbijašume", Belgrade, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The State Enterprise (SE) for Forest Management “Srbijašume“ Belgrade manages forests sustainably, i.e. in a manner and to an extent that permanently maintains and improves their productivity, biodiversity, regeneration capacity and vitality, which in the present and future ensures fulfillment of economic, ecological and social functions of forests. The forest is the most complex ecosystem and plays a particularly important role in preserving the environment. Serbia is considered a medium-forested country. Total forest area in Serbia is 2,252,000 ha, out of which 1,194,000 ha (53%) are state-owned, and 1,058,387 ha (47%) are privately owned. SE “Srbijašume“ manages state forests and forestland on the surface of 893,417 ha and carries out professional activities in forests of private forest owners on the surface of 1,058,387.00 ha (condition as of 31st December, 2014). Internet communications (in the form of a website and Facebook profile) have been introduced into everyday forestry practice in order to raise people's consciousness about the importance of nature, especially forests, for further development of society, Social networks are interactive social media that provide means for users to create their own web pages, themes, groups, photo galleries and to make online friends. They were initiated in the first decade of the 21st century. The phenomenon of socialization on social networks is copied from real life, it is just that cyber socialization happens faster and easier than in real society. SE “Srbijašume“ uses its Facebook profile with the aim of raising people's awareness of the need for sustainable use, restoration, care and protection of forests as an invaluable natural resource and a key element of the environment. Keywords: SE "Srbijašume", Internet communication, environmental protection Introduction The global environmental situation is alarming; we are faced with warming, pollution of soil, air and water, as well as ozone layer depletion, so the imperative need is that everyone gets involved in solving environmental problems (Meffe, 2013). Man's ruthless relation to nature has led human civilization into danger of irreversible destruction of the natural environment and consequently to deterioration of people's health and threatening their existence (Katelyn, 2013). Mankind has come into this dangerous situation due to the tendency of limitless pursuit of material wealth (Republic of Serbia, 2007). Forests greatly affect the reduction of environmental problems. They mitigate the effects of global warming. More precisely, forests contribute to mitigating climate change by storing carbon in forest trees, branches, leaves, roots and soil. Forests as the most complex ecosystems have a particularly important role in the preservation of the environment (Aleksić and Jančić, 2013). SE "Srbijašume's" strategic-environmental vision is obligatory for foresters to be responsible to the Serbian population. The Enterprise manages forests sustainably, i.e. in a manner and to an extent that permanently maintains and improves their productivity, biodiversity, regeneration capacity and vitality, which in the

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ present and future ensures fulfillment of economic, ecological and social functions of forests (http://www. srbijasume.rs/growingstock.htm, 2015). New surface areas are regularly afforested and the existing ones are enriched. SE "Srbijašume" has its own 25 nurseries with a production of 14 - 16 million seedlings. Each year during the spring and autumn planting, it carries out the planting of 4 - 5 million new seedlings. New plantations are raised for the purposes of burned area rehabilitation and total forest cover increase in Serbia. Serbia is considered a medium-forested country. Its forest coverage, when compared on the global scale, is close to the average of 30%, and it is significantly lower than the 46% (2000) in Europe. Forest cover increase compared to the reference year of 1979 is 5.2%, which has certainly had a positive impact on the environmental conditions and quality in general. In relation to population, there is a forested area of 0.3 ha per capita (in Russia - 11.11 ha per capita, Norway 6.93 ha, Finland 5.91 ha, Bosnia and Herzegovina - 1.38 ha of and Croatia - 1.38 ha). Total forest area in Serbia is 2,252,000 ha, out of which 1,194,000 ha (53%) are state-owned, and 1,058,387 ha (47%) are privately owned. SE “Srbijašume“ manages state forests and forestland on the surface of 893,417 ha and carries out professional activities in forests of private forest owners on the surface of 1,058,387.00 ha (condition as of 31st December, 2014). Objective The objective is to find the best ways for SE "Srbijašume" to communicate with businesses, potential polluters, NGOs and citizens, regardless of age, gender or education, since each person can affect forest conservation and environmental preservation by either doing or nondoing. Materials and Methods The paper is based on: European and American research on social networks; the study of the German NGO Magicspeed on electronic forms of information presentation on social networks; statistical data on the representation of social networks in Serbia; European experiences of citizen interest in Internet communication and citizen knowledge of the environment (Barry, 2012; Cavanagh, 2013; Magicspeed, 2014; Media Center Belgrade, 2013; World Journalism Observatory for EU, 2013). Social networking service is an online service, platform or website that focuses on building and imaging of the social relations among people who share interests and/or activities. Although online social services are considered services of social networks in a broader sense, social network services usually refer to services focused on the individual, while the online community services are focused on social groups (Saxenian, 2012). Social networks are interactive social media that provide means for users to create their own web pages, themes, groups, photo galleries and to make online friends (who do not necessarily have to be friends in real life), with a high degree of interconnectedness of all elements of the social network and care to independent determining of privacy settings by every individual. 'Social networks' is a term that came to life on the web in the first decade of this century and that had been preceded by forums and chat rooms (Cavanagh, 2013). Early social networks on the web (the World Wide Web) were developed in the form of generalized online communities, such as: theGlobe.com 1994, GeoCities.com 1994 and Tripod.com 1995. Many of these early communities focused on bringing people together for the sake of mutual influence through chat rooms and encouraged users to share information and ideas through personal web pages. The characteristics of today's social networks are more advanced forms of social media, compared to forums or chat rooms. The new generation of

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ social networking sites flourished with the emergence of Friendster.com in 2002, soon becoming part of the prevailing direction of the Internet. Facebook was launched with the renowned American university Harvard as a local student network, which, however, within short time experienced an expansion into all possible categories and social groups, from students to working people (Blank, 2009). It is estimated that, today, there are over 400 active sites using a wide range of models of social networks. Most of the online communities can be divided into categories: Information, Professional, Educational and Entertainment. The phenomenon of socialization of this type is copied from the real society, it is just that cyber socialization happens faster and easier than in real society, but these cyber communication in the developed world represent the backbone for the establishment of international professional contacts both in business and at private level ( Katelyn, 2013). An important feature for programmers is the ability to independently develop their own applications for Facebook that promote their own services and facilities, thus redirecting part of the traffic to their own sites and building a reputation for themselves, but also for Facebook by making it more popular and useful. Modern man is exposed to a large amount of information and data, of which only the most interesting and most important attract his attention. This was the basis for the study carried out by Magicspeed, the German NGO, on the types and content of information on social networks (Magicspeed, 2014). Part of the study was a survey asking the question “Which is the format of your favourite information on the social network: sound, text, multimedia?” The survey was conducted on a sample of 1,500 citizens of capital cities in three European countries: Germany, Austria and Poland in 2012 and 2013. Its results are presented in Figure 1, showing the greatest interest in the multimedia format in all three countries. These results are consistent with other studies that prove that people find visual learning of data to be most memorable (Cavanagh, 2013). The above survey shows the need of application of multimedia information to serve environmental protection. Facebook in Serbia is synonymous with social networking on the web (Media Center Belgrade, 2013). Statistical data for 2013 in Figure 2 clearly show that Facebook is the most popular in Serbia and that it is used by 37% of the population. SE “Srbijašume“ uses its Facebook profile with the aim of raising people's awareness of the need for sustainable use, restoration, care and protection of forests as an invaluable natural resource and a key element of the environment. (https://srrs.facebook.com/pages/srbijasume, 2015).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Results and Discussion Businesses around the world are increasingly oriented to Internet communications because representatives of their target groups' participation. This is a relatively new business communication channel, but there are great opportunities for expansion of new “green“ knowledge in order to raise awareness of the population to actively join the fight for nature conservation (World Bank, 2006). “Green“ business has been a top priority for the EU for a decade now. Nine out of ten Europeans are aware that losses in biodiversity, i.e. reduction and potential disappearance of animal and plant species, natural habitats and ecosystems in Europe, are a serious problem (World Journalism Observatory for EU, 2013). Europeans almost completely agree (93%) that it is important to halt losses in biodiversity since well-being and quality of life are based on nature and biodiversity (Kutz, 2013). In order to raise people's consciousness about the importance of nature conservation, foresters of SE "Srbijašume" have introduced into their daily practice Internet communications in the form of a website and profile on the social networking site Facebook. SE "Srbijašume" uses conventional and Internet business communication, as shown in Figure 3 (http://www.srbijasume.rs/basicdata.html, 2015). When it comes to Internet communications, first the website was applied.

With the introduction of Facebook into communication, the number of website users has increased because young people who use Facebook every day have also accessed "Srbijašume's" profile, and from there have linked to the website and become regular users and our followers. With the introduction of multimedia content into Internet communications, the number of users has rapidly increased. For efficient Internet communication it is necessary to fulfill three basic demands: updatedness, diversity and respect for the user. Data and information must be continuously changed, the materials placed must be from different areas of interest of the target groups, and every question or request of the user must be given adequate and quick response. For the organization of in-field activities, the most effective communication is on Facebook, because large numbers of people can be quickly gathered for the purpose of extinguishing forest fires or collecting plastic bottles etc. Facebook is also effective for the placement of environmental education content.

