Comfort, Culture and Climate Change - arquitecologia

Comfort, Culture and Climate Change Professor Susan Roaf Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, email: [email protected] The decision whether to air-condition a building or not is seen by most designers today as largely inconsequential, despite pressure to reduce its use in many countries. This is far from being true and this single decision can have profound implications for the culture, economy and future prospects of a society. Traditional societies and settlements evolved over time to provide as good a level of shelter as possible with locally available materials and skills. These buildings evolved in tandem with a lifestyle that provided additional behavioural protection from challenging diurnal and seasonal weather extremes using clothing and various mechanisms provided by the building as part of their comfort strategies. With the introduction of mechanical cooling sharp changes took place within a relatively short period of time in the way we design buildings. These changes had, in turn, radical impacts on the culture within and around buildings and cities that tended to cut the evolutionary links between regional culture and climate in favour of those of the ‘international’ culture of airconditioned life styles and buildings. However two key drivers are now dictating that the pressure to universally air-condition buildings must be reversed. These drivers are climate change and the issue of Peak Oil. In light of more extreme weather and temperatures around the world and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to offset climate change, and the rapidly rising prices of electricity, the need to re-visit the role of air-conditioning in our societies becomes urgent. This paper reviews these issues and concludes with some key choices that face building designers, owners and occupiers today. 1. Introduction The decision to air-condition a building, or not, is seen by many designers as largely inconsequential. This is far from true, not least because climate and weather is so central to traditional fabric of the human cultural experience. By enclosing people in air-conditioned homes, cars, offices and places of recreation the bond between man and climate is severed as is that between man, the seasons and time: ‘Our complex forms of collective life influence the way that we are affected by weather and climate, creating both forms of vulnerability and capacities to reduce impacts. Our highly developed cognitive capacities allow us to recall the past and anticipate the future. We draw on this strong temporal awareness when we discuss weather and climate. In societies around the world, people talk about the recent weather and the weather that is to come, they remember the conditions months ago and anticipate future seasons, and they discuss the weather far in the past as well. These multiple time frames form a key aspect of human experience of weather.’ (Strauss and Orlove, 2003). What is becoming more apparent is that the wide-scale move to the use of airconditioning in buildings is indeed increasing our vulnerability to climate change and reducing our ability to avoid its impacts. This paper argues that the trend to its use

must be rapidly and urgently reversed to protect individuals around the world from the worst exigencies of the changing climate. 2. Drivers not to install air-conditioning For over two decades the negative consequences of air-conditioning buildings have been appreciated and strategies put in place put in pace to reduce it s uptake in buildings including: 2.1 Market forces. The theory that environmentally friendly technologies will be increasingly used over more damaging ones does not seem to happen with airconditioning where market forces appear to work in favour of ‘prestige solutions’ (Santamouris, 2005). 2.2 Guidance. Guidance measures, however strong, appear to be useless, including those promoted by British Standards Office, the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and the Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers (CIBSE) (Roaf et. al, 2005). 2.3 Legislation. This works well. In the Canton of Zurich, Switzerland, a law was introduced practically over-night in the late 1980s, banning the use of A/C in buildings unless it could be proven to be absolutely necessary. Surprisingly building designers adapted to the new challenge very rapidly (Meierhans, R. and M.Zimmermann, 1991). The drawback has been that the building industry has learnt since then how to credibly argue that A/C is essential in new buildings. 2.4 Political management of the problem. A major drawback is that in most countries there is no single authority with jurisdiction over the control of energy use in or CO2 emissions from buildings, neither the Planning nor the Building Regulations It should be noted that the air-conditioning industry is one of the most powerful industries in the world, dwarfed only by the Financial, Insurance and Motor industries, and its lobbying power is extremely effectively used. The US market for industrial airconditioning, refrigeration and heating (HVAC) machinery grew 3.5% from 2001, to a value of US$28.1 billion in 2002. The HVAC market in the US is relatively fragmented, with the top four players accounting for only 30.9% of sales in 2002. In 2002 the top four players in the market spent nearly US$1.5 billion on research and development. As the US market grows increasingly competitive and a lack of pricing power limits overall market value growth, and many manufacturers have focused on overseas expansion to drive future sales, (no doubt many looking to Iraq and similar markets as a potentially ripe for expansion). The US market is expected to grow by just over 26% between 2003 to 2007 forecast period, reaching a value of US$37 billion by 2007 (Roaf et al, 2005). 3. Drivers to installing air-conditioning There are also a very effective range of strong drivers geared to promote the use of air-conditioning impacting on the wide range of stakeholder in the decision making processes by which buildings are made to happen.

