Climatic trends, risk perceptions and coping strategies ...

Livestock Research for Rural Development 28 (11) 2016

LRRD Newsletter

Citation of this paper

Climatic trends, risk perceptions and coping strategies of smallholder cattle farmers in some villages of Bhutan N Dorji, J Thinley1, K Wangdi2, K Rizal3, K Tshering4, Cheda4, G Kibria5, K Rabgay6 and Y Dorji6 Department of Animal Science, College of Natural Resources, The Royal University of Bhutan [email protected] 1 Department of Sustainable Development, College of Natural Resources, The Royal University of Bhutan 2 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, PemaGatshel, Samtshe, Bhutan 3 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Dorokha, Samtshe, Bhutan 4 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Daga, Bhutan 5 School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia 6 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Nabi, Trongsa, Bhutan

Abstract Climate change and variability is a global issue, and it affects the small subsistence farmers of Himalayan developing countries like Bhutan. We used a set of semi-structure questionnaire to interview the farmers to understand and analyze local perceptions and reactive responses adapted to climate uncertainties in some villages of Bhutan. Farmers were aware of climate change, and radio and television were identified as the main sources of climate change/global warming related information. In general, farmers have observed rainfall anomalies and prolong dry seasons for the past decades and these were the main threats to their livestock farming. Increased diseases and parasites incidence were also observed, which may be related rising in temperature. Households faced an increasing water shortage and insufficient forage supply that attributed to poor cattle health and cattle production. Farmers are using different coping strategies to adapt to change; these are the plantation of supplementary forage resources, providing concentrated high protein feed and practicing forest grazing. However, we found that adaptation to climate change by Bhutanese farmers’ was influenced by socio-economic and political dynamics. Keywords: adaptation strategy, climate change, perception, cattle farming Citation: Dorji N, Thinley J, Wangdi K, Rizal K, Tshering K, Cheda, Kibria G, Rabgay K and Dorji Y 2016: Climatic trends, risk perceptions and coping strategies of smallholder cattle farmers in some villages of Bhutan. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 28, Article #205. Retrieved November 1, 2016, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd28/11/dorj28205.html

Introduction Climate change (the rise in temperatures, carbon dioxide, sea-level, ocean acidification and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events) will cause significant challenges and problems in various sectors including climate-sensitive agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems. In particular, climate change is likely to pose major threats and risks to sustainable settings in farming communities (Broom et al 2013) and the livelihood of farmers in Asia and Africa (Kibria 2016). Bhutan is a small landlocked Kingdom (38 394 square kilometres). It is located on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas. Himalayans ecosystems are the most vulnerable to climate shock since temperature changes are pronounced at the higher elevation. Glaciers, ice and snow cover of the greater Himalayan are receding more rapidly (due to global warming) which would cause major changes in hydrological cycles and thus would impact on water

resources (shortage of water), agriculture, livestock, ecosystems and biodiversity (Kibria et al 2016). Climate change has also brought prolonged drought with erratic rainfall, frequent pests and diseases outbreak (Gauly et al 2013). The increase in CO2 concentration and temperature favours those crops that use the C3 photosynthetic pathway (wheat, barley, rice, and soybean), whereas C4 plants such as maize, sorghum, millet and sugarcane are less responsive to enriched CO2 levels (Rust and Rust 2013; Wheeler and Reynolds 2013). In the Himalayas, crop yield is expected to decrease by 5 - 30% by 2050 due to global warming (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [ IPCC] 2007). Maize yield, which is a primary feedstuff in animal feed is predicted to decline by 7 - 10% from 2030 - 2055 (Wheeler and Reynolds 2013) and so, feed price would obviously rise (Rust and Rust 2013; Silanikove and Koluman 2015). In addition, livestock in the central Europe suffered from heat stress because of the rise in global temperature (Gauly et al 2013). With projected higher temperature due to climate change, beef cattle and sheep are likely to experience increased incidences of physiological stress, stress-related deaths, weight loss, decreased reproduction rates and reduction in milk yields (Kibria et al 2013). Moreover, the feed shortage, acute water shortage and the rise in global temperature would adversely affect metabolism, impair physiology, and health of animals. Consequently, small subsistence farmers who depend largely on agriculture and livestock (especially cattle) for their livelihoods would be the most vulnerable to climate change related uncertainties. Cattle is one of the most important livestock species contributors in the sustaining livelihood of Bhutanese farmers and they have multiple roles which includes; draft power, milk, manure, and wealth. But, presently, farmers keep cattle mainly for milk production. Consequently, artificial insemination, crossbreeding and pasture development programmes are the main strategies initiated to increase the milk production in Bhutan. In Bhutan, the demand for dairy products has continued to grow rapidly due to population explosion, changes in lifestyle and increased in income. Achieving food security is one of the main goals in Bhutan’s developmental philosophy to achieve the Gross National Happiness, and the Global Sustainable Development Goals (2016-2030). In order to reduce impacts of climate change/climate variability at the local level, farmers’ knowledge and experience towards coping mechanisms should be recognized. Until to date, there is no latest, reliable and evidence-based information available to Bhutanese’s farmers on climate change impacts nor there have been attempts to assess the impact of climate change on cattle production system in Bhutan. The aim of this study was: i) to analyze the local farmers’ perception on climate change and climate variability impact on cattle production system, and ii) to assess the reactive responses of farmers in order to assist policy-makers on developing and strengthening resilience strategies to climate change in Bhutan and other nearby Himalayan regions.

