Building synergies between EU and GCC on energy efficiency ...

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Building synergies between EU and GCC on energy efficiency Alexandra G. Papadopoulou School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece

6 Received 17 May 2012 Revised 28 August 2012 10 December 2012 Accepted 4 January 2013

Nawal Al Hosany Sustainability, Masdar, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and

Charikleia Karakosta and John Psarras School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Abstract Purpose – The aim of this paper is to analyse the state of play on energy efficiency with regards to policy, legislation and technological issues in the European Union (EU) and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Moreover, specific collaboration proposals between the two regions, with respect to the aforementioned, are elaborated on. Design/methodology/approach – The approach of this paper utilizes and integrates the input from a large number of experts through excerpts from extensive international literature, dedicated meetings, bilateral interviews with experts and questionnaires regarding specific proposals for further collaboration. Findings – Collaboration on energy efficiency between the two regions focuses mainly on three directions: policy, technologies and research. Specific collaboration proposals identified relate among others to the establishment of energy agencies and synergies at the policy level, building retrofitting technologies, labels and standards especially for air conditioning and exchange of know-how on demand side management and third party financing. Originality/value – Information on the state of play of energy efficiency in the GCC is, for the most part, scattered and fragmented. This paper is the first integrated analysis on the GCC status. Moreover, this paper provides solid collaboration modules between the EU and GCC, through an active participation of experts from both sides. Keywords EU/GCC, Energy efficiency, Collaboration proposals/modules, European Union, Europe, Persian Gulf States, Energy Paper type Literature review

1. Introduction The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a regional organisation created in May 1981 by Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates (UAE) (Zind, 1999). The European Union (EU) has been linked with the six countries of the GCC in a non-preferential agreement since June 1988. The objective of this agreement is to International Journal of Energy Sector Management Vol. 7 No. 1, 2013 pp. 6-28 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1750-6220 DOI 10.1108/17506221311316452

This paper was elaborated within the framework of the project “Creation and Operation of an EU-GCC Clean Energy Network – www.eugcc-cleanergy.net” (Contract Number SI2.551874), European Commission, Directorate General External Relations. The content of the paper is the sole responsibility of its authors and does not necessarily reflect the views of the EC.

facilitate trade relations, and more broadly, to strengthen overall partnerships. To that end, working groups on energy and environment were established (Sparrow et al., 2002). The efforts for the establishment of an EU-GCC cooperation on energy and environment, had been initiated many decades ago. Throughout the years, certain tools and mechanisms have been developed (Papadopoulou et al., 2011a); however, EU-GCC collaboration still faces a number of challenges (Flamos et al., 2010; Flamos, 2012). Power generation in the GCC countries is primarily based on natural gas, crude oil and oil products and is realized through traditional thermal power plants. In the EU however, energy production alongside these traditional energy sources – comes largely from solid fossil fuels, nuclear power, as well as renewable energy sources (RES). Saudi Arabia claims the leading position in the GCC when it comes to electricity generation, followed by the UAE and Kuwait. In terms of electricity consumption, the UAE leads as the highest electricity consumer per capita in the GCC countries, closely followed by Kuwait. Oman is significantly lagging behind in the overall electricity consumption, as well as the electricity consumption per capita, compared to the rest of the GCC. This is due to a number of reasons including a lower population rate and fewer industrial units; however the trend is gradually changing with the increase in demand due to the growing number of industrial and touristic infrastructure being implemented, combined with an ongoing population growth. As far as the EU is concerned, according to the International Energy Agency (2011), per capita electricity consumption is higher in countries such as Finland, Luxemburg and Sweden, with their performance being almost at the same levels with the GCC states: . Based on statistical data by the International Energy Agency (2011), a quick comparison between the two regions, will result in the following conclusions: GHG emissions per capita in the GCC are at least two to three times higher than the average EU-15, while compared to the GDP, the GHG emissions are almost four times higher (Flamos et al., 2012). . Electricity consumption per capita in the GCC is 50 per cent higher than the average EU-15, while if consumption per GDP is calculated, the number is doubled in comparison to the EU-15 average. It is also observed that energy consumption and emission patterns are increasing for the GCC if compared to the average of EU-27, as well as the average of OECD countries according to Doukas et al. (2006). The high emissions per capita in the GCC countries are driven by three main factors: (1) Energy intensive industries (oil sector and aluminium). Production in the oil sector and aluminium industries per capita is exceptionally high compared to the world average (oil sector: GCC 0.4 barels per capita, world 0.012 barrels per capita; aluminium: GCC 49 kg per capita, world 5 kg per capita). (2) Nascent fast growing infrastructure. Increased necessity for cement, due to the nascent construction of buildings and roads, leads to higher production rates compared to world average. This development boom, lasting over 40 years now, is a pattern that is not expected to continue at these rates in the future. EU economies on the other hand are considered more mature and stable, as far as their development rate is concerned.

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(3) Harsh climate and scarcity of fresh water (therefore desalination). The need for air cooling and lack of fresh water resources are the triggering parameters for the high usage of air-conditioning and desalination plants (41 per cent of globally desalinated water is produced in the GCC). Therefore, climate conditions in the GCC are another aggravating factor, since energy-intensive air-conditioning is a prerequisite for a significant period of the year. According to a number of studies (Berbari, 2010; Alotaibi, 2011), air conditioning consumption amounts to over 70 per cent of the peak demand, and almost 50 per cent of the buildings’ annual electricity consumption. Alnaser and Flanagan (2007) mention that “typical air-conditioned buildings, in Bahrain and the Arabian Gulf regions contribute 70-80 per cent of their lifetime total energy consumption for operating these systems”. A switch towards more efficient use of fossil fuels and an increased share of RES would result in several benefits for the GCC countries (Patlitzianas and Flamos, 2012). The reduction of natural resources’ exploitation rates for own use would significantly contribute to the increase in the oil and gas volumes available for export. This strategy has been adopted by Norway, which is a major oil and natural gas exporting country covering the majority of its own electricity needs through hydro electricity generation. Moreover, aside from the financial benefit of increasing export capacities, the GCC countries would gain another important benefit from such an ecological transformation process; they would prepare themselves for the post-oil age. Their energy infrastructure would be ready for an era when domestic oil and natural gas are no longer available, according to Reiche (2010). However, the GCC countries are walking a very fine line. The identification of the most cost effective alternative compared to the use of oil and gas in a timely manner is not an easy task. One helpful step in this direction could be the development of a comprehensive and integrated plan for clean energy technologies for all the GCC countries. GCC energy sector players have recently warned government authorities about the unsustainable level of energy consumption – which in 2010 has reached as much as 25 per cent of the total oil and gas produced by GCC. The chief executive officer of Saudi Aramco, warned that the demand on domestic liquids was increasing at a rate that will reach over 8 million barrels/day (oil equivalent) by 2030 should no improvements be made in energy efficiency and current trends continue (EIA, 2011). These warnings are further triggering the adoption of energy efficiency measures and gradual elimination of direct subsidies of electric prices, as well as indirect ones such as the subsidized fuel price given to the power plants. There is therefore a clear tendency in the region to move towards greater energy efficiency, despite parameters such as population growth and the development of large communal facilities that are putting pressure on both the power sector and water desalination infrastructure. Improvements in the efficiency rate of the thermal power plants and usage of improved desalination techniques, such as two test units for manipulated osmosis currently installed in Oman (Thompson and Nicoll, 2011), have been realized in the past years. These efforts will ensure that generation and desalination efficiencies continue to improve over the next decade. Significant efforts are also being made regarding the promotion of energy efficiency particularly in the building sector. More specifically, laws governing insulation and glazing are being put in place in the