3. 1 Architects as drivers. Many architects are poorly taught on issues of building performance. In her doctoral thesis, Marianne Ryghaug (REF) did a detailed study in Norway, of how architects view environmental issues such as energy efficiency and found that it has a very low status in the teaching of the subject. Architects were perceived as more ‘artistic’ than engineers and more preoccupied with design and form. She put the blame for this partly on architectural education where in many schools energy and environmental courses were optional (CADDET InfoPoint, 2003), a view reflected in research on architectural education in UK Schools of Architecture (BD 2003). Their lack of understanding of how building perform and lack of concern for, or knowledge of, how occupants respond lead many architects to allow the engineers to make the key decisions on how to heat, cool and ventilate buildings. 3.2 HVAC professionals. A consideration over the past decades since ‘modern’ offices started to overheat in the 1950s, and standards of architectural design performance plummeted, has been that engineers are typically paid according to how much plant and duct work they can get into a building. The more architecturally ‘high risk’ the project, often the more engineers get paid to rectify the basic design mistakes of the architect. Terry Wyatt, the 2003 / 2004 President of CIBSE, an inspirational leader of the Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers saw that this situation could not last and in his inaugural speech titled, ‘Adapt or Die’, he outlined the exciting possibilities for engineers who will have to re-tool up for a business climate in which the traditional work of building-services engineers is shrinking and bearing the brunt of pressures to reduce waste in the construction industry by 30%. He identified that work such as calculations, sizing, positioning and co-ordination, specification, costing, manufacturing and the construction and fitting out of the building with traditional air-conditioning systems will diminish. Yet there is no systematic move to include skills in thermal mass design or the use of renewable energy systems to prepare for such changes on any HVAC course in the UK to date. One is led to think that such visionary thinking is perhaps cosmetic (Wyatt, 2004). 3.3 Building owners and users. Energy bills for air conditioned buildings are up to five times more than those in a naturally ventilated building. For owners and occupiers who are facing astronomical increases in their energy bills it is difficult to see why they would want to sanction the uses of mechanical cooling. However they are often persuaded by what one can kindly call ‘myths’ that are peddled by those people who stand to make money from them or who have never actually thought them through or considered their impacts. These myths include mantras like: ‘a laboratory must be air-conditioned’; ‘a hospital ward must be air-conditioned’; ‘people can only sleep restfully in temperatures below 210c.’ These have all been heard by the author and are not only patently untrue but are also often diametrically opposite from the truth. Hospitals and Laboratories for centuries have been naturally ventilated and on the contrary the air-quality in non-air conditioned buildings is typically better than in those with air-conditioning (Clausen, et al, 2002; Mauderly, 2002; Bjorkroth, et al 2002). The fact that people have slept for millennia in temperatures well up to thirty centigrade or above (albeit often on the roof with the cool sky above them) should make most people question the truth of the claim that temperatures below 210C are best for sleeping, but apparently many do not. 3.4 The Insurance Industry. One might expect that as it becomes increasingly apparent that buildings that are totally dependant on air-conditioning do not remain