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Conclusion Linking of social structures, economic entities and citizens is of crucial importance for the quality of the environment. In order to raise awareness about the importance of nature conservation for further socio-economic development, SE "Srbijašume" has introduced into their work practice, Internet networking to exchange information in the fight for a healthier and better environment. Internet communication has been chosen, because the Internet is a technological communication medium containing numerous services that make communication simple and accessible from any place and at any time. References Aleksić, P., Janćić, G., (2013). The Importance of Forests for Environmental Protection, SE ”Srbijašume“, Belgrade, Serbia. Barry, W., (2012). The Web in Everyday Life, Wiley-Blackwell, USA. Blank, T., (2009). Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World, State University ,USA. Cavanagh, A., (2013). Sociology in the Age of the Internet, Open University Press, USA. https://sr-rs.facebook.com/pages/srbijasume. Accessed 15.04.2015. http://www.srbijasume.rs/basicdata.html. Accessed 15.04.2015. http://www.srbijasume.rs/growingstock.htm. Accessed 15.04.2015. Katelyn, Y., (2013). The contact hypothesis reconsidered: Interacting via the web, Report of Department of Psychology Bar-Ilan University, Israel. Kraut, R.,(2014.), Computers, Phones, Internet, Domesticating Technology, Oxford Press, GB. Kutz, M., (2013). Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials,Delmar, NY, USA. Magicspeed,(2014). NGO, http://www.sedoparking.de/magicspeed, Germany. Media Center Belgrade, (2013). Statistical Data on the Use of Social Networks in Serbia, Belgrade. Meffe, G., (2013). Ecosystem Management, New York, USA. Pavlovic, M., (2004). Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zrenjanin, Serbia. Powell,W., (2001). Networks and Economic Life, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. Republic of Serbia,(2007). Sustainable Development Strategy of the RS, Belgrade, Serbia. Saxenian, A., (2012). Networks and the Resurgence of Silicon Valley, California Management Review, vol.49, pp. 89-112. World Bank-Global Issues for Global Citizens, (2006.).Sustaining the World's Forests, New York, Vol. (No 16), (18-21). World Journalism Observatory for EU, (2013). Environmental Degradation in Europe, European Journalism Observatory, London.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051444E INFLUENCE OF LIGNIN CONTENT ON HIGHER HEATING VALUE OF BURLEY TOBACCO STALKS FROM DIFFERENT PRODUCTION AREAS IN SERBIA Olivera EĆIM-ĐURIĆ*, Nemanja MANDIĆ, Vesna RADOJIČIĆ Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Tobacco stalks make up a significant proportion of the total biomass in agricultural production in Serbia. They have no economic value yet, but may represent a large potential as a biofuel with amount of 70 000 tons per year. The aim of this study is correlation between lignin content and higher heating value (HHV) of Burley tobacco stalks from two different production areas, Šabac and Čoka (Serbia). Lignin content determination was performed according the Zadražil and Brunnert method. The HHV of tobacco stalks as a function of lignin content (L, wt %) was calculated using the following equation: HHV=0.0889 L + 16.8218 Statistical interpretation was performed SPSS v. 18. Statistical analysis showed that the lignin content and HHV of tobacco stalks are significantly different depending on the production areas. There was a higherly significant correlation between HHV and lignin content. Considering the high levels of HHV (19, 98 – 20, 51 MJ kg-1) it is possible to use tobacco stalks as biofuels. Key words: higher heating value, lignin, tobacco stalks, Burley. Introduction Reducing of fossil fuel reserve in the world encourages the much more implementation of renewable energy, which has great economic and ecological importance (Demirel, 2012). The use of renewable energy sources becomes significant energy issue in Serbia, and in particular will become important in the time of accession to the European Union. It is estimated that total of 12.5 million tons of biomass is produced in Serbia each year, of which 9 million tons in Vojvodina. The major part of agricultural waste in the Republic of Serbia makes corn stalks, wheat straw, and then sunflower remains (Malnar et al., 2014). A significant share of the crop residue makes also tobacco stalks (Kulić and Radojičić, 2011). According to the Statistical Office of Serbia (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Serbia, 2013), tobacco was planted on 6.200 hectares in the year 2013. After harvesting of large leaves tobacco on the fields remains a significant amount of crop residues, or an average of 22.000 stalks of tobacco per hectare. This means that about 76.000 tons of tobacco stalks remains in Serbia each year. These tobacco stalks have no economic value yet. It should be noted that this energy potential in our country is little used, because most farmers burn agricultural waste after harvesting, and the rest of biomass is plowed. Burning of crop residues in the fields adversely affects on land and on the ecosystem in generally, as it causes the release of large amounts of gases and from the other side, large amount of heat energy is lost in the atmosphere. This data indicates that unused tobacco stalks, which are classified into green tobacco waste (Radojičić et al., 2009), represent the potential that can be used in energy purposes. It can be said that use tobacco stalks in energy purposes in the world is still unexplored in generally. In recent years researchers in Serbia are increasingly interested in the possibility of using these raw materials for energy purposes (Ećim-Đurić et al., 2014; Kulić and Radojičić,

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ 2011; Malnar et al., 2014; Mijailovic et al., 2014; Radojičić et al., 2014a; Radojičić et al., 2014b). Based on these results the researchers agree that tobacco crop residues should be included in the energy balance and used it as biofuel. The most important indicator of the possibility of using some organic raw materials as a fuel is its heating value, which depends on the type and chemical composition of biomass, as well as relative humidity. Thus, the tobacco stalks heating value, as well as for other biofuels, significantly depends on the content of organic compounds (Sheng and Azevedo, 2005; Yin, 2011). HHV of lignocellulosic fuels is a function of the quantity of lignin (Demirbas, 2001). Generally, HHV of lignocellulosic fuels increases with increasing lignin content in the fuel. The lignin HHV is from 23.26 to 25.58 MJ/kg. Pesevski et al. (2010), agree that high lignin content in tobacco stalks provides an opportunity for their use as biofuels. Due to the increase in lignin content increases biomass heating value in the same time, defining the content of this substance (Demirbas, 2001) is quite important. The cell walls of the tobacco stalks can contain 40-45% of lignin, which is approximately the same amount as in softwood stalks. The only difference is that tobacco stalks have a significantly lower density of perennial trees wood. Since the amounts and structure of lignin differ from one to the other types of biomass, it can be concluded that HHV vary from one to the other kinds of biomass. HHV can be obtained experimentally by determining in the bomb calorimeter. Experimental determination of HHV requires special equipment, and the element analysis data can be easily obtained with available laboratory equipment. Thus HHV fuels from renewable sources can be calculated using data on the content of lignin obtained by ultimate or proximate analysis. The aim of this study is determination of correlation between the lignin content and HHV from the organic material suitable for energy use, cultivated at different production areas. Materials and methods As a material for this research, Burley tobacco stalks from production area of Šabac and Čoka were used. Stalks were taken after tobacco leaves harvesting, at the beginning of October. Samples for laboratory analysis are prepared by grinding and homogenization. Lignin content was determined by Zadražil-in and Brunnert-in (Radojičić, 2011). For calculation of higher heating value, following formula was used (Demirbas, 2001): HHV = 0,0889 (L) + 16,8218

(1)

Moisture was determined gravimetrically after drying the materials in an air circulation dryer, till constant weight, at 932ºC (Radojičić, 2011). Based on the moisture content, the results are expressed relative to the samples dry weight. All analyzes were performed in five replicates. Data obtained from the experiments were analyzed and the results were expressed as mean ± SD. Statistics was performed using SPSS 18.0 software ANOVA. Pearson coefficient of correlation was used to determine correlation between variables (De Coster, 2004). Results and discussion Descriptive statistics indicators of pH and organic matter content in the soil from two production area, as well as the lignin content and higher heating value of Burley tobacco stalks are shown in Table 1. Based on the data from Table 1, it is clear that the lignin content in Burley tobacco stalks is greater from Šabac production area than from Čoka. Given that the lignin content is in direct correlation with the HHV (Demirbas, 2001), the greater HHV was obtained for tobacco stalks from Šabac tobacco production area.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1. Soil pH value, organic matter content in soil, lignin content and HHV of Burley tobacco stalks from Šabac and Čoka production area Origin

Average

ŠabacSL ČokaL Šabac Čoka Šabac Čoka Šabac Čoka

pH Organ.matter % Lignin % HHV (MJ kg-1)

6.1 5.6 2.4 2.3 41.56 35.48 20.51 19.98

SD .0707 .1225 .1342 .0837 .44816 .25456 .04099 .02490

Soil texture: L –loam; SL – sandy loam

Table 2. The significance of the difference in the observed parameters from two locations F 62.500

Significance .000

2.880

.128

Lignin

695.773

.000

HHV

624.557

.000

pH Organ.matter

Applying univariate analysis of variance (Table 2) it was established a significant difference in soil pH (** F = 62.5, p = 0.000), lignin content (F = 695.8 ** p = 0.000) and tobacco stalks HHV (F = 624.6 ** p = 0.002), but not in the organic matter in the soil between these two locations. The relationship between soil pH, organic matter in soil, lignin content and HHV of Burley tobacco was investigated by using Pearson's coefficients of correlation (Table 3 and Table 4). Table 3. Pearson's Correlation between soil pH, organic matter in soil, lignin content and HHV of Burley tobacco from Šabac production area Šabac

pH Organ.matter Lignin HHV

pH

Organ.matter

Lignin

HHV

1 .264 .339 .345

.264 1 -.511 -.536

.339 -.511 1 .999**

.345 -.536 .999** 1

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 4. Pearson's Correlation between soil pH, organic matter in soil, lignin content and HHV of Burley tobacco from Čoka production area

Čoka

pH Organ.matter Lignin HHV

pH

Organ.matter

Lignin

HHV

1

-.732

.000

-.082

-.732 .000 -.082

1 -.423 -.336

-.423 1 .994**

-.336 .994** 1

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01

Based on the results shown in Tables 3 and 4, it can be concluded that there is a statistically very significant positive correlation between the lignin content and tobacco stalks HHV from selected production area (r = 0994 – 0999). Correlations among other examined parameters from both production areas are present, but they are not significant. Organic matter content in the soil and the lignin content in stalks are negatively correlated, which is not statistically significant (r = -.423 – -.511). Since, there is no significant difference in organic matter content in the soil between locations (Table 2), it was concluded that organic matter did not affect on the lignin content, and therefore neither on HHV. Based on the data in Table 3 and Table 4, it is evident that there is no statistically significant correlation between soil pH and lignin content in tobacco stalks, as well as between soil pH and HHV. However, applying the univariate analysis of variance (Table 2) it was found that there are significant differences in soil pH (F = 62.5 **) and lignin contents of tobacco stalks (F = 695.8 **) from selected production areas. Based on these results, it can be generally concluded that these two variables had an impact on tobacco stalks HHV. Conclusion Results obtained from this study indicate there is a significant difference between soils pH, lignin content and HHV of Burley tobacco stalks from different production areas. There is no difference between organic matter content in soil. The results also showed a statistically significant strong positive correlation between lignin content and HHV of tobacco stalks. Considering the high levels of HHV (19, 98 – 20, 51 MJ kg-1) it is possible to use Burley tobacco stalks as biofuels. References De Coster, J. (2004). Data Analysis in SPSS. CA Academic Press, San Diego. Demirbas, A. (2001). Relationships between lignin contents and heating values of biomass. Energy Conversion & Management, 42, 183-188. Demirel, Y. (2012). Energy. Production, Conversion, Storage, Conservation and Coupling. University of Nebraska, Lincoln,USA, Chapter 2. Ećim-Đurić, O., Radojičić, V., Mijailović, I., Kulić, G. (2014). Effects of tobacco stalks briquettes combustion on air pollution. IV International Conference „Ecology of Urban Areas“, Zrenjanin, Proceedings, 55-63. Jovanović, B., Parović, M. (2009). Condition and development of biomass in Serbia. Jefferson Institute, Belgrade. [in Serbian] Kulić, G., Radojičić, V. (2011). Analysis of cellulose content in stalks and leaves of large leaf tobacco. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 56 (3), 207-215. Malnar, M., Radojičić, V., Ećim-Djurić, O. (2014). Energy and environmental aspects of tobacco stalks combustion, 45thInternational Congress & Exhibition on Heating,

