development of theoretical and practical background for translation training. In
this context the notion of translation competence (TC) plays a prominent role.
Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English-language Translation
Stanislava Šeböková
Comparing Translation Competence Master‘s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: Mgr. Renata Kamenická, Ph. D.
2010
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
…………………………………………….. Author‘s signature
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Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor, Mgr. Renata Kamenická, Ph.D., for her kind help, valuable advice and support.
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Table of contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5 2.
Defining translation competence ............................................................................... 6 2.1.
TC introduced..................................................................................................... 8
2.2. TC defined (Albrecht Neubert) ............................................................................ 10 2.3. TC redefined (Rui Rothe-Neves) ......................................................................... 13 2.4. TC acquired .......................................................................................................... 15 2.4.1. Andrew Chesterman ...................................................................................... 15 2.4.2. Translator typology (Marisa Presas) ............................................................. 18 2.5. TC processed ........................................................................................................ 21 2.6. TC trained............................................................................................................. 24 2.7. TC and the market ................................................................................................ 28 3. Models of translation competence .............................................................................. 31 3.1. Basic models ........................................................................................................ 31 3.2. Pedagogical models .............................................................................................. 33 3.2.1. Christina Schäffner ........................................................................................ 34 3.2.2. A different perspective (TC according to Beeby and Sim) ........................... 36 3.3. Empirical models ................................................................................................. 40 3.3.1. Stuart J. Campbell ......................................................................................... 40 3.3.2. PACTE group ................................................................................................ 41 3.4. EU Model (EMT) ................................................................................................. 47 4. Modelling TC .............................................................................................................. 51 4.1. Research proposal ................................................................................................ 51 4.2. Text in situation.................................................................................................... 53 4.3. Theoretical considerations ................................................................................... 54 4.3.1. Modelling TC ................................................................................................ 56 5. Comparing TC ......................................................................................................... 59 5.1. Binary errors ..................................................................................................... 60 5.2. Non-binary errors ............................................................................................. 68 5.3. Competent risk.................................................................................................. 75 6. Results (summary) .................................................................................................. 78 7. Conclusion and suggestions for further research ........................................................ 81 Primary sources ........................................................................................................... 86 References ................................................................................................................... 86 4
1.
Introduction
Perhaps one of the most pertinent areas of research in translation studdies nowadays concerns attempts to conceptualize and further develop theoretical and practical background for training of future translators. In this respect the notion of translation competence (TC) plays a prominent role. In general terms, TC is perceived as an underlying knowledge or ability needed to carry out a translation task. This thesis compares translation competence/s both in theory and in practice. First two chapters introduce several definitions of translation competence and present the theoretical background surrounding this concept. Chapter three lists various examples of TC models and presents the nature of research within this area of translation studies. In the fourth chapter, the theoretical background is used to establish a multi-componential model of translation competence. An assessment of 15 translations emerging from a single source text pertaining to the field of psychology is presented and related to the TC model, which was created specifically for this purpose. Authors of the target texts are 15 university students divided in two groups according to their field of study. The TransT group is formed by 14 translation trainees and compared to one psychology student (PT). Evaluation of translation competences is based predominantly upon error analysis combined with theories presented by Anthony Pym and later related to the proposed model of TC. The analysis is predominantly quantitative, although several qualitative aspects within error assessment are taken into consideration as well. The last chapter summarizes results of the analysis and offers a proposition for further research related to translation competence.
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2.
Defining translation competence
―In any professional environment, performance is judged according to certain clearly defined objectives and needs, which demand a specific type of competence…‖ (Schäffner 2000: xiv) Translation of written texts is a multidisciplinary activity that has been used for communication between members of different cultures since the beginning of writing. Despite its vital role in inter-language and inter-cultural communication, translation used to be perceived as a rather menial task, and products of this activity were often found lacking in comparison with the source texts from which they originated. Even in present times ―Translators are not yet sure whether translation is a trade, an art a profession or a business‖ (Baker 1992: 2). Translation (as an occupation or skill) started to gain recognition as late as in the 20th century with the emergence of translation studies. Initial attempts at defining translation and proposing a theoretical background for translation ―…led to a study of the way in which it [theory] could best be taught, in order to enhance the different skills acquired in one or more foreign languages and cultures, in relation to and in conjunction with the mother tongue, for the purpose of more effective communication.‖(Schäffner 2000: vii). One of the interesting areas within the field of translation studies is devoted to conceptualization and further development of theoretical and practical background for translation training. In this context the notion of translation competence (TC) plays a prominent role. This term is relatively new and not unanimously recognized among translation scholars. Many definitions of translation competence emerged throughout the years, but in the most general terms translation competence represents ―... the underlying system of knowledge, abilities and attitudes required to be able to translate‖ (PACTE 2002: 43). However, this concept is not to be confused with competence in terms of Chomsky‘s
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binary definition of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. In the scope of translation studies, translation competence has more to do with performance. Translation competence is mostly described as a complex concept that requires knowledge of two or more languages and usually consists of two or more subcompetencies.
Christine
Schäffner
presents
the
following
metaphor
while
conceptualizing TC: ―Optimal performance of any action, for example, driving a car, is based on a global competence which relies on the interaction of different subordinated competences, which are, of course, interrelated‖ (Schäffner 2000: viii). Difficulties facing scholars in their attempts to define translation competence stem from the rather complicated nature of translation as such. Translation is in theory an interdisciplinary field and in practice a multitasking activity that requires much more than ―merely‖ a linguistic competence in two languages. One of the widespread misconceptions concerning translation of technical texts (and perhaps translation per se) is that any specialist with a decent knowledge of a foreign language can not only produce texts in his second language, but can translate as well. Yet, although knowledge of a foreign language is the basic prerequisite for translation, it does not guarantee that the resulting product will be adequate for its readership. It was established in several studies that bilingualism does not make a translator, although it may present an advantage in translation training. The material with which translators have to work (language/s) is constantly changing and evolving. The major problem that training has to face is that ―any attempt at defining competence must take into account the sheer complexity of the demands that are made on the cognitive faculties and skills of the translator‖ (Neubert; Schäffner 2000: 1).
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2.1. TC introduced It is quite difficult to evaluate a concept that was yet neither agreed upon, nor properly defined. Different scholars perceive this construct differently. Even the term itself has several varieties, respective authors call it translation competence (Vienne: 2000) translational competence (Neubert: 2000), translational knowledge (Pym: 1992) or translation skill (Sim: 2000). Although most of the authors dealing with translation competence agree that linguistic competence is essential for TC, some include it in their models and definitions and others put it aside as a necessary prerequisite, nevertheless not a part of TC per se.‖Furthermore, competence in translation (like Chomsky`s linguistic competence) is an abstract concept that can only be measured in performance‖ (Beeby 2000: 185). And because this performance involves combination of quite a variable set of activities, it follows that to describe translation competence as a single entity is nearly impossible. Amparo Hurtado Albir and Mariana Orozco report finding only four explicit definitions of TC, one of those proposed by Hurtado Albir himself. He perceives translation competence as ―the ability of knowing how to translate‖. The other three definitions are as follows: Bell defines TC as ―the knowledge and skills the translator must possess in order to carry out a translation‖ Wills understands TC as ―an interlingual supercompetence [...] based on a comprehensive knowledge of the respective SL and TL, including the textpragmatic dimension, and consists of the ability to integrate the two monolingual competencies on a higher level‖ PACTE group perceives TC as ―... the underlying system of knowledge needed to translate‖(all definitions cited in Orozco, Hurtado Albir 2002: 376) 8
General definitions of translation competence constitute the basis for TC models. Even the most minimalistic of those TC models are binary (see Pym) and they boil down to decoding the source text (ST) and encoding/producing the target text (TT), perhaps with the addition of a transfer element, introduced by Toury. ―Writers on translation theory and practice often tend to reduce the concept of translation competence to a simple three level skill (deverbalisation, transfer and reverbalisation)‖ (Vienne; Schäffner 2000: 91). However, such simple definition strips reality of its context. This notion has been criticized by Christiane Nord, because it implies that ―every ST is supposed to carry its own ´translation instructions´ telling the translator how it should be transferred‖ (Nord as quoted by Vienne; Schäffner 2000: 91). According to this perspective translation (competence) does not simply boil down to ―re-writing‖ the ST in the target language. There is something like a core and peripheral translation competence. Translator has to understand not only the text itself, but the situation, that led to its production in one language and that now leads to its re-production in another. The importance of teamwork within translation in general and translation competence in particular needs to be stressed as well, because in professional reality, translation products are often results of inputs contributed by several people at once. Defining and conceptualizing translation competence is not an easy endeavour, which will be further illustrated by the following examples. The concepts and models listed in the rest of this chapter are presented as instances chosen only to illustrate the variety of perspectives adopted by different authors when contemplating translation competence. No typology of TC models is proposed, although respective constructs and definitions are loosely stringed together according to certain features they have in common.
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2.2. TC defined (Albrecht Neubert) Some of the intricacies connected to conceptualizing TC are exemplified by the work of Albrecht Neubert, whose take at definition of translation competence (which he calls translational competence) emphasizes the notions of complexity and heterogeneity. According to Neubert, translation requires a complex set of knowledge and skill (hence the complexity). These skills are unique and often dramatically differ from each other (hence the heterogeneity). The sheer variety of topics a single translator has to process during his/her career means that ―translators cannot be fully competent in all the fields they have to deal with‖ (Neubert; Schäffner 2000: 4). It follows that the translator often approaches a source text from the position of mediation expert, rather than being an expert in the particular field. His/her knowledge of the subject is always lesser than the knowledge of the original author or sender of the source text. This consideration is further reflected in the definition of TC, because it implies that the nature of translation competence will always remain approximate and open ended (Neubert: 2000). Such considerations introduce an interesting aspect into the definition, namely that the translator needs to use a variety of external resources and s/he has to be able to internalize and contextualize new information rather quickly while working with a limited number of sources (compared to expert in the particular field) and often under time pressure. If the translator does not possess sufficient internal resources to render a text, s/he has to be able to consult external resources, experts in the particular field or other translators, thus the complexity of translation tasks often requires teamwork in order to arrive at an acceptable product. Translation(al) competences have to provide translators with the ability to re-create the source text in a context of different language and culture. Neubert`s perspective implies that change is the only constant in
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translation; nevertheless, he proposes the following hierarchical definition of translation competence that consists of: 1) Language competence - this sub-competence includes the knowledge grammatical systems as well as repertoires, terminologies, syntactic and morphological conventions 2) Textual competence that emerges from and is intertwined with the linguistic competence, and represents an ability to define textual features of e.g. technical, legal or literary fields , 3) Subject competence - stems from textual competence, it represents the familiarity with what the particular text is about, this concept covers both knowledge about the world (encyclopaedic knowledge) and specialist knowledge, 4) Cultural competence – or that translators need to be specialists on cultures, because they act as mediators between various cultural backgrounds and presuppositions ―technical texts are often culture-bound too‖ (Neubert; Schäffner 2000: 9), last, but not least is the 5) Transfer competence – which encompasses the strategies and procedures that allow translating the text from L1 to L2, it is the ability to perform translation as such quickly and efficiently. This competence is superordinate to the previous four competencies and has a transient nature, because it is ―triggered off by the nature of the text‖ (Neubert; Schäffner 2000: 15) or by different parts of a single source text (ST). In connection with transfer competence it is important to explain the concept of equivalence as Neubert perceives it. Equivalence is the desirable outcome, which is facilitated by all the previously mentioned sub-competencies. It is not an absolute, 11
firmly set quality, but a concept that is functional and depends on a particular translational situation. Such notion of equivalence does not depend solely on linguistic, content or subject correspondence; it emerges as interplay of the five competencies. These competencies are tested, solidified and honed with every translation task, which means that they have to be continuously improved upon and that the translator, however proficient and experienced, never arrives at a finite stage in their development. What can be derived from Neubert`s perspective of TC in respect to the proposition of a new translation model is summarized in the following lines. TC is a multifaceted concept that includes ―passive‖ elements (related to knowledge) and an active element. The active element (transfer) consists of procedures and strategies that are used while working on the translation task at hand. The transfer element is superordinate; it employs and activates all the other ―passive‖ subcomponents. Moreover, the nature of TC is open- ended; there is no finite stage to arrive at. Yet, TC can be developed and can integrate certain tools, which translators may acquire both through theory and practice. In turn, translation competence becomes the basis that influences methods or strategies, which translators use while working on their tasks. Respective competencies regroup, transform and manifest according to the cognitive effort that is required for a particular translation. Neubert`s perspective of translation competence as a complex and heterogeneous phenomenon that is in fact an amalgamation of several sub-competencies is adopted quite often in the scope of translation studies. Although some of the scholars try to come up with unified, simple(r) or minimalistic definitions of translation competence, most of the definitions emerging in relation with translation training and the needs of professional market divide TC into multi/sub-componential
models.
Furthermore,
the
perspective
of
constant
reconfiguration of sub-competencies within Neubert`s definition is frequently reflected 12
in these multipartite models. Neubert`s notion of regrouping appears consistent with Levy`s theory of minimax strategy, ―that the translator must exert minimum effort for maximum effect‖ (Pym 1995: 603). Accordingly, respective competencies should regroup in order to facilitate such minimax strategy; activate in response to the task at hand, but also according to the expertise of the translator
2.3. TC redefined (Rui Rothe-Neves) Rui Rothe-Neves proposes a slightly different definition of translation competence. He tries to solve the conflict between competence and performance. Here, TC is presented as a quality of the translator; as an aptitude to perform translation tasks and to produce pertinent target texts (TT). According to this perspective, such aptitude is ―determined by the expert opinion…[and]…involves socially shared representations‖ (Rothe-Neves 2007: 126). Meaning that every definition of translation competence has a historic quality and depends on a given place and time. Rothe Neves puts forward the opinion that trying to define models of TC within the educational framework and using translation trainees to test such models is misguided. If a generally accepted definition of TC will arise, it should be based purely on and drawn from the experience of expert translators. In this context, he cites Bausch (1977) as one of the first scholars to propose basic characteristics of a professional translator; these include: a) linguistic competences — grammatical and communicative b) specific competences — concerning extra-linguistic reality and c) translational competence — which is ―an autonomous ability that surpasses reading and writing in complexity‖ (Bausch as cited in Rothe-Neves 2007:128).
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Furthermore, Rothe Neves emphasizes the importance of pure research, which is not influenced by considerations stemming from translation training or building professional self-esteem of translators. Such considerations lead to his take on the definition of TC, which is firstly related to the Harris-Toury opposition. This opposition is basically interpreted as an argument of nurture versus nature, where Harris claims that natural translation is exhibited in bilinguals who never experienced any formal translation training. The nurture component is represented by Toury, who ―...stated that a translator could not only be made up of an innate ability to translate‖ (Rothe-Neves 2007: 130). It means that on one hand there is an opinion that ascribes natural TC to bilinguals, which is contradicted by the professional claim that bilingualism in itself does not guarantee TC. This contradiction was resolved by Ljudskanov, who proposed ―...that translation can not be taught; what can be taught is how to translate according to the norms of a society.‖(Ljudskanov as cited by Rothe-Neves 2007: 131). According to Neves, basic criticism of current TC models can be condensed into three arguments. Firstly, the data is not based on tenable parameters; secondly – the concept of translation competence has been already divided into too many sub-competencies and research in this respect should profit from studying problem-solving techniques and procedures; thirdly, TC should be related to professional competence. He puts forward McCleland`s proposal that ―competence could be clearly defined as the appropriate use of specific abilities according to the demands of the environment‖1 (Rothe-Neves 2007: 135) further on developed by Keen`s definition of competence ―as the ability to do a certain work task with the help of means and support...‖ (Keen as cited in Rothe-Neves 2007: 135), arriving at the concluding definition of translation competence. Rothe Neves thus perceives TC as something emerging from the translation process. From this
1
This proposal concerns the field of psychology – not translation studies as such.
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perspective, translation competence is not understood as an ―underlying knowledge‖ but as a product of performance and as such it has to be based upon expert knowledge and practice. The final definition draws on distinction between competence as an initial factor manifested through performance and competence as a quality that is attributable to performance arriving at a concept of performance that is competent. ―Thus, the notion of competence as underlying knowledge that can be dissociated from performance could be abandoned in TS‖ (Rothe-Neves 2007: 136). What can be drawn from Rothe-Neves` perspective in relation to TC is that it is a concept based on historical and societal norms. Thus its definition is dependent both on times and culture in which it has emerged. Furthermore, TC is strongly linked to performance and performance is best judged by experts in the given field. Aside from redefining TC, what is interesting in Rothe-Neves` take on defining TC is the correlation of competence with expert knowledge and the proposal to view this concept in terms of cognitive science (which reflects one of the current trends in translation studies). The correlation of expert knowledge with translation competence is further examined in the following segment that deals with acquisition of TC.
2.4. TC acquired 2.4.1. Andrew Chesterman Andrew Chesterman perceives TC in terms of a learning process. He understands acquiring translation competence as travelling from novice to expert competence. The last stage is, ―where intuition takes over‖ (Chesterman; Schäffner 2000: 78). From this perspective, expert competence is a combination of emotions, intuition and routine. Translator needs both physical and conceptual tools in order to perform his/her task.
