Sep 11, 2001 - Troy begins his academic journey in elementary school as I ...... The third criteria of self-determination theory (Deci, 1971) is ...... issue-specific topic forums that will enhance the need for service to be ...... The alumni were saturating quickly as they heard other answers. ...... constructing patients' file folders).
Comprehending Collegiate Volunteer Experiences Post-September 11, 2001: A Hermeneutic Phenomenological Study
DISSERTATION Submitted to Northcentral University Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
by GABRIELLE L. McBATH
Prescott Valley, Arizona June 2014
© 2014 Gabrielle L. McBath
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Abstract The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States ignited a profound increase in undergraduate-volunteerism on college campuses until 2006. Since then, a national decline in student volunteerism has occurred; simultaneously, scholars have focused on recruitment and utilization of student-volunteers instead of undergraduates’ retention in civil service projects. The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological study was to investigate the lived volunteer experiences of alumni and undergraduates of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State. The alumni group had matriculated in the SPVS from 20012005, at a time when the national average of collegiate-volunteerism was higher than the undergraduates’ group matriculating since 2006. Nine alumni SPVS participants participated in a focus group session. Ten undergraduate SPVS participants were interviewed individually. These data were analyzed by Groenewald’s (2004) five-step approach of phenomenological reduction, which modified Hycner (1999) and Moustakas’s (1994) original structures of phenomenological reduction. Data analysis included (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction; (b) delineating units of meaning; (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes; (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify; and (e) making a composite summary. The three thematic findings of this study were (a) motivation, (b) religious application, and (c) preservice learning. Conclusively, the two surrounding phenomena working not in isolation were collectivism and individualism. Collectivism was best supported by Strauss and Howe’s (1997) generational theory. Individualism was best supported by Bass’s (2008)
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economic theories of organization. Future research should focus on how economic factors influence human motivation.
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Acknowledgments This dissertation is dedicated to my husband Kevin. The past five years have been a whirlwind: raising our two sons under the age of five, the countless, sleepless hours of researching, typing, and editing. This thesis would have never been accomplished without his continuous encouragement and late-night child-care assistance. I am humbled to return to my alma mater to complete the data collection portion of this study. I would like to thank my former professors and faculty member who have continually supported my academic and personal efforts since my undergraduate years: Dr. John Harman for his advisement on the Review of the Literature chapter and printed materials; Dr. Deborah VanderBilt for serving as the faculty administrator, and the IRB liaison between universities; and Ms. Sally Vaughan who coordinated all the participants’ schedules to meet mine. Thank you to my Dissertation Chair Dr. Heather Miller who continued to push me academically! I am thankful for her level of scholastic dedication, kindness, and knowledge in the area of phenomenological research. What a road it has been! Committee Member Dr. Dana Cleghorn always gave sound and pragmatic feedback. Additionally, my former Chair Dr. Sunny Liu provided a very strong foundation for this research, from which I will connect future publications. Thank you to my editor, Jeff Zuckerman, and to my family and friends. Finally, to my sons Troy and Nathanael, as Troy begins his academic journey in elementary school as I complete this terminal degree: We make a living by what we get, but we make a life by what we give. - Churchill
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Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Background............................................................................................................ 2 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 4 Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................. 5 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 6 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 9 Nature of the Study................................................................................................ 9 Significance of the Study..................................................................................... 11 Definition of Key Terms ..................................................................................... 12 Summary.............................................................................................................. 18 Chapter 2: Review of the Literature.................................................................................. 20 Summary of the Purpose Statement .................................................................... 20 Organization of This Chapter .............................................................................. 21 Documentation .................................................................................................... 22 Hermeneutic Phenomenological Framework ...................................................... 22 Historical Background of Ethics Linked to Human Motivation ......................... 25 Husserl’s Kantian Conflict and Transcendental Phenomenological Ethics ........ 27 Morality as a Social Construction ....................................................................... 28 Theoretical Background of Self-Determination Theory...................................... 29 Schein’s Reciprocation of Communication ......................................................... 34 The Academics’s Influences on Pre-Practicum Education ................................. 36 Faculty Influences Students’ Growth as Personally Responsible Citizens ......... 45 Gaps of Research Found in Service-Learning ..................................................... 59 Summary.............................................................................................................. 64 vi
Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................. 68 Restatement of the Research Problem, Purpose, and Questions ......................... 68 Research Method and Design .............................................................................. 72 Population ............................................................................................................ 72 Samples................................................................................................................ 73 Materials/ Instruments ......................................................................................... 74 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis .......................................................... 77 Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ........................... 82 Ethical Assurances and Trustworthiness ............................................................. 84 Summary.............................................................................................................. 87 Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 88 Overview ............................................................................................................. 88 Alumni Description ............................................................................................. 88 Undergraduate Description .................................................................................. 91 Results ................................................................................................................. 94 Evaluation of Findings ...................................................................................... 113 Summary............................................................................................................ 114 Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ...................................... 116 Implications ....................................................................................................... 117 Two Phenomena of Collectivism and Individualism ........................................ 118 Three Thematic Findings ................................................................................... 120 Collectivism and Individualism Supported by Two Theories ........................... 124 Phenomena Supporting the Central and Subresearch Questions ....................... 126 Recommendations for Future Research............................................................. 130 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 130 References ....................................................................................................................... 132 Appendix A: Brief Overview of Self-Determination Theory ......................................... 142 Appendix B: Volunteers’ Five Phases of Change........................................................... 143 Appendix C: Civic Responsibility Assessment Rubric .................................................. 144 vii
Appendix D: Consent Forms .......................................................................................... 145 Appendix E: Demographic Questionnaire ...................................................................... 147 Appendix F: Debriefing Form ........................................................................................ 148 Appendix G: Outline of a Critical Incident Report ......................................................... 149 Appendix H: Matrix of Alumni Interview Questions ..................................................... 150 Appendix I: Matrix of Changed Undergraduate Interview Questions ............................ 151 Appendix J: Data Themes, Codes, and Supporting Quotes ............................................ 152 Appendix K: Completed Selection Critical Incident Reports ......................................... 155 Appendix L: Findings From the Study ........................................................................... 157 Appendix M: Strauss and Howe’s (1997) Generational Theory .................................... 158
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List of Tables Table 1. Documentation Design ............................................................................23 Table A1. Self-Determination Theory .................................................................142 Table B1. Volunteers’ Five Phases of Change ....................................................143 Table C1. Civic Responsibility Assessment Rubric ............................................144 Table H1. Matrix of Alumni Interview Questions ...............................................150 Table I1: Matrix of Changed Undergraduate Interview Questions .....................151 Table J1. Data Themes, Codes, and Supporting Quotes ......................................152 Table L1. Findings From the Study ....................................................................157 Table M1. Strauss and Howe’s (1997) Generational Theory ..............................158
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List of Figures
Figures D1 and D2. Consent Forms ................................................................................ 145 Figure E1. Demographic Questionnaire ......................................................................... 147 Figure F1. Debriefing Form ............................................................................................ 148 Figure G1. Outline of a Critical Incident Report ............................................................ 149 Figure K1. Completed Selection Critical Incident Reports ............................................ 155
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Chapter 1: Introduction The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States ignited a radical change in volunteerism on college campuses, as well as how the federal government responded to a stricter adherence to patriotism; this was seen in: college curricula and the role of the college volunteer serving in hosting business organizations (Annette, 2008; Hahn, 2008). Undergraduate volunteerism increased on a national scale between the years 2002 and 2005, from 2.2 million to 3.3 million students (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b). Results of a subsequent study posited that 2005 was the peak year for increased volunteer participation for young people. Between 2006 and 2010, the percentage of participation in civic engagement opportunities decreased from 2002-2005. However, the percentage of teenagers and young adults (age 16-24) involved in volunteer activities increased only slightly from 21.7% to 21.9%. Overall from 2006-2010, volunteerism decreased from 26.7% to 26.3% among those older than 16 years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). Five years before September 11, 2001, a prominent Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) began on a small campus of a Catholic college located in the western part of New York State. An SPVS administrator (who is anonymously cited in this study) stated that this program uniquely aided students in civic engagement opportunities. The SPVS remained distinctive based on four criteria: (a) the program was based primarily on students’ exceptional volunteer service prior to college matriculation; (b) it offered a 1/3 tuition reduction, to this study’s participants, that included room and
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board and other fees. However, now incoming freshmen receive a one-half deduction of tuition; (c) there were rigorous requirements to commit volunteer hours to this program; and (d) the SPVS was cohort-based; that is, students participated in a Freshman Service Learning (SL) Seminar, met informally and socially throughout the 4 years, and ended with a Senior SL Seminar. This final seminar was designed to include a debriefing with faculty and other students’ 4-year SPVS experiences (Anonymous, personal communications, January 11-12, 2012). Since 2006, academics and organizations focused on the act of volunteering, as well as strategies for recruiting and using volunteers (Gazley & Brudney, 2005). However, despite the introduction of distinctive collegiate volunteer programming such as the SPVS, nationally, academic scholarship was focused on volunteer recruitment rather than volunteer retention. Therefore, an investigation is warranted why this discrepancy was occurring (Blouin & Perry, 2009; Brudney, & Meijs, 2009; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; Anonymous, personal communication, January 11-12, 2012; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2011; Posner, 2009; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). Background By December 2001, President George W. Bush developed the USA Freedom Corps, service to which Americans were required to dedicate at least 2 years or 4,000 hours of volunteer service (Gazley & Brudney, 2005). The agenda of federal volunteerism moved toward terrorist prevention, while the USA Freedom Corps
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specifically stressed individual citizen involvement, disaster preparedness, and response. Citizen-volunteers were focused locally (Gazley & Brudney, 2005). At this time in the universities across the nation, one criterion of citizenship education in the coursework is learning through the act of aiding others (Annette, 2008; Hahn, 2008; Zipin & Reid, 2008). Aiding others includes a flourishing role in citizenship education. Faculty should implement four components when understanding this role: (a) to engage their students’ critical-thinking ability, (b) to promote their students to be active within the community environment, (c) to understand how their students perceive their volunteer role and its responsibility, and (d) to effectively address goals concerning civic responsibility, while using the proper resources (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). The need to teach students to become personally responsible citizens is a specific criterion found in citizenship education (Zipin & Reid, 2008). From 2006 to currently, undergraduate volunteerism is declining. Since 9/11, this decline threatens American universities’ multilateral advancements of establishing students’ interests in civics and their leadership roles (Dekker, 2009; Finkelstein, 2011; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; McBrien, 2008; McDonald, 2011). Researchers have offered several reasons for this decrease in volunteerism: (a) because Americans no longer view the attacks as eminently as they did a decade ago, the sense of unity and self-sacrifice has decreased also (McDonald, 2011); (b) as organizational budgets have waned, there has been more demand for volunteers but limited supplies to accommodate the volunteers (McDonald, 2011); (c) individualism has risen while societal collaboration has diminished (Finkelstein, 2011).
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To perpetuate the academic tenet of responsible citizenship aligned to volunteerism, scholars have shifted their research from the study of who the moral human being is to emphasize which specific acts constitute moral actions (Haski-Leventhal, 2009). Moral actions toward others reflect well on the individual (Finkelstein & Brannik, 2007; Konrath, Fuhrel-Forbis, Lou, & Brown, 2012) and are united by those positive social interactions and supportive relationships upon which the criterion of personal responsible citizenship within American universities was founded (Cruce & Moore, 2007). The focus of this study was to determine the phenomena surrounding the lived experiences of participants of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) who had mandatory volunteer-service in their curriculum, as well as to investigate the limited research on collegiate volunteer-retention in the field. Since 2006, volunteer rates are declining on a national scale. This threatens, potentially, interest in civics and future roles of leadership within our government. Statement of the Problem Because undergraduate volunteerism has waned since 2006, scholars have focused more on recruitment and field-placement of student-volunteers instead of their retention in civil service projects (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). Even as undergraduate faculty members promoted service-learning and volunteerism within their mandated programming, student-volunteerism is still decreasing on college campuses over the last few years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b; Gottlieb &
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Robinson, 2006). Therefore, the problem to be analyzed was the lack of research on student retention during their volunteer projects (Blouin & Perry, 2009; Brudney, & Meijs, 2009; Anonymous, personal communication, January 11-12, 2012; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Haski-Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009; Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2011; Posner, 2009; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). Contemporary researchers have called for assessing this problem because focusing only on volunteer recruitment has deflected attention and resources from muchneeded volunteer retention (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). Student-volunteers (a) are disconnected often from a hosting volunteer organization, (b) do not feel as if their actions had a significant impact, or (c) do not receive appropriate praise for altruistic efforts (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). Volunteers improved their motivation after positive verbal affirmations during the daily operation at their work site (Yanay & Yanay, 2008). An investigation warranted finding common themes in students’ lived experiences associated with undergraduate volunteerism and ways faculty promote retention of students’ interest in civic engagement projects. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this phenomenological study was to investigate the lived experiences of undergraduates and alumni of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State, through a framework of a hermeneutic lens. This framework, first suggested by Heidegger (1927), advocated finding the meaning of experience while deriving from situational (in situ) conditions (Patton, 2002). This modification differs slightly from the original
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hermeneutics of Schleiermacher (1768-1834). Groenewald (2004) modified Hycner’s (1999) structure, which originated with Moustakas (1994), who stated that data analysis consisted of five phases: (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction, (b) delineating units of meaning, (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes, (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify, and (e) making a composite summary. There were nine SPVS alumni in a focus group session and 10 undergraduates in individual interviews. Sample sizes are small and consist of two groups of no more than 10 participants each, according to the literature, in order to gain a better understanding of the participants’ real-world experiences (Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Participants’ perceptions unified their experiences (Holstein & Gubrium, 2008). Undergraduates and alumni of the SPVS were interviewed and given Critical Incident Reports to answer (Appendix G). Alumni SPVS participants matriculated in this program from 2001-2005, at a time when the national average of volunteerism was higher. The second group of undergraduate SPVS participants were currently matriculate (no earlier than 2006), at a time when the national average of civic engagement decreased. Theoretical Framework This study’s hermeneutic phenomenological framework was aligned to two significant theories of human motivation: Deci and Ryan’s (1985) self-determination theory (SDT) was coined in 1971 and Schein’s (2010, 2011) reciprocation of communication. Self-determination theory signifies that humans act according to feelings of motivation, volition, and behavioral elements (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Skinner & Edge, 2002), also denoted as autonomy. Autonomy is when humans are the first source of
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wanting feelings of motivation; it is not comparable to independence (i.e., freedom) or heteronomy (i.e., a person’s lack of self-approval). On undergraduate campuses implementing volunteerism, SDT exemplifies two criteria of best representing students. First, SDT does not account for time elements found in managing student-volunteers (Clerkin, Paynter, & Taylor, 2009); therefore, this theory reflects students’ volition rather than the number of volunteer-hours they served. Next, SDT has no influence on human-avoidance theories (Mees & Schmitt, 2008). SDT is the prime criterion for assessing how students respond to universitymandated volunteerism because one overarching goal is to promote personally responsible citizenship. Students’ motivations are based on three succeeding precepts of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational attributes. Intrinsic motivation is based on internal feelings; that is, i.e., helping others for the sake of seeing them happy (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). Seeking internal motivation precipitates psychological well- being because intrinsic motivation relates directly to greater flexibility with volunteer tasks, creativity, and enthusiasm (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2008; Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). Its converse, extrinsic motivation, depends on a reward system an individual receives as a result of their motivation. For example, students only want to volunteer because they must complete course credit needed for graduation (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Pisarik, 2009). Gagné and Deci (2005) and Pisarik (2009) posited that volunteering only to obtain a reward leads to a controlled environment, in which an individual does not possess autonomy. Specifically, the individual is not in control of the original thoughts of his or her volition (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Pisarik, 2009).
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The third criteria of self-determination theory (Deci, 1971) is amotivation. This is the absence of motivation and it often leads to burnout. Burnout includes detached feelings and overwhelming exhaustion, a lack of effectiveness (or no self-understanding thereof), and no internal self-monitoring. Signs of amotivational burnout include feelings of cynicism, hopelessness, and helplessness (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Pisarik, 2009). Yueh-Tzu (2009) finds that a positive team approach in the college curriculum combats future stressful situations that often lead college students to halt a volunteer activity. The next theory that supported the framework of this study was Schein’s (2010, 2011) reciprocation of communication. This theory exemplifies the importance of relationship regulation within every facet of an organization (academic or business). Members of the relationship could include a student and faculty member, or a studentvolunteer and a hosting business-manager. Regardless of the combination, Schein (2010, 2011) suggests that each member of a relationship is motivated to act functionally. This occurs by each member avoiding isolation and rejection from each other. Schein (2010, 2011) contended that in order to have a healthy relationship in any environment, one must understand why a person has volunteered. Also, all relationships are based on, (a) scripted roles: for example, the manager makes a decision that the volunteer follows; (b) social regulations and policies: for example a volunteer would speak differently to a manager, as opposed to his or her friends; and (c) even contrastingly, avoidance responses: for example, a manager omits information in a dialog in order to preserve the tenets of a contract.
