bronze age rites and rituals in the carpathian basin

BRONZE AGE RITES AND RITUALS IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM FROM TÂRGU MUREŞ

8–10 October 2010

Edited by Sándor BERECKI Rita E. NÉMETH Botond REZI

Editura MEGA Târgu Mureș 2011

Content

Preface ...................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Aleksandar KAPURAN Relationship between Settlements and Necropoles of the Bronze Age in Eastern Serbia........................ 9 Horia CIUGUDEAN Mounds and Mountains: Burial Rituals in Early Bronze Age Transylvania ............................................ 21 Sándor BERECKI–Áldor Csaba BALÁZS Discoveries belonging to the Schneckenberg Culture from Şincai, Transylvania ................................... 59 Tiberiu Ioan TECAR–Monica Voichiţa TECAR A Unique Cult Object belonging to the Wietenberg Culture .................................................................... 77 Oliver DIETRICH Kinderspielzeug oder Kultobjekte? Überlegungen zu anthropomorphen Figurinen der Wietenberg-und Tei-Kultur ..................................................................................................................... 87 Florea COSTEA–Zsolt SZÉKELY Aspects of the Ritual Life of the Wietenberg Culture. Miniature Religious Shrines from Racoș, Transylvania.................................................................................................................................................... 107 Attila LÁSZLÓ Eine Kultstelle der Wietenberg-Kultur auf der Füvenyestető Anhöhe bei Malnaş Băi (Südost-Siebenbürgen)? ................................................................................................................................ 115 Laura DIETRICH „Aschehügel” der Noua-Kultur als Plätze von Arbeit und Fest ............................................................... 131 Jens NOTROFF Menace from the Afterlife? Some remarks about the Archaeological Evidence for Fearing and Banishing the Dead and a Contribution to Otomani and Füzesabony Sepulchral Rite....................... 143 Malvinka URÁK–Liviu MARTA Human Remains of the Late Bronze Age Settlements in the Upper Tisza Area. New Researches and New Evidence ......................................................................................................................................... 155 Florin GOGÂLTAN–Rita NÉMETH–Emese APAI Eine rituelle Grube bei Vlaha, Gemeinde Săvădisla (Kreis Cluj) ............................................................ 163 János EMŐDI About the so-called ‘Hand Protectors’ of the Bronze Age ........................................................................ 185

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Tiberius BADER Grossgrabhügel von Medieşu Aurit/Aranyosmeggyes, Bez. Satu Mare, Rumänien ............................. 189 Carol KACSÓ Die Hügelnekropole von Lăpuș. Eine zusammenfassende Einleitung ................................................... 213 Daria Ložnjak DIZDAR Funerary Practices of Late Bronze Age Communities in Continental Croatia ..................................... 245 Mihai WITTENBERGER–Mihai ROTEA Aspects of the Bronze Metallurgy in Transylvania.................................................................................... 261 Tudor SOROCEANU Zweigeteilte Einheit oder geeinte Zweiheit? Zur Frage der Dualität in den bronzezeitlichen Deponierungen .............................................................................................................................................. 269 Wojciech BLAJER Zwischen dem Karpatenbecken und der Ostsee. Bemerkungen zu den besonderen Fundumständen der Bronzehorte in Polen .............................................................................................................................. 295 Botond REZI Voluntary Destruction and Fragmentation in Late Bronze Age Hoards from Central Transylvania............................................................................................................................ 303 Gábor V. SZABÓ Spätbronzezeitliche Bronzehortfunde im Siedlungskontext – Neue Forschungsergebnisse aus Ostungarn ................................................................................................................................................ 335 Tobias MÖRTZ At the Head of Concealment. The Deposition of Bronze Age Helmets in the Carpathian Basin ....... 357 Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................................... 377

Mounds and Mountains: Burial Rituals in Early Bronze Age Transylvania

Horia CIUGUDEAN Muzeul Naţional al Unirii Alba Iulia, Romania [email protected]

Keywords: burial rituals, Transylvania, tumuli, Early Bronze Age, prehistoric stelae, elite graves

With the end of the Copper Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin, there was a significant shift in the perception of settlement space together with the rise of a new set of funerary ceremonies and associated monuments. While both the flat cemeteries and the settlement-associated burials have similarities with earlier traditions, the tumulus burial was a completely new rite. The birth and early development of this rite are still some of the most debated topics in the European prehistory.1 For the time being, an extensive study of the Early Bronze Age burial patterning is still missing for the Transylvanian region, although there are several papers dedicated to this period, which has been intensely investigated during the last four decades.2 Following some of my previous attempts (Ciugudean 1995; Ciugudean 1996, 128–134; Ciugudean 1997b), this paper tries to offer an updated overview regarding the funerary rites and rituals performed by the Early Bronze Age communities in Transylvania, highlighting the existing parallels to the Balkans and Central Europe. On the broad level, it is necessary first to make the distinction between the eastern and western regions of the Transylvanian space. Each area saw a rather different burial pattern, though generalization over the whole period of the EBA could be dangerous. In the South-East, the use of slab-cist graves seems to be the common pattern, while in the West the burial mound with stone covering is the most widespread funeral monument. I. The earliest slab-cist graves belong to the so-called Zimnicea–Batin horizon (Roman 1986, 35; Nikolova 1999, 209–211, 365) and they were found at Turia (Székely 1983; Székely 1997a, 83, pl. 51) and Sânzieni (Székely 1979, 39–41; Roman 1986, 35, fig. 1/1, 4; Székely 1997a, 82). Both graves are flat, with contracted skeletons, the grave-goods consisting of askos-type jugs (Székely 1997a, pl. 52/2, 53). According to C. Schuster, the Zăbala settlement-associated flat burial (Pl. 4/1) could be also related to the Zimnicea horizon (Schuster 1997, 156), an opinion still hard to accept in the light of present evidences, the vessel deposited near the skeleton (Székely 1997a, 32–33, 88, pl. 4/2) looking related rather to the Globular Amphorae pottery (Zaharia 1995, 286). The recently published slab-cist grave belonging to the Globular Amphorae culture from Sânmartin-Ciuc, together with the pottery found at Arcuş and Albiş (Székely 2003, 113, pl. 4/1–2; Székely 2010, 40–41, fig. 1–2) have consistently changed the cultural and chronological picture for the 1. For a general presentation of this funeral architecture in the European Bronze Age see Harding 2000, 84–103, with updated literature. 2. An overview of the research of tumulus burials in Romania which includes most of the Transylvanian finds has been recently published (Teodorescu 2010), but it is strictly limited to the history of research.

Bronze Age Rites and Rituals in the Carpathian Basin, 2011, p. 21–57

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beginning of EBA in south-eastern Transylvania. The use of slab-cists in the Zimnicea-type graves from Transylvania may be better explained now, as long as this grave pattern is well-known in the Globular Amphorae eastern group of Moldavia (Dinu 1975; Dumitroaia 2000, 68–81, fig. 48–49; Burtănescu 2002, 363–386; Szmyt 2003, 412–415), while it is completely missing in the flat EBA cemeteries of the Lower Danube valley (Nikolova 1999, 359–368). As a matter of fact, D. Berciu already proposed a contact between late Globular Amphorae culture and EBA in Moldavia (Berciu 1966, 138). This idea was recently adopted by F. Burtănescu, who rather supported a mixture of Globular Amphorae–Ezerovo elements in the Sânzieni–Turia graves, instead of a Zimnicea component (Burtănescu 2002, 384). A similar contribution of the Globular Amphorae culture was set for the first slab-cist graves outside the Carpathians corner (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 32). According to the latest discoveries, the Coţofeni culture was present in South-East Transylvania up to the end of phase II (Ciugudean 2000, 49; Méder 2004), so the penetration of the Globular Amphorae groups could not take place before the beginning of phase Coţofeni III, that means around ±3000 BC (Ciugudean 2000, 58–59, pl. 153). The time corresponds quite well to the beginning of the so-called ‘Siret sub-group’ of the Globular Amphorae group in Moldavia (Burtănescu 2002, 385; Szmyt 2003, 413). Consequently, the earliest slab-cist graves with askos jugs of Zimnicea(–Batin)–Ezerovo type have to be dated not earlier than the first quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. The slab-cist graves continued to be present in the Schneckenberg culture (Prox 1941, 70–77, pl. 28; Székely 1997a, 41–44); both cremation and inhumation being used (see App. 1 and Fig. 1), sometimes within the same grave like in Rotbav (Székely 1997a, 41). Multiple burials are to be noticed here (Pl. 3/6), with close parallels to the Globular Amphorae group from Moldavia (Dinu 1961, fig. 2). It seems the cremation rite made its appearance during the Schneckenberg B phase, if one looks to the pottery found in the Brăduţ cemetery (Székely 1995; Székely 1997a, pl. 57/1–3; Székely 1997b) or at the cord-impressed beaker found in the slab-cist grave from Moacşa–Eresteghin (Székely 1997a, pl. 40/2; 49). South of the Carpathians, cremation is widespread in the Glina culture (Schuster Et Al. 2005; Schuster–Morintz 2006, 44–47), so the adoption of this new rite, uncommon in the Transylvanian area during EBA I,3 could be better explained as the result of the Glina influences. The cultural interferences in the South-East of Transylvania have often been invoked as an explanation for the striking common features of EBA groups inside and outside the Carpathians corner (Vulpe–Drâmboceanu 1981; Vulpe 1991; Motzoi–Chicideanu 2003, 43–45). Most Schneckenberg graves are flat, small tumuli made of earth being reported so far in Ocland (Kalicz 1968, 23), Brăduţ, Moacşa (Székely 1997a, 41–43, pl. 54–56) and Caşolţ (Macrea Et Al. 1959, 410–413, fig. 11–13).4 It is hard to say if they represent the earliest burial mounds in this part of Transylvania, however there are no tumuli which could be clearly dated here to the EBA I period.5 Again, their best parallels may be found in the hilly region South of the Carpathians, such as the cemeteries with small, flat mounds from Văleni–Dâmboviţa (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 7–8, fig. 3), Verbiţa (Berciu–Roman 1984) and Vârtopu–Ciuperceni (Calotoiu 2003; 2004). Let’s not also forget the corded-stamped beaker found in the Milostea barrow (Popescu–Vulpe 1966, fig. 1/7a–b), closely related to the one from Moacşa–Eresteghin (Székely 1997a, pl. 40/2) and to the corded ware of the Jigodin group (Roman Et Al. 1992, pl. 92–101). 3. The chronological system I use in this study is similar to the one I proposed in 1991 (Ciugudean 1991, 104–111, fig. 35), which was based on Roman’s three-stages system for the Romanian territory (Roman 1986), but with several important changes, both in chronological and cultural terms (Ciugudean 1996, 139–145, fig. 96). A similar system was also applied to the Banat region (Gogâltan 1995). 4. The cemetery from Caşolt–Trei Morminţi has been initially attributed to the Late Bronze Age (Noua culture) by its excavators (Macrea Et Al. 1959, 412), an opinion preserved in the next studies dedicated to the Noua culture (Florescu 1991, 44, nr. 110; Andriţoiu–Vasiliev 1993, 128, 137, nr. 35). The Caşolţ cemetery is still attributed to the Noua culture in the latest list of EBA slab-cist graves from Romania (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 16, footnote 16). The jug with assimetrical handles found in one of the graves from Caşolţ (Macrea Et Al. 1959, fig. 13) has the closest parallels in the Roşia group from Western Romania (Roman–Németi 1986, fig. 17/1, 4, and note 115 with references to the presence of this vessel-type in other EBA groups). Similar jugs are typical for the Vinkovci–Somogyvár culture in the Srem and Slavonia (Kulcsár 2009, fig. 69/10–11) where this kind of jug seems to circulate in the late Vučedol milieu (Dimitrijević 1978, pl. 18/7, 10). In my opinion, the tumuli from Caşolţ were built in the EBA, the LBA graves with Noua pottery (Macrea 1957, fig.12–13) being secondary graves, a situation similar to the one found in the Brăduţ cemetery (Székely 1997b, 42–43, fig. 3–4; 5/3–4). 5. This is a statement based on the present state of archaeological research and published reports, so corrections may well come in the near future, according to the results of new excavations.