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The important question here is how does expertise and proficiency relate to each other. According to Cay Dollerup ―It was taken for granted that the desired goal in foreign language teaching would be near-native mastery and, in translation, perfect end products‖ (Dollerup 2000: 3). The basic model that is to be found in foreign language teaching and translation training is that the novice moves along an axis as s/he progresses from initial stages of competence towards proficiency. Although Dollerup`s essay is an apology in favour of L2 translation, it makes several valid points with regards to defining expertise or competence. The opinion that ―there is a goal, namely a 100% command‖ (Dollerup 2000: 4) is a construct that has not much to do with reality (taking into account such phenomena as pidgin English, or regional varieties of English). Everybody starts at a different stage, given by their cultural background, class, age and interplay of various factors. ―…most of us are foreigners using English.‖ (Dollerup 2000: 7) and that pertains not only to translation, but to text production as well. This perspective contrasts with Chesterman, who describes acquiring translation competence as moving along an axis divided into five stages: the novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and the expert (Chesterman; Schäffner 2000, 77-79). Going along this axis requires increased internalization and automatization of certain processes or concepts and an ability to reflect both upon these ―tools‖ and the translator`s own work. 1) Novice translator – is getting acquainted with translation, s/he tries to learn the basic rules and his/her perception of the subject is mainly atomistic, because s/he ―...operates in terms of particular, separate activities‖ (Chesterman; Schäffner 2000: 78)
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2) Advanced beginner – is starting to be able to ―think outside‖ the concepts that were introduced in the first stage and connect them to each other, his/her behaviour becomes less atomistic. 3) Competence stage – trainee gains the ability to prioritize among various ―situational features‖ of the task at hand and perceive it as a goal oriented problem solving activity. S/he becomes aware of the responsibility this particular task involves, which in turn leads to a greater emotional involvement in the process. 4) Proficiency – intuition and personal experience are introduced into the equation, however they both rest on the rules and concepts introduced in previous three stages. 5) Expertise – the expert is driven predominantly by intuition and although s/he is capable of critical self-reflection, intuition is the main mode of operation; ―...for real experts, things that might be problems for others are merely routine matters‖ (Chesterman; Schäffner 2000: 79). First two stages are purely rational, the third stage introduces emotional involvement and in the last two stages intuition gradually takes over. Along this way, translator encounters many tools, which s/he can use at his/her disposal. They can be divided into basic concepts, strategies or procedures2, which are ―conscious, goal-oriented procedures for solving problems‖ Chesterman; Schäffner 2000: 82), and norms or values. If strategies are the means, norms are the ends. Norms develop and vary in time and space (e.g. in different cultures) and they can be divided into Expectation norms (clarity), Relation norms (truth), Communication norms (understanding), Accountability norm (trust). The norms are not firmly set rules; they can be broken, however each 2
Chesterman distinguishes between: a) search, b) creativity, c) textual strategies.
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translator should be able to justify such violation and be aware of its consequences. The following perspective will introduce another typology of translators that emerges from bilingual competence. 2.4.2. Translator typology (Marisa Presas) The basic prerequisite in acquiring and developing Translation competence is knowledge of at least two languages. Yet, bilingual competence is just one of the cornerstones upon which translation competence can be built. The concept, or perhaps an ideal, of bilingualism is closely linked to linguistic competence. However, according to Marisa Presas, bilingualism is not restricted to being born and raised in an environment in which two languages and cultures meet; bilingualism can be acquired in time. It is rather the outcome of an interplay of various factors, which manifests in the ―sufficient‖ knowledge of two languages. Two concepts play an important part within the notion of bilingualism: Interference and code-switching. Interference refers to using elements of one language while writing in another and in the scope of translation studies it is often perceived as a negative feature. On the other hand, code-switching is ―the alternating use of two languages in the same proposition or within a single conversation‖ (Presas; Schäffner 2000: 26). The basic difference between code switching and interference is that interference tends to occur involuntarily, while code switching is a conscious decision, chosen by the speaker for a particular situation. Code switching in bilingualism is connected to transfer operations occurring during translation in the sense that both bilinguals and translators seem to establish links between two languages. Presas divides bilingualism – or rather the competence in two languages – into oral and written reception and oral and written production. While this division of bilingual knowledge may hold for each language separately, translation ads transfer into the equation; thus translation competence requires oral or written reception 18
in L1 transferred into an oral or written production in L2 (and vice versa). This concept of bilingualism is further used in order to categorize the linguistic competence of translators. Presas states that translation is strongly influenced by three factors: directionality (whether the translation occurs from L2 into L1 or vice versa), modality (whether it is a written or an oral translation) and the specific language combination. Based on the notion of bilingualism and cognitive processes involved in it, the following typology of translators is proposed (Presas; Schäffner 2000: 23-25): 1) The Associative translator correlates lexical and textual elements of L1 with corresponding elements of L2; while doing this, s/he does not ―associate them with any mental content‖ (Presas; Schäffner 2000: 23). 2) The subordinated translator associates mental content only with L1. Thus s/he has to correlate lexical elements of L2 with lexical elements of L1, which later provides him/her with a mental content. S/he has to translate in order to understand. 3) The compound translator has a single mental content association for both L1 and L2; it implies that elements of both languages lead him/her to a single meaning. 4) The coordinated translator associates L1 with its own content and then correlates the mental contents of L1 with the mental contents of L2, which in turn leads to producing textual/lexical elements of L2. These types can be perceived as respective developmental stages on the route to translation expertise, yet all of them can manifest in a single translator or within a single translational situation. The stage of coordinated translator is the most desirable one. 19
Acquiring the skills of a coordinated translator should prevent the undesirable aspects of interference. Thus cultivating translation competence means changing bilingualism into interlingualism, which is achieved by improving and strengthening the ―bridging mechanisms‖ between two languages (Presas; Schäffner 2000: 27). All the previously mentioned factors are used to describe the characteristics of trainee and expert translators (see table 1).
Table 1. Psycholinguistic profile of the novice/expert translator (Presas 2000: 28) Novice translator Non-specialized linguistic skills Bilingual memory (compound or subordinated) Unconscious interference mechanisms
Expert translator Specialized linguistic skills Bilingual memory (co-ordinated) Control over interference in reception/production Code-switching mechanisms (lexical level) Heuristic text transference procedures Cognitive features: flexibility, lateral thinking, capacity for remote association Based on these considerations, Presas arrives at her own definition of TC; ―Translation competence could be defined as the system of underlying kinds of knowledge, whether declarative or operative, which are needed for translation‖ (Presas; Schäffner 2000: 28). In conclusion; the nature and the acquisition of TC are both open ended. However, TC acquisition moves along a developmental axis that has several stages. This development can be perceived as a road towards expertise, which involves acquiring an intuitive approach to translation. Expertise is a desirable goal, yet after reaching this goal, development of translation competences does not stop. Expertise can be achieved by the means of conceptual, procedural and normative tools to which each trainee is gradually introduced. Thus Chesterman presents a developmental typology of translators during the process of TC acquisition. Dollerup enriches the perspective by proposing there is no finite, 100% goal to be reached and that everybody starts at a different level. The 20
typology of translators by Marisa Presas can be related to previous perspectives in specifying expertise (or a desirable stage of competence) as an ability to ―translate‖ between mental contents, rather than between textual or linguistic elements of the languages involved. According to this view, an integral part of TC development is the ability to establish links between two languages and the ability to eliminate those links that manifest in undesirable phenomena (like interference). The development of TC consists in both acquiring new competencies and continuous reorganization of the subcompetencies acquired. The difference between TC of an expert translator and translation trainee lies in the fact that the expert possesses all the relevant subcompetencies, whereas in trainees the respective sub-competencies are either undeveloped, or they have not been intertwined together sufficiently.
2.5. TC processed Focus on the procedural aspect of translating reveals slightly different problems and considerations. Scholars, who propose this perspective, claim that understanding the process is essential in order to understand the product and in turn be later able to create better target texts. With respect to definitions of TC, scholars ―...agree that translation competence consists of several different sub-competences which integrate declarative and procedural knowledge. However, they seem to differ in what should be emphasized first in the training of translators, i.e., procedural or declarative training‖ (Alves 2005: 1). For instance, Alves and Gonçalves perceive the difference between expert and novice translation in terms of procedural perspective; they call the first wide-band and the latter narrow-band translator. Basic differences between the two types, as defined by Alves and Gonçalves (Alves 2005: 6), are listed in the following table: 21
Table 2. Differences between narrow-band and wide-band translators Narrow-band translator Poor allocation of effort to orientation, drafting and revision phases — erratic cognitive rhythms Inability to deal with revision as an independent phase Segmentation mainly at word level due to lack of awareness of discursive features Lack of meta-cognition leads to problems in inferential processing
Wide-band translator Efficient allocation of effort to orientation, drafting and revision phases — balanced cognitive rhythms Evidence of long-term working memory in segmentation patterns Meta-reflection leading to successful problem-solving and decision-making More balanced relation between cognitive effort and contextual effect
Their approach to defining translation competence emerges from the framework of cognitive science. There are two ways how to go about collecting data in order to examine procedural aspects of translation competence. First one is relying on declarative abilities of tested subjects. It takes on the form of TAPs3, questionnaires or retrospective interviews, where translators or translation trainees describe strategies they have used and problems they have encountered while going on about their task. The second approach does not rely purely on declarative input and opts for ―real-time‖ observation of the translation process by employing direct observation or using translation protocols that can monitor and record what happens on the screen while the subjects are translating. ―Procedural aspects of translation decisions are revealed on the basis of the different levels of interaction of mental processes‖. (Elthes; Schäffner 2000: 110). A procedural model of translation will be described at length in the following chapter, thus this segment about procedural perspectives will be concluded by two examples of their application in the university environment. Alves suggests cultivating awareness of translation trainees towards procedural aspects of their work by employing Translog software in class. His recommendation is further
3
think-aloud protocols
22
illustrated by using this program in a pilot test on 18 translation trainees.4 The results of the test were inconclusive, however feedback from the students made Alves conclude that ―...the combined acquisition of declarative and procedural knowledge about their translation processes seems to have raised the level of awareness of the 18 novice translators and paved the way for the learning and consolidation of translation strategies.‖ (Alves 2005: 11) The second method that can build procedural and strategic competencies (or at least a corresponding kind of awareness) in translation trainees was proposed and tested by Olivia Fox. She encourages her trainees to write a ―translation diary‖ in which students would record their translation tasks, specific problems they have encountered and how they have gone about solving such problems. Aside from documenting their problem solving strategies, diaries allow them to reflect upon their competence/s and monitor procedures they have used. These diaries, or translation logs, can become a basis for the assessment of student‘s progress in TC acquisition. ―Translation diaries alone [my emphasis], however, cannot account for progress in the development of translation competencies...‖ (Fox; Schäffner 2000: 128).
As seen in Alves` comparison between narrow and wide band translators, the first one is exhibiting rather atomic and segmented cognitive traits, whereas the second one has a more holistic and structured approach. What can be drawn from these consideration was already hinted at by Neubert`s model; TC has a strong procedural component that can be used as a basis for conceptualizing competence. Moreover, the procedural aspect of TC needs to be further incorporated into translation training. To cultivate the awareness
4
For more information see ALVES, Fabio. ―Bridging the Gap Between Declarative and Procedural Knowledge in the Training of Translators‖
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of this aspect, translation students can reflect upon their competences by means of writing a translation log or employing specific software. 2.6. TC trained Defining TC is quite relevant in the educational context, because arriving at some relatively standardized definition of translation competence/s would allow teachers to structure their courses appropriately and to evaluate and develop competences of translation trainees. ―Long-term university-level training is a relatively recent phenomenon, mostly dating from the second half of the twentieth century and rising sharply in the late 1980s and early 1990s‖ (Pym 2009:1). Perhaps that is one of the reasons why there are many kinds of evaluation present in the academic environment. Methods of assessing TC vary university from university, department from department and sometimes even teacher from teacher. Institutionalized translation training has a fairly young tradition, thus scholars and teachers that strive to define or evaluate TC in their students, find themselves in the role of pioneers that have to propose their own definitions or evaluation tools in order to measure TC acquisition. There is an everpresent need to transfer theoretical principles of methodology into practice. ―The definition of translation competence and the process by which it is acquired is of supreme importance in teaching translation since it provides the guidelines in establishing the learning objectives and the pace of teaching...‖ (Martínez 2001: 280). There are various considerations at play while proposing the structure of translation course or an academic programme. For instance, Catherine Way presents some of the parameters that have to be taken into consideration while structuring an academic translation programme; namely: The professional market, Student profiles and expectations, course objectives, choice of fields and text typology. (Way ;Schäffner 2000:132) 24
Furthermore, products that emerge during translation courses have to be appropriately assessed. ―In the context of developing translation competence, one of the questions to be considered is that of how to evaluate the target text, as a product of the process‖ (Adab; Schäffner 2000: 215). Beverly Adab states that the teacher should not impose his/her choices upon the student, but rather coordinate the evaluation of submitted solutions in favour of the most adequate choice/s. The trainee is to be made more aware of her/his own strategies and conscious decisions made while tackling translation tasks and solving problems. Such evaluation has both diagnostic and formative function. Diagnostic function serves to assess the potential of a certain student, whereas formative function helps to propose new solutions and ideas for translator training. ― A target text can be evaluated for different purposes: to assess the suitability of the text for its intended reader and use; to evaluate language competence (usually L2, L3); to determine levels of intercultural awareness; or to identify levels and types of translation competence‖ (Adab; Schäffner 2000: 215-216). Adab proposes that in the environment of translation training, it is not only desirable to know the translation skopos or brief, but to know the criteria of evaluation that will be used by the teacher to assess the trainees. In other words, students should be familiar with the expectations of their teachers in order to be able to meet them. TC is the resource that translator has to use and tap into in order to produce translations that are adequate for their respective purposes. Adab emphasises exploration of several concepts and theories over explanation, which is more rigid and prescriptive. It is better to view translation as ―a real exercise in communication‖ (Adab; Schäffner 2000: 217). A framework of assessment needs to be developed in academic environment. TC acquisition or perhaps acquiring expertise is described in terms of developing ―the ability to operate on autopilot‖ (Adab; Schäffner 2000: 219). This notion corresponds 25
with Chesterman`s correlation of expertise with intuition. Simultaneously, translation trainees should have the understanding of not only what happens during the translation process, but also how and why. Students should be provided with a metalanguage that would enable them to reflect upon their solutions and, which would allow them to defend and explain their choices. Evaluation criteria are to be set before proceeding to translation tasks; they have to be general enough to be applicable to various situations and specific enough to allow for assessing a concrete text-in-situation. Translation logs/diaries/annotations explaining particular choices will be helpful both to the student and the teacher in their evaluation. Adab proposes the following assessment process (concerning final exams in translation) that consists of three stages: 1) the TTs are read as if they were initially produced as TL texts (i.e. without reference to the ST). Grades from A to F are appointed based on this first reading – this is a rather intuitive and holistic stage. 2) more critical reading of the text, where all errors are meticulously corrected and perceived inappropriate translation solutions are marked. 3) TTs are read again in order to see how both assessments of the stage 1) and 2) correspond with each other. The resulting mark is then scaled to present 60% of the total mark, remaining 40% of the mark is made up by evaluating all the comments that trainees made during translation. The aim of translation training lies not solely in assessing TC of trainees at the time of the final examination. Even more important in educational environment is the development of TC. Opinions of how to go about this task vary as much as the definitions of TC itself. Perhaps the most frequent and self-explanatory way of 26
cultivating translation competences/or skills is to expose trainees to as many texts as is humanly possible in order to constantly enrich their ―textual experience‖ (Kelly; Schäffner 2000: 162). There are two interesting perspectives pertaining to this particular strategy of developing translation competence. The first one is presented by Dorothy Kelly (Kelly; Schäffner: 2000), who proposes to preserve a certain continuity of field or subject matter during translation classes and discourages teachers from frequently jumping from one subject to another. However, the chosen field should be diverse enough to provide trainees with enough opportunities to develop their competence/s. Furthermore, choice of texts should correspond to the reality of professional market and prepare trainees for dealing with legal, medical or commercial texts; however classes are not to be shaped purely by this consideration. There has to be some place for other kinds of texts, which perhaps are not that lucrative in the professional environment, nevertheless they are valuable in honing student`s skills. The second perspective to be presented in this context is proposed by Catherine Way. She does not agree with the popularly held view that students should be exposed to all the fields and text types possible, instead Way recommends to focus only on one or two sub-fields, which will allow trainees to develop their ―information finding skills‖ (Way; Schäffner 2000: 137). Furthermore, the students will be more confident in their ability to navigate in unfamiliar areas and fields they previously had little information about. Specialized texts are often combinations of several text types anyway, so ―Whilst it is impossible to be a jack of all trades, the students must remember that although they may opt for one particular specialised field or another, they may later find that in their professional life they will become specialised in a totally different field.‖ (Way; Schäffner 2000: 138). 27
2.7. TC and the market Basically every evaluation of a translation (or of TC exhibited in the translation product) poses a problem and that pertains even to accreditation of professional translators. There are various ways of how translators gain accreditation; passing an exam, being officially acknowledged by a professional body, or finishing a degree in translation that serves as an accreditation in itself. These ―passing‖ exams have to be assessed in order to ascertain (translation) competence of the prospective professionals. Gerard McAlester proposes to base evaluation criteria upon the reality of professional market, rather than on any translation theory per se. ―...as all professional translators know, many of the texts they get to translate are far from being functionally perfect, and mismatches can equally well indicate functional improvements‖ (McAlester; Schäffner 2000: 232). Furthermore, he proposes that systems of evaluation should be simple and concise, not as complex as in the academic environment. All evaluation criteria have to be based chiefly on the ―functionality of the target text in relation to its purpose in the target culture and less on its correspondence with the source text‖ (McAlester; Schäffner 2000: 234). According to McAlester, the common practice in universities evaluates translation in vitro (i.e. translation for the sake of translation), which could be remedied by borrowing and employing real-life situations and real-life assessment from the professional practice. He proposes that one criterion of evaluation in respect to both L1 and L2 translation can be the time it takes the reviser to correct a given target text. This is a fairly simple and straightforward method of assessment. Needs and demands of the professional market should be instrumental in defining translation competence. An interesting input in this context is provided by Janet Fraser, who investigated situation on the translation market. She managed to conduct several
28
studies using TAPs5 on professional translators, which later represented the momentum for a survey given to 296 professional translators. This survey led to identification of the issues that professional translators perceive as vital in order to successfully conduct their work. Unfortunately, the results show that after entering the professional market, translators face an inadequate supply of means needed to carry out their assignments. The first and most important factor that affects the whole nature of the translation task according to the survey is the translation brief, ―which specifies the intended functions, addressees, medium, quality standard, etc. of the target text‖ (Nord 2000: 37). However, the survey found out that it is not a standard practice in professional environment, to include (on the part of clients) or even request (on the part of translators) the translation brief.6 Second important element related to professional environment concerns Translational resources (or, more accurately, the client-control resources). These are analogous to the translation brief in the respect that both can be provided by the client and if readily supplied they both can lead to a better translation product. Fraser`s survey found out that ―to ask for support of this kind was often seen as a sign of inadequate professionalism‖ (Fraser; Schäffner 2000: 56). Last important factor influencing professional environment is Feedback or evaluation. Unlike translation trainees, professional translators usually do not get feedback from their clients or from agencies that supply them with translation tasks. Based on the results of her survey, Fraser emphasises the importance of these three factors as well as the need to further incorporate them into translation training. Students should obtain a translation brief (i.e. be properly informed about the nature of a certain translation task), they need to be briefed about the resources at their disposal and know how to use them. Last but not
5
Think-aloud protocols For more information see Briefing? What Briefing? Findings of a Survey on the Flow of Information between Clients, Translation Agencies or Companies and Freelance Translators' 6
29
least, there needs to be a comprehensive framework explaining the feedback trainees receive. The comparison between Fraser and McAlester suggests that both educational and professional environment stress different aspects of translation competence. In professional context, where time is of the essence, TC may be understood in terms of both quality and speed, whereas translation training puts more emphasis on quality. Innovative is the idea that translation teachers should ―time‖ the evaluation of student`s target text. There is an understandable correlation between the number of errors in a given TT and the time it takes to‖correct‖ them, however the quantity of (some kinds of) errors might may not be related to quality as will be later shown in the fourth chapter. In conclusion; a definition of TC which would be unanimously accepted is yet to be found. However, what various descriptions have in common is that TC represents an ability to translate, which manifests in translation products and during translation process. Whether this ability represents underlying knowledge, or simply constitutes an attribute of performance is debatable; nevertheless TC undoubtedly plays an important role in translation training. Evaluating, but also developing, cultivating and fostering translation competence is the main objective of education in translation. In this context, relation of TC to expertise is of interest, because competence can be perceived only as one of the stages on the route towards expert knowledge, or as an attribute of every translator, whether novice or professional, which is present in both, but is more developed in the latter case. Yet, how (or whether) to evaluate TC either in professional or university environment still poses a problem. As Fraser`s or McAlester`s ideas imply, both segments should benefit by unifying or aligning their perspectives and learning from each other. 30
3. Models of translation competence This chapter will present several models of translation competence that have emerged in recent years. Various factors were at play during the development of these constructs. They were put together as results of experiences in academic environment or as blueprints that allowed for designing translation courses. Some of them are based on empirical data; others are borrowed from different fields or disciplines. Again, no typology of TC models is proposed, although the respective constructs and definitions are stringed together according to certain features they have in common. So far, only Neubert`s model of translation competence was mentioned; this chapter will introduce a variety of constructs that will later serve as a theoretical background against which a simplified TC model will emerge.