majority of the GCC countries, while district cooling has seen a massive application in the last decade where around 2.5 million tons of refrigeration has been commissioned. Based on the above introduction, the potential for implementing synergies between EU-GCC on energy efficiency is evident. In addition, information on the current status of existing efforts towards clean energy and the promotion of collaboration between the two regions is for the most part, scattered and fragmented. To this end, the aim of this paper is to thoroughly study the current state of play on energy efficiency in both EU and GCC and to investigate potential collaboration areas among the two regions. The paper is structured along the following sections; Section 2 presents the methodological approach adopted, while the current state of play at the policy and legislative level, as well as the technological one, is being analysed for both regions in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. Section 5 addresses the know-how transfer achieved so far in the above mentioned fields through synergies and Section 6 gathers specific proposals for further collaboration, as derived from the authors’ team and the collaborating experts. Finally, Section 7 summarizes the main conclusions that have emerged from this study. 2. Methodological approach The methodological approach presented under this section was developed and adopted within the framework of the project “Creation and operation of an EU-GCC Clean Energy Network”. This network is organized based on five thematic areas on clean energy related issues, one of them being the discussion group on energy efficiency and demand side management (DSM) (Papadopoulou et al., 2011a). The proposed approach utilizes a number of proven tools, widely used in the international literature, in order to elicit its findings from the participating stakeholders. A large number of experts from both regions, including governmental officers, researchers and academia, representatives from industries, financial institutions, utilities and NGOs, participate in the network’s discussion group on energy efficiency and DSM. These stakeholders, reaching 300 members on the specific thematic field, have provided their experts’ opinions on the issues raised, utilising tools such as questionnaires, surveys, bilateral interviews and promoting dialogue through dedicated meetings and respective web platform. These tools are analysed in the following paragraphs. 2.1 Questionnaire A questionnaire investigating the penetration level of selected DSM programmes types and energy efficiency technologies was designed by the authors’ team. The questionnaire was also targeted on the barriers and the parameters affecting EU-GCC cooperation. Three ways in total were provided to the stakeholders in order to mark their opinions/answers on the questionnaire’s raised issues. Each question could be answered with only one of the following ways: objective multiple choice marking the desired option with an £ , alternatives’ rating from 0 to 5, with 5 assigned to very high priority, as well as subjective free text. The topics raised in the questionnaire, as well as the adopted mode for the provision of the answers are described below: . Question 1. How would you characterize the penetration level of each one of the following DSM program types in your country? Selected answer mode: mark with an £ .


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Question 2. Which of the above mentioned DSM program types do you consider promising for your country and why? Selected answer mode: free text. Question 3. Which of the already implemented DSM efforts so far in your country do you consider as most important? Selected answer mode: free text. Question 4. Value the potential of each one of the following energy efficiency related technologies in your country. Selected answer mode: rating from 0 to 5. Question 5. At which sector should be placed more emphasis for the implementation of DSM measures? Selected answer mode: mark with an £. Question 6. How important do you consider the impact of the following suggested options for the building sector? Selected answer mode: rating from 0 to 5. Question 7. How important do you think each of the following parameters is for implementing or promoting EU-GCC cooperation? Selected answer mode: rating from 0 to 5. Question 8. How would you characterize the governmental efforts for supporting/exploiting EU-GCC cooperation actions – attempts? Selected answer mode: rating from 0 to 5. Question 9. Which are the most important barriers for the implementation of an EU-GCC cooperation? Selected answer mode: mark with an £ . Question 10. At what degree do you believe joint ventures could influence the current energy situation in your country? Selected answer mode: mark with an £. Questions 11. Comments and remarks – selected answer mode: free text.

2.2 Surveys An experts’ contribution card was developed and distributed at the network’s events, while it was also available through the program’s site for online contributions. The aim was to gather working directions for collaboration between both regions. These working directions could be specific proposals for joint projects’ implementation, collaboration on areas of policy and research, as well as suggestion of thematic areas of common interest. This survey amongst the stakeholders also inquired them on fields such as proposed stakeholders involved, potential network contribution, as well as estimated time planning. An additional survey carried out focused on the prioritarization of selected thematic areas/proposals at the policy and research level, as derived from above, by the network’s experts and the way these proposals could be promoted through the network. These proposals were rated from 0 to 5, where 5 was assigned to very high priority. 2.3 Bilateral interviews Within the framework of the conducted meetings, bilateral “unstructured” interviews were conducted with selected stakeholders. The issues discussed included the current status of energy efficiency promotion especially in the GCC, where available information is more dispersed compared to EU, as well as fields and suggestions for potential collaborations. This information was particularly crucial for the identification of the current state of play in the GCC, as described in the following sections.