Mounds and Mountains: Burial Rituals in Early Bronze Age Transylvania | 23

II. A different funeral pattern dominates the highlands of Western Transylvania, where the landscape is dotted with hundreds of tumuli with stone covering (Ciugudean 1986; Ciugudean 1991, 106; Ciugudean 1996, 128–134; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 270–281). Their area of distribution includes the eastern and southern parts of the Apuseni Mountains, (Fig. 1 and App. 1), i.e. the Trascău and Petrind Mountains, together with the Feleacu Hills and Zarand Mountains.6

Fig. 1. Early Bronze Age slab-cist graves (+) and tumuli with stone covering (^) or earthen mound (*) in Transylvania (Appendix 1).

The first excavations of the Early Bronze Age tumuli from western Transylvania dates back to the end of the 19th century, when K. Herepey and S. Fenichel excavated the barrows from Livezile, Izvoarele and Vălişoara (Herepey 1901, 18–22; Fenichel 1891a; 1891b). After three quarters of a century, N. Vlassa identified new barrows in the same area and excavated an entire cemetery at Poiana Aiudului (Vlassa Et Al. 1986; Vlassa Et Al. 1987). After the excavation of the Ampoiţa cemetery (Ciugudean 1991) long distance connections with the southern Balkans could be highlighted (Ciugudean 1991, 94; Ciugudean 1996, 127–128, 143; Primas 1996, 85; Vulpe 2001, 423). The EBA tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains are always placed in dominant positions, usually on the watershed between two valleys, often following a linear alignment (Pl. 1/2). Until now, tumuli with stone coverings were never reported on the river meadows. A similar preferance could be detected in the Belotic–Bela Crkva group (Gavela 1968, fig. 5, 11–11a, 19a) or in the Corded Ware cemeteries from the Northern Carpathians (Machnik 1998, 257–262, fig. 2, 4). The kurgans of the Yamnaya culture and related groups follow sometimes the same liniar distribution (Dergacev 1994, 124; Agulnikov 1995, 81), but they are located in the lowlands, mainly in the valleys of the rivers. The linear distribution of the stone heap graves in Southern Scandinavia has been recently linked to the contemporary routes of communication (Johannsen–Laursen 2010, 33–49), a pattern which could be probably extended to the barrows of Western Transylvania, in several cases (Almaşu Mare, Livezile– Baia, Meteş–La Meteşel, etc.) the EBA barrows being associated with country chart roads still in use. The tumulus cemeteries of the Apuseni Mountains are small, consisting usually of less than 10 tumuli, the largest being the one excavated at Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii (16 tumuli). Isolated mounds 6. In the last two regions the excavations are still missing, but there are several field surveys (Lazarovici–Maxim 1988, Lazarovici–Maxim 1994; Pădurean 1985, 33, 40).


have been also reported in several cases (Izvoarele–La Cruce, Meteş–Pleaşa înaltă etc.). The medium size of the tumuli is 10–12 m, but there are smaller mounds (6–7 m), most of them quite flat (less than l m high). Tumuli of bigger size are quite rare in the Apuseni Mountains, the greatest known so far being the one from Tureni–La Furci (more than 3 m high and about 40 m diameter). The mounds are usually round, but sometimes they could be ellipsoidal, as well. The tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains are often located in close proximity to a rocky area, where stones for building the mound can be easily collected. The careful selection of the stones used for the mound covering is a striking feature, which has been observed in several excavations (Ciugudean 1996, 129; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 273). Limestone was always preferred, even in cases when this type of rock was not available close to the burial place. Sandstone and other types of conglomerates were ignored, no matter how easy to collect, while limestone was looked for even at 2–3 km distance from the funeral area. Mounds built only with sandstone and pebbles are known so far only in the Almaşu Mare–La cruce (Ciugudean–Inel 2003; Ciugudean–Inel 2004) and Roşia Montana–Islaz (Rişcuţa 2005, 96) cemeteries, both areas being outside any limestone occurrence. A close connection between the limestone rocks and Late Eneolithic / EBA settlements has been noticed along the Ampoi valley at Ampoiţa, Poiana Ampoiului, Meteş (Pl. 10/1), Presaca Ampoiului, Feneş and Zlatna. The top of some rocks was sometimes used as an offering place, pottery and animal bones being found in most of the cases. The best documented site is Ampoiţa, where both settlement and cemetery was excavated, together with an offering place on the top of the eastern rock (Pl. 10/3). The white colour of limestone seems to play a certain role in the life and death of Transylvanian EBA communities. The symbolic value of the stone colour was particularly important in the megalithic cultures of Western Europe (Lynch 1998), but the tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains, together with the settlement location seem to demonstrate the important role played by the white colour in the EBA cultures of Transylvania. An important observation made in the Western Transylvanian region is the frequent overlapping of tumuli with habitation areas. The central part of the Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii cemetery superposed a Coţofeni III settlement, a fact which was not taken into consideration in the later report, the Coţofeni pottery, stone tools and animal bones being regarded as offerings and rests of funeral feasts (Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 62–63; Vlassa Et Al. 1987, 117–118). At Ampoiţa–Peret the earthen and stone coverings of tumuli II and IV were full of sherds, animal bones, flint tools and flakes belonging not only to the Bodrogkeresztúr and Coţofeni II cultures, but also to the Early Bronze Age (Ciugudean 1991, 85, 89, fig. 21–22; Ciugudean 1996, 32–33, fig. 32–33). The central part of tumulus II was actually built over a hearth made of beaten clay (Ciugudean 1991, 85, fig. 5). A similar situation had been noticed in the tumulus I from Ampoiţa–Doştior, where most of the pottery belongs to the Early Bronze II (Ciugudean 1996, 37–38, fig. 36). The recent excavations in tumulus I at Cetea–Picuiata have revealed the presence of two fireplaces belonging to the Coţofeni III habitation, covered by the EBA burial mound (Popa Et Al. 2006, 183, fig. 5). But the most significant relations came to light at Livezile–Baia cemetery, where the Livezile group settled on a high terrace, very close to the former Coţofeni III hamlet on the top (Pl. 1/3) and built part of its tumuli over their predecessors’ houses (Pl. 7/1). The cases presented so far indicate that the time span between the end of the latest habitation in the future burial area and the building of the first tumuli was very short or even that there was actually no gap between the two events. East of the Carpathians similar observations were made in the area of Yamnaya mounds, which were often built over late Cucuteni or Folteşti settlements (Burtănescu 2002, 224–225). The transformation of the domestic space into community monument is a practice well known in sites of southern Greece (Maran 1998, 227–228), such as the interment of a former EH II building in a tumulus at Thebes (Aravantinos–Psaraki 2008). The dominant rite in the EBA tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains is inhumation in contracted position with different dispositions of the arms (Pl. 11/1–2, 4). Pits were never dug, the dead being placed directly on the surface of the ancient soil under the mound, covered with a thin layer of earth and then with several layers of stones (Pl. 6–8). Usually there is no planned order in the building of the stone structure (Pl. 5). However, there are a few cases when a ring of bigger rocks was first built, and then the inner area was filled up with smaller stones, as happened in the case of the tumulus from Roşia Montana–Islaz (Rişcuţa 2005, 96), Almaşu Mare–La Cruce (Ciugudean–Inel 2003) or the one from Meteş–Meteşel (Ciugudean 1996, 55–56), where a double ring could be observed (Pl. 8/1). The stone mantle was finally covered again with earth, but in many cases this last covering was quite thin and it did not last over the centuries. A different situation was reported in the cemetery from Meteş–Meteşel, where a thick layer of


hard beaten clay covered the central part of the tumulus (Ciugudean 1996, 56). With very few exceptions, there is no clear evidence of funeral chambers, such as slab-cists. In one of the tumuli from Livezile–Dealul Sârbului K. Herepey found a grave with a stone case protecting only the skull (Herepey 1901, 20). Two cist-type graves are reported in the case of the tumulus excavated at Sănduleşti–Sulihegy (Lazarovici– Meşter 1995, 88, pl. 1/2–3), but the slabs were used only for the lateral walls. There are also several stone ‘cases’ of unknown destination in the tumulus from Tureni–La Furci (Pl. 4/5), similar structures being recently found in a tumulus (?) from Cetea–Ierboasa (Popa Et Al. 2006, 184, fig. 11), but none of them was used for deposition of human remains. In comparison with the large majority of graves simply covered with earth and stones, the two cist-graves from Sănduleşti and eventually the one from Livezile– Dealul Sârbului look like an ‘exotic’ funerary architecture either imitating models from South-Eastern Transylvania or maybe introduced by a few newcomers from the same area. Let us remember the presence of corded pottery in the settlement from Tureni, very close to Sănduleşti (Lazarovici 1992), which shows good connections with the Jigodin area in Eastern Transylvania, where the slab-cist graves were commonly used. Beside the tumuli containing buried individuals, there are a few mounds without any human bones deposition, but with regularly stone coverings and pottery offering. They are probably symbolic funeral monuments of the individuals whose corpse was not available for some reasons (killed by animals, drowned, etc.). This was the case of tumulus 2 at Ampoiţa–Doştior (Ciugudean 1996, 38) and the ones from Sălciua de Jos–Vârtop (Ciugudean 1996, 64) and Roşia Montană–Islaz (Rişcuţă 2005, 95–97, 101). The burials in the Apuseni Mountains barrows may be divided in two groups, according to the condition of the skeletons: a) graves with articulated skeletons and b) graves with dismembered or disarticulated bones. In the first group, the position of the body is either supine with flexed legs, or a crouched position on the side (Pl. 8/2–3; 11/1–2), the orientation of the skeletons being irregular.7 No graves with the skeletons lying on their backs with legs spread out to the side in the so-called ‘frog’ position have been found in the barrows of the Apuseni Mountains so far. Besides the graves containing only one skeleton there are also graves with several individuals buried at one time. The multiple burials usually contain two individuals: two adults, an adult (female), and a child; two children. In grave 4 of tumuls II from the Ampoiţa–Peret cemetery two skeletons lay affronted with crouched legs (Pl. 11/4), one skeleton belonging to a child (Infans II, 12–13 years old), the other to a young girl (Juvenil, 16–17 years old). Sometimes, disarticulated bones of another individual(s) may be deposited together with an articulated skeleton. Disarticulated skeletons may be found both in primary and secondary graves and they may be separated in several types. First, there are examples of one disarticulated skeleton carefully arranged in an individual pile (Pl. 7/1: M.2; 8/4, 6; 11/3). Secondly, there are masses of bones belonging to 2–4 individuals (maybe more, but in most cases there is no anthropological analysis), stacked together, like in the graves no. 4–5 of tumuls II from Ţelna–Rupturi (Ciugudean 1991, 91; Ciugudean 1996, 72, fig. 40). Finally, there are parts of the skeleton, usually legs and skulls, buried in peripheral areas of the tumulus (Pl. 11/3). Articulated skeletons result from the interment of corpses, while assemblages of completely or partly disarticulated skeletons point to disintegration prior to burial, so the excarnation before interment seems likely. A platform made of slabs (2.25 × 1.30 m) with the disarticulated bones of four individuals – two adults and two children – found in the central area of tumulus VI at Ampoiţa–Peret could represent such an excarnation place, integrated in the tumulus later on (Ciugudean 1996, 35, fig. 29/2). Gh. Lazarovici and more recently C. Rişcuţa and C. I. Popa also supported the excarnation ritual before burial (Lazarovici–Meşter 1995, 88; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 275). This funeral practice seems to be widespread during the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age both in the Megalithic cultures of Western Europe (Barrett Et Al. 1991, 121–122; Petersen 1972, 27–28; Piggot 1973, 11; Ashbee 1984, 63–65; Darvill 2010, 143–152) and in the Eastern Pit-Grave / Yamnaya culture (Koryakova–Epimakhov 2007, 48, fig. 2.3–A; Häusler 1976, pl. 6/10a; 12/2; 25/9; 27/22; Häusler 1998). On the territory of Romania, there are such disarticulated burials in the Baden–Coţofeni area (Emődi 1984, 406) and in the tumulusburials from Dobrudgea, belonging to North-Pontic Yamnaya groups (Simion 1991, 34–35). Regarding the presence of the cremation graves in the barrows of the Apuseni Mountains, a clear distinction has to be made between the primary graves and secondary ones. The only grave that can be assigned to the first group for sure is M.5/tumulus VIII from Ampoiţa–Peret, with the cremated bones 7. So far the only cemetery with a complete anthropological study of the skeletons remains Ampoiţa–Peret, where no genderrelated patterns can be observed in the position or orientation of skeletons (Ciugudean 1991, 90, 114, fig. 18).