3.1. Basic models The first example introduced in this segment is the minimalistic model of TC by Anthony Pym. He defines translation competence as: 1) The ability to generate a series of more than one viable target (TT1, TT2 ...TTn) for a pertinent source text (ST); 2) The ability to select only one viable from this series, quickly and with justified confidence. (Pym 2003: 489) Such binary definition is unique in the respect that a combination of these two abilities constitutes TC and pertains only to translation ―...and nothing but translation‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1992: 281). Pym`s particular model will be more described in the next chapter; therefore the presentation of TC models will introduce propositions made by other scholars and return to Pym later. 31
The previous, rather universal, model can be contrasted with a slightly more detailed construct that emerged in connection with specifics of a German polytechnic institute. It is a model of competences and skills that are to be developed during a four year long degree course held at the Flensburg Polytechnic; the model emerged in connection with issues originating in the field of technical translation. The model was presented by Gustav Winkler and serves as an illustrative example of the difference between general definitions of TC (e.g. Pym`s) and more specific constructs propelled by the needs of academic courses. This model of technical translation (competencies) rests on three pillars; namely engineering (sachfach technik), language proficiency (including cultural competence) and language information technology (Winkler; Dollerup 1992: 99):
Sprache + Land
Sachfach technik
Sprach daten verarbeitung
Figure 1. Winkler`s model Staying within the field of technical/specialized translation, one more comparison suggests itself, namely to the model of Peter Kastberg from the University of Aarhus, who argues that even technical translation has to deal with cultural issues and puts forward the opinion that sciences are ―dynamic, man-made cultures‖ (Kastberg 2007: 105). Cultural considerations influence technical genres to a great extent; however
32
neither training nor practice in the area of technical/specialized translation takes cultural competence seriously enough. Therefore Kastberg proposes the following model of (technical) translation competence (Kastberg 2007: 104): 1. General language competence L1 + L2 2. LSP competence L1 + L2 3. Knowledge of the relevant domain 4. LSP translation competence L1 L2 5. Cultural competence L1 + L2 Last two models in this segment suggest how important the cultural aspect is, even within such areas as technical translation. Moreover, Kastberg`s construct signifies a tendency that would be further exemplified in following examples. In general terms, only few models of TC are as minimalistic as Pym`s or Winkler`s. The sum of subcompetences grows rapidly and although the average is around six, specific skills listed under those sub-competencies may amount to a frighteningly high number. This general tendency is best illustrated by the last model within chapter 3, where there are 46 skills7 classified under a single construct of TC. 3.2. Pedagogical models The common denominator of following models is that they have emerged in response to the specific problems presented by translation training. Following two models pertain to L1 translation and are later contrasted with two other constructs that emerged from employing slightly different perspectives on TC.
7
I have counted them; for more information, see Competences for professional translators, experts in multilingual and multimedia communication by EMT expert group.
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3.2.1. Christina Schäffner Christina Schäffner defines TC ―...as a complex notion which involves an awareness of and conscious reflection on all the relevant factors for the production of a target text (TT) that appropriately fulfils its specified function for its target addressees‖ (Schäffner 2000: 146). Her TC model consists of the following translation sub-competencies: 1) Linguistic competence – in the languages concerned 2) Cultural competence – general knowledge about historical, political, economic, cultural, etc. aspects in the respective countries 3) Textual competence – knowledge of regularities and conventions of texts, genres, text types 4) Domain/subject specific competence – knowledge of the relevant subject, the area of expertise 5) (re)search competence – general strategy competence whose aim is the ability to resolve problems specific to the cross-cultural transfer of texts 6) Transfer competence – ability to produce TTs that satisfy the demands of the translation task (Schäffner 2000: 146). These competencies are interrelated and interact together depending on a given translation task. Both Transfer and Research competence are of a transitory, procedural and dynamic nature, whilst the other four are rather static.8 Transfer competence is specific only for translation and is facilitated by all the other competencies. In Schäffner`s view, a competent trainee should be able to analyze the ―text-in-situationin-culture against the background of the translation assignment‖ (Schäffner 2000: 152). 8
Schäffner makes this distinction purely for methodological reasons – otherwise – the concept of knowledge in general and of competence in particular is always dynamic.
34
TC models based on pedagogical experience may be constructed in the light of undesirable traits exhibited by translation students and by the products of their efforts. Olivia Fox presents some of the negative aspects of translation performance in novice translators (Fox; Schäffner 2000: 116): lack of awareness of the purpose of the translation task lack of awareness of client and audience expectations concerning the translation task lack of knowledge of the TT language, its conventions and usage lack of knowledge of the socio-cultural context within which texts were to be received lack of effective documentation the absence of effective text editing In response to the needs presented by aforementioned shortcomings, Fox developed the following definition of translation competence/s s (Fox; Schäffner : 117): 1) communicative competence – awareness towards the purpose of translation task and the situation resulting in the ability to produce an adequate TT 2) socio-cultural competence – awareness of the socio-cultural context in which the ST emerged and an ability to comprehend texts in TL and SL culture. 3) Language and cultural awareness – being aware of how language/s work and conveys meaning and an ability to produce TTs that meet the linguistic and cultural expectations of target audience 4) Learning-how to learn – an awareness of different resources and how to use them and how to record ones observations. 5) Problem-solving goals – awareness of situational, linguistic, cultural or textual problems and being able to solve them 35
Common denominators found in both models are language, culture, text and problemsolving elements, which — when speaking about translation competence — are bound to emerge sooner or later. Within the comparison of transfer element, both communicative (Schäffner) and transfer (Fox) competence is described in similar terms. However transfer represents more ―technical‖ concept and is to be perceived as one of the aspects of communication. The perspective introduced by Fox signifies that in building a model of TC pejorative criteria (i.e. what is not desirable in translation trainees) can play an important role.
3.2.2. A different perspective (TC according to Beeby and Sim) In the light of the constructs that were already introduced, it will be interesting to take a look at TC models from a slightly different perspective. The first instance will present a model based on inversed directionality (L1 into L2 translation) the second instance will introduce several issues that translators have to face in the third world. Models of TC can differ also with respect to directionality. Allison Beeby proposes a model of translation competence pertaining to L2 translation (calling it Inverse translation competence). The model is multipartite and consists of the following four sub-competences (Beeby; Schäffner 2000: 186-187): 1) Transfer competence – awareness of the translation process (advanced reading skills in SL, deverbalization skills, reformulation skills in TL), awareness of multiple contexts involved in translation, awareness of the interdependence between micro and macro structures in text and translation. 2) Contrastive linguistic competence – knowledge of typographical differences between SL and TL, knowledge of lexical differences between SL and TL and
36
awareness of the limitations of dictionaries, knowledge of syntactic differences between SL and TL. 3) Contrastive discourse competence – knowledge of text type and genre differences between SL and TL, awareness of the relationship between context and register (field, mode and tenor), knowledge of differences in textual coherence and cohesion between SL and TL. 4) Extra-linguistic competence – knowledge of pragmatic and semiotic differences between the SL culture and the TL culture, documentation skills. The model has fewer parts and emphasises discursive and linguistic elements of TC, which are of the utmost importance within L2 translation. Having her definition in mind, Beeby attempted to relate the model to the results of a single exam concerning L2 translation attended by two groups of university students. Group A consisted of translation trainees and group B comprised of external students applying to enter the second cycle of a translation course. Beeby found out that linguistic competences emerging in the translation products of the two groups were not dramatically different (mind you, it was L2 translation). The results furthermore revealed several interesting points. Firstly, most external students exhibited an ―excessive faith in bilingual dictionaries, without taking into account the context and the TL readers‖ (Beeby; Schäffner 2000: 195). Secondly, the main difference between the group of trainees and the group of external students lay in using better translation strategies; where the A group fared much better than external students. Another contrasting take on modelling competencies describes problems and challenges connected to translation training in Africa. Although this perspective does not concern technical translation, but translation of Biblical texts, it proposes an interesting outlook on the problems related to ―...translation of a culturally external and specialist literature 37
into languages lacking a strong literary tradition...‖ (Sim; Schäffner 2000: 172). The following model of translation skills was proposed by Ronald J. Sim (Sim; Schäffner 2000: 173). The construct comprises of six parts: 1) Source language competence 2) Receptor language competence 3) Source culture control 4) Receptor culture control 5) Translation 6) P.A.L.M implementation skills - planning, administration, leadership, management This is not strictly a model of translation competence per se; however it is interesting in its emphasis on the more ―practical‖ aspects of translation that tend to be linked with professional experience, rather than with training. What further influences the notion of TC is the fact that there still remain cultures, which possess a strong and diverse oral tradition; however they lack textual ―background‖. Besides, not every language or culture is mapped sufficiently enough to allow for systematic development of either cultural or linguistic competence (or skill). ―At best there are usually only fragmentary anthropological or cultural studies, which are unlikely to provide adequate answers to the range of questions that a translator brings to the text‖ (Sim; Schäffner 2000: 174). Sim describes the reality of translating Bible in Africa (namely Nairobi), where the context of translation training is poles apart from the practices in the Western world. Training and translating initiatives are catered by grass roots organizations. In these organizations translators learn on the go and their learning experience merges with practice. There is one experienced leader in every translation group, who takes responsibility for training and managing the other members. The sharp contrast 38
pertaining to learning conditions between this perspective and the previous models further confirms Sim`s caution that ―...it is dangerous to extrapolate the assumptions made in the European experience to minority languages of divergent genetic typology and cultural traditions...‖ (Sim; Schäffner 2000: 173). In conclusion, besides further confirming the notion that TC is facilitated, however not solely dependent, on linguistic competence, Beeby`s perspective suggests that directionality plays a prominent role in developing TC models. L2 translation has slightly different demands on respective sub-competences and their configuration than L1 translation. If a model of TC is to be proposed, it has to take the directionality issue into account. Furthermore, cultural elements emphasized in previous subchapters may not be comparable in different societies. Meaning that the cultural background of some societies is not explicitly contained in written sources, or even that in some contexts, oral modes of communication are much more preferred and prevalent than the written ones. Therefore, if a model of translation competence is to be used in education, it has to pertain to a given environment. Although there are basically three elements that are common to most of the constructs described (i.e. culture, language and transfer), a model of TC applicable in a university environment may emphasize different subcompetences than a model used within another educational context. This means that even the most elaborate or sophisticated definitions of TC, however universal or valid they may claim to be, are still dependent on and pertinent to the cultural and linguistic background they have emerged from; they cannot be applied to all the languages and cultures indiscriminately.
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3.3. Empirical models First empirical model introduced in this segment was based on a case study examining to what extent translation tests and their products allow to evaluate TC. The model emerged from an assessment of several TT solutions that were evaluated using an empirical tool, which the author designed himself. The second model differs from the first one in several key respects; it has emerged as a purely theoretical concept and was later tested employing empirical tools, it is a continuous project that lasts over a decade and is still in the running; it is a result of group efforts and not a construct formulated by a single scholar. 3.3.1. Stuart J. Campbell Campbell wanted to find out whether the tests used for assessing TC are reliable and valid enough to do so. In order to establish his model of translation competence, he analyzed 40 solutions of a single sentence that was included in an Arabic ST used for public examination of translation from Arabic to English. He divided the sentence into lexical items and ordered them according to their difficulty, which he conceptualizes as ― the extent to which subjects fail to agree on a rendition of the item‖ (Campbell 1991: 330). TT equivalents of these lexical items were categorized into six kinds of ―product phenomena‖ and these phenomena were later re-categorized according to the processes that might have led to their emergence. The analysis was predominantly error based and in order to ascertain ―gravity‖ of errors, Campbell developed a measuring tool, which he called the Mean Lean Agreement (MLA) and which measured the ―correctness‖ of respective solutions within his sample. Drawing on the results of his tests, Campbell arrived at the following model of TC (Campbell 1991: 339), which consists of: 1) Disposition – attitudes and psychological qualities that the translator brings to the task. 40
Disposition moves along two axes: risk-taking vs prudent and persistent vs capitulating 2) Proficiency: has to do with certain special bilingual skills, and has a developmental dimension. Proficiency consists of three aspects: lexical coding of meaning, global target language competence and lexical transfer. An important aspect that needs to be emphasized in relation to TC models is the attitudinal and psychological element. Meaning that respective sub-competences and the extent to which they manifest are to a certain extent influenced by the psychological make-up of translators or trainees. Campbell`s rather general take on TC is further significant, because it attempts to relate translation products to the processes that play role in their creation. Generally speaking, there are two routes that emerge in connection with building and testing models of translation competence. The first one is product oriented, which means that respective competencies are manifested in the target text and that by describing the translation product, competences that played a role in its inception can be elicited from the target text. The second approach is process oriented. It aims to describe how respective competences manifest during translation. This approach derives its methodology from the field of psychology, namely from cognitive science, and uses tools like TAPs. Both routes converge in the following empirical model proposed by PACTE group.