2.4 Discussion through dedicated meetings and respective web platform Within the network’s operation, at least three meetings are being implemented on an annual basis, two discussion group meetings and one plenary session. In addition to these meetings, the network’s platform serves as the web portal for stakeholders who are unable to be physically present in the meetings. Therefore, stakeholders engaged in the network are able to submit their cooperation ideas through the survey, or fill in the respective questionnaire, in all realized meetings or through the platform. 3. State of play at the policy and legislative level A real progress towards a broader and more fruitful EU-GCC cooperation remains limited and the trade liberalization talks in the fields of energy and environment turned out to be a difficult undertaking. According to reports by Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (2002) and Saleh (1999), the following factors acted as major constraints: . The GCC states were not able to unify their widely differing tariff structures and thus fulfil the conditions that the European Community had set for engaging in free-trade negotiations. . On the part of the EU, the main constraints they had to encounter relate to the relatively low interest of the GCC states regarding the EU environmental policies for CO2 emission reductions. Moreover, according to Youngs (2009), the European Commission (EC) has sought to deepen energy cooperation at the bilateral level with individual GCC states, but the potential is limited to technical issues such as reducing flaring and energy-efficient product development. In general, energy efficiency has been an essential area of focus for the European energy importing countries, at the legislative, as well as the policy level through a number of research activities (Doukas et al., 2008, 2009). On the other hand, the energy exporting countries, such as the GCC, showed little effort in energy conservation until recently, mainly due to the abundant and relatively cheap access to energy resources. While no harmonised policy on energy efficiency exists in the GCC states, recent developments show some changes at the individual country level. In the following paragraphs, an outline of the prevailing policy and legislative status in both regions is presented, including a number of significant initiatives that are paving the way to the future. 3.1 EU status The EU region is a frontrunner in tackling climate change and energy efficiency issues. The 20-20-20 target set for 2020 has placed very ambitious goals for the reduction by 20 per cent of GHG emissions and primary energy consumption. The integrated European legislative framework for the promotion of energy efficiency incorporates a large number of directives. Some older ones include Directive 2004/8/EC on the promotion of cogeneration based on useful heat demand, Directive 2003/54/EC concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity and Directive 2004/22/EC on measuring instruments. Newer directives indicatively include Directive 2010/30/EU on labelling and standard product information of the energy and other resources’ consumption by energy-related products and Directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings, introducing nearly zero-energy buildings by 2020 (European Parliament and Council, 2003, 2004a, b, 2010a, b).


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More specifically, Directive 2010/30/EU introduces three additional classes for energy labels (Aþ , Aþ þ and Aþ þ þ ), while it has been applied so far on household dishwashers, refrigerating appliances, household washing machines and televisions. On the other hand, Directive 2010/31/EU places more emphasis on the renovation of buildings than the previous directive, while it introduces the nearly zero-energy buildings’ concept for the new buildings being built by 2020 in the private sector. It should be noted that for the new buildings occupied and owned by public authorities the deadline is after the 31 December 2018. In addition, the requirement for issuance of energy performance certificates becomes more widely applicable. As a result of adopting this proposal, the ESD and CHP directives will be replaced by a single directive, giving a more integrated approach to energy efficiency and savings. One of the most important tools for the promotion of energy efficiency is the adoption of appropriate DSM measures. Although no specific legislation on the promotion of DSM measures has been implemented yet, their contribution in the achievement of the set goals has been widely recognized. Even though the EU does not envisage any harmonised DSM policy, the EU directive on energy efficiency and end-use energy services (Directive 2006/32/EC) addresses DSM issues in the following points: . Promotion of the adoption of real-time demand management technologies such as advanced metering systems (European Parliament and Council, 2006). . Billing of actual energy consumption and informative billing (provision of comparisons with an average normalised or benchmarked user of energy in the same user category, or user’s consumption data for previous periods). . Energy distributors, distribution system operators and/or retail energy sales companies provide on request aggregated statistical information on their final customers to the designated body. . Removal of those incentives in transmission and distribution tariffs that unnecessarily increase the volume of distributed or transmitted energy. Currently, a proposal on an energy efficiency directive, repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC, is being discussed. This directive will transform into binding measures the new energy efficiency plan (EEP), adopted on 8 March 2011 by the commission, in order to make a significant contribution to meeting the EU’s 2020 energy efficiency target. Moreover, a number of research efforts regarding the promotion of DSM policies and measures has been realized, and extensive know-how is available. More specifically, efforts have been realized for the assessment of DSM programmes, such as the research conducted by Vreuls (2005a, b), Papadopoulou et al. (2011b) and Neves et al. (2008). Additionally, Atikol and Guven (2003) have studied the feasibility of DSM technology transfer to developing countries. 3.2 The UAE status The UAE have been one of the most active countries in the GCC regarding the adoption of policy measures on the promotion of energy efficiency and DSM. More specifically, the activities towards this direction include: . Water and electricity sector privatisation – a long-term programme has been adopted by the Abu Dhabi Government and Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA). As part of this programme, four independent power and

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water producers have been introduced in the Abu Dhabi water and electricity sector on a build, own and operate basis via joint venture arrangements between ADWEA and various international companies. The privatisation has started to pay off, in terms of attracting a sizable foreign investment and savings on the cost of kWh generated. However, utilities are still faced with the challenge of meeting high demand growth and the requirement of huge investments to satisfy peak demand. Urban master plan Abu Dhabi 2030 – the Government of Abu Dhabi has directly committed itself to strengthen and develop four key priority areas, one of which is infrastructure development and environmental sustainability. Hence, the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC) has initiated and supported Abu Dhabi’s urban development strategy by transferring Abu Dhabi 2030 Vision to physical settings. The vision is built on a comprehensive analysis of the urban fabric, land availability and its best use, environmental issues, mobility, infrastructure and urban services that need to be integrated in the city development strategy. The Abu Dhabi 2030 Urban Structure Framework Plan addresses sustainability as a core principle. Estidama: the pearl rating system for Estidama, which is the Arabic word for sustainability, is an initiative developed and promoted by the UPC, providing green building guidelines similar to the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program in the USA. The rating system is one of the key tools for driving the core principles of sustainable development, specifically tailored to the hot climate and arid environment of Abu Dhabi. Estidama is now incorporated into the planning approval and permitting processes. All new projects must achieve a minimum 1 Pearl rating. Government funded buildings must achieve a minimum 2 Pearl rating. According to Al Hosany (2010), Estidama rating system as mandatory one is being rolled out; however, there exist some conflicts with the new building codes. Abu Dhabi international building code – the Government of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi has recognized that in order to achieve the vision of Abu Dhabi 2030, emphasis must be placed on improving the quality of construction materials and building practices. To do so, the Emirate, through the Department of Municipal Affairs, adopted state of the art building and construction codes and standards. These international codes were published by the International Code Council. The international building codes for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi are expected to improve the construction standards of buildings across the emirate, creating more cost-effective structures with greater durability and higher health and safety standards. The codes also aim to raise professional standards across the local construction industry and to address the design and installation of building systems through requirements emphasizing performance. A comprehensive DSM strategy for electricity and water consumption within the Emirate is currently being prepared by the Economic Affairs Unit of Abu Dhabi in collaboration with other government and non-government entities. DSM programs are designed to influence consumer behaviour to reduce waste and ensure the efficient and economic use of electricity and scarce water resources. The objective of the Executive Affairs Authority in coordinating this activity is to develop an integrated overall DSM strategy to assist the Emirate in meeting