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Belgrade, Proceedings, CD version, ISBN 97886-81505-75-5, 5 pages. Mijailovic, I., Radojicic, V., Ecim-Djuric, O., Stefanovic, G., Kulic, G. (2014). Energy potential of tobacco stalks in briquettes and pellets production. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 15 (3), 1034-1041. Pesevski, M., Iliev, B., Zivkovic, D., Jakimovska-Popovska, V., Srbinoska, M., Filiposki, B. (2010). Possibilities for utilization of tobacco stalks for production of energetic briquettes. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 55 (1), 45-54. Radojičić, V., Milošević, M., Tomašević, B. (2009). Tobacco waste management in Serbia. Ecological truth 09, Proceedings, 218 -221. Radojičić, V. (2011). Quality control of tobacco. Practicum of tobacco processing technology. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade. [in Serbian] Radojičić, V., Ećim-Djurić, O., Srbinoska, M., Djulančić, N., Kulić, G. (2014a). Possibilities of virginia tobacco stalks utilization, Tutun/ Tobacco, 64 (7-12), 71-76. Radojičić, V., Ećim-Đurić, O., Djulančić, N., Srbinoska, M., Kulić, G. (2014b). The Possibility of Using Burley Tobacco Stalks as Biomass, XXII International Scientific and Professional Meeting "Ecological Truth", Bor, Serbia, Proceedings, 284-290. Sheng, C., Azevedo, J.L.T. (2005). Estimating higher heating values of biomass fuels from basic analysis data. Biomass and Bioenergy, 28 (5), 499-507. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Serbia, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia 2013. [in Serbian] Yin, CY. (2011). Prediction of higher heating values of biomass from proximate and ultimate analyses. Fuel, 90 (3), 1128–1132.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051449P POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION ASSESSMENT OF THE WATER USED FOR SOIL IRRIGATION IN THE BASIN OF THE DRINA RIVER, SERBIA Radmila PIVIĆ*, Dragana JOŠIĆ, Zoran DINIĆ, Ferdinando MARGARINO, Jelena MAKSIMOVIĆ, Srboljub MAKSIMOVIĆ, Aleksandra STANOJKOVIĆ-SEBIĆ Institute of Soil Science, Belgrade, Teodora Drajzera 7, Serbia *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The paper presents the results of analysis of the content of hazardous and harmful substances in the water used for irrigation, sampled during July, August and September in 2013, in the basin of the part of the Drina River, which flows through Serbia from Salaš Crnobarski to Bajina Bašta (Bušinsko polje). The study included 12 selected sites belonging to agricultural area under irrigation. During the mentioned period it was determined the values of pH, ECw, TDS (total dissolved solids) and content of trace elements and heavy metals Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, B, As, Fe, Hg in the water samples. The content of trace elements and heavy metals in the studied samples was generally below the maximum allowable concentration (MAC). Based on the data obtained, it can be concluded that the water from the Drina basin is usable for irrigation of agricultural crops and soils, but with frequent quality checks during the summer months. Keywords: agricultural soil, hazardous and harmful substances, irrigation water Introduction This paper presents the study of quality of irrigation water from the River Drina, based on the requirements of FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and U.S. Salinity Laboratory classification (Doneen and Westcot, 1988; U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954), and designed for evaluation of usage of irrigation water. Irrigation is the artificial watering the soil in order to increase the moisture in the rhizosphere layer at a time when the amount of available soil moisture is insufficient to meet the optimum for the crops. Irrigation is a hydroreclamation measure that aims to improve the physical properties of the soil by adding water to achieve optimum moisture during the growing season and thus achieve optimum yield. It may be applied during part of the growing season or during the whole growing season. For irrigation of cultivated plants on agricultural soil, water must have appropriate physical, chemical and biological properties, so it is very important to examine the quality of water for irrigation purposes. Intensification of irrigation depends primarily on the provision to the required amount of water of adequate quality. Anthropogenic impacts and natural processes can affect the quality of surface waters and threaten their use as drinking water, and for use in industry, agriculture, and for other purposes (Carpenter et al., 1998; Jarvie et al., 1998; Simeonova et al., 2003). The aim of this study is to assess the current water quality of the River Drina in order to be used for irrigation of agricultural soil near the streams and estimate the possible pollution risk. Pollution risks are mainly the direct consequence of the discharge of waste water from industrial plants, agricultural intensification or anthropogenic factors. The major pollutants of surface water in the country are industrial enterprises, farms and settlements with sewage systems, without built facilities for waste water treatment, and such with acting, but technically outdated (Konstandinova et al., 2013).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Agricultural lands used for intensive agriculture and fertilized with nitrogen and phosphate, treated with pesticides, and manure from livestock farms are one of the major sources of diffuse pollution (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and biodegradable organics). Description of the study area In geographical terms, the basin of Drina River in the flow through Republic of Serbia lies between 43o00' and 44o52' of north latitude and 19o15' and 19o20' of east longitude Drina River basin and locations of sampling are presented on Figure 1.

Figure 1. Location map of Drina River basin with selected sample sites.

The Drina is a 346 km long international river, and presents natural border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. It is the longest tributary of the Sava River and the longest karst river in the Dinaric Alps which belongs to the Danube River watershed (Marković J., 1990 and Pivic et al., 2014). River Drina basin covers the southwestern and western part of Serbia, the northern part of Montenegro and the eastern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Direction of its flow is from south to north and has a lot of tributaries. Water regime of the River Drina belongs to the typical modes of type snow-rain, with the primary peak of the water level in April and a secondary peak in December. Most of the stream is running through the mountains, while the entire upper stream is located in the high mountains of the Dinaric Alps, creating conditions that heavy precipitation and snows melting are leading to high flows. Decline of River Drina flow is very high, almost 2000 meters for less than 350 km of length, (spring is at about 2000 meters above sea level, while the confluence is on 80 meters above sea level). With an average flow of 395 m³ / s at the confluence, Drina is richest tributary of the River Sava. Soils suitable for irrigation are primarily alluvial soils along the River Drina and meadow soils that are heavier texture from alluvium. Water physical properties of the soil along the Drina are very heterogeneous composition. Represented are applied gravel, sandy gravel, sandy, loamy and clay composition. All of these can be irrigated land varying amounts of water. The basic soil types of the studied area are Fluvisols, Eutric Cambisols and Distic

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Cambisols (WRB, 2014. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3794e.pdf, Accessed on 12/08/2015), presented by Figure 1. Sampling and collection of water samples Water samples were collected in three cycles of sampling, in July, August and September 2013, using 2000 ml plastic bottles from 12 (twelve) sampling points (Table 1), a total of 36 water samples were collected.. The sampling bottles for heavy metal determinations were presoaked overnight with 10% HCl, rinsed with distilled water and also rinsed using river water before sample collection. Sampling bottles for the determination of physicochemical parameters were cleaned and rinsed using distilled water only. Preservation of water samples was done by adding 2 drops of concentrated HNO3 to each water sample before storage below 4°C until it was analyzed. Table 1 Sampling points along the Drina River Sampling point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Easting 7370890 7369520 7368840 7365400 7362500 7357260 7363290 7373510 7379220 7389660 7388832 7382590

Northing 4968150 4963040 4957430 4950450 4947150 4935790 4905030 4891940 4886950 4878210 4874792 4869580

Analytical methods Parameters were determined by the following methods: temperature is determined in situ by a calibrated thermometer, pH-potentiometric (SRPS H.Z1.111:1987), electrical conductivity (ECw)- conductiometric (SRPS EN 27888:1993), TDS-gravimetric (Greenberg et al., 1998), The acid-available fraction of heavy metals and other toxic elements (As, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn) was determined using EPA 200.7 methods, as well as an ICAP 6300 ICP optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). The concentration of Hg was determined by a flame atomic adsorption analyzer SensAA Dual (GBC Scientific Equipment Pty Ltd, Victoria, Australia). Data processing methods The experiment data were presented with mean of three tests with the presented summarized basic statistics of the dataset. Analysis of the interdependence of variables was carried out by calculating linear Pearson correlation coefficients. It has been assumed that the regression modeling of the potential usefulness of the selected variable (explanatory) to model another variable (explained variable) determines the absolute value of the high correlation coefficient between these two variables. The statistical analysis usually assumes that if the correlation coefficient is >0.9, a very strong linear dependence exists; 0.7-0.9-significant linear dependence; 0.4-0.7-moderate linear dependence; 0.2-0.4-distinct linear dependence, but low; 106Ru>137Cs>144Ce>129I>239Pu. For contamination of soil and live organisms, hazard effects have only radionuclides with a long biological half-life, of which the most significant are 90Sr and 137Cs. Sorption of these 90

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ radionuclides in the soil has a great significance, because of sorption determines their migratory ability, as well as their penetrating in the root system of plants (Gajić, 2006). The main objective of this study is to analyze the downward migration of 90Sr in soil of experimental field in the northern province of the Republic of Serbia. A tendency for the accumulation of 90Sr was observed in the soils subjected to a long-term fertilization with NPK. This study will contribute to the better understanding of 90Sr migration in the agricultural managed systems. Material and Method In order to measure the content of 90Sr, the soil samples were collected from a long-term experiment (LTE) „Plodoredi“ at the Rimski Šančevi experimental field of the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad (45o19’ N, 19o50’ E, Figure 1).

