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Guidelines for Safe Recreational-water Environments Vol. 2: Swimming Pools, Spas and Similar Recreational-water Environments
Final Draft for Consultation August 2000
CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Guidelines for Safe Recreational-water Environments Vol. 2: Swimming Pools, Spas and Similar Recreational-water Environments
Final Draft for Consultation August 2000
Chemicals found in pool water include those that are related to water treatment — both the chemical additives themselves and the by-products that are produced from chemical reactions between the additives (particularly the reactive disinfectants) and organic and inorganic materials in the raw water — and those that are contributed by the swimmers, which include soap residues, cosmetics, suntan oil, sweat and urine. This chapter briefly reviews the routes of exposure to chemicals in swimming pools, spas and similar recreational-water environments, estimated and measured intakes of chemicals by users, and the hazards associated with exposure to the chemicals. 4.1
Concentrations of chemicals in swimming pool environments
4.1.1
Disinfectants
A variety of disinfectants are used for pool water treatment. Those listed in the first column of Table 4.1 represent the major usage worldwide, especially in public and semi-public pools that are large and heavily used. With the exception of chlorine gas and ozone, these disinfectants are also routinely used in many small private and semi-public pools. Some of these are residual disinfectants — i.e., they persist in water and are present in the water to which pool users are exposed. This provides increased protection against contamination with infectious agents susceptible to disinfection and leads to human exposure to the disinfectant itself. Some others (notably ozone and UV) are effective at the point of treatment only. Non-residual disinfectants are often used in combination with residual disinfectants. Table 4.1: Disinfectants and disinfecting systems for swimming pools Disinfectants used most frequently in large, heavily used pools Chlorine - Gas - Calcium/sodium hypochlorite - Sodium dichloroisocyanurate - Electrolytic generation Ozone/chlorine in combination Chlorine dioxide Chlorine dioxide/chlorine in combination
Disinfectants used less frequently Bromine - Liquid bromine - Bromochlorodimethylhydantoin (BCDMH) - Sodium bromide + hypochlorite
Disinfectants used infrequently, mainly for small-scale and private pools Bromine chloride UV UV–ozone Iodine Hydrogen peroxide Silver/copper Biguanide
Disinfectant residuals in swimming pools that have been suggested in various countries are shown in Table 4.2. Table 4.2: Recommended disinfectant residuals (mg/litre) in swimming pool water Disinfectant Free chlorine (hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite) Bromine Chlorocyanurates Chlorine dioxide Ozone
