Complexity Factors in Networked and Virtual ... - Semantic Scholar

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Complexity Factors in Networked and Virtual Working Environments Juha Kettunen Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland Ari Putkonen Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland Ursula Hyrkkänen Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland

IntroductIon

Background

Working environments are changing from the traditional model. An increasing amount of work takes place in networked and virtual environments which are not tied to one place and time. The work environment is defined “virtual,” when the employee uses information and communication technology (ICT) for collaboration (Vartiainen, 2006). The planning of working conditions becomes challenging task for managers and ICT tool developers, because there is a lack of understanding the consequences of emerging virtual work. The capacity of workers to percept and process information is burdened with the complexity and high demands of working life. Knowledge of the complexity factors of the overall work system is essential for an in depth understanding of human working capabilities and limitations (Kleiner, 2006). The complexity of work is usually considered as a factor related to the task. At the one end the task is creative and demanding and at the other end it is simple and routine-like. The expanded complexity concept also takes into account the working environment that can be different combinations of physical, virtual, social and cultural spaces. The purpose of this article is to present a framework to analyse the complexity factors in networked and virtual working environments. The approach developed in this article is intended to be generic in order to be applicable to various kinds of organisations and networks for the purpose of management. It is important that the working conditions of workers can be planned in advance to provide workers with appropriate ICT tools and data networks to enable efficient cooperation in networks in a way that the workload can be limited to a sustainable level. The described framework is assessed using the case of the Turku University of Applied Sciences (TUAS).

organisational context of the study Networked and virtual work are analysed by applying the complexity approach to the Turku University of Applied Sciences. The strategic plan of the TUAS is to react to the changes in a flexible way (Kettunen, 2006, 2007; Kettunen & Kantola, 2006). The interaction of the institution is close with its operational environment. The purpose of the institution is to react to the changes in its environment in a flexible way and to increase its external impact on the region. TUAS is a multidisciplinary higher education institution founded in 1992. The City of Turku owns the institution, which has 800 full-time employees. The TUAS has six faculties and a Continuing Education Centre. ICT is an important field of education and is combined with business, biotechnology, mechanical engineering, health care, performing arts, communication and many other subjects. Cooperation with other universities is active. One reason is that the ICT education and research of the University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University are located in the same ICT Building. The TUAS has 9,500 degree students. The institution offers tuition mainly in Finnish but there are also degree programmes, modules and courses in other languages. Internationalisation is one of the focus areas of the institution. The TUAS has wide international networks. The institution has cooperation with several higher education institutions in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Five entire programmes are taught in English. The objective is to improve the students’ ability to work in a global environment.

networked and virtual environments Figure 1 describes the dimensions of networked and virtual work. There are three modes for organising the communication and collaboration of work: traditional organisation,

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Complexity Factors in Networked and Virtual Working Environments

network and virtual network. The concept of the virtual network includes networked and traditionally organised work. Mobility may take place within or outside the organisation. Networked and virtual work can be analysed using the various dimensions that come across the organisation and networked and virtual environments. Information systems have been typically planned for the organisation, but an increasing amount of information systems have also been designed for the cooperation in networked and virtual environments. Virtual work environments increase the complexity of the work and therefore, various approaches are required to analyse and design the well-being of workers and the performance of the overall work system. Data networks and ICT reflect the needs of working environments. The traditional organisation-centred work is extended with the mobile work, networked cooperation in diverse locations and virtual systems, which increase the complexity of working environments. Working in these environments requires not only traditional network but also an increasing amount of wireless data networks. Ergonomics as a discipline is concerned with interactions with human-machine systems. Ergonomics has played a vital role, for example, in the reduction of occupational injuries, improved performance, increased health and safety of workers and end-products. Pheasant (1996) has concluded that the objective of ergonomics is to achieve the greatest possible harmony between the product and its users in the context of the task performed. With complex sociotechnical systems the above is not enough because various subsystems exist and the importance of interactions between them has a significant role. Kleiner (2006) emphasises that the larger work systems have to consider when there is a need to understand human-technology interaction, capabilities and limitations better. Macroergonomics as a subdiscipline of ergonomics is