Materials and methods Study sites and sample collection A total of 190 cattle farming households (Wangdue, 39; Punakha, 37; Dophoogchen, 20; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 39; Nabi, 25; Deothang, 30) representing samples from east, west, central and south zones of Bhutan were interviewed from December 2015 – February 2016 using snowball sampling method (Figure 1). Snowball or chain sampling is a type of sampling when a group of people recommends potential participants for a study, or directly recruits them for the study. Those participants then recommend additional participants, and so

on, thus building up like a snowball rolling down a hill (https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_snowball_sampling). Accordingly, we visited the household who reared cattle and ranked those cattle which are the most important livestock to them, and then further identified those families who depend on cattle in sustaining their livelihood. These sampled households were located within a radius of 3 hrs walk from the nearest road. Though there are several drivers that can influence the livestock production system, but our focus was in the context of climate change.

Figure 1. Snowball sampling study areas in Bhutan during December 2015- February 2016

A three-page semi-structured questionnaire consisting of two sections with 15 questions (closed- and open- ended) was used to interview the farmers. The questionnaire was aimed to collect and collate the following information; i) types of major livestock owned; ii) herd type and composition; iii) grazing system and forage availability in the past decades. In addition, iv) farmers’ perception, observation and experience on climate change and variability, v) coping and adaptation strategy employed to combat climate change and variability for the past 10 years were also collected via the questionnaire. Data analysis All data gathered were based on farmer’s perception, experience, and observation. Data were entered and checked for typo errors in Microsoft excel. Descriptive statistic (cross tab) in SPSS version 23 was used to report the change in livestock and herd composition, grazing system, and forage availability. In addition, qualitative data (interviewees’ observation on climate change and variability for the last 10 years) were expressed in percentage.

Results and discussion Livestock numbers over the last ten years Livestock (chicken, pig, goat, cattle) diversification is crucial to adapt to climate change and climate variability and livelihood of rural Bhutanese, but our survey (December 2015February 2016), reveals that there has been a decreasing in trends in livestock numbers over the last ten years (Table 1). The National Statistics of Bhutan also reported a decrease in livestock species and the numbers in Bhutan from 2004 – 2014 (NSB 2005, 2015). We found that most of the farmers have either stopped or gradually reduced to rear chickens and pigs because of the religious belief. Farmers from Nabi, for example, stated that the “sheep population has decreased rapidly in recent years because of the availability of cheap synthetic clothes. On the other hand, they see it as a sin to rear chicken and pig for meat”. One household in Punakha kept a tsethar goat (tsethar means animals which were saved for the purpose of slaughtering). Noticeably, goats are kept for chevon (meat) production in the southern part of the country (Gaserling-Tsendagang and Dophoogchen), where people do occasionally drink goat’s milk with the believe that goat milk will cure them of disease like malaria. However, the goat population at Gaserling-Tsendagang and Dophoogchen have decreased by 10% and 45% respectively (Table 1). In Dophoogchen, one-half of respondents viewed chicken population has remained the same and the chicken population especially layers has increased in Bhutan (NSB 2005, 2015) because an economic return. On the contrary, we found that there has been a 20% decrease in chicken numbers over the last ten years (Table 1). Table 1. Changes in livestock species population (in percent) over the last 10 years

Chicken No chicken Remain same Increase Decrease Pig No pig Remain same Increase Decrease Goat No goat Remain same Increase Decrease Cattle No cattle Increase Remain same Decrease Local cattle No cattle Remain same Increase Decrease Improved cattle No cattle