scattered on the ground in the center of the mound (Ciugudean 1996, 36–37, fig. 30/2). A similar practice is previously known in the Baden cemetery at Budakalász (Bondár–Raczky 2009, 220). Secondary Early Bronze Age urn-graves may be considered M.8 from the periphery of tumulus I from Meteş–Meteşel (Ciugudean 1996, 57, fig. 45, 46/4) and M.2–M.3 in tumulus VII from Ampoiţa–Peret (Ciugudean 1996, 36, fig. 30/1). Another possible secondary creamation grave without deposition in urn is M.4/ tumulus I from Mada–Chiciorele (Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 265). A Middle Bronze Age creamation grave belonging to the Wietenberg culture was found in the stone covering of the tumulus from Cetea–Picuiata (Ciugudean 1996, 42, fig. 23/11–12). The location of the tumulus VIII from Ampoiţa–Peret in the SouthEastern periphery of the cemetery is sound evidence that the cremation rite started in the late phase of the tumulus-burials from the Apuseni Mountains. In the archaeological literature opinion prevails that the beginnings of the Apuseni Mountains tumulus cemeteries have to be placed in the post-Coţofeni period and linked with the earliest EBA groups from Western Transylvania (Roman 1976, 31; Roman 1986, 41; Ciugudean 1996, 80–81; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 278–279; Popa Et Al. 2006, 183–184).8 The stratigraphical evidences from Livezile–Baia and Cetea–Picuita demonstrate without doubt that tumuli were built over Coţofeni III settlements. According to the type of ceramics found in the primary graves (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 20/2–3; 31/1, 6–7; 38/10–11; 46/1; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, fig. 10/4), they belong to the Livezile group (Ciugudean 1996, 78–96). M. Rotea and more recently C. Rişcuţa and C. I. Popa expressed a different perspective and connect the earliest graves to the so-called ‘Copăceni group’ (Rotea 1993, 73, 84; Rotea 2003, 67–70; Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 281), which is no other than the second phase in the evolution of the Livezile group, according to my opinion.9 Due to the reduced height of the mounds and to the stone coverings, stratigraphical observations are not easy to be made in order to separate the primary and secondary graves. One may presume that central graves should be older, but sometimes this theory is not good enough to solve the problem, especially when peaks of native rock were included in the mounds, and graves were placed around them, like in the case of tumulus IV at Ampoiţa–Peret (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 28). In the same cemetery, the richest grave according to the inventory (M.1) is actually located slightly excentric in tumulus III, and a secondary grave (M.3) is placed right in the middle of the stone covering (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 27). The grave-goods may also offer some clues for the separation of different phase of burials in the tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains, but again, this method is not efficient in the case of graves with very poor or no inventory, as most of them are. However, the graves with metal finds may always be considered as primary burials, as the excavations of Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii and Ampoiţa–Peret demonstrated beyond doubt. The ceramic offerings may be present in secondary graves as well, like in the cases of tumulus I at Livezile–Baia or tumulus II at Ţelna–Rupturi (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 20; 40). One of the most significant situations is the one from Mada–Chiciorele, where a Livezile-type jug with ‘fish-bone’ decoration was found in a secondary grave of tumulus 3 (Rişcuţa Et Al. 2009, 261, fig 10/5). Together with the similar jug found at Meteş–Meteşel, this find demonstrates that both the primary and some of the secondary burials in the tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains belong to the Livezile group. The Copăcenitype pottery appeared in the later tumuli of the Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii cemetery (phase II according to the excavators) and this corresponds quite well with the chronological frame I proposed for the Transylvanian Early Bronze Age (Ciugudean 1996, 139–145). With one exception (Ampoiţa–Peret, grave 1/tumulus VIII), all the other cremation graves are secondary graves and the bowl and amphora fragments from grave 8/tumulus I at Meteş–Meteşel point towards an early phase of the Şoimuş group (Ciugudean 8. The claim was first to link the older finds from Livezile (former Cacova, Vladháza) and Izvoarele (former Bedeleu, Bedellő) with the Coţofeni culture (Schroller 1933, 33–34; Roska 1941, 91–92), an idea reinforced by N. Vlassa, but only as the early phase of the Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii cemetery (Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 63; Vlassa Et Al. 1987, 118). I shared myself this two-phase evolution of the tumulus group in my 80s publications (Ciugudean 1977, 55; Ciugudean 1986, 69, 72), but I. Nestor was actually the first to set forth the idea of successive burials in the tumuli (Nestor 1933, 66). 9. Leaving apart the fact that the final results of the Copăceni excavations are not published yet, after 20 years from the first campaign (the booklet “Grupul Copăceni” is not actually a publication of the main site, see Dietrich 2009), the ‘fish-bone’ decoration pattern is not present in the ceramics found on this site so far, but it is well-known in the settlement from Livezile– Baia (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 10/4; 13/5–6). The small two-handled pot decorated with impressed dots (a decoration pattern quite typical for the ‘Copăceni group’) from Poiana Aiudului-Dealul Velii (Vlassa Et Al. 1986, pl. 12/4; Vlassa Et Al. 1987, pl. 10/4; Ciugudean 1996, fig. 37/10) and quoted by C. Rişcuţa and C. I. Popa in support of their thesis was actually found in tumuls VI from the western periphery of the cemetery, considered to be one of the most recent mounds (Vlassa Et Al. 1987, 117–118).


1996, 57, fig. 46/4). I. Andriţoiu was even tempted to relate all the tumulus burials with this group, at least in South-Western Transylvania (Andriţoiu 1992, 21). As we have already seen, the EBA communities of Eastern Transylvania used both cremation and inhumation, while in the Makó and Nyírség cultures the cremation rite was dominant (Dani 1997; Németi 1979; Németi 1996; Kulcsár 2009, 75–89). The flat cremation cemetery from Bratei, considered to belong to the Early Bronze Age (Roman 1986, 45; Zaharia 1999) has been recently assigned to the early phase of the Wietenberg culture (Popa–Totoianu 2010, 156–159). Although no funerary finds are known yet in the Iernut–Zoltan group belonging to EBA III period, there are good reasons to believe that cremation became the dominant funeral rite in Western Transylvania only at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. III. Older and more recent field-surveys revealed the existence of large earthen tumuli in the Transylvanian Plateau and particularly in the middle Mureş valley, but few of them have been excavated so far (Appendix 1 and Fig. 1). Central pit-graves with skeletons in crouched position were found in the tumuli excavated at Cāmpia Turzii–Gâlmeia de pe şes (RepCluj 1992, 116–118), Răscruci–Glimeie (RepCluj 1992, 326–327, fig. 191) and Cipau–Gară (Vasiliev 1980, 36). Intensive straying of ochre powder, a general lack of accompanying grave offerings are characteristics of all three graves, while wooden beams cover the pit of the tumulus from Câmpia Turzii. All these features are common to the Yamnaya complex, well-known in the North-Pontic area (Telegin 1977; Dergacev 1994, 123–127; Manzura– Sava 1994, 169–175, fig. 8–9), as well as in Moldavia (Comşa 1987; Burtănescu 2002, 214–275; Brudiu 2003), the Lower Danube valley (Panajotov 1989; Nikolova 1999, 369–390), Banat (Girić 1987; Bukvić 1987; Garašanin 1991; Tasić 1995, 72–74) and the Tisza plain (Ecsedy 1979; Kalicz 1968, 16–22; Kalicz 1998).

Fig. 2. Funeral monument with stone ring at Floreşti–Polus (after Rotea 2009).

A rather different type of tumuli have been recently excavated near Cluj at Floreşti–Polus (Polus 2008, 6, fig. 18; Rotea Et Al. 2008, 162; Rotea 2009, 15, fig. 5). All the three flat mounds10 had outer rings made of slabs (Fig. 2), one of them including the fragment of an antropomorphic stela. It has both arms raised on the chest, a belt with an X carved in the middle and the representation of the sex (Pl. 16/1–1a). The Floreşti stela has the closest parallels in two finds from Transylvania, at Baia de Criş (Pl. 14/1–2) and Ciceu–Mihăieşti (Pl. 15/1–2), both of them with belts (Pl. 15/2a) and a similar position of the arms. As many as four stelae were found near Baia de Criş, the first three already in the 19th century (Roska 1942, 140, nr. 277; Floca 1966), and the last one in a quarry in 2000, together with other two stone pillars (Rişcuţă 2001; Chintăuan 2007, 38–39, 135–139). The stela from Ciceu–Mihăieşti was also accidentally found (Rotea 2004, 7, fig. 1; Chintăuan 2007, 37), so the archaeological context remains unsolved for both finds, but their association with prehistoric mining activities (Rotea 2004, 7) is hard to be accepted. 10. The possibility that the stone rings belong to an even earlier type of funeral monuments, maybe related to Suvorovo group (Manzura–Sava 1994, 147–150; Govedarica 2004, 167–176), cannot be totally rejected, until the final publication of the Floreşti finds. The discovery of the zoomorfic sceptre from Vinţu de Jos opened new perspectives on the earliest stepic influences in the Transylvanian Copper Age (Ciugudean 1998; Govedarica 2004, 76–77, 167–176).