Figure 1. Experimental field „Rimski Šančevi“ in Novi Sad The soil sampling was conducted in the autumn season of 2013 year. The each sampling locations and ambient dose rates are given in Table 1. The measurement of the ambient dose rate at sampling locations was performed using a scintillation probe (Model 6150 AD-b produced by Automess, Germany) 1 m above the ground.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1. The sampling locations and the corresponding ambient dose rates Location code L1 L2 L3 L4

Ambient dose rate (nSv h-1)

Treatment of soil 2-year crop rotation (maize-winter wheat) from 1970 120 kg ha-1 N per year+PK 2-year crop rotation (maize-winter wheat) from 1970 100 kg ha-1 N per year+PK Winter wheat monoculture from 1970 100 kg ha-1 N per year+PK 2-year unfertilized crop rotation (winter wheat-maize) from 1946

125 105 110 100

About 2 kg of soil samples were taken from three depths (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm) at each sampling location. This soil is slightly alkaline with nearly equivalent percents of fine sand and silt. The preparation of soil samples involved the following: removing plant residues from the basic soil mass, samples drying at 105 0C during 24 h and sieving through a stainless steel sieve (diameter 3 mm) followed by grinding to powder (according to MARLAP 2004). 300 g of dry soil was mineralized at 500 0C during 24 h by the method of dry burning for further radiochemical analysis of 90Sr. The procedure of validated radiochemical analytical method (Sarap et al., 2014) was applied for the determination of 90Sr activity concentration in agricultural soil samples. This method is based on the radiochemical separation of 90Y from the sample using aluminium collector. After the establishment of radioactive equilibrium between 90Sr and daughter radionuclide 90Y during 18 days, 90Sr is determined via 90Y. The measurements were performed using α/β lowlevel proportional counter Thermo Eberline FHT 770 T (ESM Eberline Instruments GmbH, Erlangen, Germany). The activity concentration of 90Sr (A) expressed as Bq kg-1, was calculated using the Equation: 

A 



N  B   exp  ln 2  t   T1 2 PAl  P  Ef  m



(1)

where N is the count rate of the sample (s-1), B denotes the background (s-1), t - the time elapsed from 90Y separation (h), T1/2 is the half-life of 90Y (h), PAl - the yield of aluminium which is determined for each sample separately, P - the yield of the used method, Ef - the efficiency of the detector and m is the mass of the sample (kg). Results and discussion Agricultural soil which is the subject of this investigation belongs to the Haplic Chernozem (CHha) type (typization according to IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006) and its chemical reaction is slightly alkaline. In 4 experimental variants with different levels of fertilization (120 kg ha-1 N per year+PK, 100 kg ha-1 N per year+PK and without of fertilization, marked as L1, L2, L3 and L4 in Table 2), 2-year crop rotation (maize-winter wheat) and winter wheat monoculture were included. The 90Sr activity concentrations for different depths of investigated soil are presented in Table 2.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 2. The 90Sr activity concentration (A) in agricultural soil, expressed on dry matter. Location code L1

L2

L3

L4

Depth of soil (cm) 0-10 10-20 20-30 0-10 10-20 20-30 0-10 10-20 20-30 0-10 10-20 20-30

A (Bq kg-1) 1.1 ± 0.4 0.6 ± 0.1 < 0.8 0.8 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.1 < 0.2 0.4 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1

The obtained values of 90Sr activity concentration in agricultural soil are ranged from 0.4 to 1.1 Bq kg-1 and 0.5 to 0.6 Bq kg-1 for 0-10 and 10-20 cm depths of soil, respectively. The 90Sr activity concentrations for 20-30 cm depth of soil at locations 1 and 2 are below of the minimal detectable activity, while for locations 3 and 4, the values were identical and amounted to 0.4 Bq kg-1. The differences in activity concentrations of 90Sr radionuclide by the soil layers are evident for locations 1 and 2, while for locations 3 and 4 are insignificant. Anyhow, the highest content of 90Sr in investigated soil profiles is obtained for location 1, where the maximum quantity of fertilizer is used. Based on the obtained results it can be seen that the distribution of 90Sr is uniform in examined agricultural soil profiles. Also, it can be said that 90Sr shows tendency to retention in the upper soil layers, apropos in arable horizon. Conclusion The downward migration of anthropogenic radionuclide of 90Sr in agroecosystem was analyzed. Investigation of the vertical migration of 90Sr radionuclide in agricultural soil showed uniform distribution. The highest 90Sr activity concentrations are obtained in topsoil layer of the chernozem at 0-10 cm of depth. The obtained results are confirmed the literature data that the most of 90Sr retains in the arable horizon of agricultural soil. Acknowledgement This work was partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia under project number III 43009. References Friberg, I., (1997). Development and application of a method for the determination of 90Sr in environmental samples, J Radioanal Nucl Chem, 226, (55-60). Gajić, B. (2006). Physics of soil, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade. Grahek, Ž., Rožmarić-Mačefat, M., (2005). Determination of radioactive strontium in seawater, Anal Chim Acta, 534, (271-279). Guillen, J., Baeza, A., Corbacho, J.A., Munoz-Munoz, J.G., (2015). Migration of 137Cs, 90Sr, and 239+240Pu in Mediterranean forests: influence of bioavailability and association with organic acids in soil, J Environ Radioact, 144, (96-102). IUSS Working Group WRB (2006). A Framework for International Classification, Correlation and Communication, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Kavasi, N., Sahoo, S.K., Sorimachi, A., Tokonami, S., Aono, T., Yoshida, S., (2015). Measurement of 90Sr in soil samples affected by the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, J Radioanal Nucl Chem, 303 (3), (2565-2570). Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual (MARLAP) (2004). Vol. II: Chapters 10-17 and Appendix F. Sandeep, S., Manjaiah, K.M., Sachdev, P., Sachdev, M.S., (2009). Effect of nitrogen, potassium and humic acid on 134Cs transfer factors to wheat from tropical soils in Neubauer growth units, Environ Monit Assess, 149, (43-52). Sarap, N.B., Janković, M.M., Pantelić, G.K., (2014). Validation of radiochemical method for the determination of 90Sr in environmental samples, Water Air Soil Pollut, 225, (2003-2013). Vukašinović, I., Đorđević, A., Rajković, M.B., Todorović, D., Pavlović, V.B., (2010). Distribution of natural radionuclides in anthrosol-type soil, Turk J Agric For, 34, (539546). Koch-Steindl, H., Prohl, G., (2001). Considerations on the behavior of long-lived radionuclides in the soil, Rad Environ Biophys, 40, (93-104).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Review paper 10.7251/AGSY15051522H ADDRESSING WATER SCARCITY THROUGH RECYCLING AND MAKING THE BEST USE OF WASTE WATER Atef HAMDY1, Adel ALY2* 1

Emeritus Professor, Water Resources Management, CIHEAM/Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, Bari, Italy 2 Researcher-Analyst, CIHEAM/Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, Bari, Italy *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

As world demand for water grows, water reclamation and reuse becomes increasingly important and an indispensable component of integral water resources management to enhance water supply reliability. Now a days, politically and technically it is well recognized the important role the treated waste water and its reuse could play in reducing the enormous gap between the increasingly water demand and the limited fragile water supply particularly in many arid and semi arid developing countries. In the future, it is certain that water reuse will increase worldwide not only with a view to countering problems already known, but also to counter a new threat arising from climate change and the expected changes it could have on the available water resources. (IPCC 2007). Water reuse is meant to help close the water cycle and therefore enable sustainable reuse of available water resources. When integrated to water resources management, water reuse may be considered as an important component of the national research policy and as an integral part of environmental pollution control and water management strategy. It may present benefits to public health, the environment and economic development. Reclaimed water may provide significant additional renewable, reliable amounts of water and contribute to the conservation of fresh water resources. To obtain maximum benefits and to minimize the risks from water reuse, we are in need to better understanding of the advantages, the drawbacks and controversial opinions about planning, methodologies, appropriate technologies, implementation challenges and opportunities. Those are some of the fundamental issues beside others to be fully discussed in this paper. Keywords: waste water, water scarcity, water reuse, water management and research policy.

Introduction Nowadays, politically and technically the important role of treated wastewater and its reuse could play in reducing the enormous gap between the increasing water demand limited fragile water supply particularly in many arid and semi arid developing countries is well recognized. In dead for some water scarce regions including those of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, treated wastewater is becoming a common source for additional water and is already included in their master plans (Bahri, 2002; Bazza, 2002 and Hamdy, 1999).As a matter of fact, for many countries, wastewater reuse is recognized as an encouraging solution to cope with the problem of water scarcity, the big challenge many countries are now facing (Collinos et al., 2009). In order to cope with water scarcity, one of the most promising supply management practices to be explored is the reuse of wastewater (Periera et al., 2002). Technological advances in the treatment field have enabled treatment facilities to obtained reclaimed water quality suitable for urban and even potable supply (Maliva and Missimer, 2012). However, several obstacles have hampered the implementation of this type of projects for instance, the tight compartmentalization of sanitation and supply sectors has limited the development of reuse schemes and consequently resulted in a mismanagement of water resources. Bridging supply and sanitation sectors into a more integrated approach is vital for achieving sustainable management of urban water systems (Lazarova et al., 2001; Bixio et al., 2006). With issues of climate change, increase in urban population and increased demand for

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ water from competing sectors, wastewater recycling is becoming an important strategy to complement the existing water resources for both developing and developed countries and there are lessons, experiences data and technology that can be shared for mutual benefit. Wastewater: a growing source By 2015, 88% of the one billion person growth in the global population will occur in cities, the most majority of this growth will occur in developing countries (UNDP, 1998). An increase in urban water supply ensures an increased wastewater generation. The growing wastewater volumes render a cheap and reliable alternative to conventional irrigation systems. In this context wastewater is a resource that could be of increased national and global importance, particularly in urban and peri-urban agriculture. According to Hussein et al., (2001), there is at least 20 million hectares in 50 countries irrigated with raw or partial treated wastewater. After reviewing many overseas recycling projects, Radcliffe 2004 concluded that worldwide, water reuse is becoming an increasingly common component of water resources planning as the costs of wastewater disposal rise and the opportunities for conventional water supply development dwindle. In many developing countries particularly those in arid and semi arid regions the use and recycling of wastewater is always increasing with time due to a combination of factors among them: urban population increase, decrease in rainfall, water scarcity, environmental concerns, need for greener water strategies and improved technology. Figure (1) illustrate the increase in urban water supply coverage have been and will continue to be the highest in Asia and Africa, where absolute population figures as well as population growth are the highest. In this context wastewater is a resource that could be of increased national and global importance.