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its short- and long-term energy and water needs. DSM programs can also promote future economic growth and competitiveness according to the Executive Affairs Authority (2010). A sustainable development policy (“Dubai Strategic Plan 2015”) has been adopted by the Government of Dubai, covering all aspects of society. In the energy branch, green building standards, and water and energy conservation and management are relevant aspects. The green building code may be the first step towards the development of a dependable policy in the Emirate. The code is based on the US Green Building Council’s LEED rating system, with modifications made to account for the local environmental conditions. The Green Building Regulation came into effect in April 2010 and aimed at reducing new buildings’ energy demand by up to 40 per cent (Elgendy, 2010). As mentioned in the introductory section, one of the major electricity consumption loads in the UAE, as well as the whole GCC, is the air conditioning. To this end, policy actions to address the increase in power consumption (e.g. DSM policies, promotion of solar cooling systems) are currently being formulated, as indicated by Reiche (2010) and Al-Iriani (2005). A new energy efficiency label and standard scheme has been launched by the Emirates Authority for Standardisation and Metrology (ESMA) in a bid to reduce the country’s environmental impact. The new certification will be placed on electronic goods – in particular air-conditioning units – and will be based on an international standards template while being specifically designed for the UAE market. According to Sambidge (2010), the programme’s objectives include the encouragement of manufacturers, traders and consumers to correspondingly produce, sell and buy energy-efficient products, as well as the phasing out of low energy-efficient products gradually from the market through regulation. The first part of the labelling standards was assigned to “room-air-conditioners”. This standard deals with the energy efficiency labels for room-air conditioners, and the Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) for single-package (such as window type) and split-system non-ducted air conditioners using air and water-cooled condensers for residential, commercial as applicable in accordance with the Gulf Standards’ Organization (GSO) (ESMA, 2011). According to Badri (2011), priority products for labelling and standardization by ESMA in 2012 and 2013, respectively, are lamps and washing machines (2012) and air-conditioning (chillers and ducted). Heroes of the UAE – the Heroes campaign[1], which was delivered and managed by Emirates Wildlife Society (EWS), is an example of inspiring change through education and practical advice, in response to the UAE’s high per capita ecological footprint. The thinking behind the campaign was that while relying on alternative low-carbon energy sources is part of the solution, an immediate and cost-effective priority is to reduce energy wastage by affecting human behaviour so as to use energy more efficiently. It is believed that more than 20 per cent of electricity consumption in UAE households is simply wasted.

3.3 Kuwait status Kuwait’s initiatives have been mainly focused on the building sector. More particularly, “a code of practice for energy conservation in buildings” has been developed by the

Ministry of Electricity and Water (MEW). Energy-conservation measures have been in practice in the country since 1983, through a well defined code of practice enforced by the MEW. Kuwait was the first country in the GCC to implement energy-conservation measures in air-conditioned buildings. This was achieved through codes requiring adequate insulation of walls and roofing, and not permitting the cooling demand or power requirement per unit area to exceed a specific value (i.e. 65 W/m2 for residential buildings and 100 W/m2 for institutional buildings). A second edition of the code of practice has been published within 2010. According to the MEW (2010), some of the key changes in the revised version of the code are the definition of separate design weather conditions for the country’s coastal and interior zones, the reduction of the capacity for mandatory use of water cooled air conditioning systems for interior areas and the mandatory use of cool storage systems for buildings with partial occupancy. 3.4 Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia has also realized a number of related initiatives, such as: . Several steps to implement energy conservation and to reduce peak load demand have been introduced by the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MWE), in order to cope with the increased power demand and to ensure reliable electricity supplies. These include the formation of an Energy Conservation and Awareness Department, imposing limits to the maximum power that can be delivered to electricity consumers, establishing DSM actions, and rationalizing the use of electricity. Also, the MWE in collaboration with the Saudi electricity company has implemented procedures enabling the reduction and shifting of peak loads, and has published and distributed the Energy Conservation and Load Management Consumers’ Guide. Additional activities realized include public awareness raising workshops, and the arrangement of site visits to major governmental consumers (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006). . In order to enhance energy conservation, the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization (SASO) adopted several standards aiming to limit the penetration of inefficient electrical appliances into the Saudi market. However, being a legislative agency, SASO has no effective power to enforce these standards. The flooding of the market with cheap inefficient appliances hinders the uptake of energy efficient appliances (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006). . The National Energy Efficiency Program (NEEP) was started in the Energy Research Institute of King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) in the beginning of 2003, as the first step in the establishment of an Energy Conservation and Management Center (ECMC). The Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, represented by KACST, and the United Nations (UN) Development Program, represented by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN/DESA), jointly conducted the program, as mentioned in Al-Ajlan et al. (2006). Moreover, the NEEP defined eight objectives, including energy audit services and industry support, efficient use of oil and gas, energy efficiency labels and standards for appliances, construction codes and technical management and training (Enerdata and the Economist Intelligence Unit, 2011). 3.5 Qatar status Green buildings and sustainable development are also a priority for Qatar. The related initiatives realized in the country include:


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National Vision 2030 on sustainable development, supported by Msheireb Properties[2], introduces edge urban living concepts that build on traditional Arabian architecture and design and contribute to the social and cultural heritage of Doha. The design principles and quality standards followed observe traditional architectural values within a robust modern framework and aim at delivering a sustainable development that is energy-efficient, high in performance and low in wastage. Qatar Green Building Council (QGBC) is a private organisation for public benefit established by Qatar Foundation, with a vision to provide leadership and collaboration for Qatar in guiding and adopting environmentally sustainable practices for green building design and development. According to Arabian Business News (2009), the council’s mission is to educate the public, generate and increase awareness among the people, develop a definitive set of clear environmental and green building best practice guidelines, and to support and commit to research and development. Moreover, the QGBC will also develop a green building model that will become the standard for all developers in Qatar, so as to set the Qatar-specific green building solutions. The Qatar sustainable energy and water utilisation initiative (QWE) is a project to improve desalination technologies, and promote public awareness of sustainable use of energy. The technical areas covered by the program include: environmental impact assessment of water and energy utilization; minimization of water consumption and discharge; maximization of industrial energy efficiency, reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions, improved technologies for desalination; efficient reuse and recycling strategies and effective integration of water and energy systems[3].