3.3.2. PACTE group The present model of Translation competence does not focus solely on theoretical definitions of TC, but also on procedural aspects of translation. PACTE group has already devoted one decade to establishing an empirical model of TC and TC acquisition based on the presupposition that translation is a communicative activity 41
directed towards achieving certain aims, involving taking decisions and solving problems. Initial definition formulated by this group perceives TC as ―the underlying system of knowledge and skills needed to be able to translate‖ (Orozco 2002: 376). PACTE research is a longitudinal study and its results are being continuously presented since the inception of the group in 1997. The research universe consists of various texts and concerns groups of professional translators, language teachers and translation trainees. Examined languages are Spanish, Catalan, German, English and French; all correspond to the current market demands in the Catalan region. The research focuses on both translation product and translation process. PACTE`s model consists of a set of interrelated sub-competencies, which are interdependent, hierarchical and can compensate for one another. The main aim of this group is to validate their theories employing empirical tools. Similarities with the preceding models encompass some basic premises. For instance, that ―TC is qualitatively different from bilingual competence‖ (PACTE 2003: 59). PACTE`s model differs from previous approaches mainly due to the emphasis they put on procedural aspect, regarding TC as ―expert knowledge in which procedural knowledge is predominant‖ (PACTE 2003: 59). All the sub-competencies defined in their model are able to regroup based on the nature of translation task (directionality, language combination, subject matter) and on the nature of the translator (specialisation or experience). Therefore TC acquisition means restructuring of respective sub-competences. It is a continuum of evolution from novice to expert knowledge, based predominantly on the development of procedural knowledge and strategic sub-competence. Sub-competences from PACTE model are observable in translation products, with the exception of the two most important ones, namely strategic and transfer sub-competence. Because the model had to be tested, it
42
underwent an evolution from a purely theoretical concept towards an empirically validated construct. Initially, PACTE model looked like this (Orozco; Schäffner 2000: 200):
Figure 2. PACTE`s model of TC Respective sub-competencies were defined in the following manner 9: 1) Transfer competence: central competence, which integrates all the others. It is the ability to complete the transfer process from the source text to the target text, taking into account translation`s function and the characteristics of the receptor.
9
Since the initial model has changed, definitions of sub-competences are somewhat condensed; for full definitions, see (Orozco in Schäffner 2000: 199-201)
43
2) Communicative competence: in two languages, the system of underlying knowledge and skills necessary for linguistic communication. For translators, this competence should be separated into understanding in the SL and production in the TL. 3) Extra- linguistic competence: is composed of general world knowledge and specialist knowledge. It includes knowledge about translation, bicultural, encyclopaedic and subject knowledge 4) Instrumental-professional competence: knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession 5) Psycho-physiological competence: ability to use all kinds of psychomotor, cognitive and attitudinal resources. 6) Strategic competence: all the individual procedures used to solve the problems found during the translation process. Transfer competence is the core of this model and it integrates all the other competences. It is defined as ―the ability to complete the transfer process from the source text (ST) to the target text (TT), taking into account the translation`s function and the characteristics of the receptor‖ (Orozco; Schäffner 2000: 199). The transfer competence itself is further divided into several parts: comprehension competence (ability to synthesise and activate extra-linguistic knowledge and thus capture the sense of the text), ability to deverbalize and to maintain the SL and the TL in separate compartments, reexpression competence – textual organisation and creativity in TL and competence in carrying out the translation project – choice of the most adequate method. Many of the preceding models of TC were purely theoretical or based on subjective experiences drawn from translation and translation teaching practice, therefore PACTE 44
group devised several tools to validate their model empirically, mostly various kinds of questionnaires that were tested prior being used to validate the model. In their research on TC acquisition PACTE group measures translation problems, translation errors and student`s notions about translation. There`s the following difference between translation problems and translation errors. Translation problem is a problem found in the ST, which a translator has to solve, irrespective of his expertise. Solutions of translation problems demonstrate translator`s competence; translation error on the other hand ―…is usually a translation problem which has not been solved or has not been appropriately solved‖ (Orozco; Schäffner 2000: 205). Both phenomena are perceived as indicators of TC within PACTE`s theoretical framework. Under the influence of results emerging from evaluating TC and TC acquisition the model changed in time; it was restructured as it gradually incorporated findings of empirical tests. Based on new research tools and the re-validation of respective subcompetencies, the model later developed into the following construct (PACTE 2005: 610):
Figure 3. PACTE`s model of TC 45
And the description of respective sub-competences developed simultaneously with the model (PACTE 2003: 58-59):
1) Bilingual sub-competence: predominantly procedural knowledge needed to communicate in two languages. It includes the specific feature of interference control when alternating between the two languages. It is made up of pragmatic, socio linguistic, textual, grammatical and lexical knowledge in the two languages. 2) Extra-linguistic sub-competence: predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about the world in general and special areas. It includes: bicultural knowledge (about the source and target cultures), encyclopaedic knowledge (about the world in general) and subject knowledge (in special areas) 3) Knowledge about translation sub-competence: predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about what translation is and aspects of the profession. It includes: knowledge about how translation functions and knowledge related to professional translation practice. 4) Instrumental sub-competence: predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technologies applied to translation: dictionaries, encyclopaedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic, corpora, searchers, etc. 5) Strategic sub-competence: procedural knowledge to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process and solve the problems encountered. This is an essential sub-competence that affects all the others and causes inter-relations amongst them because it controls the translation process. 6) Psycho-physiological components: different types of cognitive and attitudinal components
and
psycho-motor
mechanisms. 46
They
include:
cognitive
components (memory, perception, attention and emotion), attitudinal aspects (intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigour, critical spirit...), abilities such as creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis, etc. PACTE arrives at the conclusion that TC is ―made up of a set of sub-competencies that are inter-related and hierarchic, with the strategic sub-competence occupying a dominant position‖ (PACTE 2003: 60). From PACTE`s perspective TC is predominantly a procedural phenomenon with three process oriented sub-competences and two declarative sub-competences. Furthermore, perhaps due to the process oriented approach, all sub-competences are influenced and complemented by psychophysiological components. Both Campbell and PACTE are significant, because they explicitly include psycho-physiological attributes into their models. 3.4. EU Model (EMT) The last model introduced in this chapter can be perceived as another large scale attempt to define or ―standardise‖ TC. It represents marriage of elements taken from translation training and professional practice and follows the rationale that competences established in theoretical models (including curricula based on these models) and applied in an academic environment, have to be relatable to the professional experience or requirements of the professional market. The latest initiative of European Union in this respect is called European Master`s in Translation (EMT). It is a project in which European commission and Directorate-General for Translation (DGT) together with European universities strive ―to establish a quality label for university translation programs at master‘s level that meet agreed standards in education‖ (EMT FAQ 2010: 1). In order to achieve this objective, EMT expert group designed a basic framework with the minimum set of six competencies. The proposed model looks like this (EMT 2009:4-7): 47
Figure 4. EMT model of TC
Respective sub-competences are: 1) Translation service provision competencies: how to market services, negotiate with a client, manage time and budget, or handle invoicing... 2) Language competence: how to summarize texts... 3) Intercultural competence: how to understand presuppositions or allusions... 4) Information mining competence: how to search terminology databases and familiarity with a series of databases 5) Technological competence: how to use a particular translation tool and 6) Thematic competence: knowledge about a specialist field Translation service provision is further divided into interpersonal and production dimension; intercultural competence consists of sociolinguistic and textual dimension.
48
All these competencies are interdependent — there is no hierarchical order introduced into the model — and together, they form Translation Competence as such; hence ―mastery of the six areas of competence leads to mastery of a transversal ‗supercompetence’ which can be termed competence in translation‖(EMT FAQ 2010: 3). The common problem in establishing TC models in general (and the PACTE or EMT model in particular) is that the more authoritative and specific the construct strives to be, the more sub-competences and sub-sub-segments it needs to encompass. As was already stated in the introduction to this chapter, EMT presents nearly four dozen skills within its six sub-competences. In conclusion, there are several general observations that emerged as a result of comparing translation competence models and theories in preceding lines. TC is a valuable concept that is applicable in many areas; it can serve as a basis for designing curricula, it can allow for comparison between expert and novice translators, it can be used as a framework for evaluation of translation products, whether in education or in professional environment. Models of TC present different perspectives that various researches and scholars coming from different backgrounds adopted towards this concept. Basic three denominators that are common to most of these definitions are culture, language and transfer; procedural perspectives on TC introduce strategies and psychological elements into the equation. Whether based on cognitive, procedural or educational background, TC models serve predominantly to raise awareness of certain issues within translation. If a particular model is to be used in practice (either university or professional environment), it has to be vague/general enough to be applicable on many different situations, text types or languages; on the other hand it needs to be specific enough, so that both evaluator and evaluated can use it to identify respective sub-competencies. When applying the concept to academic environment, I do not think,
49
that any ―universally accepted‖ model of TC is needed. Of course, there are attempts at standardizing TC, yet most of the examples of componential models listed in the theoretical section are in many respects similar. Thus teachers can chose from these models at their will. However, if the teacher/school decides in favour of a particular model, it is important to implement it consistently in devising the curriculum and subsequently in translation classes. The benefits of such concept are not restricted to the implementation of TC models into translation programmes and the evaluation of TTs. The model should predominantly serve to make the student aware of the stage (or the development) of his/her competence/s. Since TC development is an open ended process and there is no finite goal to arrive at (even the expert is still learning), the trainee needs to become not only competent enough, but s/he has to become an expert on the particular configuration of competences which manifest in his/her work generally and in a given text-in-situation in particular. In other words, employing a TC model within translation training should serve to make the trainee aware of his/her particular strengths or weaknesses and provide him/her with the means to develop the first and compensate for the latter.
50
4. Modelling TC In the light of theoretical considerations and their practical implications introduced so far, I have proposed my own model of TC. This construct was based on a single specific theory chosen from the examples listed in previous two chapters; however, it incorporates the basic features common to the majority of definitions already presented. The model has been applied to compare or contrast fifteen target texts from the perspective of translation competence
4.1. Research proposal The following part of the thesis will compare target texts produced by 14 translation trainees within a translation course oriented on developing translation skills to a single target text produced by a student of psychology, who is presumably more proficient in the field from which the original source text emerged. The primary materials for analysis are products of L1 translation (English to Czech) from a non literary source text concerning the field of psychology. The target texts will be compared in terms of representing translation products of university students. All 15 students will be divided into two groups: TransT group (translation trainees) and one PT (psychology trainee). The aim of the proposed analysis is to compare and contrast these two groups (or rather one group and a single individual) with each other and describe or categorize differences or common features resulting from such comparison. The evaluation itself will be based predominantly on error analysis; the errors will be further related to translation competence/s. The underlying idea here is that previous education of translation trainees allows them to compensate for their (at best) general knowledge of the specific subject they are
51
dealing with and that the TransT group has more developed competences pertaining to language. On the other hand, the psychology student presumably possesses expert knowledge of the subject (at least in comparison with TransT group), yet that alone does not guarantee a ―valid‖ target text and can sometimes lead to semantic misinterpretations. Thus the main objective is to find differences and similarities within these two groups (TranstT vs PT) and relate them to the concept of translation competence. Two unsurprising hypotheses are presented in the context of comparison between PT and the TransT group: H1: The competence/s pertaining to language and language mediation are more developed in the TransT group. H2: PT is more competent with regards to the subject matter presented in the source text. Both hypotheses are formulated in general terms; however, they pertain only to phenomena found in the solutions concerning one particular ST. A model of translation competence will be used in order to test these basic hypotheses. Yet, in the view of the sheer variety of TC definitions and TC constructs that are currently available in and outside the scope of translation studies, a new model will be proposed and added to the universe of theories within the TS. This model may be formulated in general terms; however it is based purely on the one particular text-in-situation that was instrumental in the production of analyzed target texts. Various theoretical considerations presented in previous chapters were taken into account when proposing a model of TC that will pertain to the particular text in situation. The core of this model is based upon Pym`s minimalistic TC definition and 52
upon the conceptual framework surrounding his construct. Pym`s theories will be further explained. However, before proceeding to the TC model and the theoretical framework surrounding it, the particular text-in situation, has to be introduced, because it presented an initial impulse in creating the TC model. 4.2. Text in situation In her book Text Analysis in Translation Christiane Nord establishes 76 questions10 translators should ask when analyzing their source texts. Yet she also introduces three basic categories that relate the text to the world and vice versa. These are: a) Temporal and spatial dimension of the situation, b) Culture-specific features of the situation, c) Relationship between situation and communicative function of the text (Nord 2005: 4142). Following description of the ST (situation) will concern all three of the abovementioned categories. Full title of the article translated by both TransT group and PT is The open dialogue approach to acute psychosis: its poetics and micropolitics (further referred to as The Open Dialogue or OD). The Open Dialogue is an example of a scientific text, describing a specific kind of approach to psychiatric care, its methodology and its connection to the institutional practices in Scandinavia. Subject matter is built upon a particular cultural context - namely Finnish/Norse approach to psychiatric care. The article was originally published in a journal called Family Process in the year 2003 (Vol. 42, No. 3, 2003). The Open Dialogue article has two authors, Jaakko Seikkula and Mary E. Olson, who are presenting their research in a rather unconventional and innovative method that emerged in the area of psychiatric care11. Jaako Seikkula works in Norway and Finland. Mary E. Olson is an American, who was a member of a Finnish research fellowship, where she and her colleague conducted the research in preparation 10 11
Pym has counted them. at least it has been unconventional 7 years ago
53
for this article (The Open Dialogue 2003: 403-418). The channel used in this case is writing (to be read), medium is a scientific journal. The time of publishing of ST was 2003 and time of translation was 2010. Translation assignment differed between the two groups in the respect that TransT group translated only three excerpts of the ST, whereas PT had to translate the whole article (analysis will compare only parts of PT`s TT, which correspond to the segments translated by TransT group). The analysis of target texts in both groups therefore concerns only the following parts of the ST: Abstract and two segments called Tolerance of Uncertainty and Dialogism that can be found in the body of the text. Both groups translated the ST as a final assignment within a translation course. PT had to translate the whole article, TransT group worked only on three segments chosen from the ST. Before approaching the analysis of respective TTs emerging from the ST described above, a model of translation competence will be proposed in the following subchapter. 4.3. Theoretical considerations Every evaluation of translation products has to be based on a clearly formulated theoretical framework. Pym puts forward a theory that is built upon distinctions between binary and non-binary errors. At first, a minimalistic definition of translation competence is proposed, describing TC as a binary concept consisting of: 1) The ability to generate a target-text series of more than one viable term (target text1, target text2....target textn) for a source text. 2) The ability to select only one target text from this series, quickly and with justified confidence, and to propose this target text as a replacement of source text for a specified purpose and reader (Pym; Dollerup 1992: 281).
54
Despite its minimalism, Pym`s take on TC went through an evolution of its own and one year later emerged as: 1) The ability to generate a series of more than one viable target text (TT1, TT2...TTn) for a pertinent source text (ST); 2) The ability to select only one viable TT from this series, quickly and with justified confidence. (Pym 2003: 489) Such binary definition is unique in the respect that a combination of these two abilities constitutes TC and pertains only to translation ―...and nothing but translation‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1991: 281). This model of translation competence is a basis for Pym`s definition of translation error, which he describes as ―…a manifestation of a defect in any of the factors entering into above skills.‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1992: 281). However, errors can be made at various levels of the text and even concern several levels at once. Thus Pym decided to opt for simplicity once again and introduce a classification, which consists in distinguishing between binary and non-binary errors. Binary errors presuppose a distinction of right and wrong and they can be spotted or corrected quite quickly. Non-binary errors, on the other hand encompass more possibilities of picking a viable or a less viable option and correction of this type of errors leads to further discussion. Therefore Pym concludes that ―although all translational errors are nonbinary by definition (my definition), this does not mean that all non-binary errors are necessarily translational‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1992:283). Both models of TC described above and combined with Pym`s twofold categorization of errors lead to an understanding of translation teaching as a process that converts non-binary translation errors into translational knowledge. Yet there is no authoritative framework that
55
categorizes these kinds of errors and proposes which of the non-binary solutions are more (or less) acceptable. ―Thus, correction on the non-binary level cannot be authoritative, but must instead be based on the principles of discussion and negotiation...‖ ( Pym; Dollerup 1992: 286). 4.3.1. Modelling TC The following model of TC was defined based on the previous theoretical considerations and on the particular ST the trainees had to work with.