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Research Questions The central research question was, What were undergraduate and alumni’s lived experiences in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)? If volunteers’ ethical decisions were truly influenced by parents, siblings, and close friends (Francis, 2011), to what extent do students remain motivated at their volunteer work site if they (a) feel a part of the work site’s organizational policies, (b) have a pertinent say in the work site’s developmental objectives, and (c) understand their clearly defined roles within the volunteer system (Schein, 2011)? Francis (2011) and Schein (2011) suggest that volunteers cease their civic engagement partly based on internal feelings and in part because of external influences. Research questions for this study asked specifically if any of the motivational theories (or volunteer roles) reflected volunteers’ desire to serve. Thus, three subquestions emerged: Q1.
What were the students’ perceptions of faculty and volunteerorganizational managers keeping students retained in volunteerism?
Q2.
What were the students’ motivational methods of volunteerism?
Q3.
What were the surrounding influences of phenomena in volunteers’ experiences in the collegiate Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)?
Nature of the Study Comprehending volunteers’ experiences and perceptions in the last decade of the SPVS in this private, Catholic college was the nature of this qualitative study. A hermeneutic phenomenological study was chosen because of the importance of
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combining the descriptive (phenomenological) and the interpretive (hermeneutic) elements of collected data (Hatch, 2002; Moustakas, 1994). In the focus group format, however, the data of SPVS alumni participants reached saturation too quickly, as they heard each other speak (Hatch, 2002). Additionally, participants answered Questions 19, but did not have time to complete the remaining nine questions. Therefore, this study had three vital modifications before continuing with the data collection process: (a) the alumni finished the remainder of the questions (numbers 1018) via individual telephone conference rather than as part of a focus group; (b) undergraduates were interviewed subsequently in a one-on-one session, lasting no longer than 30 minutes each (and not in a focus group session); and (c) undergraduate questions decreased from 18 to eight. However, the number of interviewees remained the same, according to Moustakas’s (1994) guidance for interviewing students in a phenomenological study. There were nine alumni and 10 undergraduate SPVS participants. If needed, SPVS student program records and alumni data may also be accessed under direction of the SPVS administrators. Analysis of the data aligned to Groenewald’s (2004) five-step approach of phenomenological reduction, an abridgment of Moustakas’s (1994) phenomenological reduction. This included (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction; (b) delineating units of meaning; (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes; (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify; and (e) making a composite summary.
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Significance of the Study Collegiate volunteerism rose after the September 11, 2001, attacks against the United States until 2006 (Brudney & Meijs, 2009; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Since 2006, scholars have written more on undergraduate-volunteers’ recruitment and field placement rather than student retention in civic engagement projects. Even though college academics promote service-learning and volunteerism within their mandated, curricular planning, national volunteerism is still declining (Brudney & Meijs, 2009; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). The lack of research on student retention during their volunteer projects warranted further investigation (Blouin & Perry, 2009; Brudney, & Meijs, 2009; Anonymous, personal communication, January 11-12, 2012; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Haski-Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009; Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2011; Posner, 2009; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). A hermeneutic phenomenological investigation of this question could make an important contribution to the literature because neglecting volunteer recruitment deflects attention and resources away from volunteer retention (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). The results of this study contribute to common themes of the lived experiences of student volunteers, program alumni, and faculty’s objectives of retaining students’ interest in civic engagement volunteer-projects.
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Definition of Key Terms Altruism. A state of human motivation with the objective of advancing another’s well-being is altruism (Haski-Leventhal, 2009). Amotivation. Amotivation is the complete absence of self-determination with no self-monitoring of effort (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Assumption (Value). Value assumption exemplifies that people always want to maximize their self-interest (Batson, 2011). Autonomy. Within self-determination theory, autonomous motivation incorporates behavioral feelings of volition and motivational choice. People want to genuinely act as the original source of their actions. Autonomy is not denominated as independence (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Skinner & Edge, 2002). Awakening (turning). A segment of time (20-25 years) in a person’s life when spirituality and civic order are in a state of chaos; it is also called the Second Turning (Strauss & Howe, 1997). Burnout. A cognitive syndrome deriving from a negative work relationship is burnout. There are three applicable criteria, feelings of disinterest, pessimism, and incapability (Pisarik, 2009). Client. One who seeks aid from another (Schein, 2011). Contingent construct. A qualitative study’s internal validity is contingent construct (Golafshani, 2003). Controlled motivation. Controlled motivation is volition that impacts movement, while stemming from the sense of urgency (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
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Economic theories of organization. Theories concerning the “economic human” mean that motivation is self-centered around individualism, greed, and opportunity. Humans ignore what is best for the collective unit, in order to help themselves (Bass, 2008). Epoché. Epoché occurs when a researcher suspends judgment of an outcome, in order to view all humanistic possibilities of a study. This is an aspect of transcendental phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). Extrinsic motivation (external motivation). Extrinsic motivation is based on a rewards system. It suggests that humans act in a certain way because there are consequences or rewards. For example, students will only volunteer because they need that service credit to graduate (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Generational theory. A theory that a person’s lifetime is comprised of 80-100 years called a saeculum, in which four components are called turnings. Each Turning represents a phase of 20-25 years. The order of Turnings is: high, awakening, unraveling, and crisis. They are also called first turning, second turning, third turning, and fourth turning (Strauss & Howe, 1997). Gestalt. Gestalt psychology is when an object is portrayed in its entirety and not broken-down into segments. For example, one views someone’s face as a whole and not as allocated shapes of the nose, eyes, and mouth. The sum of the whole is more important that individual pieces. This school is anti-behavioral, meaning that one should not define actions as stimulus-response methods (Matlin, 2009).
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Hermeneutics. Coined by Schleiermacher (1768-1834), hermeneutics are a diverse phenomenological assessment that provides a theoretical framework of interpretation. It was based on the Greek mythological messenger-god Hermes, who was able to interpret and relay the gods’s messages to humans (Patton, 2002). Hermeneutic methods are interpretative, not descriptive (unlike hermeneutic phenomenology), and rejects the notion that there could be one absolute truth regarding all data’s correct interpretations (Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). Hermeneutic phenomenology. Hermeneutic phenomenology combines both the descriptive (phenomenological) and interpretative (hermeneutic) aspects of investigating lived experiences(Hatch, 2002; Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Helper. One who provides aid (Schein, 2011). Heteronomy. Controlled regulation is a direct contrast to human autonomy. This type of regulation does not include self-approval (Ryan & Deci, 2006). Intentionality. Intentionality, as stated by Husserl (1931), is the consciousness of an individual comprised of both noema and noesis (Moustakas, 1994). Intrinsic motivation (internal motivation). Intrinsic motivation is being motivated to engage in an activity because of internal satisfaction. There are no external rewards for being motivated; one feels competent and autonomous within an action (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Kantian ethic of duty. An ethical principle coined by Kant (1724-1804), it connects a person’s actions and intentions. This connection remains incongruous to any subsequent, motivational consequences (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009).
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Mandated volunteerism (coerced volunteerism). Mandated volunteerism stresses that freewill is forced. An example is a university mandating courses inclusive of service projects (Beehr et al., 2010). Noema. According to Husserl (1931), noema is a central concept of intentionality. It is the perception of the object, while assigning meaning to perception, sight, or touching. Refined by Ihde (1977), it is the object of an individual’s experience (Moustakas, 1994). Noesis. Coined by Husserl (1931) as another concept of intentionality, noesis is the object’s nature of meaning. It is separate from consciousness, as the act of perceiving, touching, seeing, or thinking. Refined by Ihde (1977), it is the “act of experiencing” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 69). Philosophical phenomenology. See transcendental phenomenology. Reflexivity. Reflexivity within qualitative research shows both the researcher and the participants of the study are mutually affected by each other’s observations and influences (Patton, 2002). Reflexivity of audience. Reflexivity of audience displays how the researcher understands the audience’s point-of-view and perspectives. It assesses how the researcher perceives the audience’s perception of the study’s contents (Patton, 2002). Reflexivity of participants (participant-observation). Reflexivity of participants (Participant-observation) shows that the researcher must comprehend that members of a study will modify their behavior after observing the researcher’s actions and influences (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002).
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Self-reflexivity. Self-reflexivity denotes the researcher assessing all the surrounding influences that may alter the conclusion of the study (Guba & Lincoln, 2005). This connects self-questioning and self-understanding (Patton, 2002). Reliability. Reliability is one criterion signifying validity within research. Originally, it was used for quantitative research; however, it can be used also for qualitative and mixed methods (Golafshani, 2003). Role (volunteer). The volunteer role is defined as aiding someone (Schein, 2011). Self-determination theory. Self-determination theory determines that people have various levels of motivational quantity and types (Pisarik, 2009). Transcendental phenomenology. Transcendental phenomenology is the study of phenomena, and it incorporates an individual’s appearance of objects to their consciousness (Moustaskas, 1994; Patton, 2002). Descartes’ view. Descartes (1596-1650) concluded that transcendental phenomenology states that perception of any reality is contingent upon its subject (Moustaskas, 1994). Hegel’s view. Hegel (1770-1831) states that transcendental phenomenology aligns the interaction of knowledge and consciousness, while cognition and experience are key elements (Moustaskas, 1994). Heidegger’s view. Heidegger (1889-1976) posits that transcendental phenomenology is: interpretation of phenomena is the basic element of experience, and it cannot work in isolation (Moustaskas, 1994).
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Husserl’s view. Husserl’s (1859-1938) view of transcendental phenomenology stated that humanism encompassed cognition’s meaning (Moustaskas, 1994). Kant’s view. Kant’s (1724-1804) view of transcendental phenomenology was that the object (of an individual’s perception) corresponds to that individual’s intuition (Moustaskas, 1994). Plato’s view. Plato’s (ca. 428 BCE- ca. 348 BCE) view of transcendental phenomenology is an anti-Kantian approach, because it rejects the notion that reality “appears.” However, forms or ideas still manifest themselves through phenomena (Rockmore, 2011). Transformational relationships. Transformational relationships are when people in any relationship change and grow because of complex and meaningful elements (Clayton et al., 2010). Transactional relationships. A relationship promoting simplistic short-term tasks is considered transactional relationship (Clayton et al., 2010). Triangulation. Triangulation combines methods within a study in order to strengthen it. Picturing a triangle, a researcher can formulate two directions of study while standing at their intersection (Patton, 2002). Data triangulation. Data triangulation incorporates various data sources (Denzin, 1978; Patton, 2002). Theory triangulation. Theory triangulation uses multiple perspectives to interpret a single datum (Patton, 2002).
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Volition. Volition is the process by which an individual relies on the will, in order to connect actions and goals (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Volunteerism. Volunteerism can be defined as uncoerced helping in various activities; however, volunteerism is divided into mandated and nonmandated subcategories (Beehr et al., 2010). Will. Within human brain activity, will is a part of cognition in the mind that mirrors wants, desires, and purpose (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Summary This qualitative study found the situational phenomena surrounding students’ lived volunteer experiences in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service, during a time when the national average of college volunteer wanes. This study’s problem was linked to the lack of academic research in students’ retention in collegiate volunteer projects. The theoretical framework of this study was Deci and Ryan’s (1985) selfdetermination theory (coined in 1971), as exemplified though the acts of human motivation: intrinsic, extrinsic motivation, or amotivational attributes, as well as Schein’s (2010, 2011) reciprocation of communication. A spike in character education curriculum after the 9/11 attacks permitted universities to promote undergraduates as personally responsible citizens (Zipin & Reid, 2008). However, since 2006, the rapid decline of the volunteer-student as a personally responsible citizen continues. This is exemplified by a student’s lack of interest in community and political events (Dekker, 2009; Finkelstein, 2011; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; McBrien, 2008; McDonald, 2011). The following
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chapter outlines the review of the literature associated with such investigation of why this decline continues.
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Chapter 2: Review of the Literature Summary of the Purpose Statement The purpose of this phenomenological study was to investigate the lived experiences of undergraduates and alumni of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State, through a framework of a hermeneutic lens. This framework, first suggested by Heidegger (1927), advocated finding the meaning of experience while deriving from situational (in situ) conditions (Patton, 2002). This modification differs slightly from the original hermeneutics of Schleiermacher (1768-1834). Groenewald (2004) modified Hycner’s (1999) structure, which originated with Moustakas (1994), who stated that data analysis consisted of five phases: (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction, (b) delineating units of meaning, (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes, (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify, and (e) making a composite summary. There were nine SPVS alumni in a focus group session and 10 undergraduates in individual interviews. Sample sizes are small and consist of two groups of no more than 10 participants each, according to the literature, in order to gain a better understanding of the participants’ real-world experiences (Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Participants’ perceptions unified their experiences (Holstein & Gubrium, 2008). Undergraduates and alumni of the SPVS were interviewed and given Critical Incident Reports to answer (Appendix G). Alumni SPVS participants matriculated in this program from 2001-2005, at a time when the national average of volunteerism was higher. The
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second group of undergraduate SPVS participants were currently matriculate (no earlier than 2006), at a time when the national average of civic engagement decreased. To gain a better understanding of the participants’ real-world experiences, sample sizes are smaller than 11 people. Usually, groups consist of two groups of no more than 10 participants each (Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Undergraduates and alumni of the SPVS were interviewed and given critical incident reports to answer (Appendix G). In addition to Groenewald’s (2004) methods of data analysis, this study incorporated the following criteria of data analysis: (a) protocol writing, as reflected by the participants’ critical incident reports; (b) interviewing and a focus group session; (c) observing participants’ nonverbal cues, as well as their surrounding circumstances (i.e., bringing their spouses or children into the focus group sessions); and (d) examining the literature for biographical connections (Hatch, 2002; Marshall & Rossman, 1995; Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). Organization of This Chapter The review of the literature is organized into the following overarching sections: the beginning segments reflect the theoretical framework of a hermeneutic phenomenological study, and the historical background of classical writers’ ethical connection to human motivation. This is portrayed by Kantian ethics and the Husserlian conflicting theory of transcendental, phenomenological ethics. Next, the theoretical components within this chapter describe human motivation interlinked to selfdetermination theory of Deci et al. (1985), as well as the communicative works of Schein (2010, 2011). The next section includes a description of faculty roles refining student-
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leadership in the classroom. The final segments pertain to students’ limitations within volunteerism, and the problem of sorting critical responses within human motivational research. Documentation Table 1 shows the research strategy, which included establishing article, book, library, search engine, and keyword criteria. Publications, if not primary sources, were within 5 years of the year 2011, the year research began. Hermeneutic Phenomenological Framework A hermeneutic phenomenological study was chosen because of the importance of combining the descriptive and the interpretive elements of data. This differed from the hermeneutics proper of Schleiermacher (1768-1834), modified by Heidegger in 1927. Moustakas (1994) was a key resource for phenomenological interpretation with an empirical study because of his connection and blending of two very different schools of phenomenology: transcendental (philosophical) and empirical. Although the term phenomenology was first used by Kant (1765) and associated with the anti-Platonic view of merging appearances with phenomena, Hegel (1931) continued to modify the transcendental aspect. Conversely, Heidegger (1927) modified the empirical aspect of how humans perceived the elements that validated an individual perceiving a phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994; Rockmore, 2011).
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Table 1 Documentation Design: Method for Selecting Articles and Books Resource
Parameter
Article Search Criteria
Peer-reviewed
Full text
Scholarly articles
Published 2006 or later (began writing dissertation in 2011)
Search Engines Used
Google Books
Roadrunner Search
EBSCO Host
Ebrary ProQuest
Libraries Used
NCU Library
North Country Library System
State University of New York Library System
Book Search Criteria
No “Vanity Presses”/ SelfPublications
Most published 2006 or later unless it was a primary source
Works found within these categories: 1. 2.
3.
4.