3.6 Oman status Oman, compared to the other GCC states, is lagging behind, with only some “efforts being realized by the electricity companies on implementing some DSM programs” to improve their operation and become more competitive. These efforts are not thoroughly supported by the government’s side, since there is no policy effort to implement time-of-use tariffs or offer rebates to encourage customers to buy efficient end-use appliances. On the contrary, Al-Badi et al. (2009) mention that there are large subsidies in tariffs especially in the residential and commercial sectors, which are the main hurdle in the implementation of DSM. 3.7 Bahrain status Bahrain initiatives also focus on a number of “activities promoting energy conservation and DSM measures,” programmes targeted towards thermal insulation, energy audit, power factor, compact fluorescent (CFLs), labels and energy standards, load control and awareness raising (Abdullatif, 2009). 4. Technological state of play 4.1 EU focus In the EU, end consuming energy efficient technologies are continuously gaining ground. Although energy consumption trends among the different EU countries may

show large deviations depending on their characteristics, cutting back on energy consumption both in the residential and tertiary building sector is a reality. According to Bertoldi and Atanasiu (2009) the largest consuming equipment’s share in the EU-27 residences is attributed to heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) with 32.2 per cent, closely followed by white appliances and cooking appliances (31.8 per cent), other household equipment, such as televisions and computers (25.5 per cent) and lighting (10.5 per cent). In the commercial building sector and especially office buildings, HVAC holds the largest consumption share, closely followed by office lighting. Overall, the energy efficiency of large electrical appliances has improved by 20 per cent between 1990 and 2004. However, the average consumption per household for all these appliances decreased by only 2 per cent because of increased appliance ownership, which has thus offset almost 90 per cent of the technical efficiency gains (Doukas et al., 2008, 2009). The penetration of energy efficient equipment in the building sector for a number of different appliances is presented below: . In Italy and Spain, countries with one of the largest shares of air-conditioning units’ sales among EU due to weather conditions, the introduction of their energy labelling has contributed within 2005-2008 to an overall increase of A class units’ market share by 361 per cent, a reduction of C-G class units’ market share by 76 per cent and a reduction of unknown class units’ market share by 40 per cent (Bertoldi and Atanasiu, 2009). . For refrigerators, the share of category A and Aþ increased from 2.5 per cent in 1994 to 39 per cent in 2002 and 58 per cent in 2004; in The Netherlands it is higher than 70 per cent and around 60 per cent in Germany and Belgium (Doukas et al., 2008, 2009). Initiatives, such as the Italian Government’s one introducing a tax subsidy programme, in order to promote the sales of highly efficient cold appliances, have had significant results in the increase of efficient appliances’ market share, with a market response for Aþ class appliances by a factor of 2.5 in 2007 compared to the previous year. The share of Aþ appliances in sales reached 45.5 per cent in 2008, four times more compared to 2006 (Bertoldi and Atanasiu, 2009). . For washing machines, the increase in the share of A and Aþ appliances has been even more rapid, from about 1 per cent in 1996 to 73 per cent in 2004. Again, The Netherlands take the leading position with a market share of nearly 100 per cent for A and Aþ, followed by Germany and Belgium (around 90 per cent) (Doukas et al., 2008, 2009). As regards the whole EU picture, in the period 2002-2007, washing machine sales were dominated by A class, with A and Aþ classes together taking in 2007 a share of 96.7 and 95.3 per cent in EU-15 and the 12 new Member States, respectively, (Bertoldi and Atanasiu, 2009). . In the field of lighting, large progress has been made with the banning of incandescent lamps and the dominion of CFLs ones. A new technology has now entered the market, lamps using light emitting diodes, also known as LED lamps, promising significantly higher efficiencies than the CFLs. However, according to Ecofys (2008), the number of LED models available is still limited, and so is their market share. The CFLs stock in the residential sector grew by some 690 million


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units (3.47 CFLs/household) over the period 2003-2007, with a 340 per cent increase in the apparent consumption of CFL from 45 million in 2003, arriving to 628 million in 2007 (Bertoldi and Atanasiu, 2009). 4.2 GCC focus In the GCC region, the prevailing technologies regarding energy efficiency and demand reduction in the end-use consumption sector include the optimal utilization of primary resources through the clustering of industrial activities and systematic exploitation of energy synergies (beginning with, but going well beyond, simultaneous generation of power and water, waste heat recovery and cogeneration of heat and power – CHP). The clustering of energy intensive industrial transformation processes – including power generation, water desalination, petroleum refining, petrochemicals, iron and steel and aluminium smelting – in carefully planned industrial cities, offers the potential for optimal utilization of “waste” heat, in parallel with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The systematic exploitation of energy synergies can lead to substantial improvements in the energy efficiency of major industrial processes. The search for energy synergies is considered to be at a beginning stage and significant progress may be possible through systematic research and investigation of appropriate technologies. The architects of large buildings are now obliged to incorporate ice-thermal storage systems in their designs. By incorporating such systems, the electrical energy could be used during the night (off-peak time) to produce ice. Then, the stored ice can be used for cooling during the day (peak time). In addition, there is a pressing need to renew commitment both at EU and GCC level to promote energy efficiency more actively. This has an increased significance, in light of the Kyoto agreement to reduce CO2 emissions, where sustainable energy will play a key role, in meeting international commitments. More specifically, Bahrain developed some energy efficiency activities, such as the installation of energy efficient motors instead of standard efficient ones, and witnessed some progress during the last decade. This transition becomes necessity, in sight of the limitation in energy sources and the escalation of energy prices. Although the energy price is low and motor costs are at least 100 per cent higher in Bahrain compared to EU, installation of energy efficient motors seems to be economic since pay back periods of about three years can be achieved. It is estimated that, with the same amount of energy consumption, efficient motor’s output can be increased by , 4 per cent, which can lead to a very significant saving over their life cycle (Doukas et al., 2006). In Kuwait, Maheshwari and Al-Murad (2001) mention that cost-effective energy-conservation measures and use of cool storage for peak-power savings have been carried out as a demonstration project in two-storey buildings in the Center for Speech and Audio Therapy (CSAT). Al-Mulla et al. (2008) have developed an innovative approach towards national peak load management, implemented in eight governmental buildings in the summer of 2007 and achieving a peak demand reduction of approximately 30 per cent. According to Darwish and Darwish (2008), since the desalination practices used in the country are highly energy consuming, efforts are being made for waste water reuse. A new wastewater treatment and reclamation plant was built in Sulaibiya, Kuwait, and uses ultra-filtration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO) to produce potable water quality from the tertiary treated municipal wastewater.