A smaller stela with an X on the chest is known from Pianu de Jos (Ciugudean 1982), but its shape is quite different11 and the anatomical parts are not so well defined (Pl. 16/3–3a). The last stela from Transylvania was found at Gherla by the end of the 19th century (Orosz 1904; Chintăuan 2007, 99). Only the upper part is preserved, with the head and the schematic representation of the breast (pl. 16/2).

Fig. 3. Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic (*) and aniconic (^) stelae in the Carpathian Basin (Appendix 2).

There are different points of view on the chronology of the Transylvanian stelae, most of them reffering to the finds from Baia de Criş, often compared to the Hamangia stela and related to the NorthPontic finds.12 According to the classification made by D. J. Telegin, the Floreşti stela, together with Baia de Criş and Ciceu–Mihăieşti finds, fit in his second type, more precisely they belong to the sub-type IIbNatalievka (Telegin 1987, 41–42, fig. 2), while the stelae from Gherla and maybe Pianu de Jos belong to the first group of so-called primitive stelae (Telegin 1987, 40). N. C. Rişcuţa has already assigned the stelae from Baia de Criş to the Natalievka sub-type (Rişcuţa 2001, 148). It may be assumed that the earliest burials in the Floreşti tumuli belong to a Yamnaya-related group, part of them probably disturbed by secondary EBA burials – with Copăceni-type (?) ceramics, according to the excavators.13 The stela probably belongs to the primary graves, having been removed in the second phase of burials and placed near the slabs of the outer ring. There are other earthen tumuli located in the lowlands of Central and South-Western Transylvania, such as the ones from Bărăbanţ–Bilag (Ciugudean 1995, 14), Hăpria (Ciugudean 1995, 25), Tămăşeşti– La trei ţâţe (Ciugudean 1995, 27) and Silvaşu de Jos–Dealul Ţapului (Luca Et Al. 2007; Luca Et Al. 2008; Luca Et Al. 2009). Excavations recently started in the last cemetery, where pits (?) with late Coţofeni 11. The find from Pianu could be stylistically related to the so-called ‘cippo Arnoaldi’ from Northern Italy, dated to the Villanova period (Meller Padovani 1977, 38, 83–87, fig. 21), while the X marked on the chest has much older parallels both in Italy and Spain (Arnal 1976, 175–176, 187–189, fig. 59, 74–75; Tunzi Sisto 1995, fig. 1; 3). 12. The last discussion in Rişcuţa 2001, with a general overview of the prior studies. 13. No pottery or other funeral offerings were published, so the few remarks made so far (Polus 2008, 6; Rotea 2009, 15) have to be regarded with a certain precaution.


III pottery and stone tools have been found in tumulus I (Luca Et Al. 2007; Luca Et Al. 2008; Luca Et Al. 2009), while tumulus II contained a skeleton grave with ochre and a copper ornament.14 Several burial mounds in the Lower Danube valley also offered evidences for direct contacts between the late Coţofeni groups and the Pit-Grave culture (Roman 1976, 32; Panajotov 1989, 84–90, 171; Nikolova 1999, 380–383). At least part of the earthen tumuli from Banat region have a similar dating, the earthen mound near Jabuka being built over a Kostolac settlement (Bukvić 1987, 85). The expansion of steppic kurgans in the Tisza Plain took place by the end of the Baden culture, as long as the tumuli from Tiszavasvári and Mezőcsát superposed classical Baden graves (Kalicz 1998, 169–171; Horváth 2009, 111–112). Interestingly enough, there is also a group of aniconic stelae associated with some Baden graves (Endrődi 1995). The idea that certain groups, part of the large Yamnaya expansion to the Tisza Plain, reached the lowlands of Transylvanian during the late phase of the Coţofeni culture can be therefore accepted. It was D. Srejović who marked on map for the first time this penetratation along the lower Mureş valley (Srejović 1987, 47, map 2), but his proposal remain somehow forgotten.15 The communities of NorthPontic shepherds used not only the Mureş valley but also the passes of the Codru Moma Mountains for their infiltration into the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin. The cemetery from Silvaşu de Jos could be seen as a link between the tumulus from Bodo in Banat (Stratan l974) and the discoveries from central (Cipău, Câmpia Turzii) and northern (Răscruci) regions of Transylvania. The Yamnaya groups took part in the transformation of the funerary patterns of late Coţofeni communities, as large earthen mounds could be seen near the hilltop settlements from Şincai–Cetatea Păgânilor (Balázs 2010, 14, pl. 2) and Boarta–Măgura Căpudului.16 One of the results of this complex transformation of funerary rites and rituals was the emergence of the burial mounds in the Apuseni Mountains, best expressed in the EBA Livezile group (Ciugudean 1996, 78–96). The recent finds from Sárrétudvari–Őrhalom in eastern Hungary clearly proved that the Yamnaya communities from this region had close connections to the Livezile group from Transylvania (Dani–Nepper 2006, 41–44). The calibrated 14C age of graves 9 and 4 (4060±50 and 4135±60 BP) from the Sárrétudvari–Őrhalom kurgan (Dani–Nepper 2006, 48) is very close to the one (4109±44 BP) of Livezile– Baia (Ciugudean 1996, 146). Other pieces of evidence come from the tumulus excavated at Meteş–Meteşel, including the use of hard beaten clay in the building of the mound and the deposition of a broken non-local pot (Ciugudean 1996, fig. 46/3) with good analogies in the Yamnaya pottery (Manzura–Sava 1994, fig. 11/7–8), as well as in the Târpeşti group (Burtănescu 2002, 165–174, pl. 19/1, 22/2–4). The use of stone coverings in the tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains,17 but mainly the total absence of pit-graves shows however a strong native component in the burial customs. This native component is linked with the development of local elite, which used copper and gold ornaments, and controlled the rich mineral resources of the area. In the Balkan–Carpathian area there are several extremely rich graves associated with tumuli with stone coverings and/or slab-cists graves that may be linked with the emerging EBA local elite. This group includes first of all the ‘Princely’ tumuli from Mala Gruda (Parović-Pesikan– Trbuhović 1974), Velika Gruda (Primas 1996), Gruda Boljevica (Baković–Govedarica 2009) and Nin–Privlaka (Govedarica 1989, 113, map 5 and pl. 26/1–3, 8–10), all of them located along the Eastern Adriatic seashore (Pl. 13/1–5; 12–28). In spite of less spectacular funeral inventory, some other finds such as grave 1 / tumulus III at Ampoiţa–Peret (Ciugudean 1991, 85, fig. 20/1–6), grave 7–7a in the tumulus from Sárrétudvari–Őrhalom (Dani–Nepper 2006, 33–35, fig. 5), one possible grave from Balkány (Kulcsár 2009, 168) and the central grave in the tumulus at Neusiedl am See (Ruttkay 2002, 145–149, fig. 4) might be included in the same group. Part of their grave-goods was recently included in the socalled ‘Yamnaya package’ (Harrison–Heyd 2007, 197, fig. 48) but this interpretation is disputable. First 14. Informations kindly provided by prof. Sabin A. Luca (Brukenthal Museum, Sibiu), director of the Silvaşu de Jos archaeological project. 15. Most of the other maps presenting the Pit-Grave kurgans distribution in South-East Europe do not show any extension towards the Transylvanian region (Kalicz 1982, fig. 5; Kalicz 1998, fig. 4; Dergacev 1994, fig. 1/A; Horváth 2009, 137, map 5; Harrison–Heyd 2007, fig. 43, 47). V. Dergacev was the only exception, although he made the mistake to include the South-East corner of Transylvania too (Dergacev 1998, fig. 18–19). 16. Fieldsurvey of the author and Prof. A. Harding in 1999 (Harding 2001, 121, fig. 1–2). 17. Although there are good examples of stone structures in the earliest tumuli of the Caucasus area around Black Sea, as the Maikop tumulus from Mar’inskaja in North Caucasus (Kantarovič–Maslov 2008, fig. 5; 11; 13; 21; Korenviskii Et Al 2008, fig. 3–6; Ghei 2008, fig. 2) or later on in the Yamnaya tumuli from Dobrudgea (Simion 2003, cap. 1, fig. 4, 5/2, 5–6; 6/1, 8; cap. 2, fig. 2; 3/1–2), the mounds with proper stone coverings are not so common for the Eastern steppic populations (Bunjatjan Et Al. 2006; Kaiser 2003).


of all, the gold hair-rings belong to different types (Leukas and Mala Gruda, according to Primas 2006, 76–86) of Balkan–Aegean origin,18 without any parallels in the Yamnaya Pit-Graves inventory.19 Copper shaft-hole axes were produced in the Carpathian Basin by late Vučedol (Ecsedy 1983) and post-Vučedol group (Roman–Pál 1992, 157–159; Kővári–Patay 2005; Bátora 2003; Kulcsár 2009, 168–170), while the silver axes – especially the ones with facetted shaft tube – may be connected with Balkan–Aegean metallurgical centres (Primas 1996, 105–112, 152–155), so they can hardly be considered as a typical element of the ‘Yamnaya package’. Together with gold and silver weapons, the hoards of copper shaft-hole axes could be interpreted rather as the expansion of a specific concept, such as social status (Hansen 2010), the representation of a shaft-hole axe on the left side of the Ciceu-Mihaiesti stela (Pl. 15/2b) being a good argument. Regarding the custom to put a deceased person in a tumulus, it became a funerary ‘fashion’, so it can be no longer used to define a specific cultural group or period of time (Harding 2008). The extremely high frequency of double spiral pendants in the EBA tumuli of the Apuseni Mountains (Pl. 13/6, 11) does not fit at all with the typical elements of the ‘Yamnaya package’, but highlites connections to Late Copper Central European traditions.20 The Transylvanian EBA cultural groups building tumuli with stone coverings look as a rather conservative community, preserving strong Late Copper traditions and sharing common elements with the post-Vučedol groups from central Europe and Balkan area. They dominated the highlands area of the Apuseni Mountains in the second third of the 3rd millennium BC, while the Eastern Carpathians were occupied by the Schneckenberg communities with their slab-cist graves. There is a good chance that the lowlands of the Mureş valley were also used for a certain period of time by Yamnaya groups, which disseminated Transylvanian goods towards the Lower Danube or to the Tisza Plain. The presence of almost identical amphora-type both in Livezile–Dealul Sârbului tumulus (Pl. 13/1) and in a possible funeral context from Horia (Pl. 12/2) in Dobrudgea (Vasiliu 2008, 115, fig. 1), as well as the discovery of a Leukastype lockring at Jurilovca in the same region (Vasiliu 2008, 122, fig. 4/2) considerably support this theory. Considering the distribution of funerary patterns, in correlation with the other kind of data – land-use strategy, settlement-patterns, copper and gold items etc. – such a picture looks quite probable in the present state of research.

Appendix 1. Slab-cist graves and tumuli in Transylvania21 (numbers in the list correspond to the ones in Fig. 1) 1. 2.