Network

Ergonomics

Organisation

Cooperation

Virtual network

Information systems

Figure 1. Dimensions of networked and virtual work

Data networks

concerned with human-organization interface technology and the optimisation of the overall work system, that is, design of the worker-job, worker-machine, and worker-software interfaces (Hendrick & Kleiner, 2001).

organIzatIonal eXpansIon toWard tHe vIrtualIty complexity factors of networked and virtual Work Vartiainen (2006) has described the complexity of working environments by following six dimensions: mobility, geographical dispersion of the workplaces, diversity of actors, asynchronous working time, temporary structure of the working groups and mediated interaction. These six dimensions form, in addition to task complexity, a set of requirements that can also be considered work load factors (Hyrkkänen, 2006). The complexity factors arise from the conjunction of a worker and the particular kind of working environment. We have further developed the complexity model of the networked and virtual work by exploring it taking into account the human and technology related enablers and limitations of virtual work. Table 1 describes the general concepts of complexity factors for the traditionally organised, networked and virtual work. We suggest this classification as a framework, which can be used for example, as a framework for empirical studies, participatory design projects and consulting processes. The working environments are changing from the traditional model, where the place and time have an important role. An increasing amount of work takes place in networked and virtual environments which are not tied to one place and time. The planning of working conditions becomes challenging, because there is a lack of proper tools for analysing and managing sustainable and safe working conditions. The information environments and systems can be classified as mechanical, organic and dynamic (Ståhle & Grönroos, 2000; Ståhle & Hong, 2002; Ståhle, Stahle, & Poyhonen, 2003). The information systems in the mechanical information systems increase the efficiency of internal processes and include thoroughly controlled information systems, which are based, for example, on the automation of routines. The organic information system emphasises dialogue, communication and sharing of experience-based tacit knowledge (Kim, Chaudhury, & Rao, 2002; Takeuchi & Nonaka, 2004). The dynamic information systems include information systems which produce innovations and services by self-organisation. The virtual systems, networking, net casting and different portals, are often in connection with

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Table 1. General concepts of complexity factors in an organisation, network and virtual network Information systems

Data networks

Cooperation

Ergonomics

Organisation

• Mechanical

• Intranet

• Internal working groups

• Microergonomics

Network

• Organic

• Wireless local area networks

• Working in networks

• Sociotechnical systems • Macroergonomics

Virtual network

• Dynamic

• Internet

more risky, chaotic and innovative environments and online networking platforms (Steinberg, 2006). Data networks include typically Internet, local wireless networks and Intranet. Mobile devices enable workers access to wireless networks. The emerging and expanding wireless networks enable the use of the data network wirelessly. A wireless local area network (WLAN) enables communication between devices in a limited area. WLAN or Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) is becoming increasingly popular with the rapid emergence of portable devices. Other similar certifications such as Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access (WiMAX) offer longer ranges of radio waves. Cooperation and collaboration is not only within working groups within organisations, but typically in networks and virtual environments. Cooperation in networks is typical in clusters, which are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialised suppliers, service providers, firms in related industries, and associated institutions in particular fields that compete but also cooperate (Porter, 1998). Many of the advantages of clusters involve location-specific business services and networking. Some of the clusters are closely aligned to government and to public institutions (Denison, 2007; Graham, 2005). They include face-to-face contact, close and ongoing relationships and access to information via data networks. Some of the cooperation exists only in virtual networks. A typical example is the development of the Linux, which is one of the most prominent examples of open source development and free software. Ergonomics can be classified as microerconomics, which focuses on the interfaces between the individual, organisation and other system elements and macroergonomics, which focuses on the design of overall work system. Organisational factors are related to the physical activity of workers, environmental factors and organisational complex factors. When the functioning of the networked working environment is under development, it is advisable to analyse it as a sociotechnical 636

• Working in virtual environments

• Macroergonomics

system, covering interaction between workers and technology (Carayon, 2006). Macroergonomics is an approach of work systems which attempts to achieve a fully harmonized work system at both the micro- and macro-ergonomic level by integrating principles and perspectives from industrial, work and organisational psychology (Kleiner, 2006). Typically the complexity of work increases when workers are moving to virtual work environments (Richter, Meyer, & Sommer, 2006).