occupiable in blackouts, as their incidence escalates globally, that the insurance industry would reflect that increased vulnerability of these buildings with higher premiums. However the insurance industry stands to be a major looser in the face of a changing climate, not only because of the escalating payouts for which they are responsible but also because a significant proportion of their funds are already invested in what may be high risk buildings. Many of the more glamorous buildings in major cities are owned by the Insurance Industry, which holds significant stocks in ‘prestige’ developments, that are increasingly being recognised as the high risk end of the property markets. There is a deadly Achilles heel in the system. Insurance companies charge similar rates for office space regardless of the risk posed by an individual building, or space within a building. The dependence of air conditioned buildings on electricity also increases their vulnerability to terrorist attack. Architects, were actually told by the Insurance industry, in March 2003, to stop offering clients advice on ways of protecting buildings against terrorist attacks and escape routes because the service has recently been excluded from professional indemnity insurance policies and it is felt by the industry that architects would be stepping out of their area of expertise by doing so (BD, 2003a). 3.5 Real Estate Agents. The blame for the inexorable rise is the prevalence of the market for prestige buildings, that are increasingly recognised as ‘high risk’, can be laid partly at the doors of real estate, and property portfolio, managers. But perhaps ‘the higher you rise the harder you fall’ - for the larger companies that have accumulated a portfolio of high end prestige buildings, may well be faced with plummeting rent prices on vulnerable buildings, with clients gradually tending to prefer more robust, low cost, low impact, comfortable and less vulnerable buildings. There was a time in the 1980s and 1990s where the push was for higher end prestige space in the portfolio. The more a client was charged on a lease, the greater the cut for the property managers so there was a drive was to push clients towards the high end to maximise profits. 3.6 Thermal Comfort Standards. Those writing and promoting these standards are also responsible for pushing developers and their clients into considering that airconditioning is essential and here the issue of the conflict of interests arises because the people who currently write those indoor comfort standards (ASHRAE and ISO) are in fact led by the US HVAC engineers (ASHRAE) who also benefit form the need to install air-conditioning into buildings (Nicol and Roaf, 2006). 4. Impacts of air-conditioning on a culture. The profundity of the relationship between culture and climate is reflected in this vignette: ‘I was reminded of the problem (the lack of relationship between human beings and the natural environment) on a family trip to Phoenix Arizona, some years ago. As we moved closed to the city we saw from the highway a field of identical mobile housing units, each with a latticed air conditioner on its rooftop. Our youngest daughter, then barely big enough to see out the back window, quietly watched as we passed the scene. Then no doubt with the upcoming Christmas holidays in mind she asked in a worried voice, “How will Santa Clause get down the chimney?”.’ (Knowles, 2006, pp.xv-xvi).

With the introduction of mechanical cooling, that broke the connection between the climate and people a range of step changes took place in the way we design and live in buildings and cities, and within time itself. Air conditioning was originally used in commercial buildings where it was considered to increase satisfaction and productivity. Mechanical systems of environmental control in buildings became allpervasive in the United States as the technologies spread from work-place to the home. As Gail Cooper (1998) pointed out: The plug-in (air conditioning) appliance privileged the consumer, but its complete divorce from the building compromized its performance. The standardized installation of the tract development [in the US] provided affordability and performance, but a building that was dependant upon its mechanical services and alarmingly inefficient in energy consumption. Marsha Ackerman (2002) builds on this, writing: The counterpart of technologically enabled control is dependency, and the history of air-conditioning provides it in full measure. Air-conditioning has made it possible to erect structures that must be evacuated when the power fails, to make buildings in which people get sick. It gulps electricity; roars, wheezes, and whines; makes urban heat islands even hotter with the exhaust of a million air-conditioned cars and thousands of sealed buildings Yet as Ackerman wrote ‘For better and for worse, our world tomorrow will be airconditioned’, even in climates where the need for air-conditioning is minimal (Haves et al., 1998). The trend in the use of air conditioning to cool buildings is undermining the use of traditional building forms, materials and elements of regionally appropriate passive buildings. It has ‘liberated’ designers to create buildings that have increasingly become more ‘fashionably’ disconnected from the climate and environment in which they are found. The non-trivial knock-on effects of moving to the wide spread use of air conditioning buildings include: • More lightweight buildings • Elimination of opening windows • Less control of indoor climates by building occupants • Engineering begins to dominate architecture in the design process • Greater importance of comfort ‘Standards’ which define the so called ‘correct’ indoor climate • Disconnection of indoor and outdoor temperatures • Deskilled designers in the field of passive design • Destruction of local industry and crafts • Local lifestyles lost. • Street life and health impacted as less time is spent out of doors • Streets become hostile and alien spaces in which ‘community’ has ceased to exist • Buildings become vulnerable to catastrophic failure as they become dependent on electricity to function at all. • A generation of buildings designed without regard to local climate using more energy year on year. • Sick building syndrome increases • Outdoor temperatures in cities increased due to rejected heat from airconditioners, global climate change exacerbated

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The stories from which the narrative fabric of a society are woven become meaningless