Article Keyword Searches
Deci & Ryan/ Self-determination theory
Plato/ Hobbes/ Kant/ Human Motivation theory
Deci & Ryan/ SelfDetermination Theory Plato/ Classical Writers/ Human Motivation Theory/ Citizenship Education Undergraduate Volunteerism & Civic Engagement Hermeneutic Phenomenology
Undergraduate volunteerism & civic engagement Fundamental issues of volunteerism/ altruism vs. volunteerism
Hermeneutic Phen./Schleiermache/ Heiddegger / Patton/ Moustakas/ phen. Research design Citizenship education
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In the traditional sense of transcendental phenomenology, epoché is a valid criterion that applied to the hermeneutic branch of phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994; Rockmore, 2011). Within the transcendental school, phenomena are descriptive, not interpretative. Generally, during epoché, a researcher’s prejudgment must be suspended until the contextual elements of circumstance can be understood (Moustakas, 1994; Patton, 2002; Rockmore, 2011). Moustakas (1994) refined concepts of hermeneutic phenomenological research, while specifically making the former transcendental phenomenological criterion epoché more empirically-based (Moutaskas, 1994; Patton, 2002). Refining Husserl’s (1931) concepts of intentionality are two components of a phenomenon: noema and noesis. Noema, a central concept of intentionality, is the perception of anobject, while assigning meaning to this perception. This is accomplished by the five senses (Moustakas, 1994)Noesis is when an object is separated from the consciousness, as the act of perceiving, touching, seeing, or thinking. Noesis is the “act of experiencing” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 69). When combining the two, intentionality is the result. An individual is then capable of intrinsic experiences (though wishes, judgment, or pleasure). Therefore, Husserl concluded that human motivation is intentional, not ethereal, within cognition (Moustakas, 1994). Heidegger (1927) contributed to phenomenology by establishing that there is more than one way to justify interpretation in every experience of a phenomenon. Each interpretation of a phenomenon is more valuable than the description. This view is anti-
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Husserlian, since interpretation needs surroundings and context while not being able to function in isolation (Rockmore, 2011). Aligning to Schleiermacher (1768-1834), hermeneutics (proper) are interpretative, not descriptive for analyzing data. Phenomena are connected to written/ text interpretation. Finally, all deciphering of phenomena is contingent upon cultural traditions that are based in situ (Patton, 2002). Although hermeneutics (proper) is the foundational analysis of written texts, Moustakas (1994) modified hermeneutics, renaming it hermeneutic phenomenology. In these concise seven areas, Moustakas’s (1994) qualitative-inquiry criteria reflect the value of the methodological design vis-à-vis the human experience, unique to the qualitative measures. A key concept of hermeneutic phenomenology is gestalt theorem (i.e., the wholeness of the human experience is more important than the segments of its fragmented parts). Within this structure, meaning and substance of the experience, especially obtained through first-person reflections. An example is that a study’s participants organize their thoughts (visual elements into categories). This connects their experiences to their behaviors (Moustakas, 1994). Historical Background of Ethics Linked to Human Motivation Within the classical writers’ views of maintaining an ethical connection to human motivation, Aristotelian and Kantian ethics state that the “will belongs to the intellect” (Feldmeijer, 2009, p. 224; Mummery, 2006). Connecting the Aristotelian notion that performing good deeds is intrinsically good, the Kantian view of morality and ethics commenced a deductive (a priori) cornerstone for ethical behavior. Those with this view
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advocate the position that an individual’s self-command pertains to the intellect, notwithstanding that feelings of sympathy are undependable. This is because sympathetic feelings were not a deductive basis for ethical conduct. Instead, an individual must adhere to a higher moral law (Feldmeijer, 2009). Nevertheless, scholars have argued that Kant did not identify the true qualitative differences between an individual’s feelings (Peucker, 2007). Kantian philosophy discusses how motivational actions align with a sense of duty. This occurs with or without an individual’s inclination (Mummery, 2006). These actions exemplify the idea that, despite a person’s duty to act uniformly with goodness, morally worthy actions do not occur until an individual shows higher moral standards (i.e., these standards are higher than the status quo). For example, if a child within a group refuses to steal when others do, that action is deemed highly virtuous by the moral law to which the child had adhered. Kantian theory stated that ethical responsibility is based in rational calculations, resulting in obedience to moral law (Mummery, 2006). In that paradigm, that child has surpassed feelings of coerced sympathy while advancing to a higher morality. By avoiding stealing with the others, the child separated successfully inclination (i.e., to be coerced into stealing) from duty (i.e., attending to pre-set moral laws). According to Kantian ethics, adherence and respect for a higher moral law are prime motivations behind all subsequent ethical behavior (Feldmeijer, 2009; Mummery, 2006). Motivation organizes general behaviorism in individuals (Conroy & Pincus, 2011).
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According to Kant, the desire to help others is akin to belonging to the human species because it connects people together, while precipitating their concern for each other. Interestingly, Kant did not rely on the word empathy but rather the phrase objective benevolence, which connects beauty and rightfulness into moral respect (Feldmeijer, 2009). But it did not end there: Kant did not view moral sense as the impetus to moral action. He furthered his theory on objective benevolence by stating that an individual is motivated to perfect the desire for order. This is accomplished by two personified elements of aversion and desire. These two elements conflict and interact with each other, and are found in numerous others works of Aristotle and Hobbes (Aristotle, trans. 2011; Feldmeijer, 2009; Hobbes, 1660/2009). Husserl’s Kantian Conflict and Transcendental Phenomenological Ethics Toward the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, Husserl (1859-1938) opposed the Kantian view of nature influencing the moral being, despite being heavily influenced by Kant’s works. Husserl rationalized that human inclinations are purely subjective (Peucker, 2007). Labeled as a transcendental phenomenologist, Husserl began his university lectures in 1884 and discussed his first theories on ethics, although they were not published at that time. Husserl’s works between 1910 and 1920 constituted as his second ethical, theoretical, phase, wherein the connection between ethics and logic was not integral as in his first phase. In this second phase of his works, the phenomenological subject is an individual who worked toward blessedness or happiness (Peucker, 2008).
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Husserl’s (1906) assessment of reason is divided into three categories: theoretical, practical, and axiological (evaluation), while aiding an individual to construct a rational order of human volition and the will to achieve. Ethics are indeed parallel to logic, as primary tools for humans to realize what is morally good. Husserl interlocked these three categories to the will “performing” good deeds by disaffirming empiricism, revealing a priori investigation of evaluating and practice. Also, it connected phenomenological criteria. According to Husserl (1906), phenomenological structure aligned to human consciousness. It revealed that an individual’s will neither be linked to psychological nor empirical evidence (Peucker, 2007, 2008). The will of human motivation must incorporate first-person experiences (Hutt, 2009; Konopka, 2009). Morality as a Social Construction Plato’s Republic (ca. 380 BCE) provided many allegories that question if morality is a social construction. That is, Plato questioned: if the parameters of morality disappear in a society, does an individual’s morality also dissipate? One important allegory to analyze this question was entitled the ring of Gyges. The parable begins when an otherwise “moral” shepherd steals a gold ring from a corpse. This ring has the power to make the shepherd invisible. Using the ring, the shepherd seduces the queen, as they plot to kill the king, so the shepherd could acquire the throne (Plato, trans. 2008). From this allegory of evaluating an unmonitored human, Plato demonstrates how an individual could act when there is no fear of consequences. To this shepherd, moral boundaries are unclear because he becomes “enslaved” by his own corruption. Therefore, Plato argues that true inner morality of a citizen is a combination of all segments of the mind working
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harmoniously under the rule of governance. If one segment of the mind is not balanced (in the shepherd’s case, the segment that permitted greed (pleonexia), societal discord, and mutiny erupt (Plato, trans. 2008; Hustinx et al., 2010). In contemporary parlance, two important rhetorical questions posited from this allegory, “What did students attempt when they thought that ‘no one was looking?’” and, “Were the goals of volunteers and the university made clear to students doing the work?” It is difficult to answer the two preceding questions with one uniform prototype, since civic engagement may fall into numerous subcategories: cooperative learning, citizenship education, human motivation theory, leadership studies, self-determination theory, service-learning, volunteerism, etc. (Adler & Goggin, 2005; Hustinx et al., 2010). However, regardless of the name, civic engagement is always a valid social construct under one, unifying staple: the promotion of a citizen for active betterment in society (Adler & Goggin, 2005; Hustinx et al., 2010). Theoretical Background of Self-Determination Theory Human motivation interlinked to self-determination theory. Selfdetermination theory (SDT), a macrotheory of human motivation coined in part by Deci in 1971 of the University of Rochester, New York, incorporates numerous subcategories. They are the influence of culture on: life goals, self-monitoring, uniform psychological wants, and volition and energy (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Hustinx et al., 2010). Described as a post-Kantian phenomenological philosophy, SDT serves also as a qualitative, humanistic approach to the gestalt of human development. These researchers advocated gestalt by
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“seeing” the entire conception rather than segmenting its theoretical components into fragments (Ryan & Deci, 2002, 2006). Within this theory, the criteria of an Aristotelian quest include goodness, intellect, and integration into society (Ryan & Deci, 2002). However, the Platonic paradigm describes individual happiness and fulfillment by accommodating the principle of specialization; that is, , each member of the republic contributes his or her talent (or skill) to the good of the whole community (Plato, trans. 2008). Despite an alliance with social mortality and the need for human interaction, the Platonic view is anti-Kantian because it rejects the notion that reality “appears.” However, form or ideas continue to manifest themselves via phenomena (Patton, 2002; Rockmore, 2011). Understanding human motivation: Self-determination theory. Selfdetermination theory (SDT) is also known as human autonomy. This means that it is not connected to “independence;” but rather, an individual acts accordingly to internal feelings of volition, motivational choice, and behaviorism (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Skinner & Edge, 2002). SDT has been described as a post-Kantian, and post-Husserlian, phenomenological assessment (Ryan & Deci, 2006). SDT connects well to researching volunteers’ activities for two main reasons. SDT avoids two categories that could complicate an assessment of human motivation: time commitments and humanavoidance theories. SDT would consider a student’s volition, not the number of volunteer hours served (as a result of such motivation). Next, the numerous subcategories of human-avoidance theory does not apply to SDT (Mees & Schmitt, 2008).
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Within the overarching tenet of promoting the personally responsible citizens via citizenship education, SDT is the prime criterion for monitoring how students respond to university-mandated volunteerism. According to Shye (2010), the objectives of the general undergraduate-volunteer seek professional and personal contacts and obtain higher salaries post-graduation than those young adults of the same age who are not matriculated in a college program Before the largest elements of SDT’s centralized indictors are discussed (specifically, autonomous versus controlled motivation), an overview of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational motivation will be considered (Appendix A). Students’ motivations are based on three succeeding precepts of intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivational attributes. Intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is based on internal concepts (wanting to do well) and the satisfaction that comes from serving others (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). The promotion of autonomy and its satisfaction of human, societal progress supported internal (as opposed to external) volition, upon which internal goals are driven. Additionally, seeking internal motivation precipitates psychological well- being because intrinsic motivation relates directly to greater flexibility with tasks, creativity, and enthusiasm (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). Volunteers are truly interested in tasks, not because of what a reward from that tasks could bring them. Paradigms include volunteering without being asked, without receiving a grade or credit for the service, or volunteering in order to connect to another project, or work with new people or ideas (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Niemiec et al., 2009; Pisarik, 2009).
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Malti and Buchmann (2009) described a student’s moral motivation as having intrinsic components. Defined as a person’s willingness to withhold a moral rule when amoral influences are apparent, this theorem has strong cognitive components. However, there is much discussion on moral motivation, since a person must be willing to accept its rules of reflection as “personally binding” to that individual (Malti & Buchmann, 2009). Relationships play a key role in moral motivation because relationships support societal elements (i.e., fairness and justice). Friends within a society also increase moral motivation, while being based on discursive interactions, reciprocal opinion seeking, and checking for understanding and validation (Malti & Buchmann, 2009). Clearly, Deci and Ryan’s macrotheory reflects the link between societal influences on the human interaction and volition. Influences of internal motivation are based on personal development and cohesion (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan’s (2006, 2008) extrinsic motivation stems from external factors (for example: getting a good grade or recommendation as a result of volunteering). Examples are contingent upon the reward system. Students think they are obligated to serve because of consequences to their grades, course credits, or degree requirements. Volunteers function in a controlled environment without autonomy (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Pisarik, 2009). External motivation regulates an individual, but it also obstructs full internalization (full intrinsic motivation). Poor behavioral management is the result. Ergo, a student’s satisfaction is derived not from volunteering but from the rewards that result from the efforts (Niemiec et al., 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2006, 2008).