Wangdue

Punakha

Deothang

Dophoogchen

Nabi

GaserlingTsendagang

81.6 7.9 0 10.5

94.9 2.6 0 2.6

93.3 3.3 0 3.3

25 50 5 20

56 16 12 16

44.7 26.3 13.2 15.8

95 0 0 5

97.4 0 0 2.6

93.3 3.3 0 3.3

30 30 0 40

88 8 0 4

71.1 18.4 2.6 7.9

100 0 0 0

95 0 2.5 2.5

93.3 3.3 0 3.3

15 35 5 45

93.3 3.3 0 3.3

47.4 39.5 2.6 10.5

0 57.9 13.2 29

0 43.2 13.5 43.2

0 23.3 0 76.7

0 0 5 95

0 4 24 72

0 18.4 21.1 60.5

13.5 18.9 32.4 35.1

5.9 2.9 29.4 61.8

0 0 3.3 96.7

0 5 0 95

0 20 0 80

5.4 35.1 2.7 56.8

34.3

38.9

0

10

16

10.8

Remain same Increase Decrease

5.7 60 0

0 58.3 2.8

0 100 0

15 55 20

8 76 0

21.6 64.9 2.7

We found that the old age practice of cattle migration in Nabi and Wangdue has either stopped or reduced that may be reflected in the decrease in cattle numbers by 72-80% (see Table 1). Our results are in agreement with Gyeltshen et al (2010). Furthermore, changes in lifestyle, increased in the number of improved cattle (55% to 100%; Table 1), pastureland development, stall-feeding and wildlife conflicts all contributed towards an expansion of cattle farming in the study areas. Nevertheless, we found that within the last 10 years or so, there had been a decrease in local cattle numbers and an increase in improved cattle numbers in farms we surveyed (Table 1). Buffum et al (2009) also reported an increase in improved cattle in Yakpugang community of Bhutan. Production performance, availability of grazing land and labour were main reasons cited for changes in cattle herd composition (Figure 2). The high milk yielder Jersey and their cross have replaced the hardy local cattle ‘Siri’ in Wangdue, Punakha, Deothang and Nabi. Moreover, the availability of labour has predominately influenced the cattle herd size in Wangdue (30%) and Gaserling-Tshendagang (60%) which agreed to the findings of Buffum et al (2009) and Næss (2010). In Dophoogchen, farmers prefer Jerseycross over local cattle mainly due to lack of gazing land (60%) and labour shortage (33%). In the 1990s, dairy farmer group was established in Deothang in order to achieve selfsufficiency in dairy products and raise farmer’s income. Such measures brought significant changes in cattle composition in the dairy farms of Deothang (where there have been a 100% increases in improved cattle; Table 1). Grazing system There was a significant change in the grazing system for the last 10 years, though forest grazing was the most available forage resource in Wangdue (69.4%) and GaserlingTsendagang (42.1%) as shown in Figure 2. Fallow land (with crop residues) was predominantly used for grazing cattle in Dophoogchen (68.4%) and Punakha (54.1%) in winter, while pastureland was commonly used for grazing in Deothang (58.6%). The change in the grazing system is influenced by cattle-type because more farmers were willing to rear Jersey and their hybrids. Cattle are allowed to graze on fallow land especially during the winter season at times of forage shortage. The fallow land has been ranked as the second reliable source of forages in the study areas since last few decades. Forest grazing is widely practiced in Bhutan since time immemorial because it is the cheapest method of raising cattle. In this practice, animals are left to graze freely. Besides, it allows herders to collect looped fodder trees from the forest for their animals for later feeding. It (forest grazing) is one of the critical sources of nitrogen (urine and dung) for the forest, grazing also facilitates thinning out the tree seedlings (Buffum et al 2009), and reducing the risk of forest fire. But, the forest grazing is also a destructive method to the control of natural vegetation due to uncontrolled or overgrazing. Overgrazing also cause loss of carbon from soil (Abril and Butcher 2001; Abril et al. 2005), as well as adversely affects soil properties, which results in reduced infiltration, accelerated runoff and soil erosion (Czeglédi and Radácsi 2005). As a consequence, the government has restricted free cattle herding in the forest. In addition, most of the interviewees narrated a decrease forage quantity in the forest compared to the past 10 years (Wangdue, 38.9%; Punakha, 44.1%; Dophoogchen, 90%;

Nabi, 88%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 72.9%). Improper management of forage resources might have attributed to less forage availability to the cattle, and consequently, forcing herders to enter into the deep forest for herding, unlike past years. Moreover, the Government is committed to maintain at least 60% of forest coverage at all the times. Thus, there is a need for integration of grazing land and forestry (silvopastoral system) in order to ensure that sufficient forage for cattle are always available and meet the mandate of government. The silvo-pastoral system involving plantation of fodder trees is being widely practiced elsewhere to increase the efficiency of a small-scale livestock, reduce soil erosion and increase soil fertility (Broom et al 2013; Franzel et al 2014), and provide cover to forage grasses (Broom et al 2013). Wangdue Punakha Deothang Dophoogchen Nabi Gaserling-Tsendagang

Stall feeding and fallow land Tethering

Rank 1: Present

Forest and pastureland Forest and fallow land Stall feeding

Pastureland Fallow land Forest

Rank 1: Before 10 years

Grazing system

Pastureland and fallow land Forest, pastureland and fallow land

Forest and pastureland Forest and fallow land Pastureland Fallow land Forest

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Respondents in percent

Figure 2. Grazing (feeding) system in the studied areas

Awareness of climate change and variability Most of the interviewees testified reveals that climate is changing (86.7%-92.1%; Wangdue, 92.1%; Punakha, 89.5%; Deothang, 86.7%; Dophoogchen, 90%; Nabi, 91.3%; GaserlingTsendagang, 89.5%). They (respondents) further believed that the anthropogenic activity was the main cause of climate change (60%-87%), though some also believed that climate-related hazards are a punishment of the God (2.6% to 5.4%) as shown in Table 2. A high percentage of interviewees from Dophoogchen (40%) however, do not know the main causes of climate change. Table 2. Farmers perception of climate change and variability in the six areas (in percent) Wangdue Punakha Deothang Cause for climate change Human activities God punishments Human activities and god punishment I don’t know

70.3 8.1 5.4 16.2

86.2 13.8 0 0

85.2 0 0 14.8

Dophoogchen Nabi

60 0 0 40

87.0 0 0 13

GaserlingTsendgang

81.6 5.3 2.6 10.5

Information for climate change Yes No

91.9 8.1

94.4 5.6

88.9 11.1

75 25

91.3 8.7

78.4 21.6

We found that farmers obtained information on climate change from a variety of ways and sources, namely mass communication (radio, television, newspaper), attending public meetings, through extension agents and via public servants and neighbours. However, the main sources of information varied from regions to regions (Figure 3). For example, a higher proportion of respondents in Wangdue and Deothang regions relied on radio (47.1%) and television (44%) respectively, while the television and public meeting (47.1%) were the main sources of climatic information in Punakha. Farmers from Dophoogchen collected information on climate change commonly from the radio and extension agents (31.3%). There are no academic or vocational training institutes in Bhutan to advice or train up farmers on climate change and risks of climate-related hazards. But, a few percent of respondents regarded extension agents as a learning source for climate-related hazards. In general, farmers depend on livestock extensionists for technical and veterinary support to enhance their farm productivity. Thus extension officials can be utilised also devote their time to advise and train up farmers so that the communities become climate resilient and able to adapt to climate change. Punakha