Linguistic competence L1.....L2 Cultural competence C1 - Ca,Cb...Cy Translation competence Transfer/Theory
Tools competence
World/subject competence 1world...n subjects
Research competence
Figure 5. A new model of TC
1) Core Translation competence: is twofold and includes both practice and theory. Its integral part is formed by Pym`s definition of TC. However this core competence is not restricted to the transfer operation only; it includes a theoretical component, which can influence transfer operations, as we will see in 56
the following analysis of TTs. Core translation competence is central to the model, it integrates and activates all the other sub-competencies, it mediates between them and in case of need can compensate for all of them (only to a certain extent). 2) Linguistic competence: represents the competence in two languages – L1 and L2 (in our particular case, L2 is English and L1 is Czech). Aside from the previous basic prerequisite, this category encompasses the knowledge of textual and discursive aspects of both languages. Such understanding is perceived as a latter developmental stage in acquiring linguistic competence. 3) World/Subject competence – this binary competence reflects the fact that most (non-literary) texts pertain to a single world; however they might concern several subjects. In the current case, subject competence refers to the field of psychology. 4) Research competence – the ability to gather complementary materials and use research tools that will help trainees to deal with the translation task and adequately solve translation problems. 5) Tools competence – the ability to use various tools that will help trainees facilitate translation tasks. These tools range from the very basic ones, like word processor to translation memories or CAT tools. Since the current analysis is focused purely on translation product and does not concern translation process, the only item evaluated in relation to tools competence will be the ability to use (various features of) the word processor. 6) Cultural competence – the knowledge of the cultural background(s) pertaining to given text-in situation. For instance, despite being written in English, a source text can refer to cultures that are not strictly Anglo-American (this particular
57
case concerns the intricacies of Finnish or Norse health and social care system). In this context, cultural competence predominantly represents an awareness that every text emerges from a particular cultural background. Such awareness might help trainees to mediate the message more effectively and adequately. This flower-like construct grows out of and rests on the pad of individual psychophysiological make-up of the translator. Its components do not regroup or change their position; instead they work as a system that activates its respective parts according to the problem at hand and the situation surrounding it. The links between respective subcompetences emerge and are fostered with experience and with further theoretical input. Core translation competence serves as an integrating factor that connects all the other sub-competences and activates them according to the nature of the translation task.
58
5. Comparing TC
Before approaching the analysis itself, several points about the TTs and their evaluation have to be made. Translation solutions of both groups were assessed by a single evaluator, who divided errors in the text into five categories paraphrased in the following list: a) Mostly grammatical or punctuation errors related to Czech language (L1) b) TL related stylistic shifts or errors c) Problematic semantic shifts d) Errors and shifts related to FSP and word order e) Blatant Semantic shifts or errors that upset or go against the meaning of the message/text There was one ―positive‖ category added to the evaluation, which praised exceptionally ―nice‖ solutions. This assessment and its error typology represented a starting point for the current analysis. The initial evaluation is further illustrated by following email: ―The assessment is a functional evaluation of the assigned translation, i.e. it reflects especially to which extent your translation did justice to the type and function of the text - how truthfully and without misrepresentations you described the treatment method being presented. Other issues (smaller shifts of meaning, correct (up to a certain extent) and smoothly flowing Czech etc.) were regarded as of minor importance.‖ (Kamenická, Cultivating translation skills,. post-evaluation email) The present evaluation of trainee translations will combine Pym`s minimalistic definition of TC and translation errors with my own initial model of TC that manifests 59
in student translations. In order to preserve anonymity, each trainee from the TransT group was assigned a name taken from the novel Great Expectations by Charles Dickens.12 5.1. Binary errors Despite the fact Pym`s definition regards them as inherently non-translational, they tend to appear in (student) translations quite often; in fact, I would argue that most of the typos and grammatical mistakes fall into the category of binary errors. Therefore, binary errors have been counted for every student and for the group as a whole and were compared to the number of binary errors made by the PT. This kind of error often consisted of typos, missing/ redundant punctuation, misspellings of proper names etc. Analysis of this type of error will initially concern the whole group of trainees, then present some singular cases, compare the TransT group to one PT and specify binary errors that were linked to the TC model proposed at the beginning of this chapter. The last stage of analysis will ascertain whether there were some places in the ST that ―induced‖ binary errors. For purposes of this analysis, errors were further distinguished into error tokens (number of errors) and error types (kinds of errors). There were 143 binary errors found in the whole group. These error tokens were then divided into error types. The number of error types was counted per 1 TT of a particular trainee. Although some of the error types were distributed among the whole group, other error types emerged only in one or two solutions. Quantitatively, these results confirm the initial hypothesis that PT will be found lacking in the sub-competence related to language (at least in comparison with TransT group). The range of error tokens (number of errors) within TransT group moves from 0 to 19 tokens per 1 target text, whereas PT exhibited 25 error tokens in his/her TT. 12
The gender of a given character might not correspond with the gender of a given trainee.
60
Tab. 3. Table of binary/grammatical errors Trainee
Error types
Error tokens
(kinds of errors)
(number of errors)
Miss Skiffins
2
3
Compeyson
7
15
Bentley Drummle
6
11
Wemmick
3
5
Gargery
0
0
Magwitch
2
3
Molly
3
6
Estella
5
7
Pip
4
8
Startop
1
3
Mrs. Joe
8
16
Jaggers
10
19
Biddy
5
14
Miss Havisham
6
8
TransT group
-
118
PT
4
25
TransT + PT
-
143
From a qualitative perspective, the results offer a slightly different view. It is interesting, that in the case of PT, there were only four error types13 present, distributed into 25 error tokens; three error tokens had to do with missing space between numbers and percentage (35% instead of 35 %), one was a misspelled word, one was an inadequate transcription of a proper name. Remaining twenty cases constituted 13
as manifested in a single TT of a particular trainee…
61
consistent use of English quotation marks (―‖) instead of Czech ones („―). Numbers for binary error types made in respective TTs are listed in the second line. For example, Startop made three errors of a single error type (missing/redundant punctuation), Molly made 6 errors distributed among three types: 2 typos, 1 capital where there should be a small letter, and three missing/redundant commas. On the other hand, Jaggers exhibited 19 errors distributed among 10 error types; however, 8 of these 19 error tokens fell into one type (missing/redundant punctuation). In this context, trainee Gargery should be praised, because s/he did not make a single binary error. I did not count the number for various error types for the whole group, because some of them are common to most of the students and others are exhibited only in one or two solutions (e.g. PT`s use of English commas). The range of error types within TransT group moved from 0 to 10 (with the average of 4.42 error types per 1 translation). Thus, qualitatively speaking, PT`s count of 4 error types places him/her as average or slightly above average within the scale of error types manifested by the TransT group. Moreover, from the total of 143 errors, 40 belong to one particular kind, which is missing/redundant punctuation (mostly commas); that accounts for 27.9% of all the binary errors. There are two interesting points to make with regards to the comparison between TransT group and the PT: 1. PT did not make any mistakes in punctuation – thus the percentage of punctuation errors is higher taken for the TransT group alone (33.8%) 2. Using English quotation marks instead of Czech ones was a singular kind of error manifesting only in the PT`s target text (although s/he did use Czech quotation marks within the title of the translation!) To further ascertain the nature of binary errors, these were related to respective subcompetencies from the TC model.
62
Linguistic
Cultural
Tools
Research
World
subject
3
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
Compeyson
15
0
15
0
5
0
0
0
Bentley Drummle
11
0
11
0
2
0
0
0
Wemmick
5
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
Gargery
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Magwitch
3
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
Molly
6
0
6
0
1
0
0
0
Estella
7
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
Pip
8
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
Startop
3
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
Mrs. Joe
16
6
16
0
1
7
7
7
Jaggers
19
0
19
0
2
0
2
3
Biddy
14
2
14
0
0
3
3
3
Miss Havisham
8
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
TransT group
118
8
118
0
14
10
12
13
PT
25
0
25
0
21
0
0
0
143
8
143
0
35
10
12
13
Trainee
TransT PT
+
tokens
Miss Skiffins
Error
Translation
Tab. 4. Binary errors related to respective sub-competencies
63
Although Pym`s definition states that all the binary errors are by their virtue nontranslational, there are 8 instances of translational error to be seen in the table. These could in fact be arguable cases, because most of them concern transcription – or rather lack thereof – of foreign proper names into the Czech system; namely Bateson and Bakhtin. The issue becomes clearer when presenting a sentence from the ST that refers to the theoretical background from which the Open dialogue approach emerges: ―It draws on Bakhtin's diaiogical principies (Bakhtin, 1984) and is rooted in a Batesonian tradition.‖ (OD, 403) Používá Bachtinovy dialogické principy (Bachtin, 1984) a vychází z batesonovské tradice. (Pip) Čerpá z Bakhtinových principů dialogu (Bakhtin, 1984) a jeho původ lze nalézt v Batesoniánské tradici. (Mrs. Joe) Under the ST sentence two solutions within the TransT group are presented. The first one by Pip contained no errors, while the second one by Mrs. Joe will be further commented on. The guideline set by the teacher was that all proper names should be translated in the text, but they can be left in their original form in citation brackets. Trainees that made consistently errors with respect to transcription of proper names mentioned in the source sentence (and further on in the ST) were Biddy, and Mrs. Joe. Biddy did not transcribe Bakhtin into the Czech system on three occasions, one of them included citation in the brackets; therefore only two instances were counted as errors concerning translation sub-competence. Mrs. Joe did not transcribe Bakhtin on five occasions (on two of those, she used the Czenglish14 equivalent Bakhtiniánské) and there was one instance of using another Czenglish equivalent Batesoniánské. Because both Mrs. Joe and Biddy exhibited a certain consistency in rendering less acceptable solutions concerning transcription/translation of proper names, their errors were listed under research and world/subject competencies as well. Although several 14
A term coined by Don Sparling
64
other trainees experienced similar difficulties with transcription, it was to a much lesser extent than in the case of Biddy or Mrs. Joe. This is the first instance that shows how much context dependent translation is and how this fact influences even such (at a first glance) straightforward concept as binary error. There is one more trainee that deserves attention; namely Compeyson. S/he consistently exhibited a type of error which can be dubbed ―spell-check blindness‖. It is related to the tools sub-competence on a very basic level and it occurs in cases where a typo or incorrect transcription is introduced into a foreign (sounding) word and later overlooked in the revision stage (if there indeed is one). This kind of error is caused by relying too much on the spell-check option offered by today`s word processors (or maybe caused by distrusting such option). Connection of such error with tools competence is following; the trainee does not check underlined words for errors based on the assumption that a particular word is underlined because given word processor does not have it in its vocabulary, thus possible misspellings are overlooked (tolarence, instead of tolerance or Jaako Seixkula instead of Seikkula). This kind of error was not very common in the group as a whole and it can be easily remedied in the revision stage. Included in this analysis was an attempt to ascertain if there were any parts of the text that ―induced‖ a certain type of error. With regards to binary errors, there were two areas in the ST where at least 4 people provided less acceptable solutions in a similar place, and of a similar nature. The first place where several errors converged was right at the beginning of the abstract and concerned the sentence:‖It [the method] draws on Bakhtin's dialogical principles (Bakhtin, 1984) and is rooted in a Batesonian tradition.‖ (OD, 403) Most of the errors ―induced‖ by this sentence involved transcription of names Bakhtin and Batesonian into the Czech system. If certain errors were introduced in this sentence, they were usually repeated further on in the text, whenever a given 65
proper name appeared (see Mrs. Joe or Biddy). When comparing the PT and TransT group in this respect, if a translation trainee used a certain option (either acceptable or unacceptable) s/he applied it consistently throughout the whole text, whereas the PT transcribed first Bakhtin as Bachtin, but left the name in citation brackets in its original form. The second area prone to binary errors can be found in the segment Tolerance of Uncertainty and concerns this sentence: ―As part of this approach, the question that a crisis poses "what shall we do?"(OD, 408) is kept open until the collective dialogue itself produces a response or dissolves the need for action.‖ There were mainly logical or punctuation errors including two cases of small letter where there should be a capital one (this error type concerns the question embedded within the aforementioned sentence; see Miss Havisham and Mrs. Joe for further reference). In conclusion, the only sub-competence that can be related to all binary errors unanimously is the Linguistic competence. However, PT and at least eight members of the TransT group exhibited errors that can be linked to other three sub-competencies, namely tools, research and world/subject sub-competencies. The error types pertaining to tools competence were mainly of typographical nature. An interesting case in this respect was PT, because her/his 20 error tokens within this sub-competence belong to a single type (English quotation marks in a Czech text). Those error tokens were listed under tools sub-competence, because PT did employ Czech quotation marks in the title of his/her TT, however, within the body of the text s/he consistently opted for English usage. Binary errors related to research and world/subject sub-competences were connected purely to transcription of proper names (as exemplified by Biddy and Mrs. Joe). The last table of this section shows average values of error tokens for the TransT group compared to the number of binary errors made by the PT.
66
Cultural
Tools
Research
World
Subject
PT group
Linguistic
TransT
Translation
Error tokens
Tab. 5. Average values of error tokens for binary errors.
8.43
0.57
8.43
0
1
0.71
0.86
0.93
25
0
25
0
21
0
0
0
Thus the quantitative analysis of binary errors occurring within The Open Dialogue translations confirmed both initial hypotheses: 1. Linguistic sub-competence is more developed in the TransT group (an average of 8.4 binary error tokens per one trainee compared with 25 binary error tokens found in PTs translation) 2. The analysis of binary errors indicates that PT has more developed world/subject sub-competence error tokens compared to the average of 0.9 error tokens per one TransT student) However, qualitative analysis of binary errors (or number of error types) presents PT as average or slightly above average in comparison with the TransT group. Furthermore, qualitative analysis contrasts two error types specific for each group, namely missing/redundant punctuation (TransT group) and quotation marks localisation (PT). From this perspective, results of the analysis, with respect to both hypotheses presented above are less conclusive.
67
5.2. Non-binary errors The category of non-binary errors is somewhat less straightforward than the previous one. Pym states that ―...for non-binarism there are at least two right answers and then the wrong ones.‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1992: 282).This introduces a whole new dimension of difficulties with regards to the analysis of TTs. There were 534 ―instances‖ of nonbinary error counted for all of the trainees; 478 for the TransT group and 56 for PT. All these errors fell under the linguistic sub-competence, because text understanding and (re)production corresponds to the linguistic category defined in the initial model. Yet, ―Although all translational errors are non-binary by definition (my definition), this does not mean that all non-binary errors are necessarily translational‖ (Pym; Dollerup 1992: 283). This consideration is reflected in translation sub-competence, where the number of errors for all the trainees is 523; TransT group with 469 and PT with 54 instances of non-binary error. The ―instances‖ of non-binary errors ranged from a single character, over several words to several sentences. A single instance of non-binary error could fall into several sub-competencies at once. Furthermore, if two trainees introduced a similar (or even the same) non-binary error pertaining to a single corresponding place of the ST, each of those errors could fall into quite different categories within the scope of the Translation Competence model. This is mainly because translation is extremely contextdependent and the same expression used by both trainee X and trainee Y can be counted under cultural sub-competence in the first case, but not in the second one, because trainee Y might have compensated for the cultural factor of her/his particular error further on in the text.