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Niemiec, Ryan, and Deci (2009) also analyzed goals of extrinsic aspirations. Three of their seven categories of life goals are considered extrinsically motivated. They are: social recognition, acquiring monetary and material rewards, and concernment for physical appearance. Conversely, intrinsic life goals include personal goals and growth, relationships, and care for physical health (Niemiec et al., 2009). Gagné and Deci (2005) argued that human activity and the concrete or verbal rewards are connected as causeeffect, but two distinct entities or processes. Therefore, a volunteer’s satisfaction from performing an activity is derived from the potential reward and not from performing the activity itself. Amotivation. The lack of any motivation, or amotivation, often leads to burnout. Elements of burnout connect to feelings a student has about a work project, including overwhelming exhaustion, feelings of detachment, a sense of ineffectiveness, and no internal self-monitoring (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Pisarik, 2009). Often, students display burnout symptoms in collegiate volunteerism. Defined as a physical and mental halt of activity, students exhibit feelings of fatigue, hopelessness, helplessness, and cynicism (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008). Four elements relate directly to burnout: (a) workload connected to the intensity of burnout, (b) emotional intelligence played an integral role, (c) positive team approached alleviated stressful situations, and (d) positive team levels combated both workload and burnout stress (Yueh-Tzu, 2009). Zaff et al. (2010) asked how faculty can pique their students’ interest in continuing to volunteer in a civic opportunity if they show signs of burnout, particularly based upon extrinsic motivational factors. Faculty could promote a student’s motivation
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of volunteerism by aiding civic activity by supporting community connections and a sense of moral duty (Zaff et al., 2010). This would enable students to gain the best experience possible at their work site. Importantly, each facet of self-determination theory may not work in isolation. Volunteers’ motives are complex and include variables from intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational criteria. For example, students can say that they are motivated to volunteer based on intrinsic values of wanting to do good deeds, and on extrinsic reasons that it will simultaneously boost their grade for a class (Handy et al., 2010). However, mixing various motivational criteria from internal, external, and amotivational stimuli has led researchers to discover conceptual problems found within human motivational research (Shye, 2010). Schein’s Reciprocation of Communication Schein’s (2010, 2011) cultural policies are found within relationships of every collective unit within an organization, whether they are volunteer or paid. One seeks these relationships in order to feel cohesive with the unit. Without this feeling of closeness, the fear of isolation or rejection deters a volunteer or employee from the following from bad etiquette (Schein, 2011). The contact between the volunteer and the “employer” (manager) must be fruitful from the beginning, while being derived from an individual’s initiative (Schein, 2011). There must be neither stimulus overload, nor uncertainly with an organizational relationship (Schein, 2010). Understanding why a person volunteered is vital if that person is to form a cohesive relationship within such organizational unit. Cultural principles are foundational within two fundamental
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guidelines: communication in a relationship must be reciprocal, and all relationships are based on a scripted role, learned early in childhood and used automatically throughout life (Schein, 2010, 2011). Schein’s (2010, 2011) reciprocation of communication includes teaching eye contact and proper manners when speaking. For example, a child must learn to say “thank you” or “please” in order to show a part in mutual reciprocation. In a metaphor, it is closing a “loop” of communication that demonstrates equitable interaction between members in a relationship (Schein, 2011). Without its constant looping, while exhibiting equal acts of validation and kindness, the relationship deteriorates (Schein, 2011). Schein (2011) wrote that scripted roles are imperative criteria taught early in life as well. An individual decides quickly in every facet of relationships who plays the “actor” (the talker) and the “audience” (the listener). Within an organizational environment, the reciprocation between the volunteer and the manager may not mean, necessarily, an equitable status. But it could suggest that an individual knows how to behave appropriately within the role of the relationship. For example, an individual who meets someone of higher status (e.g., a boss or manager) takes on a tone of submissiveness. However, when that same individual is meeting with colleagues, the tone is more informal and casual (Schein, 2011). Finally, social rules and policies even replace deepened values and morals. Although most people are taught never to lie, it is socially acceptable to exaggerate the truth in certain scenarios. For example, if a spouse has worked hard to cook a meal that does not taste good, it is socially improper to be directly critical. An avoidance response
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to “How did the meal taste?” leads to statements such as, “You worked really hard to prepare this meal, and I appreciate that” (Schein, 2011). Schein (2010) denoted two levels of anxiety that volunteers face: learning anxiety and survival anxiety. Learning anxiety is a result of being corrected by disconfirmation; therefore, an individual thinks he or she cannot learn new behaviors or habits without losing membership within a group. It is a feeling of a lack of psychological safety and self-esteem. Learning anxiety is based on a fear of losing power or position, temporary incompetence, punishment for incompetence, loss of personal identity, or group membership (Schein, 2010). Survival anxiety is a projection that something is not as bad as it first appears. For example, within an organization, if sales are down, a manager does not want to take responsibility for the projected numbers, while calling it a “minor recession.” People still deny the validity or downplay the severity of information. The combination of both learning and survival anxieties promote motivational change (Schein, 2010). To promote motivational change, survival anxiety must exceed learning anxiety, and learning anxiety must be decreased and not aid the increase of survival anxiety (Schein, 2010). The Academics’s Influences on Pre-Practicum Education Refining student-leaders in the classroom: Pre-volunteer service. Refining student-leaders in the classroom before sending them out to do volunteer projects is an essential objective of any cross-curricular major. Among first-year students, skills need to be taught consistently throughout the undergraduate career. It is important that each student’s potential be matched to the proper leadership volunteer activity. Without this
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step, students do not have the knowledge, resources, or maturity to handle the diverse relationships outside the college-community. Investigating student-volunteers’ criteria balances periodic self-reflection and multidimensional evaluation. These elements pertain to accountability, responsibility, trust, maturity, and integrity, while emphasizing a critical leadership role (Chen et al., 2008). Chen et al. (2008) posited that the literature has shifted from the study of personal and students’ values to collective efforts and criteria in a collaborative setting. This includes classroom settings that are team-based learning, and teaching within small groups. Their examples in a separate paradigm of the medical field stress that leadership curriculum now includes reciprocal-teaching to peers and mentoring programs (Chen et al., 2008). These programs and activities are critical to promoting the leadership role in the medical classroom. Peers show that they respect student-leaders who exemplify diverse interpretations of materials to the peer-students, while leading to higher testing and group-performance results. The ultimate results of collaborative learning in the classroom pre-practicum include advancing the self-awareness of students (Chen et al., 2008). However, returning to the field of volunteerism, even if students see intrinsic selfworth in collaborative learning groups and volunteer projects that go beyond external rewards (e.g., grades, job promotion, résumé building, and networking), extrinsic and intrinsic motivations do not work in isolation. A student may have a combination of factors of motivation; for example, an individual would have internal feelings of wanting to help others, but simultaneous conflicting thoughts being obligated to volunteer due to
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parental pressure. A deeper look into social-value construction within academia demonstrates how generally undergraduates are motivated to serve based on their surrounding conditions and environment. However, in the pre-service classroom, research shows that college students showed examples of (a) group cooperation, (b) moral symmetry, (c) empathy-induced altruism, and (d) defined roles within volunteering (Batson, 2011; Craig, 2009; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; San Facon & Spears, 2010; Schein, 2011; Yamarik, 2007). Group cooperation. Yamarik (2007) stated that group cooperation is found within collegiate volunteerism. In class assignments, equal delegation of tasks is imperative for team success. Undergraduates continue to thrive with communication and human interaction between professors and other group members. A goal should be to learn to accomplish goals and skills for volunteering and in the work force. Yamarik (2007) distinguishes cooperative from collaborative learning. The distinction includes the cooperative learning denoting the traditional criteria of the teacher, as the curricular leader emerges. Collaborative learning suggests the instructor works with the students to collectively learn new knowledge, wherein the correct answer is learned by group consensus. Individual and group accountability remains important criteria in pre-practicum group work. Each student-leader in the group understands that his or her contribution is a valid part of the entire group grade. Additionally, instructors grade twice per project, offering both an individual and a group grade. This alleviates inconsistencies relating to members’ work contribution to a project (Yamarik, 2007).
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Yamarik (2007) set the preliminary background of five areas for successful cooperative group processing. These are a set of five guidelines to promote the collective team-building leadership skills of an undergraduate. First, positive interdependence means that students learn to rely on each other to achieve their class goals. Next, promotive interaction stresses a face-to-face interaction between all students in the group, in equal time. Third, both individual and group accountability is imperative to the group. Students have responsibility for their contribution on both levels. Next, group processing is an important task for students to be metacognitive on goals and self-improvement. Finally, development of small-group interpersonal skills includes how to deliver feedback effectively, while reaching each member of the group and approaching a productive consensus. Group cooperation for students focused on each group member contributing to the group’s effectiveness. If faculty give them a group project, an effective task would be to give students a short written survey at the beginning, middle, and end of the project. This survey would help develop consensus in the group. Additionally, faculty should teach students how to give constructive feedback, before students critique each other. In addition, group work promotes more students to ask questions as opposed to the lecture style format (Yamarik, 2007). Within the collective unit of group work, students challenge themselves and others (Craig, 2009). First, students must rethink their roles within group work. Do all members understand their role and what they offered the group? Next, is delegation uniform to all members of the group, leading to higher efficacy of the results? Also, is
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each student allowed personal feedback on the project? Finally, do students understand which resources are available to them (Craig, 2009)? Effective student-leadership transition is determined in a group setting while including benefits for the future-leaders (Craig, 2009). Beginning with review of the group’s (or volunteer organization’s) goals, the student-leader understood the roles of each member in the group. Then each member needs to understand his or her role as well. When there is clear understanding, then there is purpose to the group work. Mapping the group’s journey is another way to connect to the group’s future goals. Additionally, each member can be a historian to the group by recounting the most and least beneficial aspects of the group’s project. Another example includes team-building activities and personality assessments. This determined diverse personalities with their weakness and their strengths within the group cohesion (Craig, 2009). Within citizenship education courses, students know the roles to which they are assigned inside and outside the classroom as well as at the volunteer site. Socialization includes building social skills and the acumen necessary to fill an organizational role (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008). Starting a civic engagement project without having students comprehend their pre-defined role as a volunteer leads to a lack of motivation. Well-developed socialization within an organization improves mastering skills and tasks, roles, and affiliation to the volunteer project and group while promoting volunteer retention (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008). Haski-Leventhal and Bargal (2008) studied volunteers’ roles in five phases (Appendix B). A segment of those five phases determined motivation and commitment:
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within the first nominee phase (i.e., the volunteer was 1-2 months prior to entering the volunteer site), the volunteer showed that there was motivation to serve. This derived from three forms of altruistic, intrinsic (egotistical) and social elements. Within the first few months, the volunteer is labeled as newcomer and showed a “contract commitment” (i.e., did not feel needed). The phase of emotional involvement succeeded after 4-8 months of volunteering. This was the time that the volunteer had the highest amount of emotional connection and identification to the group. Established volunteering occurred after a year; however, feeling wanted and needed within the organization are low again. “Retiring” from the organization occurred normally after a year or two. This paradigm shift moved to the volunteer’s thoughts of commitment to general volunteerism and to multilateral, social change (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008). Moral symmetry. The second paradigm within collegiate volunteerism is moral symmetry. San Facon and Spears (2010) implemented this criterion of volunteerism in a corporate setting for student-volunteers to mirror its conduct. When balancing morality in volunteerism, leadership of employees connected to functional volunteerism. This connection occurred by uniting decision making and action for the pertinent needs of all. Volunteers shared a leadership role, upheld the connection to people, and linked egotistical needs to the communal good. Corporations stressed interrelated connectivity among all employees (as an example from which student-volunteers follow); there must be a juncture of motive, means, and ends. Motive united intentions, while attaching the common good to all applicable stakeholders.
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Means are the methodology of the organizational intentions. Two examples show ways of being (attention to the individual) and form of governance (attention to partnership) while promoting empathy, listening, reflection, availability, and foresight (San Facon & Spears, 2010). Administrators must listen effectively to a volunteer’s concerns. Most often, complaints in student volunteerism reflect discord throughout the community. Ends denote clearly the final results of a corporation’s objectives (San Facon & Spears, 2010). Empathy-induced altruism. The third factor in collegiate volunteerism is empathy- induced altruism. Humans act for the common good when it benefits their personal interest, and this supersedes any obtainable personal costs. Promoting the common good is an “unintentional consequence” of following one’s self-interest. Conversely, within the rationality assumption, people choose actions that get them what they desired (Batson, 2011). Value assumption is defined as people always wanting to maximize their self-interest (Batson, 2011). However, the value assumption of individuals is challenged when there is a pending social dilemma. Batson’s (2011) objectives of a social dilemma are found within volunteerism. The objectives follow: (a) each individual or group has a choice regarding scarce resource allocation; (b) allotment to the collective groups, instead of self, provides a greater good for all; (c) allotment of self will supersede any altruism to a collective group; and (d) chaos will result within a social dilemma. People will pursue “blindly” their own goals rather than contribute to the welfare of the group (common good), while
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putting their well-being last. Altruistic motivation threatens common good in social stressors, while being more powerful than “self-centered egotism” (Batson, 2011). Defined roles within volunteering. The final element within collegiate volunteerism is understanding the role one plays within volunteerism as a helper “administering aid.” It is delineated into three categories: (a) expert role, (b) doctor role, and (c) process consultant role (Schein, 2011). Within the Expert role, the subsequent abbreviated questions arise concerning the client (the one seeking aid from another): (a) Is the problem being diagnosed correctly? (b) Is there communication toward the helper (i.e., one providing aid)? (c) Are the capabilities of the helper being assessed, while providing the service or information therein (Schein, 2011)? Within the Doctor role, one who diagnoses and prescribes remedies to a problem found within volunteerism, he or she acts as an extension of the Expert role. The one receiving aid “Client” (according to Schein, 2011) from the Doctor role expects a diagnosis, prescription, and implementation of a solution to the problem. The one performing the Doctor role posits the following questions before helping the client: (a) Is the client motivated to discuss accurate information? (b) Does the client accept and believe the helper’s diagnosis and prescription; and (c) Are the consequences of the aforementioned questions understood by the client (Schein, 2011)? Within the roles of either client or helper, the literature describes areas that are “traps” found within volunteerism (of which student are a part). Under the Client category three of the five categories are (a) initial mistrust: wherein the Client uses hypothetical statements to determine the helper’s initial responsiveness or sympathy; (b)
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relief: after sharing a problem, the client associates the feeling of verbal relief to that of a “sense of dependency” toward the helper; and (c) looking for attention, reassurance, and/ or vindication. Schein (2011) determined that not all clients seek help, even though they ask for it. Conversely, there are three of six “traps” the helper avoids. The first begins with dispensing advice prematurely. Doing so hinders the client even more because it ignores the possibility that the client was testing the helper by “floating a substitute.” This occurs when the client speaks a sentence that is indirectly related to the intent of the question, in order to preliminarily evaluate the mood and possible answer of the helper (Schein, 2011). The next trap is meeting defensiveness with added pressure. Here the helper assumes that the client is best prepared for the problem, when one is not. The result is the helper not “backing down” and not willing to “lose face” (Schein, 2011). The final trap is accepting the problematic situation and over-reacting to the client-helper relationship. The helper accepting (enthusiastically, but prematurely), the role of helping the client provides a false sense of dependency. The client and helper do not truly know if the helper has provided solid assistance (Schein, 2011). The Process Consultant role determines the type of help needed and aided relationships (Schein, 2011). Specifically, the interaction between helper and client is placed upon the following criteria: tone of voice, setting, demeanor, and body language (Schein, 2011). Its objectives include teaching clients to think through volunteer problems themselves in order to establish their own remedies. Without it, they do not
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implement appropriate solutions especially if they recur. Also, the pinnacle of volunteering is to be able to transmit diagnostic skills (Schein, 2011). Faculty Influences Students’ Growth as Personally Responsible Citizens Faculty can influence a student’s growth as personally, responsible citizens, while fostering relationships with volunteerism as well as civic engagement opportunities. Beginning by defining civic responsibility, faculty incorporate these modified themes into curricular units. Gottlieb and Robinson (2006) expressed that students understand the difference between responsibility and rights. Citizens show comprehension by exemplifying stewardship. One criterion is learning the difference between culturally defined or legally defined citizenship. Additionally, students understand participatory government with these criteria: (a) local, state, national, and international levels; (b) communal decision making; (c) common good and those who define it; and (d) political awareness and policy (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Butin (2010) wrote that students need to have specifics embedded in their coursework to apply to an outside environment of civic opportunities. Despite the cooperative relationship between faculty and student, and much-needed positive, reciprocal relationships found within volunteering, service-learning can be both “transformative and repressive” (Butin, 2010).When service-learning is “transformative,” it allows social, cultural, economic, and political components to change. Examples include student-volunteers can make a difference within their civic engagement opportunity by challenging and surveying existing organizational, collegiate, curricular,
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and political roles. They, alongside the faculty and community members, have the right to question local, state, and national policy, while implementing reform (Butin, 2010). However, when service-learning is deemed “repressive,” there are two criteria representing those criteria. First, Butin (2010) states that there is little opportunity to calculate long-term ramifications of service-learning projects on a larger, community scale. Second, since European-Americans are in the majority of volunteers(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011, 2012; Butin, 2010), there is a misrepresentation that servicelearning stems from those “in the culture of power to maintain inequitable power relations under the guise of benevolent volunteerism” (Butin, 2010, p. 11). Therefore, despite doing good deeds, Butin (2010) argued that volunteerism is based on the assumption that an individual commits isolated actions to promote “grand-scale societal change.” In Butin’s (2010) view, promoting a student’s civic responsibility may not be linked to perpetuating a stronger democracy. There must be a distinguishable connection between groups, institution, and individuals that students cannot provide (Butin, 2010). For example, proper lesson structure is imperative for faculty to teach studentleader effective leadership skills before a pending civic engagement volunteer position. Gottlieb and Robinson (2006) cited a pre-service lesson plan for students defining the difference between rights vs. responsibilities as integrating components of civic engagement. Faculty reflect on the following objectives: (a) what specific goals are used for both service-learning and civic responsibility; (b) how do students’ relate these goals to their volunteer experience; (c) how is the time allocation for each lesson; and (d) how can the course design be structured to fit community needs, advancing civic
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responsibility, and academic learning (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006)? Within the particular lesson of rights vs. responsibility, the objective stated that within a democratic citizenry, students sought to understand the correlation between these two terms. The time needed to complete this undergraduate lesson is 30 minutes in class with an additional 60 minutes of outside research. Instructions to this lesson are to read a paragraph and assess the correlation and diversity between various facets of rights versus responsibilities. For the Debriefing/ Closure Task, in this pre-service lesson plan for students defining the difference between rights vs. responsibilities, students list and report on rights versus responsibilities, and their paradigms. Finally, students evaluated if citizens have the right to abjure rights for the public good. This one lesson is an example of how students should apply their classroom research into the real-world experience. It would be more beneficial if students use their specific paradigms from their service-learning opportunities, as opposed to ethereal examples from a textbook. Gottlieb and Robinson (2006) charted how undergraduates measured their skills within a particular subset of specific activity. Skills are divided into four categories: intellectual, participatory, research, and persuasion. Within the intellectual skills, students identify criteria for making sound judgments. In the participatory skill, undergraduates influences policies, negotiation, compromising, and consensus seeking. Students can accomplish this subset by listening to others and learning to work with diverse people inclusive of the elements of race, gender, sexual orientation, and ideology. In the research skills, students track media issues or utilize resources in the library, journal, and differentiated information for both the individual and the group
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approaches. Undergraduates can accomplish this by first learning how to judge the reliability of information that they acquire or by learning about various points-of-view. In the final category, persuasion skills, students write letters to local, state, and national elected representatives. They also participated in clubs that focus on governmental issues. Students work refining their own point-of-view, while determining which elements of the arguments could have stemmed from bias (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Often, citizens take rights for granted, while failing to understand that if one does not fulfill responsibility, rights become jeopardized. For example, citizens find many excuses to attempt to abstain from serving on a jury. Gottlieb and Robinson (2006) stated that moral citizens understand the balance between rights and responsibilities, by accepting and fulfilling the responsibilities inherent to a fair and balanced society. Rubric for faculty and students to assess civic responsibility. Creating an element of civic service is a necessity for undergraduates to understand the importance of the upcoming civic engagement opportunity. Faculty members plan for campus-wide, issue-specific topic forums that will enhance the need for service to be integrated into the curricula, and the need for student-leaders to lead events that will promote the community needs. Examples include community home builds and house painting, and environmental clean-ups (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Additionally, Gottlieb and Robinson (2006) provided a rubric for faculty and students to assess civic responsibility (Appendix C). Under the category Community Involvement, students are graded on one of three levels: Developing-1, Proficient-2, and Exceptional-3. In the first example of “Developing” under community involvement,
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students do not show recognition between cultural factors and community. Also, students do not solve community needs amicably. Students can receive a rating of “Proficient” when they engage sometimes in community values with sustained elements. Students consider solving community problems amicably. In the last “Exceptional” category, students participate in community activities and know how to encourage others to participate in civic events and to recognize functional relationships within the community. Exams that represent oral, written, and visual elements consisted of pre/ post-practicum essay, dialoging journal, oral presentations, and a reflection log (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Interpersonal skills. In the section of Interpersonal Skills (Appendix C), students are graded at the Developing-1 level by not acknowledging diverse settings and community issues. They also have no action plan and cannot work with group members. However, they become more “proficient” when they identify political issues and more adept in working with community members or group members. Students also see advantages to having an Action Plan, and consider working with other group members. In the last “Exceptionally” category, students comprehend political knowledge and diverse community issues. Students’ communication skills are more advanced and they enjoy expanding personal beliefs for the good of the community. This is accomplished by showing respect to community and group members. Developing an Action Plan after group member collaborating is beneficial. Final assessment options are a reflection log pre/post-practicum essay or an oral presentation (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006).