Wangdue Radio 50 Cannot remember

40

Television 50 40

Extensionist

30

Television, extensionist, public meeting

20

30

Radio, public meeting

0

Television, public meeting

10

Public meeting

Radio, television, neighbour

0


Radio, television, public meeting

Deothang

Radio, extensionist include govt. servant

Public meeting

Radio, television, public meeting

Nabi

Radio 50 40

30

Television

Radio, television, neighbour, extensionist

20 Radio, neighbour, extensionist

0

20

Television

15

5

Neighbour

0

Neighbour

Radio, television, extensionist

Radio, neighbour

Public meeting

Radio 25

10

10


Neighbour

20

10

Radio, extensionist

Radio, television

Gaserling-Tsendagang Television, neighbour

Dophoogchen

Radio 30 25 20

Television

15

Govt. staff, school children

Neighbour

Radio, television, neighbour

Radio, neighbour

Radi, public meeting

10

5 0

30 20

10

Radio, television, neighbour, extensionist

Extensionist 40

Radio, television

Radio, neighbour, extensionist

0

Radio, television, extensionist

Radio, extensionist

Radio, television Radio, neighbour

Figure 3. Various sources of information on climate change

Farmers’ perception of climate change and variability is shown in Table 3. There were diverse views from the respondents on seasonal rainfall patterns and temperature for the past decades. Nevertheless, most of the respondents from Wangdue, Punakha and Dophoogchen informed that the length of rainy season and amount of rainfall has decreased while the rainfall has become uncertain. A similar rainfall anomaly (shorter and heavy rainfall) was experienced by people of neighbouring Sikkim, India (Sharma and Rai 2012) and Melamchi valley, Nepal (Sujakhu et al 2016). On the contrary, higher proportion farmers of Nabi expressed an increased length of the rainy season with more rainfall. Moreover, respondents of Deothang and Gaserling-Tsendagang lacked consensus on the amount of rainfall and duration of the monsoon season. The disagreements on seasonal and rainfall patterns among the farmers might be due to the fact that the farmer perceived and interpreted climate change and variability in terms of impact to their agricultural activities and agricultural production/yields (Ogalleh et al 2012; Kima et al 2015). Some farmers surveyed experienced changes in seasonal and rainfall patterns, coupled with the high hailstorm in some parts of Wangdue and perceived that climate-related changes are the most destructive to their crops. Summertime precipitation starts from June – August, but the respondents viewed that the erratic rainfall and rain intensity have more or less increased compared to previous years. Rainfall anomalies affect pasture and forage availability (Mertz et al 2009; Kima et al 2015), and therefore, such rain anomalies would impact dairy farmers and their livelihoods. According to interviewees, the cattle frequently attacked and foraged the agricultural field and this is the cause for the common conflicts between crop and livestock farmers, which is also reported in Boulgou province, Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015). In the six study areas, farmers who experienced a drier and warmer weather patterns perceived that this may be due to climate change. They observed that drying up of watersheds (ponds, streams) and as a result water has become a very scarce resource for the farmers and their livestock. The water has persisted in several areas including Punakha (64.7%) and Wangdue (70.3%), while in the other areas the water crises has increased (Deothang, 93.1%; Dophoogchen, 95%; Nabi, 87.5%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 63.2%) as shown in Table 3. On the other hand, for every rise in 1 ºC, water required by cattle increases by 2.8% (Lunde and Lindtjørn 2013). To overcome the water scarcity, the Government has initiated a watershed management programme in some areas. Tap water was also installed to supply water to households to solve water shortages. The above measures increased water availability in the areas compared to last 10 years as follows: Wangdue, 8.1%; Punakha, 17.7%; Deothang, 6.9%; Nabi, 12.5%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 10.5

Table 3. Public experience on climate change and variability (rainfall patterns) in the six studied areas (in percent) GaserlingWangdue Punakha Deothang Dophoogchen Nabi Tsendagang Length of rainy season Increased 18.4 Decreased 65.8 Remained same 7.9 I don’t know 5.3 Rainfall amount Increased 31.6 Decreased 57.9 Remained same 5.3 I don’t know 5.3 Erratic rainfall Increased 86.8 Decreased 2.6 Remained same 5.3 I don’t know 5.3 Rainfall intensity Increased 44.7 Decreased 42.1 Remained same 5.3 I don’t know 7.89 Temperature Increased 81.1 Decreased 2.7 Remained same 13.5 I don’t know 2.7 Long dry season Increased 62.2 Decreased 10.8 Remained same 21.6 I don’t know 5.4 Shortage of drinking water Increased 21.6 Decreased 8.1 Remained same 70.3 I don’t know 0 Use different crops Increased 17.1 Decreased 22.9 Remained same 60 I don’t know 0

13.2 65.8 21.1 0

31 20.7 44.8 3.5

16.7 77.8 0 5.6

62.5 37.5 0 0

44.7 42.1 10.5 2.6

13.5 62.2 24.3 0

32.1 17.9 50 0

21.1 73.7 0 5.3

62.5 37.5 0 0

46 46 8.1 0

69.4 13.9 13.9 2.8

41.4 6.9 44.8 6.9

40 53.3 0 6.7

100 0 0 0

91.9 2.7 5.4 0

34.3 42.9 22.9 0

51.7 17.2 31 0

45 50 0 5

65.2 34.8 0 0

35.1 43.2 13.5 8.1

61.1 11.1 25 2.8

89.7 3.5 6.9 0

90 5 0 5

95.5 0 0 4.6

94.4 2.8 2.8 0

70.6 14.7 11.8 2.9

62.1 6.9 27.6 3.5

79 15.8 0 5.3

65.2 30.4 0 4.4

50 11.1 33.3 5.6

17.7 17.7 64.7 0

93.1 6.9 0 0

95 0 0 5

87.5 12.5 0 0

63.2 10.5 15.8 10.5

19.4 13.9 66.7 0

10.3 89.7 0 0

79 10.5 5.3 5.3

90.9 4.6 0 4.6

21.6 27 27 24.3

Prolonged dry season has caused farmers to use different crop varieties (drought and heat resistant crops) in Dophoogchen and Nabi, which is one of the important adaptation actions to climate change. But, most of the farmers from Wangdue (60%), Punakha (66.7%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (27%) did not change their cropping patterns as shown in Table 3. In general, livestock heterogeneity has decreased in study areas. Pigs, chickens, and goats were not reared at all by most of the farmers with the exception to Gaserling-Tsendagang. This indicates that farmers of Gaserling-Tsendagang have a higher adaptive capacity to climaterelated hazards than other study areas based on crop and livestock farming practices.