5. The 21st century drivers for the move away from air-conditioning In a month when the Chief Scientific Adviser to the UK Prime Minister, Sir David King has warned Britain that the previous estimates of how warm the climate will get this century may be very conservative and we could well expect increases in mean global temperature of over 30c over the next hundred years, there is an increasing imperative to reduce fossil fuel energy use in buildings and to be able to shift the peak energy load use patterns to enable us to use the clean free energy of the sun and wind when we need it, and to use clean renewable energy to power our lives. Yet the ‘modern’ buildings around us have evolved in the opposite direction. They have taken the control of the climate in the built environment out of the hands of local cultures and placed it in the hands of ‘experts’ and ‘international’ companies who make and sell the machines that cool buildings. The buildings themselves no longer offer the opportunity to harness ‘free’ energy, but only supply the occupant with expensive, imported, energy. There are fewer opportunities for energy storage in the building’s mass and the faster temperature response times demand the most expensive energy when the centralised national grid supplies are at peak load. Such buildings are often over glazed adding to the peak load problem and their increasing reliance on machines to solve these problems. This has led to the increased first cost expenditure on equipment in buildings. This is in turn often paid for by the reduction of spend on the fabric of the building despite the fact that this will lead to far higher running costs and energy in use in the building (Roaf et al., 2005). In order to minimize the floor area to plot ratio, deep plan buildings are obviously an advantage for developers. It has been argued that the deep plan building can be efficient in reducing heating and cooling loads due to their volume to surface ratios. By air conditioning a building they could be made as deep plan as possible. However by eliminating the light wells and courts at the hearts of shallow plan buildings on deep sites the running costs of the resultant buildings soared as natural ventilation and daylight were replaced by mechanical cooling and artificial lighting. Engineers, who are responsible for the design of building ‘performance’ use models that cannot deal with the complexities of opening window systems resulting in a drive to design closed window systems simply so they can predict how it may work. Architects have become deskilled in issues of building performance and have no apparent interest in retaining the valuable link between the inside and outside of a building and increasingly preeminence is being given to standards that assume that people around the world have similar comfort needs, an assumption that has been proved wrong in any number of studies (Brager and deDear 1998). One key consequence here of the development of the ‘International’ building style has been that architects, who have traditionally dominated the design process, have lost much of their skill in optimising the energy, life cycle cost and comfort benefits in the building of: • Using thermal storage in mass to optimize the value of ‘free energy’ either coolth from the night sky or heat from the sun, people or machines or to shift energy availability to times of high load demand diurnally or seasonally.

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Using seasonal climate patterns, of winds and solar access, to minimize the need for fossil fuel heating and cooling in buildings through proper design of the building form and its elements and materials.

This is despite excellent research published over the last forty five years on the problems that arise from reducing the mass of a building and increasing its glazed area. In particular several studies from the 1950s & 60s by the UK Building Research Establishment clearly saw that the trend to over-glazed, light weight buildings was causing significant problems with over-heating, discomfort and high energy running costs (Gray and Corlett, 1952; Black and Milroy,1966; Loudon and Keighley, 1964; Loudon and Danter, 1965, Loudon, 1968;). Traditional industries related to buildings are often badly effected by the movement to ’International’ style buildings. The design of such buildings is best done by large firms so that traditional building use patterns by local culturally adapted populations are replaced by the culturally amorphous universal ‘air-conditioned’ lifestyle in which the time of day or year play little part. In Spain in December 2005 the afternoon siesta, a wonderful cultural adaptation to the hot Mediterranean afternoons, was officially cancelled for office workers (Drenzer 2005). Above all the rich and varied cultures of the different peoples of the world, and their complex relationship with the land, the rising and the setting of the sun, the passing of the seasons, the annual yield to communities of rain and wind and natures multifarious products is being increasingly lost as humans become dependent on a life support supply chain that will inevitably fail under the strain of climate change and failing fossil fuel supplies. How many of those people will be able to support themselves from the land so few still understand and in buildings in which they most probably will not remain safe from climate extremes? 6. The ‘Readapted Building’ While buildings in many regions of the world may continue to need to be airconditioned in the hottest times of day or year there are many good reasons why airconditioning should now be considered to be the cooling strategy of last resort. Not least of these is because of the likelihood in the final decades of the fossil fuel age of regular failure of large electricity grid systems at times of extreme weather, and the inevitable catastrophic failure of ‘modern’ buildings with fixed windows in such conditions. Hence a number of sensible, non-trivial, givens should be included in every building specification from now on: • •