Figure 1. Growth in urban water supply coverage by regions of the world. Source: Scott et al., 2004

Water reuse: the main drivers Main drivers for reusing water are: drought and scarcity of water supplies; resource efficiency and protection of existing water supplies. Drought and water scarcity: treated wastewater is commonly used for irrigation purposes around the world due to drought and scarcity of water supplies. This is the case in Europe and especially in the southern Europe as well as the arid and semi arid countries of the Mediterranean and Middle East regions. Resources efficiency: Not all water that is consumed in industry, agriculture or in municipality needs to be drinking water quality. Producing clean water from waste water in the long term can be more economical and sustainable than over consuming fresh water sources or desalinating sea water. Treated wastewater can be used in many applications. For instance in the pulp and paper industry the water is reused several times and water

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ consumption has dropped significantly over the years. In the 1970s producing 1 tonne of pulp required as much as 250 m3 of water – now it only takes 5-50 m3. The past decade saw water consumption of paper machines being reduced by 1/3 as a result of more efficient water circulation. It is well recognized that, insufficient financial and coping capacities constrain the establishment of comprehensive wastewater management systems The use of untreated wastewater is not limited to the countries and cities with the lowest gross domestic product (GDP), but is also a common practice in many middle-income countries as well (RaschidSally and Jayakody, 2008). Wastewater reuse: the benefits The most relevant reuse benefit of wastewater is making a new water supply source available. Besides, this new resource guarantees a high level of supply relatively constant between years (Friedler, 2001), which may bring increased benefits to users that suffer from constant water shortages (Mesa- Jurado et al., 2012). Increasing the resource availability entails decreasing on water stressed bodies (Miller, 2009). The reuse of treated wastewater can provide the following benefits: Economic benefits: Designed correctly, recycling can help achieve considerable savings because water only needs to be treated for its purpose. For example, desalinating sea water for irrigation would be more energy demanding and expensive than using reclaimed water for the same purpose. Social benefits: Water reuse can ensure the safeguarding of existing water supplies and to manage the imbalance between water demand and supply. Ecological benefits: Water reuse can help to decrease the amount of waste water discharged into the environment. Ground water levels can be kept; overutilization of water from lakes can be avoided and in some cases nutrients in wastewater can be directly reused in agriculture. Direct wastewater reuse provides also an effective means of coping with nitrogen and other nutrients and pollutants present in effluents (Hernandez-Sancho et al., 2010). At the same time, direct wastewater reuse may reduce the dependency on other sources of fertilization (Toze, 2006, and Fonder et al., 2010). Environmental benefits:In addition to providing dependable, locally controlled water supply, water recycling provides tremendous environmental benefits including the following: - Decrease diversion of freshwater from sensitive ecosystems: people who reuse water can supplement their demands by using a reliable source of recycled water, which can free considerable amounts of water for the environment and increase flows to vital ecosystems and thereby avoid the diversion of freshwater from sensitive ecosystems that can cause deterioration of water quality and ecosystem health. - Enhance wetlands and riparian (stream) habitats: experiences gained demonstrate clearly that streams that have been impaired or dried from water diversion, water flow can be augmented with recycled water to sustain and improve the aquatic and wildlife habitat. - Prevent and reduce pollution: A clear demonstration for such benefit can be seen with recycled water containing higher levels of nutrients, such as nitrogen. Application of recycled water for agricultural and landscape irrigation can provide an additional source of nutrients and lessen the need to apply synthetic fertilizers (El-Motaiam and Abdel Monem, 2001). - Saving energy: recycling water on site or nearby reduces the energy needed to move water longer distances or pump water from deep within an aquifer. Tailoring water quality to a specific water use also reduces the energy needed to treat water using recycled water that is of lower quality for uses that don’t require high quality water saves energy and money by reducing treatment requirements. In addition, to the environmental benefits achieved due to the reuse and recycling of wastewater, other several benefits could be obtained including:

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ 1. Conservation of fresh water resources for other uses. 2. Reduction in the need for wastewater infrastructure for treatment and disposal of sewage 3.Reduction in the need for nitrate and phosphate removal by the treatment system since these elements have added value in agriculture (Hamdy and Ragab, 2005); Papadopoulos (1995). 4. Reduction of pollution from disposal of sewage into the environment (Fridler, 2001). 5. Combating desertification (Al-Shreideh, 2001). However, in spite of the benefits gained by reusing treated wastewater in irrigation, there are associated health risks due to contact with reclaimed wastewater. Consequently, it is of utmost importance to make sure that these risks are minimized and monitored (Toze, 2006). Wastewater use: The risks. Hussain et al., (2001) developed an overview of the potential benefits and risks arising from the use of wastewater in agriculture. Selected potential impacts are summarized as follows: Public health: Wastewater has the potential to cause diseases as it contains bacteria, viruses and parasites. Also, the inclusion of heavy metals in wastewater can be very dangerous for human health. Wastewater use in agriculture causes risk to the population living within and outside the wastewater irrigation zone. Crops: Wastewater is attractive and economically valuable for farmers because it contains important nutrients for crop growth. However, a high concentration of chemical pollutants in wastewater may be toxic to plants. Soil resources: Accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, dissolved solids and other constituents such as heavy metals in the soil affect its productivity and the sustainability of land use for agriculture. Salt accumulation in the root zone may have harmful impacts on crop yields. Groundwater resources: Leaching of nutrients and salts included in wastewater has the potential to affect the quality of groundwater. The degree of impact depends on several factors, including the quality of groundwater, depth of water table, soil drainage and the amount of wastewater applied for irrigation. Ecological impacts: Drainage of wastewater from irrigation schemes into water bodies may indirectly affect aquatic life and negatively influence overall biodiversity, e.g., the presence of water birds. Social impacts: The use of wastewater in agriculture has different social impacts such as food safety, health and welfare, impaired quality of life, loss of property values and sustainability of land use. Wastewater – reuse and recycling: Environmental and public health The main issue derived from wastewater reuse is the health and environmental risk in agriculture and urban uses or ecosystems enhancement purpose. Reclaimed wastewater involves a certain amount of risk because it may contain dissolved solids, heavy metals, pesticides, pathogens and other substances which may cause damage to ecosystems, crops or human beings (Norton-Branduo et al., 2013). In regard to urban uses pathogens (bacteria, virus, protozoa, and parasitic worms) are the most concerning risk since this can cause disease spread. It is worthy to emphasize that an important parameter to decide on the economic feasibility of a reuse plan in agriculture is salinity, as this is not reduced by regular treatments, but requires environmental and economic costly solution such as reserve osmosis (Haruvy, 1998). The impact of effluent disposal on ecosystems has been well documented (Garcia and Pargament 2015). The presence of organic and inorganic nutrients can cause eutrophication and algae bloom, a worldwide environmental problem that causes hypoxia and fish kills, as well as a nuisance to city dwellers and visitors (Gibbs et al., 2002). Beside nutrients, emerging contaminants such as organic wastewater derived compounds might be recognised as one of the most relevant stressors in ecological rehabilitation (Plumlee et al., 2012). Wastewater recycling: the barriers A number of factors influence wastewater recycling. These include:

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Centralized wastewater treatment systems, the location of the treatment plants, the availability of space in and around cities and the topography – all of these factors restrict the use of wastewater to certain areas and for specific purposes.. There are substantial barriers to entry in the field of wastewater recycling. Wastewater is often operated and owned by a single entity, like the Water Board or sewage treatment plant, which is often the retailer. Also, wastewater recycling often requires a dual reticulation system that is inefficient to duplicate (Muir, 2006). There are both positive and negative externalities associated with wastewater recycling. The positive externality is: environmental benefits from reduced discharge of saline wastewater into natural water bodies. The negative externalities include potential groundwater pollution and increase in soil salinity if used for irrigation and potential unknown ill effects on human health if used for potable uses.. Public perception is the main barrier for a reuse scheme implementation (Miller, 2006). Without the acceptance of the public, it would be complicated for any utility to locate, finance develop and operate any reclamation plant for the purpose of water reuse (Bdour et al., 2009) The wastewater challenges In many parts of the world, wastewater is already used for agriculture. This practice should be encouraged, but, it must be done safely. The challenge is to establish appropriately national and regional guidelines for wastewater reuse in view of the characteristics of the wastewater and the prevailing socio, economic and environment prevailing conditions. Furthermore it is needed to identify practical and safe uses that do not threaten those communities which are dependent on wastewater, accounting the importance that this resource plays in achieving food security in growing urban areas. The fact that right now more than 90% of world’s wastewater in discharged untreated into oceans, rivers, or wherever else it can go is indeed a disaster in slow motion that will grow in proportion and impact. In this context the challenge is having solutions for wastewater management not only of human sewage, but also of industrial, agricultural and urban wastewater. According to the World Bank, “The greatest challenge in the water and sanitation sector over the next two decades will be the implementation of low cost sewage treatment that will at the same time permit selective reuse of treated effluents for agricultural and industrial purposes” (Green Arth, 2012). Wastewater reuse and recycling: supportive policy and institutional setting. The divers impacts that wastewater use has on the environment, public health, local economies and food security, combined with substantial secondary impacts, highlight the complexity and cross-cutting nature of wastewater management. Proper wastewater management requires collaboration and dialogue between partners and stakeholders involved in wastewater issues, for example, farmers, public health officials, municipal and waste managers, planners and developers. The management of wastewater use in agriculture involves many of the following actors which need to cooperate these actions and regulations: ministers of water resources, agriculture, health, the environment, energy and development; research institutions and universities, NGOs, farmers’ groups, consumers, water operators and municipal and local water management institutions. To facilitate the safe management of wastewater in agriculture in this complex context, appropriate policies, legislation, institutional frameworks and regulations at international, national and local level need to be in place which brings these actors together. Scountries have already established platform for these actors to exchange knowledge at national level, there is little structure and opportunity for across sectoral approach and issues of safe use wastewater for agriculture. Important aspects to address this gap such be analysed such as the followings: institutional roles and responsibilities, economic instruments, and education and social awareness.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Concluding remarks and recommendations Technology selection should focus on the type of reuse anticipated, proximity to source of effluent, environmental sustainability, local conditions, and affordability. Simple solutions that are easily replicated, that allow further up-grading with subsequent development and that can be operated and maintained by the local community are often considered the most appropriate and cost effective An important element in sustainable water reuse is the formulation of a framework of realistic, achievable and enforceable standards for treated wastewater quality and applications. Monitoring and evaluation of water reuse programs and projects are fundamental and thus must overcome challenges of weak institutions, shortage of trained personnel, lack of monitoring equipment and the relatively high cost required for monitoring processes. The establishment of clear policies with regard to wastewater management and water reuse is required in order to guide programs, projects and investments relating to wastewater collection, treatment, reuse and disposal in a sustainable manner. These policies should be compatible with other local policies including those on national water management and irrigation, health, sanitation, agriculture and the environment. Policies of water reuse and strategies for its implementation should be part of water resources planning at the national level. At the local level, individual reuse projects should be part of the overall river basin planning effort. The responsibilities of the various organizations involved in wastewater collection, treatment and reuse must be considered and reconciled by improving coordination among stakeholders and the donor community. Improved participatory approaches (especially with farmers) are further needed including raising the awareness of the general public on the benefits of water reuse. Furthermore efforts are needed to allocate the required funds to support applied research to find sustainable wastewater treatment processes adaptable to the socioeconomic and climatic conditions. That the safe use of wastewater in agriculture is an important water resource issue that needs to be addressed, efforts are still needed to advance it in national policies and to implement safe use guidelines and practices. The lack of implementation of guidelines and safety standards can lead to another wise avoidable aggravation of health risks that could result in significant secondary impacts. References Al-Shreideh, B. (2001). Reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation and agriculture as a nonconventional resource in Jordan. In: water saving and increasing water productivity: challenges and options. University of Jordan pp. 18.1 – 18.30. Bahri, A. (2002). wastewater reuse in the middle east, north Africa and Mediterranean countries. National research institute for agricultural engineering. Water and forestry, Tunisia. Bazza, M. (2002). Wastewater recycling and reuse in the near East region: Experiences and issues. In: Proc. Of: IWA- Regional symposium on water recycling in the Mediterranean region. Iraklion, Greece, pp. 43-60. Bdour A. N., M. R. Hamdi, and Z. Tarawneh (2009). Prespectives on sustainable wastewater treatment technologies and reuse options in the urban areas of the Meditteranean region. Desalination 237, 162-174. Doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2007.12.030,ISSN: 00119164. Bixio, D., C. Thoeye, J. De Koning, D. Joksimovic, D. Savic, T. Wintgens and T. Melin (2006) Wastewater reuse in Europe, Desalination, 187, 89–101.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Collins, R., P. Kristensen, N. Thyssen (2009). Water resources across Europe - confronting water scarcity and drought. European Environmental Agency EEA Report series. N. 2/2009EEA, Copenhagen (2009) ISSN 1725-9177.Green Arth (2012). Urban Wastewater. http://greenarth.com/urbanwastewater.html. Plumlee, M.H., C.J. Gurr, M. Reinhard (2012). Recycled water for stream flow augmentation benefits, challenges, and the presence of wastewater-derived organic compounds. Sci. Total Environ., 438 (2012), pp. 541–548 El-Motaium R.A. and Abdel Monem M. (2001). “Long term effect of using sewage water for irrigation on nitrate accumulation in soil and plants”. Egyptian J. Soil Sci.Vol. 41, No. 4, pp 527-538 Fridler, 2001). Fonder, N., B. Heens, D. Xanthoulis (2010). Optimisation of fertilisation for irrigated vegetables Biotechnol. Agron. Soc., 14 (S1) (2010), pp. 103–111 Frieder. E., (2001). Water reuse an integral part of water resources management: Israel as a case study. Water policy 3(1): 29-39. Garcia X.,Pargament D. (2015). Rehabilitating rivers and enhancing ecosystem services in a water-scarcity context: the Yarqon River International journal of water resources development 2015 v.31 no.1 pp. 73-87 Gibbs, J.P., J.M. Halstead, K.J. Boyle, J.C. Huang (2002). An hedonic analysis of the effects of lake water clarity on New Hampshire lakefront properties. Agric. Resource Econ. Rev., 31 (1) (2002), pp. 39–46 Hamdy, A. (1999). Sewage water prospects and challanges for use. In Mediterranean water resources: Major challanges towords the 21st century. (eds) Atef Hamdy and Cosimo Lacerignola. CIHEAM/IAM Bari, Italy March 1999. Hamdy, A. and Ragab, R. (2005). Reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation: challenges and perspectives. In: Ragab R. and Koo-Oshima S. (eds). International workshop of environmentalconsequences of irrigation with poor quality waters. Center for Ecology and Hydrology. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp. 5-28. Haruvy, N., (1998), Wastewater reuse- regional and economic considerations Resources, Conservation and Recycling 23: 57-66 Hernandez-Sancho, F., Molinos-Senante, M. & Sala-Garrido, R. (2010), Economic valuation of environmental benefits from wastewater treatment processes: An empirical approach for Spain, Science of the total environment, 408(4):953-7. Hussain, I., L. Raschid, M.A. Hanjra, F. Marikar, and W. van der Hoek (2001). A framework for analyzing socioeconomic, health and environmental impacts of wastewater use in agriculture in developing countries: Working Paper 26. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. IWMI. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Fourth assessment report: Climate change 2007. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml. Lazarova V, Bahri A (2008) Water reuse practices for agriculture. In: Jeminez B, Asano T (eds) Water reuse: an international survey of current practice, issues and needs. IWA, London, pp 199–227 Miller, W.G. (2006). Integrated concepts in water reuse: managing global water needs. Desalination, 187 (1) (2006), pp. 65–75 Maliva, R., Missimer, T., 2012. Aridity and Drought. In: Maliva, R., Missimer, T. (Eds.), Arid Lands Water Evaluation and Management. Environmental Science and Engineering. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-29104-3_2. Mesa-Jurado A, Martin-Ortega J, Berbel J, Burto E (2012) The economic value of guaranteed water supply for irrigation under scarcity conditions. Agricultural Water Management. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2012.06.009.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Norton-Brandão, D., S.M. Scherrenberg, J.B. van Lier (2013). Reclamation of used urban waters for irrigation purposes – a review of treatment technologies. J. Environ. Manage., 122 (2013), pp. 85–98 Papadopoulos, I. (1995) wastewater management for agricultural production and environmental protection in the NER. FAO regional office for the Near East, Cairo, Egypt. Pereira, L. S.; Cordery, I.; and Iacovides, I., 2002. 'Coping with water scarcity'. Technical Documents in Hydrology, 58. UNESCO, Paris. Radcliffe, J. 2004. Water recycling in Australia. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Parkville, Melbourne. Raschid-Sally, L.; Jayakody, P. 2008. Drivers and characteristics of wastewater agriculture in developing countries: Results from a global assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. 35p. (IWMI Research Report 127) Scott, C. Faruqui, NI., Raschidi, L., (eds) (2004). Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture, confronting the livelihood and environmental realities, wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: Management challenges in developing countries. (ABI/IWMI/IDRS/, 2004, pp. 206. Available at: http://www.idre.ca/openbooks/112-4/ Toze, S. (2006). Reuse of effluent water – benefits and risks. Agriculture water management. 80 (1-3), 147-159. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1998. Global Human Development Report 1998. Oxford Universty Press, New York.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Review paper 10.7251/AGSY15051530H INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN SMART WATER MANAGEMENT Atef HAMDY1 1

Emeritus Professor, Water Resources Management, CIHEAM/Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, Bari-Italy *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract For most Countries in arid and semi arid regions including those of the Mediterranean water scarcity and water stress are among the dominant crucial problems, seriously affecting any type of development. Indeed, the majority of those countries are subjected to both economic and physical water security. Institutional constraints, aging infrastructure, ICTs gap, lack of investment, poor data and lack of quality services are just some key challenges that the water sector faces. Smart water management (SWM) has become a key policy issue for the 21st century, as a solution to a number of a factors those are impacting the delivery of water to the affected people. Moreover a number of issue linked to climate change, such as lengthy drought and extreme weather variations are worsening the situation. SWM seeks to alleviate challenges in the water sector by promoting the coordinated development and management of ICT products, solutions and systems in order to maximize economic and social welfare without compromising the sustainability water as a resource of the environment. Today ICTs have become pivotal in very day life. Though there is many initiatives designed to enhance water sustainability, efficiency and accessibility via ICTs to address the water crisis and the increasingly surrounding problems. Nowadays ICTs, therefore, are increasingly becoming a key enabling tool for data acquisition, early evaluation, communication or automated management in the water sector. However, in spite of the progress in promoting the integration of ICTs in water resources management yet, there is still a need for the development of standards policies and proper ICTs governance to ensure that there is integrity in the water resources management. Key words: Smart water management, ICTs, Security, Sustainable development, Mediterranean Introduction Today, we are faced with an unprecedented number of global water issues. As a solution to these, SWM in connection with ICTs has emerged as stable and efficient water management system. However, for the realization of SWM, it is needed to move forward and strengthen and expand the cooperation systems the implementation of water technology standardization in order to respond effectively and accelerate the resolution of global water issues (ITUT, 2010), Vital solution to relieve water stress caused by climate change and pollution growth can be achieved by applying state-of-the-art technologies using ICTs. SWM could have an important role to resolve water issues by intelligent integrated-technologies and water information generated in the process of the whole water cycle (Al Sheikh, 2011). In addition, it can maximise the efficiency of water management in terms of water resource management, treatment, distribution and energy consumption. The world at it was known, 30 years ago is not what it is today; neither will be the same 30 years from now (FAO, 2011; WWAP 2009; UNEP, 2008). Such dramatic change in such a short period of time is mainly attributed to the develop0ment of ICTs. Modern ICTs have provided today’s society with a vast array of innovative communication capabilities and have transformed the world into a global village.. Harnessing ICTs technology within the water sector creates a more intelligent means to manage and protect the plant’s water resources (DeLange et al., 2013). Indeed ICTs can play

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ a special role in this respect through a number of technologies that help in better distribution, management and allocation of water. Unfortunately, the role that ICTs play to help in measuring, monitoring, and distribution of water as result of environmental issues has not been fully defined and completed. Smart water management: meaning and objectives Smart Water management (SWM) is a future-oriented water management strategy integrating and managing the entire process of the water cycle from analysis of current situation to purification, distribution, use and recycling of water resources scientifically and systematically. Indeed, it is an integrated management model covering the entire water cycle securing the stability, safety and efficiency of water (IBM Research, 2013). SWM can be seen as an intelligent water management model covering all aspects from water supply infrastructures to the production and distribution of water resources, digital data to manage water scientifically,. SWM seeks alleviate challenges in the water sector by promoting the coordinated development and management of water, through integration of ICT products, solutions and systems (Hope and Thomas, 2012). Why do need smart technology for water? Recently stakeholders in water sector are trying to incorporating ICT technology into water management extensively, pursuing smart water management to satisfy a variety of demands based on regional needs and economic conditions (Acqua, 2014). Smart technology for water management provides alternatives to the traditional solutions by applying intelligent ICT (Kappor, 2006). Today’s water supply industry in faced with many imminent problems such as aging water supply infrastructure, supply and demand imbalances of water, water pollution and rising energy costs. Smart Water Management: What it can provide with respect to conventional methods Unlike conventional methods, SWM initiatives is not dependent on the supply capacity of water sources. It provides the optimal utilization system by combining every water resources available including underground water sea water and rain water. Therefore water can be provided and reused whenever necessary without a large scale infrastructure such as dams. Furthermore, it is to be added that SWM is capable of accurately predicting the needs and appropriate coordination of production and supply through ICT-based analysis of consumption patterns. As such, water quality and quantity and be ensured and saving can be promoted. Smart Water Management: the tools SWM tools fall into these main categories, data acquisition and integration (e.g. sensor, networks, smart pipes, smart meters, etc.), modelling and analytics (e.g. radio transmission, WiFi. Internet, etc., data processing and storage; ( e.g. Cloud computing ); management and control (eg. SCADA Optimization tools), and visualization and decision supporting (e.g. Web-based communication tools. Flow data from one end of a river without the use of stream digital geographical data can be used to create digital topography models, and videography have made it possible to store and retrieve large volumes of ground information (Mauree, 2010). Water Smart Grid WSG WSG is one innovative approach to addressing water scarcity, promoting efficient water use, updating existing water infrastructure, improving water quality and reducing water related energy consumption (Brozowski, 2011). The development and implementation of smart grid systems for water are similar to those that have been used for electricity distribution. A WSG

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ system would direct an innovative technology suite, including smart water meters, sensors, advances modelling, water mapping, smart irrigation, autonomous robots, and other technologies, that would work together to create a data-drive system for intelligent management of water resources. These systems would be comprised of network of hardware and software that continuously monitors municipal water use ad agricultural irrigation systems; water treatment plants; individual ground water withdrawals and delivery and allocation schemes to provide consumers and utilities with real-time information on water consumption from consumer, commercial, industrial and agricultural endpoints and users (Culter, 2013). Changing the Concepts of Water Management The purpose of conventional water management is to ensure smooth water flow from water sources to consumers while smart water management is to transform flowing water to communicating water as it is aiming to realize water management system equipped with scientific assessment and constant communication smart water management through providing information on the whole water cycle from water source to production, supply to consumers, and re-sues (Figure 1) The application of the innovative smart water management approach will ensure not only stability but also both safety and efficiency of water.