3. 4.

Almaşu Mare–La Cruce, Alba c. (hu. Nagyalmás); cemetery with six tumuli, one excavated by H. Ciugudean and C. Inel (2002–2003). Ciugudean–Inel 2003; Ciugudean–Inel 2004. Ampoiţa–Peret, Meteş com., Alba c. (hu. Kisompoly); cemetery with eight tumuli; excavation H. Ciugudean (1979–1988). Ciugudean 1986, 76–77, fig. 2/1–3; 3; 4/4; 5/1, 9; 6/2–8; Ciugudean 1991, 82–103, fig. 2–23; Ciugudean 1995, 14; Ciugudean 1996, 30–37, fig. 24–34; Andriţoiu 1992, 21; Roman 1986, 41; Rotea 1993, 75; Primas 1996, 85, 132, fig. 6.13/4–5; Maran 1998, pl. 20/13–14; Vulpe 2001, 423; Baković–Govedarica 2009, 14; Kulcsár 2009, 269; Rişcuta Et Al. 2009, 270–271, 273, 278, 281. Ampoiţa–Dealul Doştiorului, Meteş com., Alba c. (hu. Kisompoly); excavation H. Ciugudean (1987–1990). Ciugudean 1991, 82; Ciugudean 1995, 14; Ciugudean 1996, 37–39, 35–36; Andriţoiu 1992, 33. Araci–Vápa, Vâlcele com., Covasna c. (hu. Árapatak); Schneckenberg culture. Székely 1955, 844; Chicideanu– Olteanu 2000, 49, nr. 3.

18. The Leukas type was recently included by I. Motzoi-Chicideanu in his new larger Zimnicea-type, which reunites all the crescent-shaped lockrings (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 28–32, fig. 11). 19. The silver spiral lockrings are well documented on a huge area from the Caucasus to the Lower Danube, especially in the Yamnaya and early Catacombnaya tumuli (the list and map of finds in the area between Dniester and Tisza rivers at MotzoiChicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 55–57, fig. 11). 20. Double spiral pendants can be found both in the Late Copper and Early Bronze Age of Central and Northern Europe (Matuschik 1996, 2–20). The association of such copper pendants with stone coverings in the graves of the Jordansmühler culture was the main reason for N. Vlassa to speak about possible Northern elements in the birth of the tumulus burials from the Apuseni Mountains (quoted in Ciugudean 1977, 55, fn. 13). 21. Part of my catalogue is based on the list of slab-cist graves published in 2000 (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Oltenu 2000, 49–52), to which I added some older or more recent finds and literature. The only find I excluded from the former list is the grave from Zau de Câmpie, wrongly quoted as Şincai–Zau (Motzoi-Chicideanu–Oltenu 2000, 78), which is a flat grave, without cist (Lazăr 1999, 235).

Mounds and Mountains: Burial Rituals in Early Bronze Age Transylvania | 31 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23.

24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29. 30. 31.

Bahna, Mureş c. (hu. Bonyha, germ. Bachnen); Schneckenberg culture. Lazãr 1995, 54; Motzoi-Chicideanu– Olteanu 2000, 49, nr. 4. Balşa–Dumbrăiţa, Hunedoara c. (hu. Balsa, germ. Baleschen); isolated barrow; excavation C. Rişcută, C. I. Popa, V. Ferencz (1999). Rişcuta Et Al. 2009, 257–261, fig. 2–3. Băgara, Aghireş com., Cluj c. (hu. Bagártelke); isolated grave with slab-cist. RepCluj 1992, 50; MotzoiChicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 49, nr. 7. Brad–Dealul Lia, Hunedoara c.; cemetery (?); field survey N. C. Rişcuţa. Rişcuta Et Al. 2009, 273, note 46. Braşov, Braşov c. (hu. Brassó, germ. Kronstadt); slab-cist graves; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 70–71, 73; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 50, nr. 13. Brăduţ, Covasna c. (hu. Bardóc); tumuli with slab-cist graves; Schneckenberg culture. Székely 1995; Székely 1997b; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 50, nr. 14. Caşolţ–La Morminţi, Sibiu c. (hu. Hermány, germ. Kastenholz); earthen tumuli with burials in slab-cists; eight mounds excavated by M. Macrea and N. Lupu (1955–1956). Macrea 1957, 134–138; Macrea Et Al. 1959, 410– 413, fig. 11–13. Cetea–Picuiata, Galda de Jos com., Alba c. (hu. Csáklya, germ. Hagendorf); excavations K. Herepey (late 19th century); D. and I. Berciu (1943); I. Glodariu, V. Moga (1985), C. I. Popa (2004–2005). Herepey 1901, pl. 8; Schroller 1933, 74, nr. 23; Ciugudean 1986, 81; Ciugudean 1990, 69, fig. 2/2–3; Ciugudean 1996, 41–42, fig. 23/9–10; Andriţoiu 1992, 120–121, nr. 27; Popa Et Al. 2004; Popa Et Al. 2006, 182–185, fig. 1–5, 11. Cib–Cheile Cibului-Picui, Almaşu Mare com., Alba c. (hu. Cseb); cemetery with four tumuli. Ciugudean Et Al. 2001. Cluj–Dealul Feleacului, Cluj c. (hu. Kolozsvár, germ. Klausenburg); Vlassa Et Al. 1987, 114; Lazarovici– Maxim 1988, 1001–1002. Codlea, Braşov c. (hu. Feketehalom, germ. Zeiden); flat slab-cist skeleton graves; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 73–76, pl. 28; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 50, nr. 20. Covăsânţ–Măgura, Arad c. (hu. Kovászi); isolated tumulus. Pădurean 1985, 33, nr. 11. Craiva–Piatra Craivii, Cricau com., Alba c. (hu. Királypataka, germ. Königsbach). Ciugudean 1991, 106, footnote 5; Ciugudean 1996, 43; Andriţoiu 1992, 121, nr. 34. Crizbav–Pe deal, Hãlchiu com., Braşov c. (hu. Krizba, germ. Krebsbach); slab-cist skeleton graves. Schneckenberg culture. Vasiliev 1967, 425–429; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 50, nr. 21. Cugir–La Teche, după Pleşe, Alba c. (hu. Kudzsir, germ. Kuschir); two earthen tumuli, possibly with deeper stone covering (?). Popa 1995, 40, fig. 2, pl. 14/1. Cugir–Dealu cu alunu, Alba c. (hu. Kudzsir, germ. Kuschir); one isolated earthen tumulus, possibly with deeper stone covering (?). Popa 1995, 38, pl. 1. Cugir–Chiciură, Alba c. (hu. Kudzsir, germ. Kuschir); two earthen tumuli, possibly with deeper stone covering (?). Popa 1995, 41, fig. 2/1, pl. 1. Geoagiu de Sus–Cuciu, Alba c. (hu. Felsőgyógy); small cemetery with four tumuli, one being excavated by H. Ciugudean (1972). Ciugudean 1977, 43–49, fig. 1–5; Ciugudean 1986, 69, fig. 4/3, 5–6, 5/2; Ciugudean 1991, 81, 89; Ciugudean 1995, 25; Ciugudean 1996, 45–46, fig. 23/5, 7–8 ; Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 60, 64; Vlassa Et Al. 1987, 108, 118; Lazarovici–Maxim 1994, 15; Popa–Dărămuş 1998, 9–13. Geomal–Măgura, Stremt com., Alba c. (hu. Diómál); field survey H. Ciugudean (1972). Ciugudean 1977, 54; Ciugudean 1986, 69, note 7; Ciugudean 1991, 106, footnote 5; Ciugudean 1996, 46–47; Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 60. Ghimbav, Braşov mun., Braşov c. (hu. Vidombák, germ. Weidenbach); flat slab-cist graves; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 72–73; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 51, nr. 26. Hălchiu, Braşov c. (hu. Höltövény, germ. Heldsdorf); flat slab-cist skeleton graves; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 71–72; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 51, nr. 35. Hărman, Braşov c. (hu. Szászhermány, germ. Honigberg); flat slab-cist skeleton grave; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 73; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 51, nr. 36. Izvoarele–La Cruce, Livezile com., Alba c. (former Bedeleu, hu. Bedellő); excavation S. Fenichel (1887). Fenichel 1891a; Ciugudean 1996, 48. Izvoarele–La Furci, Dealul Nioarcii, Livezile com., Alba c. (former Bedeleu, hu. Bedellő); excavation S. Fenichel (1887) and H. Ciugudean (1972). Fenichel 1891b; Ciugudean 1977, 49–50, fig. 7; Ciugudean 1996, 48–49, fig. 23/2. Izvoarele–Gruiul Rosu, Livezile com., Alba c. (former Bedeleu, hu. Bedellő); excavation S. Fenichel (1887) and H. Ciugudean (1972). Fenichel 1891b; Ciugudean 1977, 50–54, fig. 8–9; Ciugudean 1996, 49–50, fig. 23/4. Jibert, Braşov c. (hu. Zsiberk, germ. Seiburg); slab-cist skeleton grave; Schneckenberg culture. Roska 1925, 45–47; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 52, nr. 41. Livezile–Dealul Sârbului, Alba c. (former Cacova, hu. Vladháza); excavation K. Herepey (1885), field survey H. Ciugudean, A. Gligor (1994). Herepey 1901, 18–20, pl. I–III; Schroller 1933, 33, pl. 28, 29/1, 3, 9–17; Roska


32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

43.

44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

58.