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Shallow plans for better daylight and natural ventilation Opening windows of a sensible size to avoid over-heating and allow for natural ventilation Adaptive skins with elements such as shades, awnings, blinds and shutters designed to maximize the potential to protect buildings from wind and sun. High levels of thermal mass to stabilize internal temperatures in heat waves or cold snaps and to store free renewable energy. The inherent response time of a building to external temperature fluctuations determines the ability of that building to ride a heat wave with acceptable indoor temperatures (Meir and Roaf, 2005).

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More occupant control to maximize the accessibility of building users to ‘adaptive opportunities’ for moderating their immediate environment. Sustainable Building Designers employed who understand the performance implications of the building form and fabric, how passive heating and cooling systems may be used in the building, how to embed renewable energy systems within the buildings, how occupants may interact with the building and the environmental impacts of the design decisions they make. Building Physics must grow as a discipline, possible incorporated in to, or at the expense of, HVAC engineering. Connected indoor and outdoor climates where the seasons are reflected in the indoor temperatures of the building. Local building industries and craft inputs as the trend to bio-regional sourcing of materials and skilled workmen picks up speed with rapidly rising materials processing and transport costs. Local lifestyles respected as the need to save energy kicks in and the energy sense of reintroducing traditional patterns of building use by local culturally adapted populations become clear. Building Contracts that ensure that building engineers are paid according to low the energy bills and carbon dioxide emissions are, rather than how much air conditioning equipment goes into the building. Improved Street life as a project aim with the reestablishment of the connection between indoor and outdoor climates life spills back out of the buildings for much of the year in many, reclaiming the streets. Robust buildings that are not vulnerable to catastrophic failure and buildings that are not totally dependant on grid electricity to remain functional and occupied. Lower energy use and the building starts to play a greater role in climate amelioration that its machines. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions as energy use is reduced and more of it is generated by renewable energy systems. . Healthier indoor environments as fresher, cleaner air is reintroduced through open windows.

7. Conclusions The time has come to re-evaluate the 20th century approach to the unopposed growth of mechanically cooled buildings. This is in light of the urgent need to reduce energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions from buildings and cities, and the rapidly rising global oil and gas prices that mean that year on year fewer people globally will be able to afford to pay the escalating prices for air-conditioned indoor climates. Hidden behind the convincing equations of building performance are a wide range of adaptation issues relating to the culture of people in different regions, their climates and societies and the professionals who design, procure and operate buildings for them. How long will it take Spain to re-introduce the siesta the authorities cancelled in June 2005? How long will it take young architects and engineers to learn how to put mass back into buildings and re-learn to design a good window? How long will it take developers to come to terms with the fact that they have to put a courtyard or light well into the heart of their building so it can be naturally daylight and ventilated