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Model citizenship category. In the Model Citizenship category (Appendix C), students are most deficient in the “Developing” category by rarely (or never) participating in political issues, and seldom challenge political and civic issues. Also, they do not understand the connection between community needs and wants. However, students become more proficient in the second category by challenging political and civic concerns. They make some connections between the needs and wants of the community, while being indecisive with political stances. In the Exceptional category, undergraduates are challenged by political and civic issues in the community. They want to connect to other community or group members to help community members. An effective assessment tool would be a pre/ post CE video. Systems analysis category. In the Systems Analysis category (Appendix C), students who cannot identify the factors that make organizations influence others in the community are on the “Developing” category, when they do not decipher the direct or indirect criteria of how the objectives of the organization influenced the community members whom they serve. In the proficient category, students show an understanding that the organization benefits the community it served, but they do not have a solid comprehension of how it did so. In the last Exceptional category, students have a full comprehension of how organizations served community members and these students are aware of how these organizations have direct or indirect influence on community members. Assessment tools for this category includes a pre/ post- CE video or essay or an oral presentation. This civic assessment rubric is used before, during, and after a student’s CE opportunity (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). The most important elements in teaching
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citizenship education are applicable lesson planning and debriefing that are relevant to students’ personal experiences. Faculty engaging students in social change. Faculty can also engage students in social change with coordinating facets of service-learning and social justice. Cipolle (2010) posited that there are four stages of faculty teaching students to develop critical consciousness. 1.
Students must develop a greater awareness of self.
2.
Students have a greater awareness of others. Both levels are accomplished through well-suited Service- learning (SL) projects, wherein they can see that their work is important. Cipolle (2010) argued that students also want to conduct SL or Civic Engagement (CE) projects that are “outside their familiar surroundings” if they are arranged by their college, in order to find out more about themselves by these opportunities. However, Blouin and Perry (2009) cautioned that students have limited time to travel too far away from campus, and they are simply not prepared with sobering topics that must be remedied by proper pre-service curricular orientation and education.
3.
Students increase their sociopolitical awareness. Often, students see the contradictions that question their prior beliefs. Leading to succeeding selfexamination of beliefs, students gain new perspectives with new information and opportunities. Student-volunteers only gain a complex view of worldevents by the accumulation of such new information or ideas acquired by
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new opportunities. All positive encounters strengthen the bond of new relationships, ideas, and interrelatedness of civic events (Cipolle, 2010). 4.
Faculty see their students’ potential to make effective change. Cipolle (2010) argued that students are better versed at making change occur by aligning CE opportunities. In her research, this included students witnessing poverty, homelessness, but returning to the “privileged world” to comprehend those differences. Without understanding this paradox, Cipolle (2010) believed that students will not be committed to future civic engagement and political formation.
The goal of developing students to be personally responsible citizens links community issues and collective participation, so it fits into an imperative component of democracy (Hinchey, 2010; Kahne & Sporte, 2008). Social justice and responsibility are commendable goals of attainment for students. Starting in high school, the faculty connect service-learning projects to their curricula as well as to the service project. The results of volunteerism on the high school level include a reduction of drug use, early pregnancy, and violence. Also, it promotes self-awareness, confidence, attainment of higher education, and internal motivation (Haski-Leventhal et al., 2010). Adler and Goggin (2005), Elmes and Loiacono (2009), and Kahne and Sporte (2008) implemented three types of CE opportunities promoting political-moral understanding, social connectivity, and agency/ industry of community service. Within these different components of service-learning, four stakeholders are responsible: institutions, community, faculty, and students (Clayton et al., 2010). Shifting from
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individual responsibility to collective action presented a daunting, albeit imperative, task (Chen et al., 2008). Within the scholarship circle of civic engagement, a topic of concern is the erosion of citizenship education, exemplified by a perceived disdain for American politics and its distrust by student-citizens. Students lack knowledge of politics, meaningful participation, and meta-cognitive contemplation. The foundation of citizenship relies on the basic education of students and skills-driven pedagogy connecting to civic education (Kidd & Harrison, 2006). Criteria for service-learning cessation lead to amotivational burnout. If a main concept of citizenship education and volunteerism is to prepare students for global interaction, then field work must move from statist to pluralistic humanism while simultaneously admonishing transactional for transformational relationships (Clayton et al., 2010; Hogan, 1982). Consistency is displayed through academic preparation for volunteerism. Every student has the capacity to become an effective leader. Mirroring a college administration that appoints faculty leaders, student-volunteers become class leaders balancing academic rigor, self-reflection, team opportunities, service-learning projects, and various learning strategies (Posner, 2009). The tasks of the personally responsible citizen are defined as willingly conducting good deeds, as well as paying taxes, obeying laws, and voting during elections. Structurally-sound citizenship education includes understanding the American political system and where students viewed their future role within its structure (Zipin & Reid, 2008). Volunteerism is a path for future career exploration as students need training in many diverse human activities.
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Further research into volunteers’ antecedents, motivation, and circumstances (i.e., motivational “triggers and opportunities”) still requires an approach that includes a critical humanistic and holistic analysis. A lack of participation in civic engagement alienated students from future participation in governmental affairs. Conversely, a strong interest in civic volunteerism ties into an effective government. Work must be done publicly and in cooperation with others (Adler & Goggin, 2005; Kidd & Harrison, 2006). Elements within motivational attributes are complex, and it was suggested that no one criterion can work alone. Researchers evaluated the possibilities of students’ multiple motivational needs, while disallowing one uniform answer. All student responses regarding motivation and volunteerism, whether they are important or not, will be considered (Shye, 2010). Additionally, it must be understood that students are not the sole stakeholders in volunteer activities. The academic institution accentuates social responsibility and diversity while protecting individual autonomy (Hogan, 1982). There are positive outcomes from students’ civic engagement opportunities. Aside from the ultimate goal of students becoming active and responsible citizens aiding others through service projects after their collegiate graduation, there are numerous benefits to having a stable volunteer program overseeing students’ commitments to area organizations; friendships are most beneficial (Prouteau & Wolff, 2007; Rivedal, 2005). Students in larger universities report feel isolated within the classroom as their contributions are disregarded easily. Student volunteerism combats this. With an increase in service engagement from the freshman to senior years and the development of leadership abilities within those activities, all students develop their potential through
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effective volunteer leadership. Four paradigms include (a) motivating others to become active, (b) leading by example, (c) contributing to a mutual vision, and (d) effectively questioning procedures (Posner, 2009). Academia shows the importance of examining civic education and transformative learning with open-questioning and field experiences (Dekker, 2009; McBrien, 2008). Undergraduate colleges have both the potential and duty to promote responsible, active citizenship among students (Lopez & Kiesa, 2009). With many colleges offering more opportunities for civic engagement, there are three reasons why young adults are positive models for civic engagement (CE) opportunities: (a) colleges transmit a positive affect onto students in well-designed CE programs; (b) colleges select student-candidates for enrolment who are active in CE opportunities in high school. This was the case with the college’s Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS), and (c) friendship in college promotes CE opportunities (Anonymous, personal communication, January 1112, 2012; Lopez & Kiesa, 2009). However, despite the fact that young adults are very active in volunteerism on college campuses, there are two examples that contradict the aforementioned statement. First, there is a discrepancy of participation between 4-year and 2-year schools; and, second, adding more CE opportunities will not necessarily increase volunteer activity. To have an impact, these CE programs must be higher in quality and focus on engagement and learning. CE opportunities include themes of volunteerism, politics, and deliberate debriefing of topics (Lopez & Kiesa, 2009).
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Transitioning undergraduates from transactional to transformational leadership. It is imperative for academic student-leaders to move from transactional to transformational leadership and relationships. There are three types of CE opportunities within academia. The first concerns political-moral understanding, as exemplified in Plato’s Republic. Next, social connectivity is best connected to the literature of Schein, whose literature who will be mentioned forthcoming in this chapter, and his philosophies including reciprocation of communication. Finally, the element of agency and industry within community service aligns to the above two examples in the categories of institutions, community, faculty, and students (O’Callaghan, 2010). Goals of CE are to move from individual to collective action, prepare students for global interaction, moving from statist to pluralistic humanism, and moving from transactional to transformational leadership (Clayton et al., 2010; Hogan, 1982; O’Callaghan, 2010). A prime example of how to move an individual to collection action within a CE environment stems from O’Callaghan, (2010) who defined trust within 13 paradigms. One is the most personal within the relationship, and 13 is the least personal: 1. One-to-one, face-to-face meeting. 2. A few-to-one, face-to-face meeting. 3. A few-to few, face-to-face meeting. 4. Examples 1-3 above but via telephone. 5. Examples 1-3 above but via videoconference/ webinar. 6. Unplanned soapbox meeting with a team approach. 7. Town hall meeting with the team.
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8. Personal, handwritten letter. 9. Personal, typed letter. 10. Personal e-mail. 11. Set picture presentation. 12. Video e-mail to many. 13. E-mail announcement to many (O’Callaghan, 2010, p. 188). However, despite the pros of moving an individual to collective action, there are some cons to service-learning (SL), according to Middlebrooks (2009). Two examples in this challenge that curricular-specific learning is a missing link within SL, and there is an error in creating authentic in situ paradigms wherein students can learn real-world experiences (Middlebrooks, 2009). To remedy the aforementioned, Middlebrooks (2009) posited shifting SL and “learning to serve.” This technique has been named previously by leadership giants such as Bass, Burns, and Greenleaf. Also, stressing leadership qualities while influencing others toward a common vision or good is imperative. Service orientation is mandatory. In the pre-service classroom, Leadership Faculty/ educators guide students by questioning materials needed to effective connect to, and influence, others; goals within leadership; and criteria of curricular ethics education stemming to leadership goals (Middlebrooks, 2009). Transformational leadership occurs when leaders shift from transactional to transformational content. It focuses on the motivational needs of others. In order to do so, the student-leader begins with four elements: (a) idealized influence, (b) inspirational
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motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (d) individualized consideration (Bass, 2008; Middlebrooks, 2009). Idealized influence may or may not incorporate charisma. The latter term is more associated with a leader who is “showy” and is more negative in connotation, while conjuring imagery of a dictatorial relationship between leader and follower. However, idealized influence moves beyond the self-interest of the leader. The leader helps the “followers” to accept betterment of self-actualization, intellectual stimulation, and the power of self-consideration (Bass, 2008; Middlebrooks, 2009). When the leader displays inspirational motivation, the leader links the common goals of followers. Leaders help followers describe future goals while verbalizing accurately how to obtain them (Bass, 2008; Middlebrooks, 2009). The biggest element of intellectual stimulation, according to Bass’s numerous studies, is the direct correlation between a manager’s effectiveness and the followers’ perception that they are intellectually stimulation (Bass, 2008; Middlebrooks, 2009). Finally, the leader exhibits individualized consideration toward those whom he or she served. This criterion exemplifies each follower’s specific needs and goals, which the leader attends to (Bass, 2008; Middlebrooks, 2009). Within these four criteria, student-leaders should ask themselves the following three questions pre-service and post-service: 1. What are the most important attributes a leader should have? 2. Upon which important criteria should a leader reflect? 3. Which goals should a leader pursue? (Middlebrooks, 2009)
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Reams (2009) stated that student-leaders should be well-educated in the classroom before entering into the service opportunity within the community. Servicelearning has a lure of pedagogy in order to fasten its beliefs to the community. Supporting the needs in the community is reflected by the highest-level of citizenship education, ethics, and service-learning preparation. Of all the criteria found within the servicelearning curricula, a goal should be increasing social responsibility (Reams, 2009). For examples, Reams (2009) stated the following criteria for a service-learning (SL) honors program. Undergraduates must have a 3.0 GPA, and 100 hours of documented service. They must demonstrate satisfactory written skills by submitting their essay on their personal goals; this would be akin to all course goals and objectives. Students must also complete a successful interview with the faculty board of the SL honors committee. Then, in order to have active status within the SL honors program, undergraduates must maintain a 3.0 GPA overall and 3.5 GPA in honors classes. They must also show exceptional leadership in their honor courses. Student-leaders will be recognized at commencement for leadership skills (Reams, 2009). Gaps of Research Found in Service-Learning Undergraduates’ service-learning as a pedagogy. Reams (2009) suggested the need for additional research in undergraduates’ service-learning (SL) as pedagogy. Direct research connecting undergraduates’ civic opportunities before and after their experiences is too diverse and varied, and has been studied only at a superficial level (Reams, 2009; Wielkiewicz, Prom, & Loos, 2005). Wielkiewicz et al. (2005) concluded that organizations have an evolutionary nature. Because relationships within
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organizations are neither stable, strong, nor consistent, an organization aims to have the most flexibility within its structure. Adaptation of the organization is congruent to the environment while flourishing in alternative leadership stratagem. Undergraduate leaders should have a systematic thinking that will advance them into connecting various ideas and concepts to the success of the organization. They should be open to receive diverse feedback. However, current research suggests that undergraduates who view a traditional leader of an organization (in a hierarchical-style of leadership) will be motivated to follow suit; for example, joining clubs such as student government wherein they too model a hierarchical approach to leading (Reams, 2009; Wielkiewicz et al., 2005). Although this would benefit them in one aspect of transactional leadership elements, it would omit new emerging transformational approach. This particular latter approach, according to Wielkiewicz et al. (2005), includes students’ needing to learn proper skill sets in-context (group dynamics), community-building, and deepappreciation of how the organizational system was run (Reams, 2009; Wielkiewicz et al., 2005). Errors found in assessing human motivation research. Shye’s (2010) argued that current problems with human motivational research stem from conceptual problems of mixing elements that did not fit into SDT’s intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational criteria. For example, some statements that cannot be classified into the various SDT categories include volunteerism is necessary because, it is the Lord’s expectation; I was bored, or a friend made a suggestion I should” (Shye, 2010). Such reactions from a
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volunteer dismiss a purposeful motivation such as, “I wished to advance my career from this volunteer project” (Shye, 2010). Finkelstein (2008) responded to Shye’s aforementioned dilemma by labeling these phrases as “not applicable,” and they are promptly discarded from her volunteerstudies’ analyses. This is noted in her sixth category of the expansion of the Clary et al. (1998) Volunteer Function Inventory. This inventory has the following six categories, (a) values, (b) understanding, (c) social, (d) career, (e) protective, and (f) enhancement. Values represent a statement like, “People for whom I cared were being helped by my volunteerism” (intrinsic). Understanding: “I have learned how to deal with diverse people while volunteering” (intrinsic). Social responses include, “My friends know that I am volunteering here at this organization” (extrinsic). Career includes, “My volunteer experience could boost my career or business (extrinsic). Enhancement includes, “I feel better about myself when I volunteer here” (intrinsic). The not applicable category affects the extrinsic category, because those remarks are discarded (Finkelstein, 2008). Students’ limitations within volunteerism. Students have shown limitations within volunteerism despite active undergraduate involvement (Blouin & Perry, 2009). They are challenged by conduct, immaturity, and commitment. Despite honest intentions to do good deeds, students lack a strong work ethic, initiative, and true concern about organizational results. In preparing for their work, student-volunteers are not offered sufficient information about sobering topics like destituteness, ethnicity, mental illness, homelessness, and substance abuse (Blouin & Perry, 2009). Even though organizations are willing to train student-volunteers, classroom preparation is needed to deter
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insensitive, offensive, and hurtful behavior (Blouin & Perry, 2009). Generally, after graduation, volunteers are viewed as having higher salaries, more education, and more social resources, while causing a pronounced social gap between them and those whom they help (Haski-Leventhal, Meijs, & Hustinx, 2010). At times, volunteers perceive the act of volunteering as a mere social event, even though those needed services increased capital to organizations that would otherwise go under-funded. Other criteria described the limitations found within volunteerism: a disconnect between organization and community goals; volunteerability [sic]: that is, a willingness, capability, availability; and recruitability, that is, accessibility, resources, and networks (Haski-Leventhal, et al., 2010). Volunteers’ willingness to serve others is influenced by social norms, personal values, and perception/ attitudes. One perception from the volunteers is that their efforts are rewarding and possible. This is stemming from a balance of intrinsic, personal rewards, and external, societal notoriety. Within, capability, volunteers needed skills, knowledge, training, for the specific role within the organization. Often if training is not modified to the particular volunteer role, it reflects a disconnect between the organization and the community. Finally, availability of volunteers and recruits centeredon lack of time. Seen as the greatest obstacle, as most volunteers must balance education, family, friends, and leisure time (Haski-Leventhal, et al., 2010). Recruitability, according to Haski-Leventhal et al. (2010) connects three criteria: 1.