Effects of climate variability on small holder cattle farmers A number of farmers expressed their views that climate change and variability did not pose any threats on their cattle or cattle farming (range: 10%-53.9%). These includes Wangdue (no threat, 45.8%; I don’t know, 29.2%), Punakha (no, 42.9%), Deothang (no, 53.9%; I don't know, 19.2%), Dophoogchen (I don't know, 66.7%), Nabi (no, 10%) and GaserlingTsendagang (no, 7.7%; I don’t know, 23.1%). However, the farmers mentioned that their cattle and cattle farming were affected due to acute shortage of water (drying of streams, 57.1%-91.3%), shortage of forage (46.4%-100%), increased incidence of diseases and parasites (8.7%-96.6%), and heat stress (0%-73.9%) as presented in Table 4. The above factors (drought, scarcity of water, heat waves and heat stress, diseases) are associated with climate change (Kibria et al 2013; Sejian et al 2015). Table 4. Impact of climate uncertainties to cattle farming (in percent)

Lack of forage (grass) in pasture New grass species invasion of pastures New shrub species invasion of pastures Drying streams (lack of water) Increase outbreak of diseases (unknown) Increase of parasitic population Death due to heat stress (or drought) Death due to feed shortage

Wangdue

Punakha

Deothang

Dophoogchen

Nabi

GaserlingTsendagang

47.8 21.7 4.4 65.2 8.7 8.7 0 8.7

46.4 25 0 57.1 7.1 7.1 3.6 3.6

96.6 10.3 10.3 62.1 10.3 96.6 6.9 10.3

100 95 95 80 85 90 35 35

100 91.3 82.6 91.3 82.6 78.3 73.9 82.6

100 18.9 2.7 78.4 62.2 64.9 24.3 2.7

In all the six study areas, drying of streams and forage shortages were the biggest challenges to cattle farming. Notably, the farmers of Dophoogchen, Nabi, and Gaserling-Tsendagang experienced insufficient forage due to decreased in precipitation and/or increased in settlements. Forage shortages due to climate change (decreasing rainfalls, increasing temperatures) is also reported by several authors (e.g. in Likipia of Kenya (Ogalleh et al 2012), Boulgou of Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015) and Melamchi of Nepal (Sujakhu et al 2016). In addition to climate change, socio-economic development, and political dynamics have also influenced the availability of grazing land for the livestock in Bhutan. For example, farmers from Punakha quoted: “with the construction of resorts and roads, grazing lands have been reduced and, this affected cattle farming cattle health and cattle production”. Our findings agree with Mertz et al (2009), Sujakhu et al (2016) and Kima et al (2015) that the climate change may not be alone driver for the changes in cattle farming, Climate change related excessive radiation, the high temperature along with prolonging drought and dry season, would cause plants to mature quicker causing loss of cell water content and lignification of plant cells and an increase in fibre content (Wheeler and Reynolds 2013). Lignified plant cells have a lower energy value, are less digestible, have poorer forage quality and are not attractive to livestock, therefore, reduces the performance of an animal (Wheeler and Reynolds 2013; Silanikove and Koluman 2015). Therefore, there is a need to explore forage species (grasses and other plant species) which are heat-resistant and drought-resistant. Plantation of fodder trees is another important strategy because trees would provide shade to grasses and this will ensure availability of high-quality succulent forage while retaining the nutritive content (Broom et al 2013). Besides, enhancing the silvopastoral system using fodder trees and/or shrubs with grasses would have several advantages (e.g. increase of biodiversity, reduction of tick infestation, carbon sequestration or the carbon sink, and improvement of the soil fertility (Broom et al 2013).

Based on this study, there has been a high prevalence of parasites in Deothang (96.6%), Dophoogchen (90%), Nabi (78.3%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (64.9%). In addition, the incidence of unknown diseases outbreaks has increased in Dophoogchen (85%), Nabi (82.6%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (62.2%). The high incidence of diseases and parasites are due to climate change is also reported in Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015). The increased precipitation and warmer climatic conditions might have favoured increasing the susceptibility of animals to new diseases and pests (Hoffmann 2010; Nardone et al 2010; Rust and Rust 2013; Kibria et al 2013). Another possible impact of high temperature and precipitation is that it favours the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi and accumulation of fungal toxins (Aflatoxin, Fusarium toxins) in livestock feedstuffs such as maize, wheat (Nardone et al 2010; Kibria et al 2013). Furthermore, the increased water scarcity experienced by the farmers would also pose a greater risk of water-borne disease outbreaks (Hoffmann 2010; Rust and Rust, 2013; Silanikove and Koluman, 2015). The majority of participants illustrated that with the increase in temperature, animals had become highly sensitive to heat stress which resulted in higher animal morbidity (Punakha, 3.6%; Deothang, 6.9%; Dophoogchen, 35%; Nabi, 73.9%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 24.3%) as shown in Table 4. During hot weather, animals fast (cattle) respire resulting in decreases in CO2 and increase pH concentration in the blood. To counteract, kidney secretes HCO3‒ to maintain the blood pH, but HCO3‒ l level becomes inadequate to buffer and maintain a healthy pH in the rumen compartment (Nardone et al 2010). As a consequence, animals health, reproduction, and production are affected due to heat stress (Hoffmann 2010; Silanikove and Koluman 2015). Thus planting of fodder trees will provide shade and help to minimize heat related stress in livestock (Broom et al 2013). Coping and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability The local mountainous smallholder farmers use different coping strategies to adapt to climate change and adjusting their livestock in a changing climate (Figure 4) Wangdue