In the UAE the electricity tariffs are, to some extent, higher than the remaining GCC countries, but still below the international tariffs. Dubai has recently ( January 2011), increased the electricity tariff by 15 per cent. Dubai’s power peak demand has increased from 2.23 GW in the year 2000, to 6.16 GW in 2010. Abu Dhabi as well, is considering tariff restructuring. This change in the tariff structure has been one of the factors to drive energy efficiency in the region. For example, research showed that developers have been actively seeking the support of energy services companies to explore operational cost savings opportunities that the introduction of energy efficiency and infrastructure improvement initiatives lead to. To date, pilot, research and real life energy efficiency projects have been conducted in the GCC region. As a result, several small and medium capacity projects have been tested and conducted by the institutions, scientific and research centres, companies and some relevant governmental and non-governmental bodies. More specifically, according to Doukas et al. (2006): . Significant institutes and research centers have conducted research regarding energy efficiency, such as KACST of Saudi Arabia, the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and the Middle East Desalination Research Center (MEDRC). . Governments and their relevant ministries (mainly Ministries of Electricity, Ministries of Water Resources) have implemented a number of actions. . Universities in the GCC region have carried out demonstration small-scale energy efficiency projects as well as feasibility studies for the viability of such applications. Several research institutes, including the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, have launched research and development (R&D) projects on clean energy and alternative energy (Doukas et al., 2006). 5. Existing EU-GCC collaboration at the policy and technology level Recently, environmental awareness in the GCC countries has been increasing. The use and development of energy efficiency and DSM technologies could make a significant contribution to improving environmental protection and towards guarantying continued oil supplies in conditions of stability and security. As such, the renewal or reinvigoration of the EU-GCC partnership should be a matter of high priority as new opportunities occur. Specifically, governments, financial organizations, academics, the general public and the private sector of the GCC states start realizing the inevitability of putting climate change issues on the top of the priorities’ list in the process of sustainable development. As a result of the GCC countries’ accession to the Kyoto protocol, the use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms and specifically the clean development mechanism (CDM) has contributed so far to the EU-GCC cooperation in the field, although future collaborations are not currently being encouraged by the prevailing situation in the after Kyoto protocol era. According to the latest UNEP RISOE (2011) available data, currently there are 20 CDM projects in four GCC countries; more specifically UAE (14 projects), Saudi Arabia (two projects), Oman (two projects) and Qatar (two projects), six of which in total are registered till now. According to the same source, out of these 20 projects, eight are being focused on energy efficiency actions in households, industry and


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supply side, while only one of these energy efficiency actions has already found a credit buyer, and more specifically a European one (Vitol from Switzerland). In addition, through joint technology programmes, financial assistance and private investments, the EU can support the improvement of energy efficiency in the GCC states. International organisations, governments and numerous non-governmental organisations could further facilitate the implementation of CDM investments in these countries. Sioshansi (2005) argues that technology transfer will also contribute to strengthening security of supply by improving access to resources and by contributing to the diversity of fuel availability towards a sustainable energy system. Furthermore, the price fluctuations, the rapid population growth and the increasing energy demand contribute to the increased necessity of the above sustainable energy investments, as the region cannot depend on conventional fuels forever. Until relatively recently, the six Member States of the GCC had not been really interested in the energy investments related to energy efficiency. The above fact is based on their huge conventional fuel resources, the lack of appropriate funds, the high risk as well as the lack of environmental awareness regarding the performance of these investments, as they were described by Patlitzianas et al. (2006). The slow but gradual progress on energy efficiency in these countries over the past few years has opened up the path for other activities, in this area. Sustainability and environmental education and awareness are critical areas where there is a successful example of cooperation between the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and EWS. EWS-WWF has been active in the UAE since 2001 and has initiated and implemented several conservation and education projects in the region. The mission of EWS-WWF is to conserve the natural heritage of the UAE and to promote sustainable lifestyles. They have successfully completed seven projects and are currently working on ten initiatives. Limited joint efforts have been promoted in energy efficiency or DSM pilot or demonstration projects in GCC countries, and in particular between EU and GCC entities. However, it is worth mentioning the great venture that Masdar has undertaken, the development of the first renewable powered low-carbon emissions and low-waste city in Abu Dhabi. Masdar City, is being built around pedestrians, where open public squares intersect with narrow shaded walkways and connect to homes, schools, restaurants, theatres and shops. The architecture of the city is inspired by the traditional medinas, souks and wind towers of the Arab world. The city is a free zone clean-tech cluster. Phase one of Masdar City has now begun – The Masdar Institute of Science and Technology is open and Masdar City is home to close to 200 students. Moreover, Salama (2010) mentions that in Abu Dhabi, selected customers will soon be able to manage their electricity usage and enjoy preferential (time-of-day) rates, as part of a pilot project to fit smart meters in their homes and businesses. In parallel, Masdar City in cooperation with General Electric (GE) will implement a new smart appliance pilot program that will measure and transmit real time power consumption over a two-year period at Masdar Institute residential buildings. Involving some of the city’s first residents, the program will test how GE’s smart appliances and GE’s home energy manager technology can plug into a smart grid to lower power demand in the home and across the city (Gilligan, 2010). It will also implement several advanced demand response schemes and measure/study end-users’ response and feedback. This move will also benefit Abu Dhabi because smart metering