1941, 83, 91–92, fig. 41; Roska 1942, 306; Gimbutas 1965, 210; Kalicz 1968, 23; Roman 1976, 31; Roman 1986, 41; Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 59, 63–64; Ciugudean 1986, 72, fig. 4/1–2; 5/3, 5–6, 10; Ciugudean 1991, 106; Ciugudean 1995, 26; Ciugudean 1996, 50–51, fig. 21; Gligor 2001. Livezile–Baia, Alba c. (former Cacova, hu. Vladháza); excavations H. Ciugudean (1993–1995). Ciugudean 1979, 65, fig. 2; Ciugudean 1995, 26; Ciugudean 1996, 51–53, fig. 20; Ciugudean 1997a, 15–16, fig. 20–21; Botezatu Et Al. 1987. Livezile–Cărpiniş, Alba c. (former Cacova, hu. Vladháza); small cemetery with seven tumuli; excavation K. Herepey (1885). Herepey 1901, 20; Vlassa Et Al. 1987, pl. 3. Mada–Chiciorele, Balşa com., Hunedoara c. (hu. Máda, germ. Maden); excavation C. Rişcută, C. I. Popa, V. Ferencz (1999). Rişcută Et Al. 2009, 261–267, fig. 4–9. Mediaş–Gura câmpului, Sibiu c. (hu. Medgyes, germ. Medwesch); flat graves in slab-cists; Schneckenberg (?) culture. Blăjan 1989, 59–69; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 52, nr. 50. Mediaş–Măzărişte, Sibiu c. (hu. Medgyes, germ. Medwesch); flat skeleton graves in slab-cists; Schneckenberg (?) culture. Blăjan 1989, 59–69; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 52, nr. 51. Meteş–Metesel, Alba c. (hu. Metesd); cemetery with 10 tumuli, two of them already distroyed; excavation H. Ciugudean (1994). Ciugudean 1995, 26, fig. 5/13; Ciugudean 1996, 55–57, fig. 44/2, 45–46. Meteş–Pleaşa înaltă, Alba c. (hu. Metesd); isolated tumulus. Ciugudean 1986, 78; Ciugudean 1995, 26, fig. 2/1. Miceşti–Tâcla-Pe Costi, Tureni com., Cluj c. (hu. Mikes); cemetery wit six or seven tumuli; field surveys Gh. Lazarovici, Z. Maxim. Lazarovici–Maxim 1988, 1000–1001; Lazarovici–Maxim 1994, 18. Moacşa, Covasna c. (hu.Maksa); tumulus with a skeleton and a cremation grave, both in slab-cist. Schneckenberg (?) culture. Székely 1997a, 42–43, pl. 40/2, 49. Ocland, Harghita c. (hu. Oklánd); tumulus with a skeleton in a slab-cist grave. Kalicz 1968, 23; MotzoiChicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 56. Petreştii de Sus–Pe Gradini, Petrestii de Jos com., Cluj c. (hu. Felsőpeterd); cemetery with three tumuli, only one being excavated; excavations Gh. Lazarovici, Z. Maxim (1987–1988). Lazarovici–Maxim 1994; Ciugudean 1996, 58–59, fig. 23/6. Poiana Aiudului–Dealul Velii-Bogza Poienarilor, Livezile com., Alba c. (hu. Nyírmező); cemetery with 16 tumuli; excavations N. Vlassa, M. Takács (1973–1985). Vlassa Et Al. 1986; Vlassa Et Al. 1987; Ciugudean 1996, 60–62, fig. 37, 90/1. Poiana Aiudului–Ţâcul Mare, Livezile com., Alba c. (hu. Nyírmező); cemetery with seven tumuli; excavations M. Takács (1985). Vlassa Et Al. 1986, 60; Ciugudean 1996, 62. Prejmer, Braşov c. (hu. Prázsmár, germ. Tartlau); skeleton grave in a slab-cist; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 70; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 61. Râmeţi–Brădeşti–Curmătura, Alba c. (hu. Remete, germ. Einsiedl). Ciugudean 1983, fig. 77; Ciugudean 1996, 64. Râşnov, Braşov c. (hu. Barcarozsnyó, germ. Rosenau); skeleton grave in slab-cist; Schneckenberg culture. Prox 1941, 72; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 63. Roşia Montană–Şesul Monului, Alba c. (hu. Verespatak, germ. Rotseifen); several undated cist graves, close to some EBA tumuli with stone coverings. Rişcuţa 2005, 100, fig. 15–16. Roşia Montană–Islaz, Alba c. (hu. Verespatak, germ. Rotseifen); tumuli with stone coverings. Rişcuţa 2005. Rotbav, Fledioara com., jud. Braşov c. (hu. Szászveresmart, germ. Rothbach); flat grave in a slab-cist; Schneckenberg culture. Székely 1970, 310; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 65. Sălciua de Jos–Vârtop, Sălciua com., Alba c. (hu. Alsószolcsva); two tumuli; excavation H. Ciugudean (1987). Ciugudean 1995, 27; Ciugudean 1996, 64, fig. 38/1–2, 3, 5. Sălciua de Jos–Crucea Sârbului, Sălciua com., Alba c. (hu. Alsószolcsva); cemetery with four-five small tumuli; excavation H. Ciugudean (1987). Ciugudean 1995, 27, fig. 8/8; Ciugudean 1996, 65, fig. 38/4. Sănduleşti–Sulihegy, Turda mun., Cluj c. (hu. Szind); two cist-graves in a small cemetery with two tumuli; excavation Gh. Lazarovici, M. Meşter (1993–1994). Lazarovici–Meşter 1995, 87–88; Ciugudean 1996, 65–66. Sănduleşti–Căcăniş, Turda mun., Cluj c. (hu. Szind); isolated barrow; excavation Gh. Lazarovici, M. Meşter (1993–1994). Lazarovici–Meşter 1995, 89, pl. 5; Ciugudean 1996, 66. Sânmartin-Ciuc, Harghita c. (hu. Csíkszentmárton); skeleton grave in a slab-cist; Globular Amphorae Culture. Székely 2004; Székely 2010; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 68. Sânzâieni, Covasna c. (hu. Kézdiszentlélek); skeleton grave in a slab-cist; Zimnicea-type finding. Székely 1970, 39–46; Székely 1997a, 82, pl. 53; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 53, nr. 69. Sfântu Gheorghe–Őrkő, Covasna c. (hu. Sepsiszentgyörgy); flat grave with skeleton in a slab-cist; Schneckenberg culture. Székely 1970, 204–205, fig. 2/1; Székely 1997a, 43–44, pl. 43/3; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 54, nr. 85. Sfântu Gheorghe, Covasna c. (hu. Sepsiszentgyörgy); slab-cist grave (?). Székely 1997a, 82, pl. 95.

Mounds and Mountains: Burial Rituals in Early Bronze Age Transylvania | 33 59. Şincai–Pogányvár, Mureş c. (hu. Mezősámsond); destroyed slab-cist (?) grave(s); Schneckenberg culture. Lazăr 1995, 48; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 54, nr. 77; Balázs 2010, 10. 60. Troaş, Arad c. (hu. Torjás); cemetery with several tumuli with stone coverings. Pădurean 1985, 40, nr. 34. 61. Tureni–La furci, Cluj c. (hu. Tordatúr); cemetery with eight tumuli, only one being partially excavated; excavations Gh. Lazarovici, Z. Maxim-Kalmar, M. Rotea (1985). Lazarovici–Maxim 1988, 998–1000; Lazarovici–Maxim 1994, 16–17; Maxim 1994, 347–349, pl. 18; Rotea 1993, 74–75, fig. 3; Ciugudean 1996, 69–70. 62. Turia, Covasna c. (hu. Torja); skeleton grave in a slab-cist; Zimnicea-type find. Székely 1983, 61–67; Székely 1997a, 83, pl. 51–52/2; Motzoi-Chicideanu–Olteanu 2000, 54, nr. 80. 63. Ţebea–Ruşti, Baia de Criş com., Hunedoara c. (hu. Cebe); cemetery with three tumuli. Rişcuţa 1996, 278, fig. 4. 64. Ţelna–Rupturi-La Meri, Ighiu com., Alba c. (hu. Celna); cemetery with nine tumuli, two of them being excavated by H. Ciugudean (1990). Ciugudean 1995, 27; Ciugudean 1996, 71–73, fig. 38/6–11; 39–40; 90/2. 65. Ţelna–Salasele, Ighiu com., Alba c. (hu. Celna); cemetery with five tumuli. Ciugudean 1986, 69, footnote 11; Ciugudean 1995, 27; Ciugudean 1996, 73. 66. Ţelna–Chiceri, Ighiu com., Alba c. (hu. Celna); cemetery with two well preserved tumuli and several others destroyed. Ciugudean 1986, fig. 7/5–6; Ciugudean 1995, 27; Ciugudean 1996, 73. 67. Vălişoara–Gruiu Darului, Livezile com., Alba c. (former Cărpiniş, hu. Gyertyános, germ. Agendorf); cemetery with four tumuli; excavations S. Fenichel (1887). Fenichel 1891a; Schroller 1933, pl. 29/5–8; Ciugudean 1986, fig. 4/7; 5/7–8; Ciugudean 1995, 28, fig. 8/1–2; Ciugudean 1996, 73–74, fig. 23/1–2. 68. Vălişoara–La strungă, Livezile com., Alba c. (former Cărpiniş, hu. Gyertyános, germ. Agendorf); isolated barrow; excavations S. Fenichel (1887). Fenichel 1891a; Ciugudean 1995, 28; Ciugudean 1996, 74. 69. Zlatna–Dumbravita, Alba c. (hu. Zalatna, germ. Klein-Schlatten); cemetery with several tumuli; field survey I. T. Lipovan. Ciugudean 1995, 28; Ciugudean 1996, 76. Pit-Grave Earthen tumuli excavated in Transylvania 70. Câmpia Turzii–Gâlmeia de pe şes, Cluj c. (hu. Aranyosgyéres, germ. Gieresch); grave with ochre and pit covered with beams in an earthen tumulus. RepCluj 1992, 116–118. 71. Cipău, Iernut com., jud. Mureş c. (hu. Maroscsapó); grave with ochre in an earthen tumulus. Vasiliev 1980, 36. 72. Răscruci–Glimeie, Bonţida com., Cluj c. (hu. Válaszút); grave with ochre in an earthen tumulus. RepCluj 1992, 326–327, fig. 191. 73. Floreşti–Polus, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj c. (hu. Szászfenes, germ. Fenesch); three tumuli with stone rings and an antropomorphic stela. Polus 2008, 6, fig. 18; Rotea Et Al. 2008, 162. 74. Silvaşu de Jos–Dealul Ţapului, Haţeg town, Hunedoara c.; cemetery with four earthen mounds. Luca Et Al. 2007; Luca Et Al. 2008; Luca Et Al. 2009. Appendix 2. Late Copper / Early Bronze Age Stelae in the Carpathian Basin (numbers in the list correspond to the ones in Fig. 3) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Mezőcsát–Hörcsögös, Hungary; anikonic stela found in a tumulus built over a Baden cemetery. Kalicz 1999, fig. 3–5; Endrödi 1995, 310–311, fig. 5–7; Horváth 2009, 116. Budapest–Káposztásmegyer–Farkaserdő, Hungary; anikonic stela, found in a Baden site. Endrödi 1995, 311– 312, fig. 8–9; Horváth 2009, 116. Budakalász–Luppa Csárda, Hungary; anikonic stela, found in a Baden cemetery. Banner 1956, 116, fig.43/4; Endrődi 1995; 305–307, fig. 2. Center, Hungary, anikonic stela, found in a Baden cemetery. Banner 1956, 9–12, fig.5/5, 6; 6/5–7; 6/1–4; Endrődi 1995; 307–310, fig. 3–4. Gherla–Szent Antal-rét, Cluj c., Romania (hu. Szamosújvár, germ. Armenienstadt); antropomorphic stela. Orosz 1904; Roska 1942, 255, nr. 28; Horváth 2009, 116. Ciceu–Mihăieşti, Bistriţa-Năsăud c., Romania (hu. Csicsómihályfalva); antropomorphic stela. Rotea 2004, 7, fig.1; Chintăuan 2007, 37. Floreşti–Polus, Cluj c., Romania (hu. Szászfenes, germ. Fenesch); antropomorphic stela found in a tumulus with stone ring. Polus 2008, 18, nr. 18. Pianu de Jos, Pianu com., Alba c., Romania (hu. Alsópián, germ. Deutsch-Pien). Ciugudean 1982. Baia de Criş–Fântâna Borchii, Hunedoara c., Romania (hu. Kőrösbánya, germ. Altenburg); three antropomorphic stelae found in 1881; the fourth one accidentaly discovered in a coal quarry at Dâmbul Mare in 2000. Roska 1942, 140, nr. 277; Floca 1966; Rişcuţa 2001; Chintăuan 2007, 38–39.