Figure 1: Changing the Concept of Water management Source: K water , the WWF (2015) SWM is it the water management for tomorrow management? Smart Water consists of an information architecture and intelligent infrastructure that enable automated sensing, monitoring and decision support for water management operations. This approach includes a combination of Smart Sensors, modelling, connect and facilitate information flows. It enables continuous monitoring of physical, water infrastructure and environments, It also provides a foundation for more robust, reliable and strategic water management capabilities. With data integration, data from various sources can be combined to show the entire management domain. According to (Meena and Singht 2012), the water management projects should be based on: - Combining science-driven conservation with IT expertise and computing power - Building a novels software modelling framework for stimulate the behaviour of river basin around the world

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ - Informing policy and management decision that conserve the natural environment and benefit the people who rely on these resources. In this regard: People technologies will be essential to successful implementation of smart system People should be viewed as active participants of systems: sensors, decision makers , actors People should play key role in the reflection, and reshaping of.

SWM: managing and protecting water resources. Can we implement smart Water management? In our opinion the answer to the raised question should be not just we can, but should be we must. This is because we have the followings. Instrumented: we now have the ability to measure, sense and see the exact condition of practically everything Interconnected: people systems and objects can communicate and interact with each other in entirely new ways. Intelligent: we can respond to changes quickly and accurately, and get better results by predicating and optimizing for future events. Tackling the case of managing and protecting water resources we can think and act in more intelligent ways concerning the followings: Eliminate data drought by improving access and delivery of the right information to drive a new era of smarter water management. Build and repair water infrastructure whilst adding intelligence and instrumentation into the network to maximize return or investment well into the future Water resources challenges and use of ICT Many developing countries including those of Mediterranean are facing a series of challenges : ongoing urbanisation, resource depletion and CO2 emission, an ageing and deteriorating urban water supply infrastructure and the effect of climate change. Water scarcity is a real issue which will grow in importance in the near future compounded by the effect of climate change, rising population and economic growth. To meet these challenges and to be able to drive sustainable economic growth, those countries need to tap their innovation potential through the use of Information and communication Technologies (ICTs). The use of relevant ICT and social computing can instrumentaly raise awareness of stakeholders on the significance of water sector in sustainability and in changing behaviours and attitudes among citizens. ICT can help water managers drive aggressive information campaigns and integrate the water sector with other country services in order to deliver sustainable service sand quality citizens life. The problem of future water security-including flooding and droughts is not going to go away and we must look across the whole water cycle from abstraction and treatment to use and sewage, to help address the infrastructures and attitude changes which are needed. This clearly characterize the role ICT can play in smart water management. The (OCED ,2008) in their environmental outlook to 2030 (www.oced.org) states that water demand is expected to rise globally by 55% between 2000 to 2050, by 2050 up to 3.9 billion people, 40% of the world population, may be living in water stressed area. ITCs and collaborative innovation are instrumental in helping of water management. ICT in smart water management In 2013, the international telecommunication Union (ITU) decided to establish a Focus Group on Smart Water Management (SWM). This initiative, aims to promote the use of ICT for

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ better distribution/management and allocation of water as there is lack of attention being paid to smart water management resulting in low investment level. The fact that SWM is critical to sustainable water future, nowadays the demand for intelligent and automation through ICT is increasing. The ITU has found that it is necessary for ICT to be imbedded into smart water management systems to get timely data and react to change quickly. However for smart water management, we need deeper collaboration, collective input from stakeholders to empower affected communities and to mange water and energy related challenges with an extremely high rate (Laspidou, 2014). For the energy sector ICT can enable energy network in a reasonable and sustainable way (Pagani and Aiello, 2012). ICTs opportunities ICT use in SMW have wide application and clear set of benefits, which, in general, increases water use efficiency and therefore decrease consumption. (Gourbesville, 2011, Martinez Liado, 2013, Savic, 2013). Some of major areas where improvement is evident could be outlined in: Real-time monitoring: Technologies such as smart metering, SCADA, GIS, telecommunication sensors and decision support systems, all are effective tools for the provision of real-time reliable data. This means that water utilities have the opportunity to make improvements in demand response and in reducing water losses in the water distribution system; Reduction in water consumption: ICTs provide the tools needed to create advanced water use efficiency in all sectors. Incorporation of sensors in the agricultural sectors ensures that crops are watered when needed reducing large volumes of water normally lost due to over irrigation; Reduction in operation costs: Improvement in operational efficiencies mean that administrations costs can be reduced, creating an optimization of expenses. (Culter, 2013). Greater public involvement: One of the benefits of ICTs is the improvement in communication between water utilities and the public which will lead to an enhancement in public awareness with respect to consumption and water usage (Alsheikh, 2011); Integration of smart water management in smart sustainable cities (SSC): Practically, SWM is highly incorporable into SCC and it safeguards economic growth and sustain a higher quality of life as well as it maintains ecological and environmental resources for future generations (Mizuki et al., 2012). Environmental flow integration: The use of ICT products, solutions and systems in the proper monitoring and assessment of environment flow can lead to better decision-making in sustainable management of water resources (OECD, 2008) ICTs Challenges Although there is sustainable opportunities of ICTs use in SWM, global development in this area are currently insufficient and are mainly due to: Lack of standardization: In spite of the efforts carried out by ITU in this field, there still need for further standardization. Standardization maintains integrity, and adherence ensures that there is compatibility, interoperability, and certain level of quality. Therefore reduction of risks (UNESCWA, 2013). Lack of policies: Generally in most Countries there is no coherent multi-sectors and or multistakeholder coordinated policy on water management and /or conservation. For those Countries, it is needed to have an integrated policy formulation approach that integrates different governmental sectors, NGOs, CBOs, Academia, and the private sector for the success and adoption of water resources management policies on the national and regional level (UN-Water, 2012) .

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Lack of awareness: Awareness, proper education as well dissemination are essential for proper water resources management. Many Countries are not necessary conscious on the role of ITCs can play in water management or of it is usefulness, with little attention on how ICTs can act as an enabler of SWM on large scale. Proper ICTs governance: Lack of ICTs governance impacts investments as well as prevents stable coordinated and comprehensive planning to address future requirements and proper integration (WGF, 2012). Key stakeholders involved in ICTs and SWM For SWM to effectively tackles global water issues, stakeholders engagement is imperative. The type of ITCs used in SWM plan or project, is as effective and efficient, as the understanding of the roles and responsibilities played by the stakeholders. SWM stakeholders fall into diverse groups according to their roles (advising, producing solutions, making decisions.etc.). Stakeholders engagement typically involves the main areas are represented in Figure 2. For successful integration and implementation of SWM within countries, stakeholders involvement is necessary and should not be conducted in parallel but rather as an interactive process strategically woven throughout to determine priorities, increase support for remediation programmes and generally enhance the livelihood of success..

Figure 2. Good Stakeholders Engagement Source: Partnering for solutions: ICTs in Smart Water Management ITU 2014