The first is accessibility: Volunteers need to be able to physically, technologically, and logistically capable reach the organization. Meijs
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(2007) showed the difficulty of reaching organizations that host volunteers. For example, Haski-Leventhal, et al. (2010) attempted to call all nursing home administrators who hosted volunteers in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and found that only 18% returned phone calls. Additionally, within various volunteer centers, 67% of administrators answered e-mails (HaskiLeventhal, et al., 2010). Within these limitations, organizations can improve their marketing strategies by focusing on better physical access, while creating better virtual volunteering opportunities. 2.
The second is resources within volunteerism are needed to increase member diversity as well as improving professional volunteer management. This includes both fiscal and human resources. The correct number of volunteers for the task and the organization are pertinent in managing the organization (Haski-Leventhal, et al., 2010).
3.
Networks and cooperation (i.e., volunteer, government, and business organizations) must be created within networks with other organizations. Resources increased as a result. However, intersectional collaboration may be discouraged because of (perceived) disadvantages regarding a lack of organizational management or partnerships (Haski-Leventhal et al., 2010).
The following section will summarize the Review of the Literature, and the Classical writers’ stances on citizenship and motivational theory. It will review individual assessment connecting to social construction. This includes transactional to transformational leadership.
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Summary The foundation of classical writers’ ethics (specifically, Aristotle, Plato, and Kant) supports morality and student self-advancement. Within the value of social construction, personal motivation is encouraged using either intrinsic or extrinsic selfdetermination. Amotivation is the absence of motivation, often leading to burnout. The goal in assessing volunteers’ choices to cease volunteerism is linked to the notion that consistent volunteerism led to personally responsible citizenship. This is an essential framework within academia (Dekker, 2009; Finkelstein, 2011; McBrien, 2008; McDonald, 2011; Zipin & Reid, 2008). Heidegger (1927) established that there is more than one way to justify interpretation of phenomenal experiences, while valuing more the interpretation than the description of a phenomenon. This view is anti-Husserlian, since interpretation needed surroundings and context; it could not function in isolation (Rockmore, 2011). Hermeneutics offers pertinent criteria for analytical evaluation. All learning is akin to written/ text interpretation. Cultural traditions value specific phenomenal elements (Patton, 2002). Kantian philosophy aligns motivational actions to a sense of duty (regardless of the subject’s inclination). Despite the subject’s duty to act with goodness, an individual must show high moral standards. Kant did not view morality as the volition to moral action. He deemed his theory on objective benevolence as a citizen’s will to perfect the desire for order. Also found in the works of Aristotle and Hobbes, individuals obtain conflicting, phenomenal elements of aversion and desire (Aristotle, trans. 2011;
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Feldmeijer, 2009; Hobbes, 1660/2009). Plato posited that morality is a social construction. In the allegory of the ring of Gyges in the Republic (ca. 380 BCE), the unmonitored human is examined when one has no fear of consequences. Proving the difficulty in maintaining a human’s continuous morality and strength, all theoretical and moral boundaries became unclear and subject to investigation. Additionally, a moral human is one who achieves cognitive harmony under the rules of reason. Actively participating in society is an integral piece to a moral citizen’s advancement from selfegotism to community integration. Subsequently, this is extrapolated in his description of the principle of specialization (Hustinx et al., 2010; Plato, trans. 2008). There are three roles to which students respond while volunteering: (a) an expert providing applicable resources, services, and information, (b) a “doctor” who “diagnoses and prescribes,” or (c) a “process consultant” who determines the type of help needed and evaluated relationships (Schein, 2011, p. 54). However, within each of these roles, undergraduates show limitations in their knowledge and actions within volunteerism. For example, students have neither the maturity nor experience of working with diverse groups of people without specific classroom or organizational training (Blouin & Perry, 2009). Additionally, more research is needed to verify the long-term achievements within a community receiving volunteers’ aid. Social norms, personal attributes, and values all contribute to student-volunteers’ willingness to serve others. One perception from the volunteers was that their efforts are rewarding and possible. However, volunteer training began in the classroom in order to understand the specifics of the work and how to lead effectively. The link between the
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community and the academic preparation was great, as students must learn to balance a number of factors concerning education, friends, social connections, and their own leisure time (Haski-Leventhal, et al., 2010). This is deemed difficult at a time when students’ learning does not reflect the in situ civic engagement experience. Self-determination theory (SDT) connects well to researching volunteers’ activities for two main reasons. First, it is not connected to any time elements (Clerkin, Paynter, & Taylor, 2009); therefore, this theory reflects students’ volition, not the number of hours they served. Next, SDT has no impact on human-avoidance theories (Mees & Schmitt, 2008). Importantly, each facet of self-determination theory may not work in isolation. Volunteers’ motives are complex and include variables from intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational criteria. However, when researchers mix various motivational criteria from internal, external, and amotivational stimuli, conceptual problems are found within human motivational research (Shye, 2010). Schein’s (2010, 2011) reciprocation of communication regulate relationships within every collective facet within an organization, volunteer or manager, paid or unpaid position. Seeking these relationships between the volunteer and the hosting manager bring unity between the two. Without seeking a functional relationship, fear of isolation or rejection deters a volunteer or employee from most positive work in the organization. Finally, social rules and policies even replace deepened values and morals. Despite being taught never to lie, it is socially acceptable to hyperbolize the truth in certain scenarios. However, according to Schein (2010), to promote motivational change survival anxiety
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must exceed learning anxiety, and learning anxiety must be decreased and not aid the increase of survival anxiety. Faculty can affect, positively, students’ growth as personally responsibility citizens. However, further research in volunteers’ antecedents, motivation, and circumstances (i.e., motivational “triggers and opportunities”) still requires an approach that includes a critical humanistic and holistic analysis. A lack of participation in civic engagement alienates students from future participation in governmental affairs. Conversely, a strong interest in civic volunteerism supports an effective government. Work must be done publicly and in cooperation with others (Adler & Goggin, 2005; Kidd & Harrison, 2006). Despite active undergraduate involvement, students show limitations within volunteerism (Blouin & Perry, 2009). They are challenged by their conduct, immaturity, and commitment. Although they have honest intentions to do good deeds, students lack a strong work ethic, initiative, and true concern about organizational results. Studentvolunteers are not offered sufficient information preparing them to handle sobering topics like destituteness, mental illness, homelessness, substance abuse, and ethnicity (Blouin & Perry, 2009).Volunteers’ willingness to serve others is influenced by social norms, personal values, and phenomenal perception/ attitudes. The following chapter highlights the study’s research design, as well as methodological assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. Ethical assurances and trustworthiness set the parameters of triangulation, and also will be discussed.
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Chapter 3: Research Method Restatement of the Research Problem, Purpose, and Questions Because undergraduate volunteerism has waned since 2006, scholars have focused more on the recruitment and placement of student-volunteers instead of their retention in civil service projects. Even as undergraduate faculty members promoted service-learning and volunteerism within their mandated programming, volunteer service declined nationally (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006a; Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006b; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006). Despite student-volunteerism decreasing on college campuses in the last few years, there was much information on collegiate volunteer utilization and recruiting (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). However, the problem to be analyzed was that there was a lack of research on student retention during their volunteer projects (Blouin & Perry, 2009; Brudney, & Meijs, 2009; Anonymous, personal communication, January 11-12, 2012; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Haski-Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009; Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2011; Posner, 2009; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). Contemporary researchers called for assessing this problem because focusing only on volunteer recruitment deflected attention and resources from volunteer retention (Brudney, & Meijs, 2009). Research suggests student-volunteers become, (a) disconnected often from a hosting volunteer organization, (b) do not feel as if their actions are having a significant impact, or (c) do not receive appropriate praise for altruistic efforts (Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Yanay & Yanay, 2008). Volunteers
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improve their motivation after positive verbal affirmations during the daily operation at their work site (Yanay & Yanay, 2008). From a framework of a hermeneutic lens, common themes were identified in students’ lived experiences associated with undergraduate volunteerism and ways faculty promoted retention of students’ interest in civic engagement projects. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to investigate the lived experiences of undergraduates and alumni of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State, through a framework of a hermeneutic lens. This framework, first suggested by Heidegger (1927), advocated finding the meaning of experience while deriving from in situ conditions (Patton, 2002). This modification differs slightly from the original hermeneutics of Schleiermacher (1768-1834). Groenewald (2004) modified Hycner’s (1999) structure, which originated with Moustakas (1994), who stated that data analysis consisted of five phases: (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction; (b) delineating units of meaning; (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes; (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify; and (e) making a composite summary. To gain a better understanding of participants’ real-world experiences, sample sizes are smaller and consist of two groups of no more than 10 participants each (Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Participants’ perceptions unify their experiences (Holstein & Gubrium, 2008). In the present study, undergraduates and alumni of the SPVS were interviewed and given Critical Incident Reports to answer (Appendix G). The first category of
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participants matriculated in this program during the period 2001-2005 (when the national average for volunteering was higher). The second category of participants was from 2006 to currently, when participation in civic engagement decreased. In addition to Groenewald’s (2004) methods of data analysis, this study incorporated the following criteria of data analysis: (a) protocol writing, as reflected by the participants’ Critical Incident Reports; (b) interviewing and a focus group session;, (c) observation of participants non-verbal cues, as well as their surrounding circumstances (i.e., bringing their spouses or children into the focus group sessions); and (d) examining the literature for biographical connections (Hatch, 2002; Marshall & Rossman, 1995; Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). In order to gain a better understanding of the participants’ real-world experiences, sample sizes were smaller, and consisted of a focus group and individual interview sessions, in which there were no more than ten participants per group (Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Participants’ consciousnesses unified objects of experience to be analyzed (Holstein & Gubrium, 2008). Undergraduates and alumni of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) were interviewed and issued Critical Incident Reports. The first category of participants matriculated in this program during the years 2001-2005 (when the national average for volunteering was higher). The second were those who were currently participating in SPVS, while being matriculated later than 2006, in a time when participation in civic engagement decreased. Volunteers’ ethical decisions were influenced by parents, siblings, and close friends (Francis, 2011). They perceive they are a part of the work site’s organizational
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policies, have a say in the work site’s developmental objectives, and understand their clearly defined roles within the volunteer system (Schein, 2011). Conversely, the literature suggests volunteers cease their civic engagement in part based on internal feelings and in part because of external influences. In this study, the central and subresearch questions asked if any of the motivational theories (or volunteer roles) reflected volunteers’ desires to serve:
The central research question was: What were undergraduate and alumni’s lived experiences in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)?
Subquestion Q1: What were the students’ perceptions of faculty and volunteer-organizational managers keeping students retained in volunteerism?
Subquestion Q2: What were the students’ motivational methods of volunteerism?
Subquestion Q3: What were the surrounding influences of phenomena found in volunteers’ experiences in the collegiate Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service?
The remainder of this chapter is divided into sections regarding the research method and design, participant population, and sample. Topics include data collection, process, and analysis, followed-by methodological assumptions, limitation, and delimitations. Finally, the latter sections of the chapter incorporate ethical assurances and trustworthiness, and a summary.
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Research Method and Design The value of qualitative research in this study focused on the structure of the participants’ experiences (Merriam, 2009). Perception of phenomena is knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). On an integrated scale, qualitative research is useful in discovering if these students’ volunteer activities connected to the roles of self-governance and moral citizenry as stated in the Plato’s principle of specialization within the Republic (i.e., each person’s single talent contributed to the goodness of the whole establishment). The qualitative method is both expansive and inductive (Merriam, 2009; Plato, trans. 2008). Therefore, a hermeneutic, phenomenological study was chosen to study the surrounding phenomena of alumni and undergraduates’ volunteer experiences. This type of phenomenology incorporated both the descriptive and interpretative measures of data evaluation. To complete triangulation, three units of analysis (Appendices D and E) included interviewing undergraduates individually, hosting an alumni focus group session, and analysis of students’ written responses in Critical Incident Reports (Patton, 2002). Intrinsic characteristics included the SPVS being capable of standing alone to serve potentially as a model for other schools (Merriam, 2009; Schram, 2006). Population Potential participants of both the alumni focus group and the undergraduate oneon-one interviews were invited by phone, e-mail correspondence, or verbal communication on campus with the support of the SPVS faculty administrator and service director. All participants had years of volunteer experience starting in high school (some middle school). They were at least 18 years-old at the time of the data collection.
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To eliminate bias, only the first 10 respondents were chosen to participate. Participants responded directly to the SPVS faculty administrator and community service director. Alumni population. The alumni group completed successfully the SPVS and graduated from college. They had to be matriculated in this program from 2001 (after the September 11 attacks) to 2005. One participant served a mission trip out of the country, so the SPVS faculty administrator verified his campus enrollment dates to ensure the participant’s eligibility. After 10 participants confirmed the date, a time was set to schedule the focus group session. The campus was hosting alumni weekend, as well, which brought local alumni to campus. Undergraduate population. Undergraduates were invited to participate in this research project by an e-mail to students and via verbal contact with the SPVS faculty administrator. As with the alumni, the first 10 to respond were selected. They had to be current students in this program, and at least 18 years-old. Students communicated with the faculty administrator and signed-up for an interview time. All undergraduates resided on campus. Samples Purposive (purposeful) sampling was used in both the alumni focus group and undergraduate interviews (Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). Typical case sampling dictated that the samples in both groups were neither atypical, extreme, nor deviant from the general population (Patton, 2002; Seidman, 2006). This delineation of sample size of approximately 9-10 participants per group aligned with Moustakas’s (1994) number of interviewees.
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Alumni focus group. The alumni sample consisted of eight participants: four were male, four were female. All were between 27-33 years old. Five participants were married; two were never married. One participant was divorced/separated. Three alumni completed their bachelor’s degrees; two, their master’s degrees; and two, their doctorates. All were employed full time. A ninth alumna could not participate in the focus group session that day, but answered the questions via e-mail afterward. She had received a master’s degree and was employed full-time. She was 31 years old. All alumni were European-American. Undergraduate interviews. The undergraduate sample consisted of eight participants who interviewed face-to-face. All were between 18-20 years old; seven were females and one male. Seven were European American; one was Asian. Undergraduates were current students working toward their bachelor’s. None had an associate’s degree. No undergraduate had been married. Six participants were employed either part-time or as a student worker. Two were not seeking employment at this time. After the interviews, two additional female undergraduates participated via phone. They were 20 to 21 yearsold current students who worked either part-time or as a student-worker. The two female undergraduates were European-American. Materials/ Instruments Alumni focus group. Patton (2002) provided the matrix protocol of interview questions that reflected the three elements of time: past, present, and future (Appendix H). Within these embedded time-elements, the following six categories were derived, (a) behaviors/ experiences, (b) opinions/ values, (c) feelings/emotions, (d) knowledge,
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(e) sensory, and (f) background. Within each category, students answered three respective questions pertaining to elements of past, present, and future lived experiences of volunteerism. The alumni group answered Questions 1 to 9 during the focus group session. Due to time constraints, they answered Questions 10 to 18 via phone conference or e-mail. The 18 questions follow: 1.