34 | Horia Ciugudean References Agulnikov 1995

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Gligor 2001 Gogâltan 1995 Govedarica 1989 Govedarica 2004

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List of figures Fig. 1. Early Bronze Age slab-cist graves (+) and tumuli with stone covering (^) or earthen mound (*) in Transylvania. Fig. 2. Funeral monument with stone ring at Floreşti–Polus (after Rotea 2009). Fig. 3. Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic (*) and aniconic (^) stelae in the Carpathian Basin.

List of plates Pl. 1.

Pl. 2. Pl. 3.

Pl. 4.

1. Location of the Late Copper/Early Bronze Age settlement from Meteş–Piatra Peşterii; 2. The Early Bronze Age tumuli from Meteş–La Meteşel cemetery; 3. Location of the EBA settlement (A) and tumuli (B) from Livezile–Baia; 4. EBA tumulus in the cemetery from Meteş–La Meteşel. 1–2. The stone covering of the Early Bronze Age tumulus 1 from Roşia Montana–Islaz; 3. Stone-cist grave (?) from Roşia Montana–Şesul Monului (after Rişcuţă 2005). Slab-cist graves. 1–2. Mediaş (after Blăjan 1989); 3. Sfântu Gheorghe (after Székely 1997a); 4. Moacşa (after Székely 1997a); 5. Sânmărtin-Ciuc, belonging to the Globular Amphorae culture (after Székely 2010); 6. Slab-cist grave belonging to the Schneckenberg culture (after Prox 1941). 1. Grave with contracted skeleton in the Zăbala settlement (after Székely 1997a); 2. Multiple burials in the Copăceni–La Moară site (after Rotea–Wittenberger 2008); 3. Slab-cist grave from Turia (after Székely


Pl. 5. Pl. 6. Pl. 7. Pl. 8. Pl. 9. Pl. 10.

Pl. 11. Pl. 12.

Pl. 13.

Pl. 14. Pl. 15. Pl. 16.

1997a); 4. Slab-cist grave in a barrow at Brăduţ (after Székely 1997a); 5. Plan of the excavated graves and stone structures in the Tureni–La Furci tumulus (after Rotea 1993). The stone covering of tumulus 1 from Roşia Montană–Islaz (after Rişcuţă 2005); 2. The stone covering and vertical stratigraphical sequence in tumulus 3 from Mada–Chiciorele (after Rişcută Et Al. 2009). Stone covering of tumulus 3 from Mada–Chiciorele (after Rişcută Et Al. 2009). 1. Plan of the excavated graves in tumulus 1 from Livezile–Baia; 2. Funerary offerings from grave 1; 3–4. Offerings from grave 3. Plan of the excavation with the stone structures and graves in the Meteş–La Meteşel tumulus. 1. Plan with the location of the Early Bronze Age settlement (A) and tumulus cemetery (B) from Meteş; 2. Plan with the location of the Early Bronze Age cemetery from Ampoita–Peret. 1. Cultural landscape near Meteş in the Ampoi valley. A, C. Late Copper / EBA offering places on top of limestone rocks; B. isolated tumulus with stone covering; 2. Linear alignment of barrows in the EBA cemetery from Almaşu Mare–La Cruce; 3. Location of EBA cemetery from Ampoiţa–Peret, together with the contemporary settlement (2–3) and offering place (4). The EBA cemetery from Ampoiţa–Peret. 1–2. Articulated skeletons in contracted position; 3. Dismembered skeleton; 4. Multiple burial. EBA two-handled amphora with plastic decoration. 1. Livezile–Dealul Sârbului (after Ciugudean 1996); 2. Horia (after Vasiliu 2008); 3. Vinkovci (after Kulcsár 2009); 4. Valea Lupului (after Roman Et Al. 1992); 5. Pefkakia Magula (after Christmann 1996). Metal artefacts of the EBA elite graves in the Balkan-Carpathian region. 1–5. Nin (after Govedarica 1989); 6. Mada (after Rişcuţă Et Al. 2009); 8–11. Ampoiţa (after Ciugudean 1991); 7, 12–16. Gruda Boljevica (after Baković–Govedarica 2009); 17, 20–26. Mala Gruda; 18–19, 27–28. Velika Gruda (after Primas 1996). Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic stelae from Baia de Criş. 1–1a. Recently discovered stela (after Rişcuţă 2001); 2. Stela discovered in the 19th century. 1–2. Late Copper / EBA anthropomorphic stela from Ciceu-Mihăeşti (drawing and photo); 2a. Detailed view with the belt and sex representation; 2b. View with the shaft-hole axe from the left side (1. after Rotea 2004). Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic stele from Transylvania. 1–1a. Floreşti–Polus (after Rotea 2009); 2. Gherla; 3–3a. Pianu de Jos.

2

4

1

3


Plate 1. 1. Location of the Late Copper/Early Bronze Age settlement from Meteş–Piatra Peşterii; 2. The Early Bronze Age tumuli from Meteş–La Meteşel cemetery; 3. Location of the EBA settlement (A) and tumuli (B) from Livezile–Baia; 4. EBA tumulus in the cemetery from Meteş–La Meteşel.


1

2

3 Plate 2. 1–2. The stone covering of the Early Bronze Age tumulus 1 from Roşia Montană–Islaz; 3. Stone-cist grave (?) from Roşia Montană–Şesul Monului (after RIŞCUŢĂ 2005).


1

2

3

5

4

6

Plate 3. Slab-cist graves. 1–2. Mediaş (after BLĂJAN 1989); 3. Sfântu Gheorghe (after SZÉKELY 1997a); 4. Moacşa (after SZÉKELY 1997a); 5. Sânmărtin-Ciuc, belonging to the Globular Amphorae culture (after SZÉKELY 2010); 6. Slab-cist grave belonging to the Schneckenberg culture (after PROX 1941).


red

green

vessel

1

2

Turia–Vármegye

3

0

4

1m

ochre flint

5

Plate 4. 1. Grave with contracted skeleton in the Zăbala settlement (after SZÉKELY 1997a); 2. Multiple burials in the Copăceni–La Moară site (after ROTEA–WITTENBERGER 2008); 3. Slab-cist grave from Turia (after SZÉKELY 1997a); 4. Slab-cist grave in a barrow at Brăduţ (after SZÉKELY 1997a); 5. Plan of the excavated graves and stone structures in the Tureni–La Furci tumulus (after ROTEA 1993).


1

2 Plate 5. 1. The stone covering of tumulus 1 from Roşia Montană–Islaz (after RIŞCUŢĂ 2005); 2. The stone covering and vertical stratigraphical sequence in tumulus 3 from Mada–Chiciorele (after RIŞCUTĂ ET AL. 2009).


1

2

Plate 6. Stone covering of tumulus 3 from Mada–Chiciorele (after RIŞCUTĂ ET AL. 2009).


pot

M1

M2

M4

jug

M3

Coţofeni III house

0

1m

1

3

2

Plate 7. 1. Plan of the excavated graves in tumulus 1 from Livezile–Baia; 2. Funerary offerings from grave 1; 3–4. Offerings from grave 3.

4


0

1m

M7–7a M8

M3

M6 M2 M3

1 M2 3

2 M7a

M7

M6

4

5

6

Plate 8. Plan of the excavation with the stone structures and graves in the Meteş–La Meteşel tumulus.


1

2

Ampoiţa River 0

150 m

Plate 9. 1. Plan with the location of the Early Bronze Age settlement (A) and tumulus cemetery (B) from Meteş; 2. Plan with the location of the Early Bronze Age cemetery from Ampoita–Peret.


1

2

3 Plate 10. 1. Cultural landscape near Meteş in the Ampoi valley. A, C. Late Copper /EBA offering places on top of limestone rocks; B. isolated tumulus with stone covering; 2. Linear alignment of barrows in the EBA cemetery from Almaşu Mare–La Cruce; 3. Location of EBA cemetery from Ampoiţa–Peret, together with the contemporary settlement (2–3) and offering place (4).


1

2

3

4

Plate 11. The EBA cemetery from Ampoiţa–Peret. 1–2. Articulated skeletons in contracted position; 3. Dismembered skeleton; 4. Multiple burial.


2

1

3

4

5

Plate 12. EBA two-handled amphora with plastic decoration. 1. Livezile–Dealul Sârbului; 2. Horia (after VASILIU 2008); 3. Vinkovci (after KULCSÁR 2009); 4. Valea Lupului (after ROMAN ET AL. 1992); 5. Pefkakia Magula (after CHRISTMANN 1996).


6 2 3 7 4 5 8

1

12 11

10

9

13

16

15

14 17

19 18

20

22

21

23

26 24

27

28

25

Plate 13. Metal artefacts of the EBA elite graves in the Balkan-Carpathian region. 1–5. Nin (after GOVEDARICA 1989); 6. Mada (after RIŞCUŢĂ ET AL. 2009); 8–11. Ampoiţa (after CIUGUDEAN 1991); 7, 12–16. Gruda Boljevica (after BAKOVIĆ–GOVEDARICA 2009); 17, 20–26. Mala Gruda; 18–19, 27–28. Velika Gruda (after PRIMAS 1996).


1 50 cm

0

1a

2

Plate 14. Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic stelae from Baia de Criş. 1–1a. Recently discovered stela (after RIŞCUŢĂ 2001); 2. Stela discovered in the 19th century.


1 0

50 cm

2a

2

2b

Plate 15. 1–2. Late Copper / EBA anthropomorphic stela from Ciceu-Mihăeşti (drawing and photo); 2a. Detailed view with the belt and sex representation; 2b. View with the shaft-hole axe from the left side (1. after ROTEA 2004).


1a

1

2

3

Plate 16. Late Copper/Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic stele from Transylvania. 1–1a. Floreşti–Polus (after ROTEA 2009); 2. Gherla; 3–3a. Pianu de Jos.