68
Tab. 6. Table of non-binary errors related to respective sub-competences
Miss Skiffins Compeyson Bentley Drummle Wemmick Gargery Magwitch Molly Estella Pip Startop Mrs. Joe Jaggers Biddy Miss Havisham TransT group PT TransT + PT
subject
World
Research
Tools
Cultural
Linguistic
Translation
Trainee
19
19
0
0
0
3
10
35
36
3
0
4
4
14
44
46
3
0
4
3
13
36
37
2
0
2
4
10
41
41
0
0
0
0
3
24
25
1
0
1
1
3
11
12
1
0
1
1
2
42
42
0
0
11
12
11
27
27
1
0
1
1
1
30
31
3
0
3
3
9
38
39
4
0
4
4
12
54
55
5
0
3
4
12
28
28
1
0
2
1
6
40
40
1
0
1
1
5
469
478
25
0
37
42
111
54
56
3
0
5
6
10
523
534
28
0
42
48
121
69
This discrepancy is best illustrated by another instance of issues with proper names. Although the preoccupation with proper names within the scope of this thesis might seem rather monothematic, these particular errors were chosen only as an example; they serve to illustrate the influence of various factors that might converge in a single ST and the issues trainees had to deal with while working on this particular task. Proper names represent a fairly straightforward phenomenon where the number of non-binary solutions (both satisfactory and less satisfactory) is more limited than in other instances of non-binary errors (where the difference between an acceptable or less acceptable solution lies in much finer and more numerous stylistic or semantic nuances). The first type of error, trainees made in this area is the ―–ová issue‖. This error type is bound to the fact that in Czech language female surnames tend to have a suffix ―-ová‖ so that it is easy to discern male from female simply by looking at one`s surname. ―English does not have a grammatical category of gender as such; English nouns are not regularly inflected to distinguish between feminine and masculine‖ (Baker 1992: 90), which, in this text, pertains to the category of surnames as well. However, although the language of the ST is English, proper names referred to in the translated excerpt are from all around Europe: German, Finnish, French or Norse. In case of the following sentence: ―Finally, tolerance of uncertainty is different from, although reminiscent of, the "not-knowing" position proposed by Anderson and Goolishian (1992).‖(OD, 408), where the first scientist is a female, 6 trainees out of the whole group did (or rather did not) translate her name as Anderson (instead of Andersonová). Thus the reader of TT excerpts could be misled into thinking that both scientists were male. One of the solutions changed the name into Andersen (which was counted as a typo under binary errors). This particular kind of error should be further ascribed to cultural, research and world/subject sub-competences. The –ová issue pertains to research sub-competence, 70
because there were several (3) Andersons cited in the course of the article and only one of them was female. Therefore trainees that did not translate the name could have done so simply because they have researched the ―wrong‖ Anderson (or failed to do the research at all). Furthermore, the ―-ová‖ issue is a cultural phenomenon, which pertains to both world and subject competence. The comparison between PT and TransT group offers another interesting nuance. While PT was among the trainees who did not translate Anderson`s name, s/he did put it into citation brackets (unlike everybody else in the TransT group), thus her particular error was not counted under translation subcompetence due to the guideline that names in citation brackets can be left in their original form. It will be interesting to compare this phenomenon with the second instance in the text, where translators faced ―-ová issue‖; however the female name in question was in brackets and formed a part of citation (see OD, 409). According to the evaluator it was permissible ―not to translate‖ the name in this case, because the reference can be looked up more quickly and easily if the name is left intact, however addition of the suffix –ová was not perceived as an error). Thus the basic guideline was: to add the suffix –ová, where necessary, although the name can be left in its original form in citation; yet, adding the suffix into the citation bracket is not considered a mistake. This is a place where several acceptable solutions were possible. With the exception of Estella, who consistently left out all the citation brackets in her TT, 5 people out of the whole group chose the Czech option Hoffmanová and 9 did opt for Hoffman. I wanted to know whether all 5 of them (Miss Havisham, Miss Skiffins, Gargery, Pip and Biddy) were among the 9 people who did not fail to add the suffix –ová in the previous instance and indeed, all of them chose the acceptable solution. The fact that they consistently
71
followed using the suffix -ová means, that they did their research (well) in this particular case. When comparing this issue between PT and TransT group, PT did not add the suffix ―ová‖ in both previously mentioned instances, however, in both cases, s/he put the name into citation brackets. Thus none of her solutions were included under the translation sub-competence errors. Within the TransT group, 5 trainees did not add the suffix –ová in Adnerson`s case and 8 trainees failed to do so in Hoffman`s case. Tab. 7. Table of solutions emerging in the ―–ová issue‖
Miss Skiffins Compeyson B. Drummle Wemmick Gargery Magwitch Molly Estella Pip Startop Mrs. Joe Jaggers Biddy Miss Havisham TransT group PT TransT + PT
I
Acceptability
I
I I
I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I 5 I 6
No citation
Hoffmanová
Hoffman
Andersonová
Anderson
Trainee
I I I I I 9
8 I 9
9
I I 5 5
1/1 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/0 1/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/1
1 1
1/1 10/14
The table above shows an overview of solutions concerning the Anderson/Hoffman issue. Interesting in this context were the three people (in bold type) who added the suffix ―-ová‖ in the first case, but not in the second one (Wemmick, Magwitch and 72
Molly). All of their solutions were technically acceptable, however what has caused this inconsistency can be only hypothesized. In addition, the table further illustrates how relative the concept of error is. What is deemed erroneous in one place of the text is perceived as an acceptable solution in another and the only difference might be placing the name in question into brackets. Moving away from proper names, the last illustrative issue concerning non-binary errors presented in the scope of this thesis can be found at the end of the following sentence: ―In a nonrandomized, 2-year follow up of first-episode schizophrenia, hospitalization decreased to approximately 19 days: neuroleptic medication was needed in 35% of cases: 82% had no, or only mild, psychotic symptoms remaining; and only 23% were on disability allowance‖ (OD, 403). The expression in question is ―disability allowance‖; its target equivalents pertain to cultural, research and world/subject subcompetence. Solutions found in respective target texts are listed in the following table (erroneous solutions are written in bold type). Trainee
TT
Miss Skiffins Compeyson B. Drummle Wemmick Gargery Magwitch Molly Estella
pobíralo podporu při invaliditě
Pip Startop Mrs. Joe Jaggers Biddy Miss Havisham PT
pobíralo dávky sociální péče. muselo zůstat na nemocenské. muselo zůstat na nemocenské. pobíralo invalidní důchod. bylo v invalidním důchodu poberalo invalidný dôchodok. bylo závislých na příspěvcích pro invalidy. bylo na nemocenské. muselo pobírat nemocenskou zůstalo invalidních. bylo v invalidním důchodu musí pobírat invalidní důchod. případů byla nutná nemocenská. bylo v pracovní neschopnosti. 73
In this particular case, nine students provided a less acceptable solution. Seven of those solutions (in bold type) affected semantic dimension of the message and the other two were counted as stylistic errors. Relating these TTs to the competence model was analogous in the respect that all the semantic errors in this particular instance were counted under research, cultural, and world/subject competence, whereas the stylistic errors were counted only under translation and linguistic competencies. Thus seven trainees have influenced meaning of the message in an undesirable way. Next table relates this particular issue to sub-competencies of the TC model. Tab. 8. Competences affected in TT solutions to the ―disability allowance‖ problem Translation TransT PT
9 0
Linguistic Cultural 9 0
7 0
Tools Research World subject 0 0
7 0
7 0
7 0
Further instances of non-binary errors and their relation to the TC model are to be found within the materials listed on a CD which is a supplement of this thesis. In conclusion, analysis of non-binary errors concerned primarily translation and linguistic sub-competences of my model. Quantitative results listed in the table below support the first hypothesis with regards to comparison of competences between TransT group and PT. In terms of cultural, research and world/subject competencies, the second hypothesis was not confirmed. The average value of error tokens per student within the TransT group is 1.7; PT made 3 errors that fell under cultural sub-competence, yet two of those three non-binary errors fell into the same error type (namely the –ová issue). Regarding research competence, the average was 2.65 token errors per TransT group and PT manifested 5 research related errors. The numbers related to World/subject competence were higher in PT`s case, thus in the scope of quantitative analysis pertaining to non-binary errors second hypothesis was not confirmed. 74
Tab. 9. Average values of error tokens for non-binary errors Translation Linguistic Cultural Tools Research World subject TransT (average) PT
33.5
34.14
1.79
0
2.64
3
7.93
54
56
3
0
5
6
10
5.3. Competent risk In the last stage of competence-related analysis, I would like to introduce further theoretical considerations emerging from Pym`s binary definition of TC. In one of his recent articles15, Pym introduces a model pertaining to ―how translators make decisions when translating.‖ (Pym 2010:1) He uses the theory of risk analysis and proposes it as a basis for assessing translations. His main argument is that textual elements which have a similar status in linguistic analysis might radically differ functionally. This principle is illustrated by the following example. When translating a birth certificate, it is more disastrous to make an error in the name of the person in question than in the name of the midwife. From the linguistic perspective, both errors concern proper names and both are evaluated similarly. However, from a perspective of functionality, error in the name of the midwife may be overlooked, while an error in name of the person in question can have serious consequences in real life. ―Although all the elements might look the same as parts of speech, they are by no means the same as potential functions‖ (Pym 2010:1). Thus, while defining risk as ―the possibility of not fulfilling the translation`s purpose‖ (Pym 2010:2), Pym divides textual elements into three categories: low-risk elements, high-risk elements and the ones that are in between. (Pym 2010:1). Furthermore, this distinction is context-dependent; the same expression that represents a high-risk problem at the beginning of the TT (or webpage) can be deemed low(er)-risk further in the text. Translators should therefore devote more effort and energy to tackling high15
From November 2010
75
risk elements and less effort to low-risk ones. If related to his previous distinction of errors into binary and non-binary; some non-binary problems may constitute a low-risk element, while other binary problems represent a high-risk element. Thus, Pym redefines the acceptability or unacceptability of solutions to these problems by correlating risk with effort. There can be low-effort solutions to high-risk problems and high-effort solutions to low-risk problems, while the ideal is quite the opposite, i.e. exerting effort in direct proportion to the ―risk factor‖ of various elements. Applying this theory to the particular ST and the solutions emerging from it; with respect to binary errors, not transcribing Bakhtin`s name into the Czech system might be a low(er)-risk solution than distorting or altering the message by using a comma in the ―wrong place‖ of the text. With respect to non-binary errors, in the case of ―-ová issue‖, the name Anderson might be deemed as a high(er)-risk problem, because it is in the body of the text, while Hoffman in comparison is a low(er)-risk problem, because she is in citation brackets. Analogously, the trainees should have put more effort into researching Anderson than her colleague Hoffman. Among other things, this can also explain the solutions by Wemmick, Magwitch and Molly, who put higher effort (i.e. research) into the ―Anderson problem‖ and less effort (no research) into Hoffman. Yet from the perspective of the whole text, the ―-ová issue‖ might be deemed a low-risk problem compared to a successful rendering of the expression ―disability allowance‖. The theory is clear and concise; yet, its application into practice poses several problems. For instance, there are various ―levels of magnification‖ at play. Presuming that the size and extent of a ―translation problem‖ is not limited, the whole abstract of The Open Dialogue can represent a high-risk problem. Making a blatant binary error in the segment may put the reader off and thus affect the functionality of the text, because s/he won‘t be motivated to get acquainted with the method (or the particular Czech TT
76
describing it). ―Translators must learn that the largely unseen and commonly misunderstood nature of their task means the small superficial details can involve high risks and must thus be accorded‖ (Pym 2010:8). Making a non-binary error concerning a high-risk element within the abstract itself might lead the reader to misinterpret what the following text is about. Employing Pym`s distinction of high/low risk solutions can be helpful in ascertaining qualitative aspects of errors. For instance, when applied within the category of binary errors, PT`s use of English quotation marks in her Czech target text will be a low risk solution compared to Biddy`s rendition of the introductory sentence of the abstract, in which s/he violated the agreement between subject and predicate. Concerning the category of non-binary errors, the fact that within his/her target text PT cited a quote by R.M. Rikle (see OD, 408) in English, before translating it into Czech is a high risk solution compared to various renderings of ―-ová‖ issue found in the TransT group. However, taken from the perspective of the source text, both issues can be perceived as solutions to low risk elements, compared to the problem of ―disability allowance‖(OD, 403), which constitutes a high(er) riks element. As was hinted above, the low-risk — high-risk distinction (or perhaps scale) can be applied within different perspectives and categories ad infinitum. If used in previous analysis, both categories of binary/nonbinary errors would have to be related to the ST element that ―induced‖ them and accordingly evaluated as high or low-risk solutions to high/low risk elements. In the last stage, effort may be correlated. Perhaps it is pushing the theory too far and perhaps the binary/non-binary distinction should be taken out of the hierarchy and errors divided simply into high-risk and low-risk solutions. The crux of the matter is that Pym proposes a different concept of error evaluation, which is not based purely on linguistic analysis. 77
6. Results (summary) Error count served as the base of the analysis, because it is one of the most frequently used methods to assess (the competence of) translators and translation trainees. The main area of interest was: what is an evaluator able to ascertain about TC based purely on a translation product, without any further information about the process employed, or without using feedback from the trainees. In order to ascertain how the errors found pertain to TC, a componential model of translation competence was constructed, based predominantly on the theories of Anthony Pym. The errors were divided in two categories and then related to respective sub-competencies from the model. The results are summarized below. There are two points to make, before approaching the final analysis; a) the model was described in general terms, yet it does not aspire to any ―universal‖ status, it was based purely on the particular ST analyzed and inspired by the definitions and constructs listed in the theoretical part of this thesis. It has fulfilled its function within the analysis and now can be discarded. b) The results are not meant to imply, that the trainees possess or lack a certain sub-competence in general. They illustrate, which competencies were manifested in translations of The Open Dialoge text. 1) Core translation competence There were 531 errors related to core translation competence found in the whole group of TTs: 523 non-binary and 8 binary. In the light of Pym`s claim that all binary errors are essentially non-translational, the 8 tokens of binary error listed under core translation competence can be counted as borderline cases. When comparing TransT group with the PT, 469 non-binary error tokens were found among 14 translation trainees; the PT exhibited 54 errors listed under core translation competence, which can be compared to the average of 33.5 non-binary error tokens per 1 trainee from the 78
TransT group. Error count has the following quality; the higher the number, the more affected given competence is. With respect to quantitative analysis ofcore TC, the hypothesis H1 regarding distinctions between TransT group and PT was confirmed. 2) Linguistic sub-competence Within the category of Linguistic sub-competence 677 errors were found in the whole group of TTs. This value serves as an absolute error count as well; all the binary errors were counted under linguistic sub-competence, because they were mainly grammatical or typographical, thus falling under the standard category of a ―linguistic error‖, all the non-binary tokens belong here as well, because definition of the TC model included discursive and textual elements in this sub-competence. There were 143 binary and 534 non-binary errors found in all target texts. When comparing PT and the TransT group: 118 binary errors (8.5 error tokens per trainee) were present in the TransT group compared to 25 error tokens found in PT`s solution. However, the 25 error tokens in PT`s case were distributed into 4 error types. An average value of error types within the TransT group was not counted, however the number of error types per one translation ranged from 0 (Gargery) to 10 (Jaggers). Non-binary errors were listed only as ―instances‖ (or error tokens). 478 errors were found within the TransT group; an average of 34.5 errors per 1 trainee compared to PT`s 56 non-binary errors. With respect to hypotheses presented in the research proposal, H1 was confirmed in relation with Linguistic sub-competence. 3) Cultural sub-competence There were only 28 errors pertaining to cultural sub-competence within the whole group. No binary errors were found in relation with this sub-competence; non-binary error count consisted of 25 token errors in the TransT group, which amounts to an average of 1.78 compared 3 errors in PT`s solution. This particular category exhibited 79
the smallest number of errors out of all the six sub-competences in the proposed TC model. 4) Tools sub-competence Only errors that can be related to the work with word editors and their features (namely spell-check option or switching between Czech and English keyboard) were counted under this sub-competence, therefore shortcomings pertaining to tools were exhibited predominantly within the category of binary errors. There were 35 errors found in all the TTs; 14 in the TransT group, accounting to an average of 1 error token per group, compared to 21 errors for the PT (distributed among 2 error types). There were 0 nonbinary errors found within this competence. 5) Research sub-competence There were 52 errors counted within this competence; 10 binary and 42 non-binary error tokens for the whole group. This sub-competence pertained predominantly to the nonbinary category; 10 binary error tokens within this category were shared by two TransT group students (Biddy and Mrs. Joe); these trainees have both exhibited certain consistency related to research of proper names. PT had 0 error count in the category of binary errors. With respect to non-binary errors PT had 5 error tokens compared to 37 cases listed under TransT group (an average of 2.64 errors per 1 trainee). 6) World/subject sub-competence There were over 130 errors found for the whole group within this competence; 12-13 binary and 121 non-binary error tokens. In order to validate hypothesis H2, the error count for World/subject sub-competence was divided. The binary error count was the same for both categories. Within non-binary errors, 48 instances pertained to world and 121 to the subject category in all the TTs. TransT group had 42 world/121 subject related errors, with the average of 3 world/7.93 subject tokens per 1 trainee; these 80
numbers can be compared with 6 world/10 subject related errors within PT`s solution. This means that quantitatively the hypothesis H2 was not confirmed. Table 10. Binary/non-binary errors found in both groups and divided according to the TC model Binary errors TransT (average) PT
Translation
Non-binary errors TransT (average) PT
Translation
Linguistic Cultural
Tools Research
World subject
0.57
8.43
0
1
0.71
0.86
0.93
0
25
0
21
0
0
0
Linguistic Cultural
Tools Research
World subject
33.5
34.14
1.79
0
2.64
3
7.93
54
56
3
0
5
6
10
7. Conclusion and suggestions for further research Present thesis examined the concept of translation competence. First part of the thesis presented theoretical framework surrounding this concept, further illustrated by several examples of its implementation in various environments. The next part was devoted to introduction of several models pertaining to translation competence. These models emerged from different backgrounds, and were formed while employing the principles of cognitive science, empirical research or experience in education. Some elements of the aforementioned theoretical background were used within the fourth chapter as a basis for constructing a new model of TC. This model later served as a reference for assessing translation competencies as manifested in 15 translations emerging from a single source text pertaining to the field of psychology. Authors of the target texts are 15 university students divided in two groups according to their field of study; the TransT group was formed by 14 translation trainees and compared to one psychology student (PT). Evaluation of translation competencies was based predominantly upon 81
error analysis combined with theories presented by Anthony Pym and later related to the proposed model of TC. Two hypotheses were proposed concerning the comparison between TransT group and PT; H1 was confirmed, while H2 remained unconfirmed. Results were summarized at the end of the previous chapter. The issue of defining, modeling, assessing or comparing translation competence/s is an interesting problem that presents many questions and opportunities for both theoretical and practical studies. In conclusion, there is a proposal for further research relating Pym`s theories that apply risk management strategies in translation, to the concept of TC in general and to error evaluation in particular.