Describe your volunteer program/ experience in high school.
2.
Describe your current volunteer program – Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) and on-site opportunities.
3.
Describe your ideal volunteer program after college.
4.
Describe your values of volunteering prior to the SPVS.
5.
Describe your current values of volunteering in the SPVS.
6.
Describe your future values of volunteering after completion of the SPVS. What values would you like to have?
7.
Describe your feelings during your high school volunteer program and prior to the SPVS.
8.
Describe your feelings during the SPVS.
9.
Hypothesize your future feelings toward volunteering after completion of the SPVS. What would you like to feel?
10.
Describe your knowledge about your high school volunteer program.
11.
Describe the current knowledge you’ve obtained during the SPVS.
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12.
Hypothesize your future knowledge in a volunteer experience. What would you like to know?
13.
Describe what you sensed during your high school program.
14.
Describe what you sensed during the SPVS.
15.
Hypothesize your future senses in a new volunteer opportunity.
16.
Describe your background contributing to your high school volunteer program.
17.
Describe your background contributing to the current SPVS.
18.
Hypothesize how your background could connect successfully to a future volunteer opportunity.
Undergraduate interviews. The number of questions was reduced from 18 to eight for the undergraduates to better fit the allotted time, eliminate any redundancies found in the alumni questions, and the language of the questions (Appendix I). Questions still reflected the time elements of past, present, and future, according to Patton (2002). 1.
Describe your background contributing to your high school and current volunteer program.
2.
Describe how your background changed from high school to college (in service programs).
3.
Describe your values of volunteering prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program.
4.
Describe your current values of volunteering in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program.
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5.
Describe your feelings during your high school volunteer program and prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program.
6.
Describe your feelings during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program.
7.
Describe the current knowledge you’ve obtained during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program.
8.
Describe the factors of an ideal volunteer experience.
Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis This section will discuss the data collection, processing, and analysis of the study. Each sample will be discussed separately, as procedures changed in the middle of the field work. Appendices D, E, and F show the Forms, Demographic Questionnaire, and Debriefing form applicable to both the alumni and undergraduate participants. Focus group data collection. The alumni focus group session lasted approximately 2 hours and was audio taped. Consent forms were read to all participants, and they had the opportunity to ask questions before they signed. At this time, six participants began by answering their Critical Incident Report (Appendix G). The first question was read, and each participant stated his or her name before answering. This was to ensure that there were no indecipherable voices on the MP3 recorder. The participants’ names were called before each question if he or she did not state the information beforehand. Ten minutes into the session, two female alumnae entered the focus group, one of whom had her toddler daughter with her. A spouse of another participant in the back of
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the room agreed to watch the toddler as the alumna participated. There was a brief break of 10 minutes, while the consent forms were read to the alumnae. They answered the Critical Incident Report at the end of the session. The interview questions continued. There was a break after Question 5 (Describe your current values of volunteering in the SPVS). Questions 6 through 9 were answered in the latter part of the focus group session: Q6.
Describe your future values of volunteering after completion of the SPVS. What values would you like to have?
Q7.
Describe your feelings during your high school volunteer program and prior to the SPVS.
Q8.
Describe your feelings during the SPVS.
Q9.
Hypothesize your future feelings toward volunteering after completion of the SPVS. What would you like to feel?
The alumni were saturating quickly as they heard other answers. Also, the participants were providing so much detail, that 18 questions were far too many to accomplish in one setting. It was determined that they would answer the remainder either via phone conference or e-mail. One alumna who could not make the focus group session contributed her answers via e-mail and phone conference as well. Data collection change. In the middle of the data collection process, three modifications were needed because the composite of the dissertation committee membership changed, (b) Hatch (2002) was a more of a primary source, than Groenewald (2004), while substantiating this methodology. Consequently, the focus group interview format of the alumni was modified to one-on-one undergraduate interviews. Saturation
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was reached too quickly in the alumni group when participants could hear each others’ responses (Hatch, 2002); and (c) the number of question had to be modified from 18 to eight. Interview data collection. Undergraduates signed-up for an interview time with the SPVS faculty administrator. Eight interviewees appeared for their time slot of 30 minutes each. Students read the consent form and answered their Critical Incident Report. The audio taping began after the Critical Incident Reports were submitted. The eight interview questions were reviewed and the interview process began. When students were finished, they were asked if they had anything else to contribute in connection to their experiences in the SPVS or high school/ volunteer experiences. Students were then debriefed with the Debriefing Form and given follow-up contact information (Appendix F). Undergraduate participants 9 and 10 interviewed via phone conference since they could not meet during the regularly scheduled interview times. They were e-mailed the consent forms and interview questions ahead of time and signed and returned the Consent forms and the Critical Incident Reports. The phone interview lasted 25-30 minutes. Students answered each question and were aware that the phone interview was being audio taped. After they answered all the questions, they were debriefed and e-mailed the follow-up contact information. Focus group processing and analysis. The online company Rev.com transcribed the audio files into text, before all data were reviewed. Coding was conducted by hand with no computer software. Data were processed and analyzed using Groenewald’s
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(2004) five-step approach of phenomenological reduction; the following modified Hycner’s (1999) original structure. This was an abridgment of Moustakas’s (1994) phenomenological reduction that incorporated the following sections, (a) bracketing and phenomenological reduction, (b) delineating units of meaning, (c) clustering of meaningful units to form themes, (d) summarizing each interview, validate, and modify, and (e) making a composite summary. 1.
Bracketing and phenomenological reduction. Holistic themes, also known as gestalt in cognitive psychology, were obtained. This concept values the “entire picture” of a phenomenon, and does not break-it down into segments. The sum of the whole phenomenon is greater than its particular elements. Hypothetically, these elements encompassed time commitments, logistics, or external influences. By this reduction, a neutral stance with data collection was taken, while disallowing presuppositions in accordance to epoché (Groenewald, 2004).
2.
Delineating units of meaning. After gestalt was found within the data, vivid statements were highlighted including relevance, manner, and frequency of statements. For example, students may stop volunteering because an outside influence stops as well.
3.
Clustering of meaning units to form themes. Nonredundant units were connected to assess central themes.
4.
Summarizing each interview, validating, and modifying. These data included a summarization of the collected interviews before performing a
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validity check. A validity check meant returning to the interviewee for any clarification. Modification would then take place, if needed. 5.
Making a composite summary. Within this final summary, similar themes should be separated if they had meaningful differences (Groenewald, 2004). Unique and general themes emerged (Shank, 2006).
Additionally, the subsequent methods of the interview data analysis were combined to analyze the focus group data. Interview processing and analysis. Four criteria of data analysis were used: (a) protocol writing, as reflected by the participants’ critical incident reports; (b) interviewing, as exemplified in both focus group and one-on-one interviewing; (c) observing, as shown by participants’ eye and body movements, and their surrounding circumstances (e.g., bringing their children into the interview session; and (d) examining the literature for biographical connection (Hatch, 2002; Marshall & Rossman, 1995; Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). The steps to Hatch’s (2002) typological analysis were also used in the data analysis: 1. Identify typologies. 2. Data are read and marked accordingly. 3. Record main ideas. 4. Look for patterns and relationships between data. 5. Encode entries according to patterns. 6. Decipher if patterns are supported by the data. 7. Decipher relationships between patterns.
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8. Select supporting data excerpts. The alumni focus group and undergraduate interviews took place in a private, Catholic college in western New York State. Finally, due to the rich content that the participants provided, there was no subsequent collection of students’ SPVS program files because all participants provided follow-up information. Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations Assumptions of the focus group and interviews. This study incorporated and determined methodological assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. Assumptions included participants comprehending and answering truthfully eight to eighteen questions from Patton’s (2002) six categories based on the three time elements of past, present, and future. Epoché is defined as staying removed in judgment in order for a precise, analytical, assessment to occur. Judgment and interpretation were divided from description; this was accomplished by cross-validation and triangulation (Patton, 2002). Finally, an assumption was that the theoretical foundation in the review of the literature would be the best representation of the in situ hermeneutic phenomenological study. It was assumed that the two linking phenomena associated with surrounding experiences were multilaterally linked to the central and subresearch questions. All questions were clearly denoted and attainable because they connected perceptions of volunteers’ retention and motivational attributes. Focus group assumptions. Focus group assumptions included the alumni successfully completed their SPVS and collegiate programming and had graduated. It was also assumed that they were honest in their recollection of their volunteer
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experiences after September 11, 2001. Finally, it was assumed that participants did not change their answers based on reaching saturation or their involvement in being a part of a focus group. Interviews assumptions. It was assumed in the interview sessions that all undergraduates were currently participating in the SPVS program and that they began the program no earlier than 2006. Also, it was assumed that they had met the criteria needed to matriculate in the program and college. For example, it was understood that all undergraduates had high school volunteer experiences and stellar academics to continue in the SPVS programming. Limitations. The study’s limitations were based upon interpretation of the provided definitions and presentation of the problem statement. Participants of the study presented limitations. That is, the samples were limited and may not reflect the entire population of all alumni or all undergraduates on campus (Seidman, 2006). Focus group limitations. It was not possible to observe students’ post-collegiate volunteer experiences and mentorship experiences. It was also not possible to verify every response as being 100% truthful after almost a decade since they were matriculated into the SPVS. Interviews limitations. Undergraduates were limited in the interview because there was no way to observe them in the field conducting volunteer projects or in the classroom in the pre-service learning phase of the SPVS. In addition, undergraduates were limited in their external motivation, if indeed economic factors played a role in their motivation. For example, incoming freshmen of the SPVS receive currently a tuition
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break of 50%; however, undergraduates (upperclassmen) who participated in this study received only a reduction of 33%. Therefore, it was not discernible if students were motivated covertly by this economic discrepancy. Delimitations. Students and alumni were excluded if they had not successfully completed the SPVS. Alumni who did not complete the coursework for graduation at this college were excluded. Other variable delimitations included undergraduates who had not yet begun the civic engagement portion of the program, or had no prior high school experience. Focus group delimitations. The focus group included only alumni p who were matriculated from 2001-2005 in the SPVS and graduated thereafter. This represented the years when the national average of volunteerism was highest after the September 11, 2001, attacks. The alumni disassociated from the SPVS while in college were not considered a representative population. Interviews delimitations. Only undergraduates who were currently matriculated (no earlier than 2006) in the SPVS were interviewed. This represented the years when the national average of volunteerism was lowest after the September 11, 2001, attacks. The undergraduates disassociated from the SPVS were not considered as a representative population. Ethical Assurances and Trustworthiness Ethical assurances. Contingent construct was tested by triangulation of the interview questions and procedures. Triangulation was defined as improving reliability by combining methods by naturalistic and qualitative approaches of evaluation. Various
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formats of the focus group session and the one-on-one interviewing, as well as administering the Critical Incident Reports limited bias by permitting validity (Golafshani, 2003). The interview questions were designed to excluded why participants ceased volunteerism or stayed retained in their volunteer service. Focus group and interviews ethical assurances. Focus group ethical assurances included all alumni being read the consent forms before they had an opportunity to ask questions and to sign the documents. Two documents were needed: one consent form from Northcentral’s IRB and one from the IRB at the college where the data collection took place. There was no conflict of interest from the participants. All participants understood that they (a) could leave the focus group or interview session at any time, (b) could refuse to any question, (c) knew where the data are being kept, and (d) knew the date of the data destruction. All standards therein complied with the protocol of conducing human research, as well as CITI Human Research certification. IRB approval was obtained before collecting any datum. Triangulation. Data and theory triangulation emerged as most connected to interviewing students within a qualitative study. For this study, students’ questions were assessed regarding various elements of volunteerism. Within theory triangulation, different theoretical perspectives were solidified by the interview questions. This included the time elements of past, present, and future volunteer scenarios (Patton, 2002). The protection of human participants is critical and mandated by ethical principles. When explaining the study s purpose to interviewees, immediate and longterms goals and objectives were discussed. Within a qualitative, humanistic framework,
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the upholding of situational influences on phenomena was compulsory. It is a preliminary step toward societal change. During risk assessment I assessed the (a) potential psychological stresses of participants, (b) the legal liabilities covered, and (c) how to deal with participant who “turn” nonrespondent (Patton, 2002). Importantly, describing these conceivable risks in detail was beneficial and critical prior to entering the study (Schram, 2006). Finally, data collection boundaries included never adding material from a participant who did not consent fully or who chose to withdraw information in medias res. Participants were never “pushed” for more information if it was apparent that the participant was acting increasingly upset; this was to avoid any pending psychological damage. Trustworthiness. Trustworthiness in this study had three forms related to its integrity (Patton, 2002; Schram, 2006). The first reflection was consequences of presence, referring to establishing stakeholders’ presence in the research setting. Second was selective experience, or differentiating what was important to the study and what was not. The third reflection was engaged subjectivity, which signifies how subjective elements of research were monitored (Patton, 2002; Schram, 2006). Maintaining the study’s integrity was achieved by upholding ethical principles and pre-establishing forms of validity and triangulation. Additionally, two institutional review boards (IRB) passed the proposal: Northcentral University and the college where the data collection took place. Institutional review boards. The first IRB application was submitted to the college where the data collection took place. The SPVS faculty administrator ensured that
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all paperwork was in order. After permission was granted, the acceptance letter and second application to Northcentral University were submitted. The application was revised a couple times before permission was granted. The time frame to complete data collection was September-December 2013. No data collection occurred until both IRBs approved the research applications. Summary This study’s methodology incorporated a focus group session and one-on-one interviewing, as well as administering Critical Incident Reports. The data collection process changed radically during the field work for three reasons. First, there was a dissertation committee change and a new committee chair stepped in to advise on the remainder of the project. Next, Hatch (2002) was deemed a more synchronous and appropriate source to the phenomenological methodology than Groenewald (2004), reflected by a data analysis segment change. Next, because saturation was reached too quickly in the focus group format of the alumni, the undergraduates participated in oneon-one interviews. Finally, the number of questions had to be modified from 18 to eight. This reflected the allocated time slot, eliminated redundancies, and simplified the language in questioning. The following chapter will describe the two samples of the alumni and the undergraduates groups. The findings will be analyzed and evaluated. Finally, two phenomena on collective and individual parameters will connect the central and subquestions to the thematic findings.
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Chapter 4: Findings Overview The purpose of this phenomenological study was to investigate the lived experiences of undergraduates and alumni of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State, through a framework of a hermeneutic lens. There were four criteria of data analysis: (a) protocol writing, as reflected by the participants’ critical incident reports; (b) interviewing, as exemplified in both focus group and one-on-one interviewing; (c) observing, as shown by participants’ eye and body movements, and surrounding circumstances (e.g., bringing their children into the interview session); and (d) examining the literature for biographical connection (Hatch, 2002; Marshall & Rossman, 1995; Patton, 1990). The following chapter includes the participants’ descriptions, results of the study, an evaluation of those results, and a summary. Similar designs of qualitative thematic findings will be analyzed, while verifying its connection to the review of the literature. The two conclusive phenomena of collectivism and individualism will link these thematic units and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Alumni Description In the focus group setting, the alumni group consisted of nine participants, five females and four males. This first category of participants was matriculated in the SPVS during the period 2001-2005 (when the national average for volunteering was higher). They were interviewed in a focus group format. All names of participants are pseudonyms. A description of the following participants emerged:
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Alumnus Aaron was a European-American male, age 33, currently married and his wife was expecting their first child. He was employed but looking for work. After being a returned Christian missionary who completed the master’s degree and was bilingual in Spanish and English, he worked as a Spanish translator for a local company. His wife was also completing her doctorate at a nearby university. Alumnus Brian was a current attorney who had completed his Juris Doctorate degree. He was newly married and 28 years old with no children. He was EuropeanAmerican and employed full-time. He volunteered actively and enjoyed running as well as mentoring others who were in the beginning phases of running. Church and community events were also a part of his volunteer work. Alumnus Christopher was a European-American male who was employed fulltime as an accountant. He was 27 and had never been married. He still participated frequently in the volunteer projects that the college had to offer. One trip included rebuilding in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina devastated the area in 2005. His interest in the different high school volunteer programs got him interested in community service in college and post-graduation. Alumna Donna was a European-American female, 31 years old, who was currently married. She had completed her bachelor’s degree and was employed full-time. In her opinion, volunteerism filled the void of being unhappy in her current place of employment in the accounting field. Also, she and her husband wanted to instill volunteerism in their children when they do have a family. Her husband was a special education teacher.