Did not do anything

Rank 2 Rank 1

Raising of exotic breeds

Did extra labour work

Coping strategy

Coping strategy

Assistance from others

Raising of exotic breeds Treatment of sick animal Sold livestock

Treatment of sick animal Sold livestock Get loan/burrow Reduce consumption

Reduce consumption

Spent savings

Spent savings 0

10

20

30

40 50 Respondents in percent

Deothang


60

70

0

80

10

20 30 40 Respondents in percent

50

60

70

Gaserling-Tsendagang

Did not do anything

Rank 2 Rank 1

Rank 2 Assistance from others


Rank 1

Change in occupation

Coping strategy

Coping strategy

Punakha

Did extra labour work Rank 2 Rank 1

Treatment of sick animal Sold livestock Get loan/burrow

Did extra labour work Raising of exotic breeds Treatment of sick animal Sold land

0

20


80

100

Sold livestock Get loan/burrow Spent savings 0

10


40

50

60

Dophoogchen

Assistance from others Change in occupation

Rank 2

Did not do anything

Rank 1

Assistance from others

Rank 2 Rank 1

Change in occupation

Did extra labour work Use/sold more forest product



Use/sold more forest product

Coping strategy

Coping strategy

Nabi

Treatment of sick animal Sold land Sold livestock Get loan/burrow

Raising of exotic breeds Treatment of sick animal Sold land Sold livestock Get loan/burrow

Reduce consumption Reduce consumption

Spent savings Spent savings

0


40

50 0

10


50

60

70

Figure 4. Coping strategies of farmers to climate change and variability

The most dominant coping strategies used by farmers are/were i) treatment of sick animals (Wangdue, 63.6%), ii) reduction of food consumption (Punakha, 64.1%), raising improved breeds (Deothang, 86.2%), selling or gifting livestock (Dophoogchen, 29.2%), treatment of sick animal and improved breed (Nabi, 62.5%), and selling or gifting livestock and treatment of sick animals (Gaserling-Tsendagang, 26.3%). Most of the respondents preferred to use multiple options, especially, Nabi households used a combination of different reactive responses to cope with and were ranked the highest. Farmers from Laikipia, Kenya also used different coping strategies to adapt to climate change and climate variability (Ogalleh et al 2012). In earlier days, farmers used to use the traditional knowledge to treat the diseases and parasites, but nowadays they (farmers) seek veterinary services (provided by livestock extensionists) to treat livestock diseases and parasites. A farmer from Wangdue mentioned that: “we used to use black pepper, walnut bark, cow dung ash to get rid-off ticks before. Now, we apply butox provided by extensionists. When animals have lost appetite and suffer from diarrhoea, I take dung for examination for worms”. Butox is used to control ectoparasitic infestations in cattle and sheep caused by ticks, lice, flies, mites, midge and keds). Some farmers from Wangdue (3%), Nabi (4.2%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (10.5%) did not do anything to cope with the changing climate because they don't know what to do. This could be related to a higher rate of illiteracy and unawareness on climate change in the areas. To adapt to climate change, a number of farmers in Sahel, Africa have diversified their livelihoods including off-farm work, migration, farming new crops/vegetables, rearing animals which are cheaper to feed (Mertz et al 2009). Other non-agricultural adjustments were selling land and livestock, and use of forest products. There was a diversity of local adaptation measures adopted at individual and community levels in Bhutan, and farmers’ reactive response seemed to be dependent on other factors such as land-use, decreases in grazing land and awareness on climate change. Herders in the study areas have mostly reacted to short supply of forage, which might be associated with the climate change, socio-economic development or policy dynamics. The popular adaptation adjustments (highest ranking) were the plantation and offering supplementary feeds, providing concentrate feed and practicing forest grazing (see Figure 5). Pumpkin, radish, banana stems, cactus, crop residues and kitchen waste including brewer’s spent grains were commonly provided to cattle in Wangdue, Punakha, Nabi and Gaserling-Tsendagang (Figure 5). Supplementary feeds for cattle were based on the available of locally grown crops and forage resources. On the other hand, the traditional migration practiced in some parts of Wangdue has reduced greatly. In Deothang (50%) and Dophoogchen (61.1%), the most farmer provided concentrate feeds (commercial feed and mustard oil cake mixed with banana

stems, maize flour) when cattle returned from grazing. In these areas, farmer reared Jersey and their cross for milk purpose, and thus provision of supplements may not necessarily indicate if it is the reactive response to climate change and variability. Diversification of livestock farming, stock exchange and culling of unproductive animals were the least adapted to climate change and variability by the farmers. It is a general belief in the surveyed areas that culling is undesirable. For instance, a farmer from Punakha shared his opinion that “people from other districts come here to purchase cattle, I feared to sell my cattle because they may be slaughtered”. Based on our current research, we found that households have focused to rear cattle because of it multiple functions (such as milk, manure, draft animal), and cattle do not compromise farmers’ religious sentiment. Furthermore, herders preferred Jersey over local cattle due to high production capacity, and farmers were favouring less on different livestock farming and herd/stock exchange practice has decreased significantly, which are effective methods to combat the impact of climate uncertainties (Mertz et al 2009). In conclusion, our research found that local farmers have specific and limited adaptation strategies and they are a lack of information and appropriate training opportunities on climate change in Bhutan. To reduce risks and threats of climate change and to strengthen the resilience to the impacts related to climate uncertainties, coping and adaptation strategies employed by farmer must be further explored that are effective and flexible to a wide range of climate uncertainties and be fit in the local context. Punakha