networked and virtual Work at the tuas Table 2 describes the complexity factors of work at the Turku University of Applied Sciences. It is not an exhaustive description of all the characteristics of the traditionally organised, networked and virtual work of the institution, but it provides examples of complexity factors of the institution. The approach helps the management of the institution to analyse the complexity factors and take them into account in the work design and human resources planning. The information systems include the devices and software used in the various information environments. Mechanical information systems include traditional systems such as accounting, personal administration and payroll systems, which are strictly tied to the processes and structures of an organisation. Organic information systems include, for example, query systems which are used to attain feedback from students and employers. They include also the library, project management and management information systems (Kettunen & Kantola, 2005). The dynamic information systems include the courses in the platform of virtual learning, Finnish virtual university portal and services of virtual libraries. Data networks include, for example, Intranets and Internet. Wireless local area networks are expanding rapidly. An example of the wireless network is the SparkNet. It is


Table 2. Complexity factors of work at the TUAS Information systems

Data networks

C Cooperation

Ergonomics

Organisation

• Desk computers • Internal phones

• Administration and study intranets

• Working groups in educational development and research

• Face-to-face development of safe, healthy and efficient tools and work environments

Network

• • • •

• WLAN/WiFi (SparkNet) • WiMAX

• Local, national and international networks of higher education and research

• Local, national and international mobility, geographical dispersion of workers and information technology

Virtual network

• Virtual learning environments

• Internet • Finnish University and Research Network (Funet)

• Studying and cooperating in virtual environments

• Communication and interaction are ICT mediated • Temporary and selforganised virtual teams

Laptops Communicator 3G telephones VoIP

located in Turku and is the largest and most extensive wireless network solution in Finland with about 100,000 users. The coalition of wireless networks was established in 2003 by the local universities, the City of Turku, MasterPlanet Ltd. and a development company ICT Turku Ltd. The idea of SparkNet is based on exploiting existing network resources wirelessly. The members of the SparkNet coalition build pieces of a public Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) network instead of building their own WiFi network. SparkNet is easy and affordable for the students to pursue their studies wherever they want using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), online courses, video conferencing (Skype) and other systems. The cooperation and networks of the TUAS are primarily located in Southwest Finland, which is the second largest economic area after the capital of Finland. ICT, biotechnology and mechanical engineering are the strongest clusters of the region, which are engaged in the region in mutually beneficial cooperation with higher education, research, commerce and culture. This emphasises the important role of networking in the clusters of the region. The institution has also national networks with 20 traditional science universities, 28 professional-oriented universities of applied sciences, other education institutions and enterprises and other partner organisations. The annual number of cooperation contacts is 7,000-8,000 including education projects, applied research and development, practical training and administration.

Ergonomic methods are required when the safe, healthy and efficient tools or work environments are designed. The networked work of the TUAS has more enriched job characteristics such as local, national and international mobility, the geographical dispersion of workers and information technology. Typically, the cooperation and collaboration of international activities is complex due to various geographical locations, asynchronous work in different time zone and diversified cultural backgrounds. The workers in virtual environments have a larger amount of organisational tasks, more demanding learning requirements and level of participation than the workers in traditional jobs. Workers’ communication and interaction are mainly ICT mediated. A worker participates in several virtual teams at the same time. Teams are often temporal and heterogeneous including people from different cultural backgrounds. Usually, the virtual work environment of the individual worker is not controlled by the managers; it is self-managed by the worker and this causes an additional dimension of complexity.

future trends A number of changes are taking place in global business and technology that lead to the increasing complexity of work 637