3a

Abbreviations

AABW AB Acta ActaArch ActaMB ActaMN ActaMP ActaMPa ActaPraehistArch

ActaTS AFSB Agria AIBW AIH AJ AJA AJB Alba Regia Aluta AmAnt Analele Banatului AnnalenWien AnnalesIA Angustia ANOOH Antiquity AO AÖ Apulum ArchAustr ArchE ArchÉrt ArchHung ArchD ArchKorr ArchPol ArchRoz ArhMold ArhRR

Archäologische Ausgrabungen in Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart Ausgrabungen in Berlin Acta (Siculica), Muzeul Naţional Secuiesc, Sfântu Gheorghe Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest Acta Musei Brukenthal, Sibiu Acta Musei Napocensis, Cluj-Napoca Acta Musei Porolissensis, Zalău Acta Musei Papensis, Pápa Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica. Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Preussischer Kulturlesitz Berlin, the Ibero-Amerikanische Institut, and Staatlichen Museum, Berlin, Germany Acta Terrae Septemcastrensis, Sibiu Arbeits- und Forschungsberichte zur Sächsischen Bodendenkmalpflege Agria, Az Egri Múzeum Évkönyve (1982), Eger Archäologische Informationen aus Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart Régészeti Kutatások Magyarországon / Archaeological Investigation in Hungary, Budapest The Archaeological Journal, London American Journal of Archaeology Das archäologische Jahr in Bayern Alba Regia, Annales Musei Stephani Regis, Székesfehérvár Aluta, Revista Muzeului Naţional Secuiesc, Sfântu Gheorghe American Antiquity Analele Banatului, Muzeul Banatului, Timişoara Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien Annales Instituti Archaeologici, Zagreb Angustia, Muzeul Carpaţilor Răsăriteni, Sfântu Gheorghe Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed Og Historie Antiquity, London Arhivele Olteniei, Craiova Archäologie Österreichs Apulum, Acta Musei Apulensis, Alba Iulia Archaeologia Austriaca, Wien Archaologie in Eurasien, Mainz am Rhein Archaeologiai Értesítő, Budapest Archaeologia Hungarica, Budapest Archäologie in Deutschland Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum in Mainz Archeologia Polski Archeologické Rozhledy, Prague Arheologia Moldovei, Iaşi Arheološki radovi i rasprave, Zagreb

Bronze Age Rites and Rituals in the Carpathian Basin, 2011, p. 377–380

378 | Abbreviations ArhVest ASA ASF ASGE AVSL BA BArch Balcanica Banatica BAR BayerVorgeschbl BB BBVF BCŞS Beiträge UFMV BerRGK BIP BJV BM BMA BMAnt BMG BMM BMN BMS BpRég Bremer ArchBl BSE BT BTMM Bulletin SPF BZ CA CAB Carpica CCA CI ComArchHung Corviniana Crisia Cumidava Dacia

DolgKolozsvár EA Ea-online EAZ EJA EphemNap ESA FAS FBBW FBSMB

Arheološki vestnik (Acta Archaeologica), Inštitut za arheologijo, Lubljana Anzeiger für Schweizerische Altertumskunde, Zürich Archaeologia Slovaca Fontes, Bratislava Arheologičeskij Sbornik Gosudarstvennogo Ermitaža, Leningrad Archiv des Vereins für siebenbürgische Landeskunde Biblioteca de Arheologie, București Biblioteka Archeologiczna, Warszawa-Wrocław Balcanica, Beograd Banatica, Muzeul de istorie al judeţului Caraș-Severin, Reșiţa British Archaeological Reports, International Series, Oxford Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter, München Bibliotheca Brukenthal, Sibiu Berliner Blätter für Vor- und Frühgeschichte Buletinul Cercurilor Ştiinţifice Studenţeşti, Alba Iulia Beiträge zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission Biblioteca Istro-Pontica, Seria Arheologie, Institutul de Cercetări Eco-Muzeale Tulcea Berliner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Berlin Bibliotheca Marmatia, Baia Mare Biblioteca Mvsei Apvlensis, Alba Iulia Bibliotheca Memoriae Antiquitatis, Muzeul de istorie Piatra Neamţ Bibliotheka Mvsei Giurgiuvensis, Giurgiu Bibliotheca Mvsei Marisiensis, Seria Archaeologica, Târgu Mureș, Cluj Napoca Bibliotheca Mvsei Napocensis, Cluj-Napoca Bibliotheca Mvsei Sabesiensis, Sebeş Budapest Régiségei, Budapest Bremer Archäologische Blätter, Focke-Museum, Bremer Landesmuseum Biblioteca di “Studi etruschi” Bibliotheca Thracologica, Bucureşti Budapest Történeti Múzeum, Műhely Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française Bjelovarski zbornik, Bjelovar Cercetări Arheologice Cercetări Arheologice în Bucureşti Carpica, Muzeul Judeţean de Istorie şi Artă „Iulian Antonescu“, Bacău Cronica Cercetărilor Arheologice din România Cercetări Istorice Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae, Budapest Corviniana, Acta Musei Corviniensis, Hunedoara Crisia, Muzeul Ţării Crișurilor, Oradea Cumidava, Anuarul Muzeelor Braşovene Dacia, Recherches et décuvertes archéologiques en Roumanie, I–XII (1924–1948), Bucureşti; Nouvelle série (N. S.), Dacia. Revue d’archéologie et d’histoire anciene, Bucureşti Dolgozatok az Erdélyi Nemzeti Múzeum Érem- és Régiségtárából, Kolozsvár Eurasia Antiqua, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut European archaeology – online (www.archaeology.ro) Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift, Berlin European Journal of Archaeology Ephemeris Napocensis, Cluj–Napoca Eurasia septentrionalis antiqua Freiburger Archäologische Studien Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg Forschungen und Berichte der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin

Abbreviations | 379 FMSt FolArch Godišnjak Sarajevo Germania Glasnik ZM Historia Carpatica HOMÉ IA IHAD IPH Istros JAA Jahrbuch RGZM JahrBB JahrBern JahrDAI JahrMV JahrVMGA JahrVSTL JAMÉ JAnR JEA JPMÉ JRAI Лесковачки зборник Közlemények Debrecen Közlemények Kolozsvár Litua Marisia MatArch MatBV MatZach MCA MemAnt MFMÉ MittAGW MittBGAEU MittBSM MittCCEB MΩMOΣ Mousaios MPK MSVF MVFBW Notizie ArchBerg NotizieS OIAS OJA OpArch OTTÉ OZ

Frühmittelalterliche Studien, Münster Folia Archeologica, a Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum Évkönyve, Budapest Godišnjak Centra za Balkanoloska Ispitivanja Akademije Nauka i Umjetnosti, Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo Germania, Frankfurt am Main Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja Bosne i Hercegovine u Sarajevu Historica Carpatica, Zborník Východoslovenského múzeá v Košiciach, Kosice A Herman Ottó Múzeum Évkönyve, Miskolc Internationale Archäologie, Buch am Erlbach, Espelkamp, Rahden/Westf. Izdanja Hrvatskog arheološkog društva, Zagreb Inventaria Praehistorica Hungariae, Budapest Istros, Buletinul Muzeului Brăilei, Brăila Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Amsterdam Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz Jahresbericht der bayerischen Bodendenkmalpflege, München Jahresbericht des Historischen Museums in Bern Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Berlin Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte, Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften for the Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte (Halle), Berlin Jahrbücher des Vereins für Mecklenburgische Geschichte und Altertumskunde Jahresschrift für die Vorgeschichte der sächsisch-thüringischen Länder A Nyíregyházi Jósa András Múzeum Évkönyve, Nyíregyháza Journal of Anthropological Research Journal of European Archaeology, Durham, UK A Janus Pannonius Múzeum Évkönyve, Pécs Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain Народни музеј у Лесковцу, Лесковац Közlemények a Debreceni M. Kir. Tisza István Tudomány Egyetem Régészeti Intézetéből, Debrecen Közlemények az Erdélyi Nemzeti Múzeum Érem- és Régiségtárából, Cluj Litua, Muzeul Gorjului Marisia (V–), Studii şi Materiale, Târgu Mureş Materiały Archeologiczne, Kraków Materialien zur Bayerischen Vorgeschichte Materiały Zachodniopomorskie, Muzeum Narodowe w Szczecinie Materiale şi Cercetări Arheologice, Bucureşti Memoria Antiquitatis, Acta Musei Petrodavensis, Bucureşti A Móra Ferenc Múzeum Évkönyve, Szeged Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft Wien Mitteilungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte Mitteilungen des Burzenländer Sächsischen Museums Mittheilungen der Central-Commission zur Erhaltung der Baudenkmale MΩMOΣ, Őskoros Kutatók Összejövetelének konferenciakötete Mousaios, Muzeul Judeţean Buzău, Muzeul Brăilei Mitteilungen der Prähistorischen Kommision, Viena Marbuger Studien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Mainz Materialhefte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart Notizie Archeologiche Bergomensi, Civico Museo Archeologico di Bergamo Notizie degli Scavi Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae Oxford Journal of Archaeology Opuscula Archaeologica, Arheološki zavod, Filozofski fakultet u Zagrebu Orvos- és Természettudományi Értesítő, Kolozsvár Osječki Zbornik, Osijek

380 | Abbreviations Ősrégészeti levelek PA PamArch PAS PBF Peuce PMAAE PPS Pravĕk NŘ Preistoria Alpina Prilozi IAZ PrzArch PZ RegBPA RégFüz RevBis RevMuz RGF RKM RoczB SAB Sargetia Savaria SCIV(A) SJA SlovArch SpJ SSA SSUF Starinar StCom Satu Mare StCom Sibiu StudiaAA Studie AUCAB Študijné zvesti SymThrac Thraco-Dacica Tibiscus Tisicum TübSchr UPA VAH VAMZ VHAD VMMK WA WArch WMMÉ WPZ Zalai Múzeum Zbornik Bor Zborník SNM ZfA

Ősrégészeti levelek / Prehistoric newsletter, Budapest Patrimonium Apulense, Alba Iulia Památky Archeologické, Praha Praehistorische Archäologie in Südosteuropa, Berlin, Kiel, München Prähistorische Bronzefunde, München, Stuttgart Peuce, Studii și cercetări de istorie și arheologie, Institutul de Cercetari Eco-Muzeale Tulcea, Institutul de Istorie si Arheologie, Tulcea Prace i Materiały Antropologiczno-Archeologiczne i Etnograficzne, Kraków Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, London Pravĕk NŘ, Masarykova univerzita Brno Preistoria Alpina, Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju iz Zagreba Przegląd Archeologiczny, Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk Praehistorische Zeitschrift, Berlin Regensburger Beiträge zur Prähistorischen Archäologie Régészeti Füzetek, Budapest Revista Bistriţei, Complexul Judeţean Muzeal Bistriţa-Năsăud Revista Muzeelor, București Römisch-Germanische Forschungen, Mainz, Berlin Régészeti Kutatások Magyarországon Rocznik Białostocki Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, Bonn Sargeţia, Buletinul Muzeului judeţului Hunedoara, Acta Musei Devensis, Deva Savaria, a Vas Megyei Múzeumok Értesítője, Szombathely Studii şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche (şi Arheologie 1974–), Bucureşti Southwestern Journal of Anthropology Slovenská Archeológia, Bratislava Speläologisches Jahrbuch, Wien Śląskie Sprawozdania Archeologiczne, Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego Schriften der Sektion für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Berlin Starinar, Arheološki institute, Beograd Studii şi Comunicări Satu Mare Studii şi Comunicări, Muzeul Brukenthal, Sibiu Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica, Iaşi Studie Archeologického Ústavu Československé Akademie vĕd v Brnĕ, Praha Študijné zvesti, Archeologického Ústavu Slovenskej Akadémie Vied, Nitra Symposia Thracologica, Institutul Român de Tracologie, Bucureşti Thraco-Dacica, Institutul de Tracologie, Bucureşti Tibiscus, Muzeul Banatului, Timişoara Tisicum, A Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Évkönyve, Szolnok Tübinger Schriften zur Ur- und Frühgeschichtlichen Archäologie, Münster Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie, Bonn Varia Archaeologica Hungarica, Budapest Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu Vjesnik Hrvatskog arheološkog društva, Zagreb A Veszprém Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei Wiadomości Archeologiczne, Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne, Warsaw World Archaeology, Oxford, Oxbow Wosinsky Mór Múzeum Évkönyve, Szekszárd Wiener Prähistorische Zeitschrift, Vien Zalai Múzeum, Közlemények Zala megye múzeumaiból, Zalaegerszeg Zbornik radova muzeja rudarstva i metalurgije u Boru Zborník Slovenského Národného Múzea, Bratislava Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters, Bonn