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Acronyms used: H1, H2 — hypotheses formulated in terms of the research OD (or The Open Dialogue) — The Open Dialogue Approach to Acute Psychosis (ergo the ST — see below...) TC — translation competence TL/ SL — target language, source language TransT — the group of 14 translation trainees, authors of 14 TTs TT/ST — target text/source text PT — one psychology trainee, author of 1 TT
83
Resumé (English) Perhaps one of the most pertinent areas of research in translation studies nowadays concerns attempts to conceptualize and further develop theoretical and practical background for training of future translators. In this respect the notion of translation competence (TC) plays a prominent role. In general terms, TC is perceived as an underlying knowledge or ability needed to carry out a translation task. This thesis compares translation competence/s both in theory and in practice. First two chapters introduce several definitions of translation competence and present the theoretical background surrounding this concept. Chapter three lists various examples of TC models and presents the nature of research within this area of translation studies. In the fourth chapter, the theoretical background is used to establish a multi-componential model of translation competence. An assessment of 15 translations emerging from a single source text pertaining to the field of psychology is presented and related to the TC model, which was created specifically for this purpose. Authors of the target texts are fifteen university students divided in two groups according to their field of study. The TransT group is formed by fourteen translation trainees and compared to one psychology student (PT). Evaluation of translation competences is based predominantly upon error analysis combined with theories presented by Anthony Pym and later related to the proposed model of TC. The analysis is predominantly quantitative, although several qualitative aspects within error assessment are taken into consideration as well. The last chapter summarizes results of the analysis and offers a proposition for further research related to translation competence. Keywords: translation competence, TC definition, models of translation competence, error analysis, binary errors, non-binary errors, translation trainees, psychology
84
Resumé (Czech) Možná jednou z nejzajímavějších oblastí studia v rámci překladatelství jsou pokusy o upevnění a další rozvoj teoretických i praktických základů, na nichž spočívá vzdělávání budoucích
překladatelů.
V tomto
ohledu
hraje
nezanedbatelnou
roli
pojem
překladatelských kompetencí. V obecné rovině je tento pojem definován jako základní znalosti či schopnosti potřebné k překládání. Tato diplomová práce porovnává překladatelské kompetence zároveň v teoretické i praktické rovině. První dvě kapitoly představí několik definicí tohoto pojmu a nastíní teoretický rámec, který jej obklopuje. Kapitola třetí uvádí příklady modelů překladatelských kompetencí, jenž byly sestaveny na základě teoretických úvah, empirických výzkumů nebo zkušeností z pedagogické praxe. Ve čtvrté kapitole jsou pak základní elementy a rysy tohoto pojmu, které byly představeny v teoretické části, zkombinovány s vybranou definicí překladatelských kompetencí a společně zasazeny do nově vytvořeného modelu. Tento model následně slouží coby vodítko při analýze patnácti překladových řešení, vyhotovených na bázi jediného zdrojového textu z oblasti psychologie. Autory zmíněných překladů je patnáct vysokoškolských studentů, kteří byli rozděleni do dvou skupin. První skupina s názvem TransT (translation trainees) sestává ze studentů překladatelství, jediným členem druhé skupiny je student/ka psychologie PT (psychology trainee). Tyto skupiny jsou následně porovnávány na základě analýzy chyb, jichž se studenti dopustili ve svých překladových řešeních. Základem analýzy i modelu překladových kompetencí jsou teorie Antonyho Pyma. Analýza je převážně kvantitativní povahy, ačkoliv zahrnuje i některé kvalitativní elementy. Poslední kapitola uvádí závěrečné výsledky a nabízí podnět k dalším výzkumům v oblasti překladatelských kompetencí. Klíčové pojmy: překladové kompetence, definice TC, modely překladových kompetencí, analýza chyb, binární chyby, nebinární chyby, student překladatelství, psychologie 85
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DOLLERUP, Cay, and Anne LODDEGAARD, eds. Teaching Translation and Interpreting: Training, Talent and Experience. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1992. EMT group. "Competences for Professional Translators, Experts in Multilingual and Multimedia Communication."European Commission. N.p., 17 Mar. 2009. Web. 1 Nov. 2010. . EMT group, "European Master´s in Translation (EMT) FAQ.", European Commission. N.p., 27 Oct. 2010. Web. 1 Nov. 2010. . GÖPFEREICH, Susanne, and Riitta JÄÄSKELÄINEN. "Process research into the Development of Translation Competence: Where are We, and Where do We need to go." Across Languages and Cultures 10.2 (2009): 169-91. Web. 26 July 2010. . GUTT, Ernst-August. "Challenges of metarepresentation to translation competence." Cogprints.org. N.p., 13 Feb. 2009. Web. 27 July 2010. . HANSEN, Gyde. "Retrospection methods in translator training and translation research." Journal of specialised Translation 5 (2006). Web. 15 July 2010. . KAMENICKÁ, Renata. ―Subject: AJ69040 Cultivating Translation Skills‖. E-mail to the author. 30 Jan. 2010.
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KASTBERG, Peter. "Cultural Issues Facing the Technical Translator." Journal of Specialised Translation 8 (2007). Web. 19 Aug. 2010. . MALENA, Anne. "Kiraly, D. (2000): A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education; Empowerment from Theory to Practice, Manchester, UK & Northampton MA, St. Jerome Publishing, 207 p." Meta: Translators' Journal 48.4 (2003): 596-97. Web. 10 July 2010. . MARTÍNEZ MELIS, Nicole, and Amparo HURTADO ALBIR. "Assessment In Translation Studies: Research Needs." Meta: Tralslators´ Journal 46.2 (2001): 272-87. Web. 1 Sept. 2010. . MASSEY, Gary. "Process-Oriented Translator Training and the Challenge for ELearning." Meta: Translators´Journal 50.2 (2005): 626-63. Web. 25 July 2010. . NORD, Christiane. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. 2nd edition. Amsterdam: Rododpi, 2005. NORD, Christiane. "Training Functional Translators." Cadernos de traducao. N.p., 2000. Web. 20 Sept. 2010. . OROZCO, Mariana, and Amparo HURTADO ALBIR." Measuring Translation Competence Acquisition." Meta: Translators´Journal 47.3 (2002): 375-402. Web. 12 July 2010. . PACTE (2000) ―Acquiring Translation Competence: Hypotheses and Methodological
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Problems in a Research Project‖, in Beeby, A., D. Ensinger and M. Presas (eds.) Investigating Translation, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, p. 99-106. PACTE (2002) ―Exploratory tests in a study of translation competence‖, Conference Interpretation and Translation 4(2), p. 41-69. PACTE, . "Building a Translation Competence Model". PACTE, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona. N.p., 2003. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. . PACTE (2008). ―First results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‗Knowledge of Translation‘ and ‗Efficacy of the Translation Process‘‖. In: Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates. John Kearns and Contributors, 2008. PACTE, "Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues." Meta: Translator’s Journal 50.2 (2005): 609-619. Web. 26 Sept. 2010. . PACTE. "Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Acceptability and Decision Making." Across Languages and Cultures 10.2 (2009): 207-230. PYM, Anthony. "Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age. In Defence of a Minimalist Approach." Meta: Translators' Journal 48.4 (2003): 481-97. Web. 10 July 2010. . PYM, Anthony. "Translator Training ." Anthony Pym. Ed. Anthony PYM. N.p., 2009. Web. 20 Nov. 2010. .
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PYM, Anthony. "Translation as a Transaction Cost." Meta: Translators' Journal 40.4 (1995): 594-605. Web. 20 Nov. 2010. . RONOWICZ, Eddie. ―General Bibliography on Translation Competence.‖ Macquarie University. 31 August, 2009.Web. 9 Dec 2010 . ROTHE-NEVES, Rui. "Notes on the Concept of «Translator´s Competence »." Quaderns: revista de traducció 14 (2007): 125-137. Web. 26 July 2010. < . SCHÄFFNER, Christina, and Beverly Adab, eds. Developing Translation Competence. John Benjamins Library ed. Vol. 38.Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000. 244.Print IBSN 9027216436(Eur.)/ 1556199856 (US)
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Supplement 1) ST THE OPEN DIALOGUE APPROACH TO ACUTE PSYCHOSIS: ITS POETICS AND MICROPOLITICS
In Finland, a network-based, language approach to psychiatric care has emerged, called "Open Dialogue." It draws on Bakhtin's dialogical principles (Bakhtin, 1984)and is rooted in a Batesonian tradition. Two levels of analysis, the poetics and the micropolitics, are presented. The poetics include three principles: "tolerance of uncertainty," "dialogism," and "polyphony in social network―. A treatment meeting shows how these poetics operate to generate a therapeutic dialogue. The micropolitics are the larger institutional practices that support this way of working and are part of Finnish Need-Adapted Treatment. Recent research suggests that Open Dialogue has improved outcomes for young people in a variety of acute, severe psychiatric crises, such as psychosis, as compared to treatment-qs-usual settings. In a nonrandomized, 2year follow up .of first-episode schizophrenia, hospitalization decreased to approximately 19 days: neuroleptic medication was needed in 35% of cases: 82% had no, or only mild, psychotic symptoms remaining; and only 23 % were on disability allowance. THE POETICS OF OPEN DIALOGUE Tolerance of Uncertainty The language practices of the treatment meeting in Open Dialogue have become quite distinct from those of any other form of network-centred therapy. As stated above, the foundation of the interview rests on the principles of "tolerance of uncertainty," "dialogism," and "polyphony." Here we will consider each independently, although they recursively work together. Tolerance of uncertainty is the counterpart to, in fact, the opposite of, the systemic use of hypothesizing or any other kind of assessment tool. In practice, tolerance of uncertainty is constituted by frequent meetings and by the quality of the dialogue. It is important that meetings are held often enough, daily if necessary, that the family does not feel alone in the crisis. The team carefully monitors the scheduling of meetings and commonly includes the possibility of meeting daily for 10-12 days following the onset of a serious crisis. Furthermore, uncertainty can be tolerated only if therapy is experienced as safe. Every severe crisis requires that the therapists and the family, for a period of time, manage the inherent ambiguities of the crisis situation, to which the dialogue, hopefully, provides Ariahe's thread. As part of setting these conditions, there is great attention paid to establishing a trustworthy therapeutic context, or "scene," so that the anxieties and fears 91
stemming from the crisis can be mediated and contained. Safety is established initially by hearing and responding to every person's voice and point of view, thus legitimizing each participant. If this kind of tolerance is constructed, there emerge more possibilities for the psychological (or what we might now call "dialogical") resources of the family and the patient, who thereby become agents who previously did not have a language to express their experience of difficult events. As part of this approach, the question that a crisis poses is "what shall we do?" is kept open until the collective dialogue itself produces a response or dissolves the need for action. Immediate advice, rapid conclusions, and traditional interventions make it less likely that safety and trust will be established, or that a genuine resolution to a psychotic crisis will occur. Hypotheses are particularly avoided, because they can be silencing, and interfere with the possibility of finding a natural way to defuse the crisis (Andersen, 1990). The therapists therefore enter without a preliminary definition of the problem in the hope that the dialogue itself will bring forward new ideas and stories. Finally, tolerance of uncertainty is different from, although reminiscent of, the ―notknowing" position proposed by Anderson and GooIishian (1992). The Galveston group defines a way of knowing where the client is. the expert and the professional is the learner. The Finnish approach defines a way of being with others and with one's self that is a slightly different way of knowing. It is what Rilke (1984) meant when he wrote, "live your way into the answer" (p. 42). Dialogism Interwoven with enduring uncertainty is Bakhtin's (1984) idea of dialogue as the framework for communication among the team, the person, and the social network. In addition to constituting anetwork,this way of working engages in an effort to reduce isolation by constituting a dialogue built around a communicative relationship with the patient and the persons involved with him or her. From a social constructionist perspective, psychosis is a temporary, radical, and terrifying alienation from shared, communicative practices: a 'no-man's land" where unbearable experience has no words and, thus, the patient has no voice and no genuine agency (Holma, 1999; Seikkula, 2002). The therapeutic aim is to develop a common verbal language for the experiences that otherwise remain embodied within the person's psychotic speech and private, inner voices and hallucinatory signs. The Bakhtinian idea of dialogue and its adaptation to the psychotic situation derive from a tradition that sees language and communication as primarily constitutive of social reality. Constructing words and establishing symbolic communication is a voicemaking, identity-making, agentic activity occurring jointly "between people" (Gergen, 1999).The crisis becomes the opportunity to make and remake the fabric of stories, identities, and relationships that construct the self and a social world. Open Dialogue thus translates Bakhtin's concept of dialogism into a co-evolving process of listening and understanding. So described, it is consistent with what the French 92
philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard, leaning on Wittgenstein's concept of language games, calls the ―game without an author," in contrast to the "game of speculation" of Western philosophy and debate. Lyotard describes the "game of audition" as a "game of the just" in which the "important thing is to listen," and when speaking, 'one speaks as a listener" (Hoffman, 2000). Seen this way, the idea of listening is more important in Open Dialogue than the process of interviewing. For this reason, the first questions in a treatment meeting are as open as possible to give maximum opportunity for the family members and for the rest of the social network to be able to speak about whatever issues are most relevant to them at that moment. The team does not decide the themes in advance. To generate dialogue from the very beginning, one of the tasks of the interviewers) is to 'answer" what the patient or others have said. However, the answers usually take the form of further questions that are based on a previous utterance of the patient. From a Bakhtinian perspective, every spoken statement, or utterance, requires a reply. There is an aesthetic (a fitting together of utterance and reply) to the dialogue, that makes it "dialogical," rather than "monological, which would be a speaker without a contributing listener (Volshinov, 1996). In describing his term "heteroglossia," Bakhtin says that meaning is not fixed and intrinsic, although words carry traces and fragments of meanings from our diverse linguistic heritage. Since meaning occurs only in an ongoing exchange, the speaker and listener are intimately joined together in making sense of the psychotic episode. The therapeutic process requires creative participation in language that attends not only to what people say, but also to the existing feelings and sensuous responses that flow between them. Within the dialogical borderland where the person, the important others, and the professionals meet, a language for suffering may be born that can give the suffering a voice.
93
2) PT`s target text Poetika a mikropolitika přístupu „otevřeného dialogu― při léčbě lidí s akutní psychózou Jaako Seikkula Mary E. Olson Otevřený dialog se v psychiatrické léčbě objevil ve Finsku. Je to systémový a na jazyku založený přístup. Vychází z Bachtinova dialogického principu (Bakhtin, 1984) a z Batesona. Uvádíme dvě úrovně analýzy, poetiku a mikropolitiku. Poetika zahrnuje tři principy: tolerování nejistoty, dialogizování a polyfonii v sociální síti. Způsob, jakým tyto tři principy spoluvytvářejí terapeutický dialog, ukážeme na příkladu. Do mikropolitiky zahrnujeme rozsáhlé praktiky a směrnice institucí, které podporují tento styl práce a jsou součástí Finnish Need-Adapted Treatment. Z nedávných výzkumů srovnávání otevřeného dialogu se zavedenými způsoby léčby vyplývá, že se u mladých lidí při využití otevřeného dialogu v léčbě různých akutních psychotických krizí zlepšily výsledky. V nenáhodném dvouletém sledování lidí se po první schizofrenické epizodě hospitalizace snížila přibližně na 19 dní, neuroleptická medikace byla nutná v 35% případů, u 82% lidí nepřetrvávaly žádné nebo mírné psychotické symptomy a pouze 23% jich bylo v pracovní neschopnosti. … POETIKA OTEVŘENÉHO DIALOGU Tolerování nejistoty Způsob používání jazyka, který je využíván během terapeutických setkání založených na otevřeném dialogu, se velmi liší od forem jazyka v jiných terapiích orientovaných na sociální sítě. Jak bylo uvedeno výše, základy rozhovoru leží na principech "tolerování nejistoty", "dialogizování" a "polyfonie". Budeme zde uvažovat o každém principu odděleně, ačkoli jsou v praxi propojeny. Tolerování nejistoty je protipólem či opakem systemického hypotetizování nebo jiného posuzovacího (hodnotícího) prostředku. V praxi je tolerování nejistoty utvářeno a podporováno častými setkáními a charakteristikami dialogu. Setkání jsou častá, pokud možno každý den, aby se rodina
necítila v krizi sama. Členové týmu pozorně sledují rozvrh setkání a obvykle umožní každodenní setkání po dobu 10-12 dnů následujících po krizi. Nejistotu lze tolerovat jen v případě, že je terapie vnímána jako bezpečná. Každá těžká krize vyžaduje, aby terapeuti i rodina po určitou dobu zvládali skryté dvojznačnosti krizové situace, pro něž právě dialog může být "Ariadninou nití". Velký důraz je proto kladen na vytvoření důvěryhodného terapeutického kontextu či scény, aby se úzkosti a obavy vyrůstající z krize zmírnily a ovládly. Pocit bezpečí je založen na legitimizaci každého úhlu pohledu, tedy na naslouchání a odezvě na každého účastníka. Pokud se podaří vytvořit tento druh tolerance, vynoří se více možných psychologických (nebo jak je nazýváme "dialogických") zdrojů rodiny a pacienta, kteří do té doby neznali jazyk, kterým by mohli vyjádřit své zkušenosti zátěžových událostí. Součástí tohoto přístupu k nejistotě je i otázka "Co budeme dělat?", která zůstává otevřená do té doby, dokud společný dialog nepřinese odpověď nebo dokud nebude potřeba jednat. Rychlé rady, předčasné závěry a tradiční intervence snižují pravděpodobnost toho, že se vytvoří pocit bezpečí a důvěra, nebo že se objeví skutečné řešení. Hypotézy mohou umlčet a narušit hledání přirozeného způsobu, jak zmírnit krizi (Andersen, 1990). Proto se jim částečně vyhýbáme. Terapeuti tedy nemají připravenou nějakou předběžnou definici problému. Předpokládají, že samotný dialog otevře nové myšlenky a příběhy. Tolerování nejistoty připomíná
"not-knowing" přístup (Andersen, Goolishian, 1992).