Wangdue

No adaptation (no idea)

Rank 3

Rank 2

Rank 2

Migration

Rank 1

Adaptation strategy

Rank 1

Adaptation strategy

Rank 3

Exchange stock

Medicine (vaccination) Forest grazing Plant supplementary feed

Medicine (vaccination)

Forest grazing

Plant supplementary feed

Provide supplementary feed Provide supplementary feed

Provide concentrates

Provide concentrates 0

10

20

30

40

0

50

10

20

Deothang

Rank 1

Adaptation strategy

Adaptation strategy

60

70

Rank 3 Rank 2

Diversification of livestock farming

Medicine (vaccination) Forest grazing Plant supplementary feed

Rank 1

Medicine (vaccination)

Forest grazing Plant supplementary feed Provide supplementary feed

Provide supplementary feed



10

20

30

40

50

0

60

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Respondent s in percent


Nabi

Fence camps

Non-farm income Rank 1

Fence camps

Gaserling-Tsendagang Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1


Adaptation strategy

Diversification of livestock farming Adaptation strategy

50

Fence camp

Rank 2


40

Dophoogchen

Rank 3

Fence camps

30


Respondents in percent

Culling Exchange of stock Medicine (vacciation) Forest grazing Plant supplementary feed

Exchange stock Medicine (vaccination) Forest grazing Plant supplementary feed Provide supplementary feed

Provide supplementary feed



20

40

60


Figure 5. Adaptation strategies in study areas

80

100

0

20

40

60


80

100

Conclusions 

This is the first-ever attempt to study the effect of climate change and variability to cattle production system in Bhutan based on farmers’ narrative responses. There could be some a limitation in our study since it is generally very difficult to memorise the past events by the farmers. Nevertheless, this study provides the basic, essential and important information on perception of farmers and their reactive responses on climate uncertainties.



Our study shows that most of the farmers are aware of climate change, but they have some misconceptions with respect to the causes of climate change. As per the respondents’ view, the vulnerability to climate change has increased in the study areas (e.g. high temperature, low precipitation, prolonged dry season, drying of streams, ponds).



The anomaly of rainfalls seems to have a profound effect on cattle farming. Based on the coping and adaptation strategies adopted by farmers, the study found that they have limited and specific short-term adjustments capacities to climate change and variability. Consequently, farmers seem to be vulnerable to climate-related hazards. Lack of funds, training and education facilities on climate change may have other limitations to adapt to climate change and variability by the farmers.



We feel that proactive climate research and training institute must be established to assist farmers to understand and develop flexible solutions to climate change and variability in Bhutan. Some proactive ways to reduce vulnerability might include: diversification of farming (shift from cattle to fish farming or rice farming or agroforestry for those cattle farmers who would be affected by climate change), rainwater harvesting, development and rearing of drought or heat tolerant and diseases resistant cattle, breeding cattle for greater tolerance to heat stresses and training and capacity building for mountain farmers to strengthen the resilience to threats and crisis due to climate change.



Livestock are one of the important sources of greenhouse gases (GHG, CH4, N2O) that cause climate change, therefore, efforts should be made to reduce emissions of GHG from livestock sector (manure management; grazing intensity management).



In addition, non-climatic factors (government policy, marketing channel, property rights, availability of forage resources, socio-cultural aspects) must be taken into consideration while planning and implementing the adaptation strategies for farming communities.



We further suggest incorporating climate change and global issues in the school, college and university education curriculum in Bhutan.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank NORHED-College of Natural Resources for funding the study. We further thank farmers for sparing their invaluable time and resources during the survey.