Concluding remarks and recommendations ICT is the indispensable enabler to achieve the necessary level of control and management of water networks. What is impressive, however, is that there is no standard for data management and no data interoperability of systems across the providers, practically. Everything needs to be built. This will require a massive research effort from the ICT industry to adopt solutions to the water sector, develop adequate standards and interoperability. One of the biggest drivers for change to smart water networks is leakage and conservation, especially in countries facing serious water scarcity issues. Leak detection is one of the most active areas of smart networking. Network monitoring, combined with analytics software, are helping to reduce the impact of leakes and identify areas in need of repair before a burst become visible and is reported. Proper integration and stakeholders involvement prevents fragmented and uncoordinated approaches to water management issues, and therefore leads to a smarter way for water management. Appropriate intelligence adoption is SWM can only be achieved if there is focus on partnering the right technologies with the right stakeholders.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Information from utilities, municipalities, regulators, investors technology provider and academia must be bridged and are properly harnessed. This allows for the development of innovative partnership, creating the right solutions for all. ICTs can bring enormous benefits to water authorities in mapping and monitoring of natural water resources, aquifer recharge as well as in forecasting river flows and advanced warming in water related emergency situation. ICTs have the capability of: Providing reliable real-time information needed for monitoring, measuring, modelling, and managing of water resources, Reliable data leads to better decision making and consequently clearer projection to cope with water scarcity and water stress problems. To enhance water allocation by ensuring it is done in a more fair and equitable manner To be strategic enabler to drive SMW policies and assessment. References 7th WWFT (2015). K water Smart water management Initiative. Pp20 www.kwater.or.kr Al Sheikh, S. (2011), Information and Communication Technology for Water Utility Management: Best practices and experience sharing among ACWUA members [PowerPoint slides]. ACWUA’s 4th Best Practices Conference Water and Wastewater Utilities Reform (Changes and Challenges). [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.acwua.org/sites/default/files/nabil_chemaly.pdf. Aqua. (2014). Aqua - ICT for water efficiency. Retrieved from http://www.a-qua.eu/. Cutler, S. (2013), Smart Water Metering Networks An Intelligent Investment? [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/print/volume-26/issue5/regulars/creative-finance/smart-watermetering-networks-an-intelligentinvestment.html. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2011). The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: Managing systems at risk. London/Rome, Earthscan/FAO . http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i1688e/i1688e.pdf. Gourbesville, P. (2011). ICT for Water Efficiency In: Dr Ema Ekundayo (Ed.), Environmental Monitoring, ISBN: 978-953-307-724-6, InTech, [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/environmentalmonitoring/ict-for-water-efficiency. Hope R. and Thomas M. (2012) Smart Water Systems Phase II: Progress Report, Year 1 Project R5737. [Online] Retrieved from: http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/water/SmartWaterSystems_ProgressReport_Nov201 2.pdf. IBM (2013), Delivering insights from data to better manage water infrastructure, assets and operations. IBM. Retrieved from http://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/en/gws03010usen/GWS03010USEN.PDF. Kappor, T. (2006). Role of Information and Communication Technology in Adaptive Integrated Water Resource Management. World Environmental and Water Resource Congress, 1-10. Retrieved from http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/40856%28200%291. Laspidous, C.S. (2014). ICT and Stakeholders participation for improved urban water management. Water Utility Journal 8:79-85. Martinez Lladó, X. (2012), Threats and Opportunities in ICT/Water Sector. First stakeholders meeting Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Fez, Morocco [PowerPoint slides]. [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.moict.eu/pdf/1st-stackeholders-meetingpresentations/13-threats-and-opportunities-of-ict-watersector.pdf.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Mauree, V. (2010), ICT as an Enabler for Smart Water Management. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itut/oth/23/01/T23010000100003PDFE.pdf. Meena, M., & Singh, K. (2012). Information and communication technology for sustainable natural resource management. Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/45818/1/MPRA_paper_45818.pdf. Mizuki F., Mikawa K. and Kurisu H. (2012). Intelligent Water System for Smart Cities, Hitach Review 61839, 147-151. OECD. (2008). OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030. Retrieved from OECD: www.oced.org Pagani, G.A. & Aiello, M. (2012), An ICT overview of water management. [Online] Retrieved from: http://www.cs.rug.nl/~andrea/publications/ictWMgt.pdf. Savić D. (2013), iWIDGET: Improved Water efficiency through ICT technologies for integrated supply-Demand side management[PowerPoint slides]. [Online] Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/cf/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=2021 UNEP. (2008). An Overview of the State of the World’s Fresh and Marine Waters - 2nd Edition. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/article152.html. UNESCWA (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia) (2013). Water Development Report 5: Issues in Sustainable Water Resources Management and Water Services. New York, United Nations (UN). UN-Water. (2012). The UN-Water Status Report on the Application of Integrated Approaches to Water Resources Management. New York, UN-Water. WGF (Water Governance Facility) (2012). Human Rights-Based Approaches and Managing Water Resources: Exploring the potential for enhancing development outcomes. WGF Report No. 1. Stockholm, Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme) (2009). The United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World. Paris/New York, UNESCO/Earthscan. Brzozowski, C. (2011). The smart water grid: A new way to describe the relationship between technology, resource management and sustainable water infrastructures. Water efficiency: The Journal For Water Resources Management. http://www.forstermedia.net/WE/Articles/The Smart water Grid15397.asPX DeLange,W.J, Willems, P., Plyson, J., Vansteenkist, T. Hattman, F. and Provost, F. (2013). Water information system for Europe on research ,technology and development. http://www.hydroscane.be/uploads/663.pdfèé.19.02.2014. ITUT (2010). Technology water report (2010). ICT as enabler for smart water management pp:20.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Original scientific paper 10.7251/AGSY15051538G BIOCONCENTRATION OF LEAD IN THE POPLAR TREES (Populus robusta L.) Andrzej GREINERT, Jakub KOSTECKI*, Michał DRAB, Barbara WALCZAK, Róża WASYLEWICZ Department of Land Protection and Reclamation, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, University of Zielona Góra, 15 Prof. Z. Szafrana St., 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The area of the protective forest of the Glogow Copper Smelter (GCS), Poland, has been exposed to industrial emissions for many years. A large amount of dusts has been deposited in the topsoil. The paper presents results of the vulnerability assessment of poplar trees (Populus robusta L.) of the GCS protective forest to phytoaccumulation of lead. The bioconcentration factor (BCF), counting as the relation of Pb concentration in plant to this noted in soil, established for the poplar organs was 0.45-0.69 for leaves and 0.02-0.03 for stem. The relative small differences was observed for locations around the smelter – Zukowice I, Zukowice II and Bogomice, but very clear between them and the control site Stypulow (BCF 0.81 for leaves and 0.57 for stem). It should be taken into account absolutely different level of lead deposition in soils of the following investigation points – 175-347 mgkg-1 in GCS protective forest against 10 mgkg-1 in the control place. Presence of Pb in poplar leaves was about 20 times higher in the GCS protective forest comparing to the control site. There was not observed significant differences between the sites counting Pb concentration in the poplar stems. In the described situation more accurate for leaves analysis may be the average amounts described for the investigated plant species (plant pollution index – PPI). Key words Lead pollution, poplar tree, BCF, PPI Introduction The possibility of long-term effects of emissions to the environment was the reason for the creation of the special sanitary zones around the main Polish industrial plants. An example of such a zone is the protective forest (former Glogow Sanitary Zone – GSZ) of the Glogow Copper Smelter (GCS), established in the year of 1987. The main plant species occurring on this area is Hybrid Poplar Populus robusta L. For many years only the values described heavy metals concentration in soils and plants were presented. In the second half of the XXth century, this situation has been changed, mainly in plant physiology and general environment elaborations. It was connected mainly with the natural values estimation for soils, waters and living organisms, including plants (Adriano 1986; Eikmann et al., 1993, Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001). There were provided many researches to establish geological level of the following elements concentration in soils. As a consequence there were established the indices of state of the environment– index of geoaccumulation (Muller 1969), ecological risk index (Hakanson 1980). The next works have been focused on the threshold limits estimation and legal regulation (Eikmann and Kloke 1991, Soil and ground water criteria used in The Netherlands for contaminated land ("Dutch List") 1995, 2000, IUNG in Pulawy basis of assessment of chemical contamination of soils – Kabata-Pendias 1995, Bachmann et al. 1995, Milani et al. 1995) and evaluation of the different remediation techniques (Chaney et al. 1997, Robinson et al. 2000, Schnoor 2000, Stoltz and Greger 2002, Komárek et al. 2007, 2008).

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Nowadays are discussed many problems connected with multifactorial analysis of the environment. One of the part of such analysis is the elements flow direction and intensity estimation, counting following parts of the entire environment. Thereby it became necessary to develop and apply indicators of movement of elements in soil-water, soil-plant, soil-air and others systems. The aim of this work was to present the biosorption of Pb from the soil by the poplar plant organs – leaves and stem. Different factors were calculated to illustrate biological risk of such Pb transport in the environment. Materials and methods The research sites were placed in the former sanitary zone of the Glogow Copper Smelter (Lower Silesia Province, the western part of the Poland). The individual investigation sites Zukowice I (N 51040’50.00” E 15058’46.80”) and II (N 51040’43.80” E 15058’45.30”) are located about 0.1-0.3 km SW from the smelter, and Bogomice (N 51041’41.60” E 16000’26.50”) about 1 km NE from the smelter . The control site (Stypulow N 51041’44.30” E 15036’13.70”) was located about 15 km NW from the smelter. According to Leśniczak (2005), investigations about the choice of tree species for the area were carried out from the 1973. It was tested 440 species and varieties of trees, including 287 of poplar. From the 70th of XX century the most of the area was afforested with Populus robusta L.Soil samplings were taken from the forest root-zone (up to 50 cm). Each sample was collected as a mixed one, representing material from the whole depth of the horizon. Soil material was air-dried and sieved with a mesh diameter of 2.0 mm. Averaged samples of unwashed leaves of Populus robusta L. and stems – wood without bark, taken from saw-cut discs at a height of 1.3 m from 3 selected trees at each site. After drying, samples were ground in a mill. Particle size distribution was determined by the Casagrande-Proszynski areometer method. Textural classes were established according to FAO procedure (2006). Sorption properties (hydrolytic acidity – HA and total exchangeable bases – TEB) were determined by the Kappen method, pH in H2O and 1M KCl – by the potentiometric method, TOC concentration using a Shimadzu analyser, and the Pb concentration in aqua regia using atomic absorption FAAS. Extracts in Aqua regia (HCl + HNO3 in a 3:1 ratio) were prepared according to PNISO 11466:2002. All analyses were performed in triplicate. All statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 10 for Windows. The basic statistical figures were defined together with correlations between soil condition indices at levels α=0.01 and 0.05. Contamination factors were calculated as the ratio of the Pb in plant tissues to its average soil concentration (Starck 2012) – BCF (bioaccumulation factor) and the ratio of the Pb in plant tissues to its average concentration given for analysed plant species and variety (Diatta et al. 2013) – PPI (plant pollution index). Results and discussion The particle size distribution of the soils covering the sanitary zone is mostly sandy loam and loamy sand. TOC concentration is not high – from 0.8% in Zukowice I locality to 1.7% in Zukowice II (Table 1). Because of this situation the soil sorption capacity reached just over 20 cmol·kg-1. The soil reaction for the tested sites varies from acid in Zukowice I and Bogomice, neutral in Stypulow to alkaline in Zukowice II. Soil properties are showed in table 1.

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ Table 1. Selected properties of soils SITE Particle size distribution (%) 2 mm-50 µm 50-2 µm 0.05). In contrast, it was observed that no significant difference between the company size with market performance and communication tools profitability impact assessments profitability, which showed a significant difference between company size and brand performance (p 10 cm) on sample plots in the stand were measured. Also, to research the spatial structure, the data recorded for every stem on each plot included the azimuth and the distance from plot centre. Indices for quantification of stand structure The quantification of simple structure was performed using the Lorenz index (Lee et al., 1999). The aggregation index was used for the quantification of spatial structure (Clark, Evans, 1954). Indices of individual trees based on inter-neighbour relations between individual trees were used for the description of structure on small areas (uniform angle index, von Gadow et al., 1998; mean directional index, Corral Rivas, 2006; diameter differentiation index, Füldner, 1995; dominance index, Hui et al., 1998). The Lorenz index was calculated from the field data in Excel and Statgraphics, and the indices of spatial structure were computed using an especially developed software package Crancod (Pommerening, 2006). The Lorenz index. The Lorenz index L numerically defines the plot or stand simple structure. A measure of stand homogeneity can be the tree diameter, basal area, volume, etc. Lee et al. (1999) calculated the Lorenz index from the basal area percentage and the percentage of tree number. Trees are first ordered from the thinnest diameter in the increasing order, then basal area is calculated for each tree. The basal area percentage pgi is calculated from the thinnest-diameter tree to the ith tree using equation (1). Percentage of tree number pni to the ith tree is calculated using equation (2). pgi 

1 i  g j , G - total basal area G j i

(Eq.1)

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Sixth International Scientific Agricultural Symposium „Agrosym 2015“ pni 

i , n - total number of trees n

(Eq.2)

Lorenz curve is graphically best represented as a power function pgi  pni  . β can be equal to or greater than 1. When β =1, the stand is fully homogeneous, and with the increase in the coefficient β, the stand structure heterogeneity also increases. The Lorenz index of sample plot structure is calculated using equation (3). 1

L  1



,0≤L