will dramatically reduce the need to use polluting “peaking” generation plants to boost supply during peak times. Another benefit is that with the reduction of demand will follow a reduction in the carbon footprint (Salama, 2010). Moreover, the Emirates Foundation, one of the UAE’s philanthropic institutions, in partnership with ExxonMobil, announced a series of grant opportunities to accelerate advances in energy efficiency in the UAE. The foundation’s energy efficiency project aims to raise the capacity of citizens, residents, corporations and government agencies to adopt and promote responsible and effective approaches to save energy and protect the environment. The project’s main goal is to stimulate creation of new energy efficiency initiatives through research and training, as well as to provide support for existing activities (Ammari, 2009). Existing building retrofitting is an area where energy efficiency improvement will result in immediate operational gains. As mentioned by Qazi (2011) and Nair (2012), Abu Dhabi Municipal affairs is implementing in collaboration with Masdar and Schneider Electric, its strategic partner, its energy efficiency program, carrying out energy audits on 71 buildings in a sector downtown Abu Dhabi city. 6. Proposals for further collaboration Based on the review conducted under Sections 3-5, it is evident that both EU and GCC regions possess significant strengths, but also face a number of challenges. In Table I, an overview of the main strengths and challenges in these regions for each one of the axes (policy, technology, and research) studied is provided. Although a large number of research activities are currently being realized in both regions on energy efficiency and DSM, their existing specificities and needs, as well as their varied research advancement rates, result in the identification of specific collaboration proposals that seem to be of higher priority. These proposals have been thoroughly discussed with experts and stakeholders at the network’s events, deriving from the acquired results through the adoption of the methodological approach, which are also substantiated by the international review. The issues put forward by the majority of the stakeholders include: . Energy efficiency efforts in the GCC are currently considered to harvest the “low hanging fruit”. Intensification of the efforts on the promotion of energy efficiency technologies and DSM activities is required. Exchange of know-how on DSM activities has been suggested by the experts. . The building sector in the GCC consumes even higher amounts of energy compared to EU, and is one of the priority energy consuming sectors in the region. Activities contributing to the reduction of the building sector’s consumption in both regions through collaboration at the legislative, technological and research level have potential for synergies. . The GCC region is characterized by the existence of fragmented data regarding energy efficiency activities, which makes harder the realization of such activities and also impacts on their overall success. The establishment of central coordination instruments has been suggested. . Financing is one of the most significant parameters inhibiting the implementation of energy efficiency investments in both regions. Synergies on the identification of apposite financing tools should be explored.


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Table I. Strengths and challenges in EU-GCC regions on policy, technology and research

EU Strengths Policy Integrated strategic energy planning

GCC Challenges

Delays in the legislation’s adoption and implementation in the Member States Extensive common Lack of financing tools legislative framework for RUE and DSM investments Technology Large potential for Challenges regarding energy efficiency certain technologies’ performance in difficult Strong weather conditions manufacturing capabilities and industry capacities Extensive experience with innovative RUE technologies Research Thorough research on RUE and DSM Strong technological research institutions

Strengths

Challenges

Strong political will to introduce changes in the energy market and practices Central governmental decision making

Low energy prices No common policy framework Fragmented data on policy initiatives and activities

Abundant potential for energy efficiency Large investments on advanced RUE technologies

Demand for high efficiencies under harsh climate conditions

Strong technological research institutions Collaboration with prominent research institutions around the world

Less focus on RUE research compared to RES RUE research is relatively “new” in the region Difficulties on obtaining data from related research efforts

Based on these outputs, the authors developed a series of collaboration proposals, which were thoroughly discussed with the experts at the network’s meetings and events. These proposals are beneficiary for both regions, truly answering their current development agenda, and are being analysed in the following paragraphs: . Establishment of energy agencies. A major problem in the GCC is the existence of fragmented data regarding the ongoing activities realized on energy efficiency. Although a number of activities are being realized, the absence of a central coordinating agency impacts them negatively due to either a duplication of efforts or a significant lack of data affecting the already existing efforts. To that end, the suggestion is the establishment of a national energy agency to oversee and coordinate the various efforts in place. Having established various national and regional energy agencies, the EU can share extensive knowledge for this exercise. . Building Retrofitting. EU focuses its efforts on the establishment of an integrated legislative framework (EPBD and EPBD recast) on the energy performance of new buildings, taking into consideration the existing building stock. Retrofitting activities however are being realized at slow paces, especially in the southern Europe.

.

.

.

.

According to Sua´rez and Fernańdez-Aguëra (2011), there are a significant number of retrofit activities in central and northern Europe, characterized mainly by a high level of thermal insulation. However, in regions with a Mediterranean climate, fewer interventions are carried out, and there are usually linked to international or national projects, in the form of case studies. GCC states have also realized a series of initiatives for buildings’ energy performance at the legislative level (e.g. Estidama in Abu Dhabi, Dubai strategic plan 2015, QGBC), while retrofitting activities are scarce in the region. Future collaboration in this aspect could include the development of synergies between governmental authorities at the policy level, cooperation among technical companies and/or research institutions on new innovative solutions for retrofitting the existing building stock. Labels and standards. EU is experienced with the use of labels and standards for domestic appliances. However, air conditioning is a new growing market in the region, only voluntary MEPS exist, while their labels are in need of revision. On the other hand, as presented in the introductory section, air conditioning consumption accounts for almost 50 per cent of the GCC buildings’ electricity consumption, and the need for rationalizing these consumption patterns is significant. Taking into consideration that the UAE is currently working on the development of a new energy efficiency label and standard scheme, especially for air conditioning; cooperation among standardization organizations between the two regions for revising/developing the MEPS, especially in relation to air-conditioning, is of common interest. Technicians’ certification. In EU, building installers for renewable energy measures should be certified by 2012; the same is valid for energy efficiency measures (no specific deadline). Countries are responsible for the development of a national strategy and roadmap towards this direction (funded from IEE – BUILD UP initiative). Moreover, training and certification schemes for building auditors are already in place. On the other hand, technicians’ and building auditors’ certification in the GCC is an issue gradually attracting the interest of the involved stakeholders. Therefore, cooperation among training and certification organizations between the two regions on the qualifications and the training required for the technicians should be further exploited. DSM programmes. DSM programmes and strategies are widespread in certain EU countries; however, there is largely room for additional efforts. Existing know-how includes information on tariff design and demand elasticity, as well as DSM programmes and information campaigns. With regards to the GCC, DSM activities are rather limited in the region. Information campaigns are being launched, but with limited results, while a major inhibiting parameter to these programmes is the energy price, which remains close to the production costs. However, gradual steps are being taken, as thoroughly discussed in the sections above. Cooperation among utilities and/or governmental authorities for the exchange of know-how on existing strategies and collaborative work could bring benefits for both regions. Third party financing. Third party financing (TPF) has gained continuous ground in EU; the ESCO industry after the first boom, has reached static levels in the Member States at a value of e5-10 billion annually. In the GCC, the prevailing financing option is government funding, since TPF options are not available. It is therefore