systems. Today, “system” in ergonomics means a broad range of working environments from the usage of a simple tool to the performing of a task in a complex sociotechnical environment (Carayon, 2006). Such complexity can be seen in the expansion of virtual organizations and mobile workers. In the future, especially with complex work systems, a human-centred design approach has to be used as opposed to a technology-centred approach (Hendrick & Kleiner, 2001). Early observation of the system’s complexity is an increasingly important managerial task in order to design a work system where the well-being of workers and the overall system performance are in balance. The earlier the input occurs, the greater the impact on costs and schedule. Redesigning an existing work system is expensive and time consuming. There are some principles concerning how the humancentred design approach can be realised. Hendrick and Kleiner (2001) list three criteria what are essential for an effective work system design approach; (1) joint design, (2) a humanized task approach and (3) consideration of the organization’s sociotechnical characteristics. Joint design means that the personnel subsystem and technological subsystem should be developed simultaneously and supported by employee participation throughout the entire design process. Humanized task approach is concerned with human functions and tasks in the work system prior to the decision to allocate tasks to workers or machines. The sociotechnical characteristics of the organisation should be assessed and integrated into the work system’s design process. When an evaluation or development methodology fulfils the above mentioned three criteria it is human-centred and macroergonomic. A working virtual team requires both ICT mediated and face-to-face interactions, at least as long as ICT tools do not include more sophisticated features. The functionality of a virtual team relies on the interactions between team members. A group of people who are working separated by distance or time and have a shared task to perform, is dependent on common tools, information and social dealings. Existing ICT tools such as mobile phones, e-mail and video conferencing are rather well fulfilling the needs of information transmission. However, they have limited features to mediate issues relating to social dealings, that is, when a new team member collaborates it is difficult to identify with the rest of team thorough ICT, because, for example, the development of trust needs a richer communication channel than text or voice only. According to Edwards and Wilson (2004), when a virtual team is able to cross the organizational, cultural and functional boundaries of a single organization, it can deliver the combined skills and knowledge required to be more competitive in fast-changing markets. In addition, Wilson (2000) emphasises that we should study interactions not simply to design artefacts but to understand the interactions themselves in order to design more sophisticated ICT. 638

These are the fundamental driving forces of the future ICT tool design.

conclusIon This study presented a useful approach to analyse the complexity factors of networked and virtual work. The organisational environment was extended toward networked virtual work, where it is useful to analyse the different complexity dimensions. The dimensions of this study include information systems, data networks, cooperation and ergonomics. The approach can be used in empirical studies, participatory design projects and consulting. This approach can also be extended using other appropriate dimensions. Networked and virtual work provides new challenges and we can no longer understand the behaviour of workers and their performance at work as we once did. For instance, we should now study interactions between different organisational dimensions, not simply to design new communication tools but to understand the interactions themselves in order to manage the overall work system. When the functioning of the entire virtual working environment is under development, a human-system interaction and the entire work organization and sociotechnical system have to be taken jointly into consideration. Macroergonomics is an approach of work systems design which attempts to achieve a fully harmonized work system at both the macro- and micro-ergonomic level. In future, macroergonomics should be more common knowledge among managers in order to meet the design and development challenges of complex work environments. This means, for example, that workers should be more involved in the design and implementation of technology and new information and communication systems in organisations. As organisations expand to virtual environments, the need for experience and special solutions will increase. However, supporting the work of virtual environments is a difficult assignment. Identifying complexity factors is a good start. The existing models of complexity are mainly based on the concept of traditional organisational work. This study contributes to the current discussion by offering one model for assessing the complexity factors of networked and virtual work.

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key terms Cluster: Clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected enterprises, specialised suppliers, service providers, firms in related industries, and associated institutions in particular fields that compete but also cooperate. Human-Centred Approach: This is an approach to human-machine function and task allocation that first considers the capabilities and limitations of the human and whether the function or task justifies the use of a human. Linux: Linux referes to Unix-like computer systems which have a Linux kernel. The source code of Linux is available to anyone to use, modify and redistribute freely. The Linux was originally developed by Linus Thorwalds. Macroergonomics: The subdiscipline of ergonomics that focuses on the design of the overall work system. Conceptually, a top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the design of work systems and carry through of the overall work system design characteristics to the design of human-job, human-machine and human-software interfaces to ensure that the entire work system is fully harmonised. Microergonomics: Those aspects of ergonomics that focus on the design of interfaces between the individual and other system elements, including human-job, hu-

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man-machine, human-software and human-environment interfaces. WiFi: Wireless Fidelity was originally a brand licensed by the WiFi Alliance. It describes the underlying technology of wireless local area networks based on the IEEE 802.11 specifications. It was developed for use in mobile computing devices, such as laptops, in local area networks. WiMAX: Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access promotes conformance and interoperability of the IEEE 802.16 standard. WiMAX is a certification mark given to equipment that meets the certain conformity and interoperability tests. WLAN: Wireless local area network is used to link two or more computers without using wires. WLAN uses spread-sprectrum technology based on radio waves to enable communication in a limited area.

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