Je však od něho odlišný. Galveston skupina definuje takový způsob poznávání, kdy klient je jako expert a profesionál jako ten, který se učí. Finský přístup definuje jiný způsob bytí s druhými i sám se sebou. Vystihl to Rilke (1984), když napsal: "live your way into the answer" (p.42). Odpovědí je tvůj život.
Dialogizování Základním rámcem komunikace mezi týmem, klientem a jeho sociální sítí je spolu s principem tolerování nejistoty i Bachtinova idea dialogu (1984). Dialog, vystavěný na komunikaci a založený na vztahu mezi pacientem a jeho sociální sítí (lidé, kteří jsou s pacientem spojeni), snižuje pocit izolace. Psychóza je z konstruktivistického pohledu dočasné, radikální a děsivé odcizení obecně sdílené komunikaci. Je to "země nikoho", 95
ve které pro nesnesitelné zážitky nenacházíme slova, která by je mohla popsat. Pacient nemá způsob, jak svou zkušenost pravdivě zprostředkovat druhým (Holma, 1999; Seikkula, 2002). Cílem terapie je tedy vytvořit společně sdílený verbální jazyk pro vyjádření těch zážitků a zkušeností, které by jinak zůstaly zakotveny jen v psychotických výrazech člověka, v jeho osobních, vnitřních hlasech a halucinacích. Adaptace Bachtinovy idey dialogu na psychotickou situaci vychází z tradice, ve které jazyk a komunikace konstruují sociální realitu. Vytváření slov a navázání symbolické komunikace dělají hlas, identitu a další činnosti (agentic activity), které se spolu objevují "mezi lidmi" (Gergen, 1999). Krize se tak stává příležitostí vytvořit či přestavět příběhy, identity a vztahy, které konstruují self a sociální svět. Otevřený dialog převádí Bachtinův koncept dialogismu do siyčasně se vyvíjejících procesů naslouchání a porozumění. Tento přístup je v souladu s pojetím "her bez autora" francouzského filozofa Jean-Francois Lyotarda, který se odkazuje na Wittgensteinův koncept jazykových her. Na druhé straně stojí " hra se spekulacemi" západní filozofie. Lyotard popisuje "hru slyšení" jako "hru na pravdu", ve které "je zásadní
naslouchání",
a
pokud
hovoříme,
pak
"mluvíme
jako
bychom
naslouchali"(Hoffman, 2000). Z tohoto pohledu je v otevřeném dialogu idea naslouchání důležitější než proces dotazování. Proto jsou první otázky položené v terapeutickém setkání co možná nejotevřenější. Dávají členům rodiny a celé sociální síti možnost začít mluvit o takovém tématu, které má pro ně zásadní význam. Tým si nepřipravuje témata rozhovoru předem. Jedním z úkolů členů týmu je vyjádřit se ke všemu, co pacient nebo druzí sdělí. Právě takové "odpovědi" na pacientovy výroky a sdělení vytvářejí rozhovor. Odpovědi týmu mají však obvykle formu dalších otázek. Podle Bachtina každá promluva vyžaduje odpověď. Tzv. estetika dialogu tak může být "dialogická" (pokud je odpověď ke sdělení pacienta v souladu), nebo "monologická" (pokud naslouchající neodpovídá, nereaguje) (Volshinov, 1996). Při popisu pojmu "heteroglossia" Bachtin vysvětluje, že slova nemají svůj vlastní fixní význam. Slova nesou pouze rysy či fragmenty významů, které pramení z bohatého jazykového dědictví. Význam se proto objevuje jen v probíhající slovní výměně, kdy 96
jsou mluvčí i naslouchající vzájemně propojeni ve svém úsilí dát smysl psychotické epizodě. Terapeutický proces však vyžaduje tvořivou účast nejen na tom, co lidé říkají verbálně, ale i na projevujících se pocitech a smyslových reakcích mezi nimi. Pacient, jeho "důležití druzí" a profesionálové se setkávají v dialogickém prostoru, ve kterém se může vynořit jazyk, kterým je možné vyjádřit utrpení. Utrpení dostává svůj hlas. Table of binary errors Type errors (kinds of errors)
Token errors (number of errors)
X%
3
""
20
siyčasně
1
Voloshinov - transcription
1
Type errors
4
Token errors
25
X%
3
""
20
20
siyčasně
1
1
Voloshinov
0
1
Total
0
25
0
97
21
0
subject
World/
Research
Tools
Cultural
Linguistic
Translation
Type error
Binary errors related to respective sub-competences
0
Tolerování/dialogizování word order repetition Rilke‘s quote Finnish Need-Adapted Treatment V nenáhodném dvouletém sledování lidí se po první schizofrenické epizodě hospitalizace snížila základy rozhovoru leží na principech systemického hypotetizování utvářeno pozorně sledují skryté dvojznačnosti založen na vynoří se jak je nazýváme zkušenosti je i otázka dokud nebude potřeba jednat Proto se jim částečně vyhýbáme. Galveston skupina nemá výrazech ve které Vytváření slov dělají hlas, identitu a další činnosti (agentic activity), které se spolu objevují "mezi lidmi" vytvořit či přestavět které konstruují self vyvíjejících který se odkazuje na hra se spekulacemi nejotevřenější. Dávají
10 2 2 1
10 2 2 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
2
2
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 98
1
World/ subject
Research
Tools
Cultural
Linguistic
Type error
Translation
Non-binary errors related to sub-competences
1
1/0 1/1
1
1/1
0/1
0/1 1
1/1
mluvit o takovém tématu obvykle formu dalších otázek tak může být (pokud je odpověď ke sdělení pacienta v souladu), (pokud naslouchající neodpovídá, nereaguje) Při popisu pojmu "heteroglossia" nemají svůj vlastní nesou pouze rysy či fragmenty úsilí dát smysl psychotické epizodě. jeho "důležití druzí" (Hoffman, Andersen) -ová issue Total
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0/1
2
2
0/1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
0
2
2/2
54
56
3
0
5
6/10
0/1
Number of errors (both binary and non-binary) with regards to respective sub-competences
Error
Translational Linguistic Cultural Tools
Research World/subject
Binary(25)
-
25
0
21
Nonbinary(57)
54
56
3
0
5
6/10
Total (82)
54
81
3
21
5
6/10
99
3) Pip`s (member of the TransT group) target text Otevřený dialog jako přístup k akutní psychóze: Jeho poetika a mikropolitika Ve Finsku vznikl jazykový přístup k psychiatrické péči zaměřený na sociální síť, který se nazývá otevřený dialog. Používá Bachtinovy dialogické principy (Bachtin, 1984) a vychází z batesonovské tradice. V tomto přístupu jsou prezentovány dvě úrovně analýzy – poetika a mikropolitika. Poetika se skládá ze tří principů: „tolerance nejistoty―, „dialogismu― a „polyfonie sociálních sítí―. Léčebné sezení ukazuje, jak tyto poetické principy fungují při vytváření terapeutického dialogu. Mikropolitika zahrnuje širší institucionální metody, které podporují tento princip práce a jsou součástí finské terapie zaměřené na potřeby pacienta (Need-Adapted Treatment). Nedávný výzkum naznačuje, že otevřený výzkum ve srovnání s tradičními podmínkami léčby zlepšil výsledky u mladých lidí v případech náhlých a závažných krizí, jako je například psychóza. Při dvouletém sledování vybraných pacientů s prvním záchvatem schizofrenie bylo zjištěno, že doba hospitalizace se snížila na přibližně 19 dní, neuroleptika byla podávána pouze u 35% případů, u 82% případů zůstaly žádné nebo pouze slabé psychotické symptomy a pouze 23% případů bylo na nemocenské. Tolerance nejistoty Jazykové metody léčebných sezení v rámci otevřeného dialogu se začaly zcela odlišovat od postupů ostatních teorií zaměřených na sociální síť. Jak již bylo řečeno, základ rozhovoru spočívá v principech „tolerance nejistoty―, „dialogismu― a „polyfonie―. Zde se budeme zabývat každým principem zvlášť, přestože rekurzivně fungují dohromady. Tolerance nejistoty je protipól, de facto protiklad, systémového používání vytváření hypotéz nebo jiného druhu diagnostických metod. 100
V praxi je tolerance nejistoty vytvářena četností léčebných sezení a kvalitou dialogu. Je důležité, aby se sezení konala dostatečně často – i denně, pokud by to bylo nutné – aby se rodina v krizi necítila sama. Tým odborníků pečlivě dohlíží na rozvrh sezení a běžně zahrnuje možnost každodenních sezení po dobu deseti až dvanácti dnů od vypuknutí závažné krize. Kromě toho nejistota může být tolerována pouze tehdy, jestliže je terapie vnímána jako bezpečná. Každá vážná krize vyžaduje, aby terapeuti a členové rodiny po nějakou dobu zvládali skryté nejednoznačnosti spojené s krizí, ke kterým dialog, doufejme, poskytne Ariadninu nit. Při vytváření těchto podmínek je kladen velký důraz na vybudování důvěryhodného terapeutického kontextu, nebo „scény―, aby obavy a strachy vycházející z krize mohly být zmírněny a potlačeny. Bezpečí je od počátku vytvářeno vyslechnutím hlasu každého jednotlivce a následnou reakcí na něj. Tím se každý stává plnoprávným účastníkem sezení. Jestliže je stanoven tento typ tolerance, na povrch vystoupí více možných psychologických (nebo také „dialogových―) prostředků pro rodinu a pacienta, kteří dříve postrádali jazyk pro vyjádření svých prožitků z krizových událostí. Součástí tohoto přístupu je ponechání krizí vyvolané otázky „Co máme dělat?― co nejvíce otevřené, dokud kolektivní dialog sám nevyprodukuje odpověď nebo nepotlačí nutkání k akci. Okamžitá rada, rychlé závěry a tradiční intervence snižují pravděpodobnost, že bude nastolen pocit bezpečí a důvěry nebo že se objeví skutečné řešení psychotické krize. Vytváření hypotéz se obzvláště vylučuje, protože hypotézy mohou být umlčující a mohou zasáhnout do možnosti objevit přirozený způsob zneškodnění krize (Andersen, 1990). Terapeuti tedy do dialogu vstupují vždy bez předběžné definice problému a doufají, že dialog sám přinese nové nápady a příběhy.
101
Tolerance nejistoty je odlišná (i když ji připomíná) od pozice „nevědění― navržené Andersonovou a Goolishianem (1992). Galvestonská skupina odborníků popisuje styl vědění, kdy se klient stává expertem a profesionál se od něj učí. Finský přístup definuje způsob bytí s ostatními a se sebou samým, což je poněkud jiný styl vědění. Vystihuje to, co myslel Rilke (1984), když napsal : „samo žití tě dovede k odpovědi― (str. 42). Dialogismus Bachtinova (1984) představa dialogu jako rámce pro komunikaci mezi týmem, jednotlivcem a sociální sítí je protkaná trvalou nejistotou. Kromě vytváření sítě zahrnuje tento způsob práce úsilí zredukovat izolaci jednotlivců vytvořením dialogu vystavěného kolem komunikačního vztahu s pacientem a osobami s ním spojenými. Z pohledu sociálního konstruktivisty je psychóza přechodné, radikální a děsivé odcizení se od sdílených komunikačních metod – „země nikoho―, kde neúnosný prožitek nemá slova, a tedy pacient nemá hlas ani žádnou schopnost působení (Holma, 1999; Seikkula, 2002). Terapeutickým záměrem je vyvinout společný verbální jazyk prožitků, které jinak zůstanou začleněny v pacientově psychotické řeči, soukromých, vnitřních hlasech a projevech halucinací. Bachtinovská představa dialogu a jeho přizpůsobení psychotické situaci vychází z tradice, která vidí jazyk a komunikaci jako primární základ sociální reality. Tvorba slov a zavedení symbolické komunikace je hlas a identitu tvořící aktivita činitelů, která probíhá společně „mezi lidmi― (Gergen, 1999). Krize se stává příležitostí přetvořit látku příběhů, identit a vztahů, které tvoří vlastní já a okolní sociální svět. Otevřený dialog tak překládá Bachtinův koncept dialogismu do společně se vyvíjejícího procesu naslouchání a porozumění. Takto popsán je tento koncept 102
konzistentní s tím, co francouzský filozof Jean-Francois Lyotard, opírající se o Wittgensteinův koncept řečových her, nazývá „hrou bez autora― v kontrastu se „spekulační hrou― západní filozofie. Lyotard popisuje „auditivní hru― jako „spravedlivou hru―, ve které „je důležité naslouchat― a když člověk promlouvá, „mluví jako posluchač― (Hoffmanová, 2000). Z tohoto úhlu pohledu je v otevřeném dialogu představa naslouchání důležitější než proces rozhovoru. To je důvodem, proč jsou první otázky na léčebném sezení ponechány co nejvíce otevřené, aby měli rodinní příslušníci a ostatní členové sociální sítě maximální možnost mluvit o záležitostech, které se jim zdají v danou chvíli nejpodstatnější. Tým o tématech dopředu nerozhoduje. Aby byl na úplném počátku dialog vytvořen, je jedním z úkolů odborníka vedoucího rozhovor „odpovědět―, co řekl pacient nebo ostatní členové. Nicméně tyto odpovědi bývají obvykle ve formě dalších otázek založených na předchozí promluvě pacienta. Z bachtinovské perspektivy každé vyslovené sdělení vyžaduje odpověď. Je to estetika (jestli se výrok a odpověď k sobě hodí) dialogu, která jej dělá „dialogovým― spíše než „monologovým―, což by byl případ mluvčího bez přispívajícího posluchače (Volšinov, 1996). Při popisu svého termínu „heteroglosie― Bachtin říká, že význam není fixovaný a vestavěný, přestože slova nesou stopy a fragmenty významů z našeho rozdílného jazykového dědictví. Jelikož význam se objevuje pouze jako probíhající výměna, mluvčí a posluchač jsou důvěrně spojeni ve vytváření smyslu psychotické epizody. Terapeutický proces vyžaduje kreativní spoluúčast na jazyce, který provází nejen to, co lidé říkají, ale také existující pocity a smyslové reakce, které mezi nimi proudí. 103
V dialogickém pomezí, kde se pacient, důležití lidé s pacientem spjatí a tým profesionálů stýkají, může být stvořen jazyk pro utrpení, který dokáže dát utrpení vlastní hlas. Binary errors Type errors (kinds of errors)
Token errors (number of errors)
X%
3
Missing/redundant punctuation
1
Volšinov (Vološinov)
1
Dialogovým, dialogových, monologovým (inflection)
3
Type errors
4 Token errors
8
Binary errors related to respective sub-competences Type error Translational Linguistic Cultural Tools Research World/subject X% 3 Missing/redundant 1 puncutation Volšinov 1 (Vološinov) Dialogovým, 3 monologovým , Dialogových (inflection) Total 8
Non-binary errors related to translation sub- competences Type error jazykový přístup V tomto přístupu jsou prezentovány
Translation 1 1
Linguistic Cultural Tools Research World/subject 1 1
104
podporují tento princip práce zlepšil výsledky u mladých lidí v případech náhlých a závažných krizí, jako je například psychóza zůstaly žádné na nemocenské se začaly zcela odlišovat tolerance rekurzivně fungují dohromady systémového by to bylo běžně zahrnuje možnost , nebo „scény― potlačeny Jestliže je stanoven tento typ tolerance prostředků pro rodinu a pacienta nepotlačí bude nastolen pocit bezpečí a důvěry nebo že se objeví skutečné řešení psychotické krize být umlčující schopnost působení začleněny je hlas a identitu tvořící aktivita
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
105
1
1/1
činitelů odpovědět―, co řekl jestli vestavěný důvěrně spojeni ve vytváření smyslu psychotické epizody Total
1
1
1 1 2
1 1 2
27
27
1
0
1
1/1
Number of errors (both binary and non-binary) with regards to respective sub-competences
Error
Translation Linguistic
Cultural
Tools
Research
World/subject
Binary(8)
-
8
0
0
0
0
Nonbinary(27)
27
27
1
0
1
1/1
Total (35)
27
35
1
1
1
2/2
106