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envisaged that cooperation among financing institutions from both regions, as well as governmental authorities, for the identification of investor favourable incentives, as well as the development of suitable financing programmes is of interest. Indicative measures include the provision of loans with low interest and tax deductions passed on to the customer. Research activities. Under the umbrella of the seventh framework programme (FP7), a variety of joint projects and actions could be supported, financed, promoted and implemented between the EU and the GCC entities. Bi-regional coordination could be accomplished through dialogue towards identifying S&T priorities of mutual benefit and interest, identifying cooperation policy orientations and the implementation of specific activities to promote and contribute to the participation of the targeted regions or countries in the framework programme.

7. Conclusions This study focuses on the depiction of the current status of existing efforts towards energy efficiency being realized in EU and GCC regions, information which is for the most part, scattered and fragmented. The analysis performed in the previous sections provides useful insights regarding the progress of energy efficiency in both regions and the milestones achieved so far. Also, based on the methodological approach adopted by the authors, a series of thematic axes, standing highly on the experts’ interests in both regions has been identified. A number of proposals for the future collaboration paths, deriving from these experts’ suggestions, combined to the findings from the literature review, have been elaborated by the authors’ and discussed with these stakeholders in the network’s meetings in order to be finalised. The outputs from the detailed survey of the current state of play in both regions, demonstrate in a clear way the differences among them. It is evident that energy efficiency is a policy priority for both, although the GCC faces a number of additional challenges, such as energy prices’ direct or indirect subsidization, thus constituting large-scale energy efficiency investments at the current time period of higher risk. However, the GCC states have started gradually recognizing that the existing tariff schemes are unsustainable and some of them have started modifying this pattern. Apart from solid investments in energy efficiency, there are a large number of issues of common interest in both regions that could be the basis for further future collaboration on issues affecting policy, technologies and research: . Policy issues. A challenge common to both regions is the issue of fragmented information, which is even more evident in the GCC. Collaboration on the establishment of national energy centres in the GCC, as well as exchange of experiences among policy and/or governmental institutions exists. . Technological issues. Building technologies and retrofitting, as well as bioclimatic architecture, is another focus area for collaboration. Electrical appliances are also a major electricity consumer, and exchange of technology know how on labels and standards could significantly benefit both regions. . Research activities. Solid collaboration among research institutions and companies would be vastly beneficial. Research on DSM, such as smart grids, is a necessity for both regions. The importance of improving air conditioning related technology, as well as the related MEPS is also visible.

All abovementioned axes of collaboration attracted the interest of the stakeholders from both regions. However, some proposals were considered of higher priority by the participating experts. Collaboration on labels and standards, especially concerning air conditioning, and building retrofitting technologies has significant potential, not only from the technological aspect, but from the policy perspective on the implementation of these activities as well. Exchange of know-how and collaboration on the establishment of energy agencies and the implementation of DSM programmes are activities also considered important by the experts. The research perspective and synergies attract a lot of interest as well, since a large part of the participants are academic. On the other hand, issues related to TPF and technicians’ certification are of lesser priority for the stakeholders and especially the GCC ones, since they are now beginning to be in the spotlight. These findings are the axes based on which the network’s future work will be based, and can be utilized by the policy makers in both regions so as to support and encourage appropriately collaboration in the identified areas. Notes 1. www.heroesoftheuae.ae/en 2. www.msheireb.com/ 3. http://qwe.qatar.tamu.edu/ References Abdullatif, A.A. (2009), “Demand side management in the Kingdom of Bahrain”, paper presented at the 3rd AUPTDE Conference on the Future of Electricity in the Arab World, Tunisia, 14 December, available at: www.auptde.org/newsite/UploadFiles/Activitypaperfile/391.pdf (accessed 10 October 2011). Al-Ajlan, S.A., Al-Ibrahim, A.M., Abdulkhaleq, M. and Alghamdi, F. (2006), “Developing sustainable energy policies for electrical energy conservation in Saudi Arabia”, Energy Policy, Vol. 34 No. 13, pp. 1556-65. Al-Badi, A., Malik, A., Al-Areimi, K. and Al-Mamari, A. (2009), “Power sector of Oman – today and tomorrow”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13 No. 8, pp. 2192-6. Al Hosany, N. (2010), “Energy efficiency and demand side management”, paper presented at 1st Discussion Groups’ Meeting, Dubai, available at: www.eugcc-cleanergy.net/ (accessed 12 November 2011). Al-Iriani, M. (2005), “Climate-related electricity demand side management in oil-exporting countries: the case of the United Arab Emirates”, Energy Policy, Vol. 33 No. 18, pp. 2350-60. Al-Mulla, A., Maheshwari, G.P., Al-Nakib, D., Elsherbini, A., Alghimlas, F., Al-Taqi, H. and Al-Hadban, Y. (2008), “An innovative approach towards national peak load management”, paper presented at the Eighth International Conference for Enhanced Building Operations, Berlin, Germany, 20-22 October, available at: http://txspace.di.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/ 1969.1/90806/ESL-IC-08-10-32.pdf?sequence¼1 (accessed 15 November 2011). Alnaser, N.W. and Flanagan, R. (2007), “The need of sustainable buildings construction in the Kingdom of Bahrain”, Building and Environment, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 495-506. Alotaibi, S. (2011), “Energy consumption in Kuwait: prospects and future approaches”, Energy Policy, Vol. 39 No. 2, pp. 637-43.


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