References Abril A and Bucher EH 2001 Overgrazing and soil carbon dynamics in the western Chaco of Argentina. Applied Soil Ecology, 16: 243–249. Abril A, Barttfeld P and Bucher EH 2005 The effect of fire and overgrazing disturbances on soil carbon balance in the Dry Chaco forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 206(1-3): 399-405. Broom D M, Galindo F A and Murgueitio E 2013 Sustainable, efficient livestock production with high biodiversity and good welfare for animals. Proceedings R Soc B, 280(1771): 20132025. Retrieved June 1, 2016 fromhttp://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/280/1771/20132025.full.pdf Buffum B, Gratzer G and Tenzin Y 2009 Forest grazing and natural regeneration in a late successional broadleaved community forest in Bhutan. Mountain Research and Development, 29(1): 30-35. Retrieved March 13, 2016, fromhttp://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1659/mrd.991 Czeglédi L and Radácsi A 2005 Overutilization of pastures by livestock. Retrieved September 30, 2016, from http://www.agr.unideb.hu/kiadvany/gyep/2005-03/06Czegledi.pdf Levente Czeglédi and Radácsi A 2005 Overutilization of Pastures by Livestock. http://www.agr.unideb.hu/kiadvany/gyep/2005-03/06Czegledi.pdf Franzel S, Carsan S, Lukuyu B, Sinja J and Wambugu C 2014 Fodder shrubs for improving livestock productivity and smallholder livelihoods in Africa. Current Opinion in Environment Sustainability, 6: 98-103. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877343513001565/1-s2.0-S1877343513001565main.pdf?_tid=d5150312-7d6d-11e6-b96700000aacb361&acdnat=1474182316_1b33a2dccf1d650928c3a94a98e43a46 Gauly M, Bollwein H, Breves G, Brügemann K Dänicke SDaş G, Demeler J, Hansen H,Isselstein J, König S, Lohölte M, Martinsohn M, Meyer U, Potthoff M, Sanker C, Schröder B, Wrage N, Meibaum B, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Stinshoff H and Wrenzycki C 2013 Future consequences and challenges for dairy cow production systems arising from climate change in Central Europe - a review. Animal, 7(5): 843-859. Retrieved January 11, 2016, from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal/article/future-consequencesand-challenges-for-dairy-cow-production-systems-arising-from-climate-change-in-central-europe-areview/C87062F52A37D22332BE6B8269898D63/core-reader Gyeltshen T, Tshering N, Tsering K and Dorji S 2010 Implication of Legislative Reform under The Land Act of Bhutan, 2007- “A case study on Nationalization of Tsamdro & Sokshing and its associated socioeconomic and environmental consequences”. Watershed Management Division Department of Forests and Park Services Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Thimphu, Bhutan. Retrieved March 28, 2016, fromhttp://www.dofps.gov.bt/wmd/attachments/LandActBhutan_watershed.pdf Hoffmann I 2010 Climate change and the characterization, breeding and conservation of animal genetic resources. Animal Genetics, 41(1): 32-46. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02043.x/full IPCC [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] 2007 Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL, editors. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Kima S A, Okhimamhe A A, Kiema A, Zampaligre N and Sule I 2015 Adapting to the impacts of climate change in the sub-humid zone of Burkina Faso, West Africa: Perceptions of agro-pastoralists. Pastoralism: Research Policy and Practice, 5: 16. Retrieved April 20, 2016, from https://pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13570-015-0034-9 Kibria, G 2016. Why Are Women in Developing Countries More Vulnerable to Climate Change? Climate Change Implications on Women with Reference to Food, Water, Energy, Health, and Disaster Security. 10p. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2577.9683/3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267072733_Why_Are_Women_in_Developing_Countries_More_Vul nerable_to_Climate_Change_Climate_Change_Implications_on_Women_with_Reference_to_Food_Water_Ene rgy_Health_and_Disaster_Security?ev=prf_pub Kibria G, Haroon A K Y and Nugegoda D 2016 Climate change and water security: Impacts, future projections, adaptations and mitigations. 312p. Doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1848.1528/2.ISBN: 978-93-85516-26-9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303218799_Climate_Change_Water_Security_-_A_Book_Summary Kibria G, Haroon A K Y and Nugegoda D 2013 Climate change and agricultural food production. Impacts, vulnerabilities and remedies. 300p. doi: 10.13140/2.1.3245.4081. ISBN: 978-93-81450-512 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261178054_Climate_Change_and_Agricultural_Food_Production_Im pacts_Vulnerabilities_and_Remedies Lunde T M and Lindtjørn B 2013 Cattle and climate in Africa: how climate variability has influenced national cattle holdings from 1961-2008. PeerJ 1:e55. Retrieved April 30, 2016, from https://peerj.com/articles/55/ Mertz O, Mbow C, Reenberg A and Diouf A 2009 Farmers’ perceptions of climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies in rural Sahel. Environmental Management, 43(5): 804-816. Næss M W 2010 Contradictory evidence as a guide for future research: investigating the relationship between pastoral labour and production. Nomadic Peoples, 14: 51-71. Nardone A, Ronchi B, Lacetera N, Ranieri M S and Bernabucci U 2010 Effects of climate changes on animal production and sustainability of livestock systems. Livestock Science, 130: 57-69. NSB [National Statistic Bureau] 2005, 2015 Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from http://www.nsb.gov.bt/nsbweb/publication/files/pub3cb4010sp.pdf Ogalleh S A, Vogl C R, Eitzinger J and Hauser M 2012 Local perceptions and responses to climate change and variability: the case of Laikipia district, Kenya. Sustainability, 4: 3302-3325. Rust J M and Rust T 2013 Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis on Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science, 43(3): 255-267. Retrieved August 20, 2016, fromhttp://www.sasas.co.za/sites/sasas.co.za/files/Rust43Issue3.pdf Sejian V, Bhatta R, Soren N M, Malik P K, Ravindra J P, Prasad C S and Lal S 2015 Introduction to Concepts of Climate Change Impact on Livestock and Its Adaptation and Mitigation. In the text. Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation. Spinger@India, pp 1-23. Sharma G and Rai L K 2012 Climate change and sustainability of agrodiversity in traditional farming of the Sikkim Himalaya. In: Arawatia ML, Tambe S, editors. Climate change in Sikkim: Patterns, impacts, initiatives. Government of Sikkim, Gangtok, Sikkim: Information and Public Relations Department, pp 194-218. Silanikove N and Koluman D N 2015 Impact of climate change on the dairy industry in temperate zones: Predications on the overall negative impact and on the positive role of dairy goats in adaptation to earth warming. Small Ruminant Research, 123: 27-34.

Sujakhu N M, Ranjitkar S, Niraula S R, Pokharel B K, Schmidt-Vogt D and Xu J 2016 Farmers’ perceptions of and adaptations to changing climate in the Melamchi valley of Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 36(1): 15-30. Retrieved August 12, 2016, from http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1659/MRDJOURNAL-D-15-00032.1 Wheeler T and Reynolds C 2013 Predicting the risks from climate change to forage and crop production for animal feed. Animal frontiers, 3(1): 36-41.

Received 18 September 2016; Accepted 4 October 2016; Published 1 November 2016 Go to top