when energy gets too expensive to permit the alternatives, or the grid regularly fails on hot afternoons? The challenge of how to maintain indoor thermal comfort in a changing climate must now be taken into the heart of the debate. Can we adapt in time to remain comfortable through the difficult decades ahead with our societies and cultures intact in the buildings we are producing today. Without ‘culture’ what will society in the 21st century be like? And for those who think that one solution could be comfort for the few who can afford it, think again because culture, in the broadest sense, involves everyone. We cannot go back simply to the 19th century types of buildings, designed for a different culture and climate, nor to the ‘modern’ buildings of the 20th century that were also designed for a different age, when fossil fuel energy was cheap and apparently limitless, and machines were seen as the solution rather than part of the problem. We urgently now need to find a new paradigm of buildings for the 21st century, adapting the best of the passive design wisdom from the 19th century, and combining that with all we have learnt in the last decades about energy efficiency in buildings and with ultra-efficient technology and embedded forms of renewable energy to create a New Vernacular for the 21st century at the heart of which will have to be a new approach to the understanding of thermal comfort, an adaptive approach. 8. REFERENCES Ackerman, Marsha (2002). Cool Comfort: America's Romance with Air-conditioning, Smithsonian Institution Press, BD (2003) Building Design, 30th May, 2003, p.7. BD (2003a) Building design, 28th March, 2003, p. 1 Bjorkroth, M., V.Asikainen, O. Seppanen and J. Sateri (2002). Cleanliness criteria and test procedures for cleanliness labelling of HVAC components. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Monterey, vol.1, pp. 670-674. Black, F. and E.Milroy (1966). Experience of air-conditioning in offices, Journal of the Institute of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, September, pp.188-196. Brager, G.S. and deDear, R.J. (1998) Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a literature review Energy and Buildings, 27(1), pp 83-96 CADDET InfoPoint, Issue 2/03, p.7. See: http://www.caddetre.org/newsletter/back_issues.php Clausen, G., O. Olm and P.O. Fanger (2002). The impact of air pollution from used ventilation filters on human comfort and health, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Vol.1, pp. 338-343. ed H Levin, Indoor Air 2002, Santa Cruz, USA Cooper, Gail (1998). Air-conditioning America: Engineers and the Controlled Environment, 1900-1960, Johns Hopkins Studies in the History of Technology, published by John Hopkins University, p.190. Drenzer (2005) [http://www.danieldrezner.com/archives/002491.html] Gray, P.G. and T. Corlett, (1952), A survey of lighting in offices, Postwar Building Research No.30, London, HMSO. Haves, P., S. Roaf and J. Orr (1998). Climate Change and Passive Cooling in Europe, In Proceedings of PLEA Conference, Lisbon, pp463-466.

Knowles, R. (2006). Ritual House, Island Press, Washington. Loudon, A.G. (1968). Window design criteria to avoid overheating by excessive solar gains, BRS Current Paper 4/68, Garston, Building Research Station. Loudon, A.G. and E. C. Keighley (1964). User research in office design, Architect’s Journal, 139(6}, pp.333-9. Loudon, A.G. and E.Danter (1965). Investigations of summer overheating, Building Science 1, pp.89-94. Mauderly, J. (2002). Linkages between outdoor and indoor air quality issues: pollutants and research problems crossing the threshold. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Monterey, Vol.1, pp. 12-13 ed H Levin, Indoor Air 2002, Santa Cruz, USA. Meierhans,R. and M.Zimmermann (1991). Slab cooling and earth coupling, Proceedings of the Future Buildings Forum –innovative cooling workshop, International Energy Agency, organised by Oscar Faber, May, pp.1-24. Strauss, S. and B. Orlove (Eds.) (2003). Weather, Climate and Culture, Berg publishers, Oxford and New York., p.3. Meir, I. and S. Roaf (2003). Thermal comfort - thermal mass housing in hot dry climates, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Monterey, Vol.1, pp. 12-13 ed H Levin, Indoor Air 2002, Santa Cruz, USA. Morgan, C.A., deDear, R. and Brager, G. (2002) Climate Clothing and adaptation in the built environment, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate Vol. 5, 98-103 ed. H. Levin, Indoor Air 2002, Santa Cruz, USA Nicol, J. and S.Roaf (2006). Thermal comfort in the first passive cooling book: review of strengths and weaknesses of approach, in Santamouris, M. (Ed.) Advances in Passive Cooling, to be published by James & James Science Publishers, 2006. Roaf, S. Crichton, D and Nicol, F. (2005) Adapting Buildings and Cities for Climate Change, London, Architectural Press. Roaf, S., M.Fuentes and S. Thomas (2003). Ecohouse 2: A Design Guide, Oxford, Architectural Press at Elsevier. Ryghaug M ref needed Santamouris, M. (Ed.) (2005). Air Conditioning, Energy Consumption and Environmental Quality, Oxford, Eolss Publishers. Seppänen, O, Olesen, B, and Boerstra, A (2005) Indoor environment for energy performance of buildings, a new European draft Standard, Passive and Low Energy Cooling (Palenc) Conference, Santorini, Greece May19-21st Ed M Santamouris, publ Heliotopos Conferences, Athens, Greece. Vol 2 pp1109-1115 (Strauss and Orlove, 2003). Ref needed Wyatt, T (2004) http://www.bsee.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/2733/CIBSE%92s_new_president_ highlights_the_pressing_need_for_a_future_of_change.html