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Alumna Esther was a European-American female, who completed her doctorate in nursing. She was 32 years old and not married. Employed as full-time college professor in nursing, she incorporated volunteerism within her lessons. She was also active in many volunteer experiences on- and off-campus and brought her students with her to various volunteer sites. Her family introduced her to volunteering when she was young. Alumnus Frank was a 29-year-old European-American male, who worked as an administrator for curriculum in another small liberal arts college in the area. He was employed full-time. He was newly married with no children and had completed his master’s degree. Additionally, he was a doctoral student in education. He fundraised for events and nonprofit groups. When time constraints were high in his daily schedule, he donated financially. Alumna Gretchen was a 31-year-old European-American female who was currently married. She was employed full-time as a director in the social work field and had her master’s degree. She specialized in rehabilitation of prisoners and provided government housing. She instilled the meaning of volunteerism to her young daughter by including her on various volunteer projects. Gretchen’s parents were both teachers and took her along on their volunteer events as well when she was younger. Alumna Hailey was in the category of divorced/ separated, European-American female who was currently working full-time as a special education teacher. She specialized as a student behavioral assistant for children who were on the autism spectrum. She also had a young daughter whom she took to volunteer events. She was 33
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and lived in the suburbs. Bringing her daughter to volunteer events showed her diversity to which she would not be exposed in the area where they resided. Alumna Irene was a full-time employed elementary grade school teacher, European-American female, who was currently married with a master’s degree. She was 31 with a young child. Her volunteer experiences included working with pediatrics in a hospital setting as well as vacation bible school. She valued putting the needs of others ahead of hers. Her volunteer service led her to the field of teaching elementary education. Undergraduate Description In the individual interviews, the second group of participants was those who were currently matriculated in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS), while starting no earlier than 2006. They were interviewed in a one-on-one format, amending the previous group format. All participants were at least 18 years of age when interviewed (Appendix K). The composite of the undergraduates consisted of nine females and one male. Undergraduate Alex was a 20-year-old male sophomore majoring in Political Science and Business. He was unmarried and employed in either a part-time/ or in a student-worker position. His heritage was non- European-American, and he was adopted into a family who believed in the necessity of giving back to the community. He felt that his lifestyle was privileged and that others should be committed in helping others. Undergraduate Brianna was a senior nursing major. She was 21 years old and European-American and never married. She was working toward the bachelor’s degree,
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while working part-time/ or as a student-worker. She grew up in a family that volunteered often. Undergraduate Cara was a 19-year-old sophomore, majoring in psychology. She was European-American and a part-time/ student worker, and had never been married. She had volunteered for both her youth group and her church, including fundraisers and bake sales. She volunteered more now than in high school because she was a youth leader for her church. Undergraduate Danielle was a 20-year-old sophomore, psychology major, and a full-time student with no other employment. She was European-American, had never been married, and was currently completing her bachelor’s degree. She had volunteered as a vacation bible teacher and in a child advocacy center. Danielle had valued the process of volunteering since she was in high school. Undergraduate Elizabeth was a European-American student and a 20-year-old junior, Special education/English education major. She was a full-time student, not seeking employment, and had never been married. She enjoyed volunteering in the public relations department at the center for developmentally disabled adults. Additionally, she was seeking state teacher certification for Grades 5-12. Undergraduate Frances is a European-American female and 20 years old. She was employed part-time or as a student-worker and has not been married. A junior, she was completing her bachelor’s in biology/chemistry. Because one of her parents was a school administrator, she had volunteered previously at her high school and served as an aid to elementary school teachers and as a chaperone on field trips.
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Undergraduate Gail was a senior studying biology. At 22 years old, she worked part-time or as a student-worker. She had volunteered in high school when it was not mandated, as well as being a three-sport athlete, and National Honor Society member. Often, she served through her church by visiting the elderly and attending missionary trips. Undergraduate Hannah was a junior communication major. She was a 20-year-old European-American and was employed part-time as a student-worker or part-time status. She had never been married. Hannah volunteered often at a summer camp for inner-city youth. Undergraduate Eileen was a 21-year-old senior, special education major and European-American. She was currently employed as a student-worker and had never been married. She has volunteered through her local church and taught children with severe learning disabilities. She had mandatory volunteer hours in middle school and college but not in high school. Undergraduate Johanna was a junior political science major. She was 20 years old and never married. She was employed part-time or as a student worker and is EuropeanAmerican. She and her mother m volunteered at a children’s museum, which launched her volunteerism in college; she had been awarded the most number of hours in volunteerism. The results are reported in the next section. The alumni were interviewed in a focus group format and the undergraduates were interviewed one-on-one, according to modifications needed after the first interview session. The data will be linked to the
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literature on parallel thematic findings, specifically, Strauss and Howe (1997), Bass (2008), and Bass’s modified views to incorporate humanism from the economic man [sic]. Results Introduction. The results were supported by two phenomena: collectivism of the generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1997), and individualism of the economic theories of organization (Bass, 2008). Under both phenomena were three themes: (a) motivation, (b) religious application, and (c) pre-service learning. Codes that supported the theme of motivation were the codes of external and internal motivation (i.e., there was little to no evidence of amotivation/ apathy). The code that supported the theme of religious application was religious aspects/ Christian mission trips. The three codes supporting the theme of pre-service learning were human interaction, time constraints, and curricular application. The following section will include a consolidated view of quotes. These quotes are from the collected data and support the codes of the study. All supporting quotes were consistent across both the SPVS alumni and undergraduate participants (Appendix L). An unabridged table of all quotes and codes can be found in Appendix J. The support for the code of external motivation. Alumnus Frank and undergraduate Gail stated that volunteering was a “social activity.” It provided fun and was a way to meet new people. In addition, these participants’ parents had volunteered. The participants said they planned, in turn, to volunteer with their own children to have them continue the tradition. Also, alumni Donna and Frank stated that the parental
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influence was a strong extrinsic motivating factor in their lives. Many participants were committed to having their children, or future children, volunteer, as they had been taught. A final external motivating quote was the unionized and organizational policy constraints. Undergraduate Hannah stated that she would not want to be in a career with these constraints in the medical field. She mentioned that she could not help another member in the nursing field (if it were not in her job description) with a task within the parameters of a unionized setting. Often, those receiving volunteer services were concerned if the volunteers would show up to the work site: Undergraduate Alex stated, I guess like you can kind of go into a more depth [with volunteering], like I would only go I think like twice a week in high school but sometimes the principal at the school that I go to, ... , she’d be like, “Oh … ” when kids are having like a fall fest Saturday, they’re wondering if you could go and that happened like yesterday. I came and I had actually gotten lost on my way to the school and I showed up a little late and they were like, “Where were you? We worried you weren’t coming,” and I was like, “Oh no, I just got lost,” … but they asked me like, “Are you going to come to [the fall festival] after?” I was like, “Oh, what is it?” and then they told me about it and I was like, “Oh, I don’t know if I could,” and they felt really bad so I was like, “Actually you know what, I can stay out a little bit,” so it was cool. Other external motivators included the following: Alumnus Aaron stated, “Additionally, there was usually free food at the end [of a volunteer service project], and that always was a strong motivator.” Alumnus Frank said, In high school, it [volunteerism] was very much a social activity. When you’re volunteering with the youth group, you’re there to do things but you’re also there to hang out with your buddies and meet girls and things like that. It was very social in high school and it changed when you got into college.
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Many participants connected to the influence of their parents within their high school and college volunteer careers: Alumna Donna said, We had a [house-fire] when I was a young child, so growing up, I remember that. I remember all the help that we received. Growing up, my parents were always like, “Remember, if you have the chance to help others, other people helped you, so you need to do that.” I think that’s just instilled in me that it’s the right thing to do and you can have fun doing it as well. That’s how I grew up. Alumnus Frank said, From a values perspective, I think it was really just something that I gained from my family. It was just something that my parents instilled in us, and it probably had a lot to do with faith and religion and things like that, but it was more coming from the perspective of this is just the right thing to do. That’s how I got started. Other external motivational factors included serving in order to keep scholarship component of the SPVS: Undergraduate Danielle said, I still enjoy, very much, volunteering. However it’s changed [being in this college program from the high school days volunteering] because now there are a lot of, I guess, rules because if I don’t get a certain amount of hours done, then I don’t keep the scholarship and I’ll lose my scholarship. So it’s a lot of pressure and sometimes I feel like I’m doing it more because I have to, rather than because I really want to be doing it. I have to complete 200 hours …which is a lot of pressure between classes and exams and other extra-curriculars [sic] that I have going on. At times, volunteering “felt like a job,” as exemplified by the following statement by Undergraduate Frances: It really is kind of like a job. You have your set time every week, you go every week, you stick to your schedule. If you’re sick, you have to call in sick. You have to make sure someone can cover for you. My feelings towards it, I love it now. In high school I was indifferent toward it.
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Other external motivational factors included volunteers facing unionized or organizational policy constrains. For example, Undergraduate Hannah said, I’ve started at the pharmacy at the [city’s psych] Center, and I still love pharmacy, although I’m not doing it anymore. I really learned a lot, and it was great. It was two years. I progressed really fast, and I loved what I was doing there, and I learned a lot about working environments and different working environments that I liked or did not like. It was unionized, but it was also more psychiatric, so it was like “Okay, I want to do clinical, but I don’t want to do the psychiatric side.” And unionized, because I don’t want to do that, because if someone doesn’t know how to do something, you can’t do it. If one person who does not do it, you can’t do it. Another factor was a volunteer being externally motivated for a religious sacrament completion requirement. Alumnus Christopher said, In high school, both of my parents were teachers, so I did a lot of just tagging along with them during different events that they would do. Then in high school to get confirmed we had to do certain, a number of hours and that led into … I got caught driving at night, so I had to do community service for that, but I actually liked [it]. External motivational factors included more than “volunteering for socialization or fun.” Elements included parental, friends’, and outward religious influences. The following section will analyze the support for the code of internal volition. The support for the code of internal motivation. Within internal motivation, there was a stark religious development within the participants as a whole. Undergraduate Cara stated that the extent of serving grew from the high school days, since she now enjoys being a religious youth leader. Another internal motivational factor included alumna Esther stating that she volunteered as an “exchange for the blessings she received in life.” This value covered the aspects of social, work life, and family life. Additionally,
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alumnus Brian stated that volunteering meant an internal change: he enjoyed being the “source of change” in his and others’ lives. Undergraduate Cara stated, I’m now a [Christian youth] leader for high-schoolers [sic] so I’m able to use that as my service hours, which is so great because I would be doing it anyway, so it would have just been an extra thing, but it’s great that I get to use it. It’s funny because my volunteering hasn’t changed since high school since I’m in the same ministry, still. Obviously I’m much more involved, but, yeah, definitely to a greater extent, I volunteer much more now than I did in high school just because being a life leader requires at least 10 hours a week of just different things. Bible study, hangouts, hanging out with the kids, so I’m definitely becoming more involved. Another quote was, “The service site so enjoyable, it was not considered ‘mandated volunteering.’” This can be supported by undergraduate Gail stating: I have a lot more freedom [at the volunteer site now], I can kind of do my own thing, it’s like I’m someone who already works there, like an actual employee, and I can give my feedback and they ask me questions. I’ve learned a lot, because, if it doesn’t work, I don’t have anybody to turn to except for myself and [a major web search engine]. So I feel like I have to figure it out on my own, and it’s going to frustrate me, but that’s how I’m going to learn, and that’s how I’m going to become a better person and be unique from other people from a job standpoint but also a personal standpoint. One alumna, Esther, was internally motivated to achieve a life goal in exchange for the blessings she has received: Through the program, I learned about the importance of service in all aspects of life: work, family, social life. I learned how service could be integrated on a variety of levels, sometimes with donation of time or others with resources. It helped me to realize that volunteering is not an option for me. It is a requirement for me to live a fulfilled life. Service is the little bit I can do in exchange for the blessings in my life. Another quote within internal motivation was the notion that volunteerism was “what the good kids do.” Alumnus Frank said,
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From a values perspective, I think it was really just something that I gained from my family. It was just something that my parents instilled in us, and it probably had a lot to do with faith and religion and things like that, but it was more coming from the perspective of this is just the right thing to do. That’s how I got started. Alumnus Aaron stated, “As a child I did service activities because I felt like, that is what good kids do. I only had a very basic understanding of service and the motives behind it.” Being cognizant that the volunteer is a “source of change” toward others’ wellbeing was another internal motivational code. Alumnus Brian reported: Now with our lives trying to fit [volunteerism] in, it’s somewhat, “I’m capable of doing a lot. Am I doing enough?” and that there’s a constant struggle there trying to find your own means to see what the needs are out there and the most sensible, overwhelming too of being overwhelmed because you now know you read, you pick up the paper, you read the articles. You aren’t hearing people telling you there’s a problem. You can actually see firsthand. You might even experience it in your daily lives and I think I’m capable of doing a lot and I’m capable of doing enough. I think that program really showed we can be a change and you just want to see that and you hope you’re living up to that. Alumna Gretchen wanted to “think positively with a ‘troubled population.’” She exemplified this quote within internal motivation by stating: For me, it’s hard to see when I’m valuing what I do and I think that it’s only for good that selfishly I have to continue to think warm and fuzzy because I will get bogged down in with the troubled population that we often help. Undergraduate Alex reported that a second grader said to him several times, “Oh my dad, he’s got friends,” but the way she says it’s kind of like a gang or something and I was like, “Oh!” and so I feel like she’s seen more and it’s harder for her. Participants’ internal motivation included self-reflection as being the “source of change,” and implementing religious morality. This was pinnacle to cognitive and selfdevelopment. The next section will assess further religious aspects by Christian mission
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trips. The support for the code of religious aspect/ Christian mission trips. Under the code of religious aspects/Christian mission trips, Undergraduates Brianna and Eileen taught Bible classes on the elementary school level in both the General and Special education levels. Brianna stated that her volunteerism grew in junior high school, and learned that as time progressed, that it was a calling to work with children on the elementary school age. Eileen stated that she learned a great deal with working with students with disabilities. She learned that they truly appreciate her service, although they could not communicate with her at first. She reflects continually on that teaching example to alleviate discouragement. Understanding the human elements when serving religiously was another quote from undergraduate Cara. She had good memories from parochial teaching while being able to approach her cooperating teachers on the kindergarten and first grade levels. Those conversations connected her well to her students and to understanding the practicum process. On his mission trip to South America, alumnus Aaron concluded that the religious aspect of service included a knowledge of the present times, and not past and future. His mindset determined that the present volunteer experiences were the most important in the lives of those whom he was influencing. Undergraduate Danielle stated, I began volunteering in eighth grade when I started to teach vacation bible school at my church. I started out as an assistant to the teacher and by my sophomore year of high school, I ended up having my own classroom for kindergarten and first graders. That was the time that I really fell in love with volunteering and working with the kids. I also did some tutoring at my high
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school. I would help out with events in my high school to get my incoming freshmen class prepared for the freshmen. Now, I work at ... a child advocacy center. So I work with children there as well. Undergraduate Eileen said, My volunteer role was to help teach a faith formation class to four students with severe disabilities. It was really difficult to try to maintain the students’ attention and there were definitely some rough patches, like biting, trying to run away from the classroom, etc. I felt really discouraged because when teaching the students, I felt like I was just talking to myself. The students had a difficult time responding to questions. However, on the last class of the year, I was told by one student who has severe autism, to “Come back and visit soon!” and “Don’t forget about us!” This meant the world to me because I discovered that all the hard work that I had put into the lessons and the time I spent with these children really did have an impact on them. I use this memorable moments when I am feeling discouraged while teaching in the field and at my service site. Gratis language teaching for church is the next quote. Alumnus Aaron said, Now that I have finished my formal education and the SPVS, I have received a master’s degree in education, I speak Spanish at a high-advanced level, have worked as a Spanish translator for several years and I am married to a Chinese woman. With regards to my background, most vividly I remember instances where I have been able to serve as a Spanish interpreter on several occasions at my church, I have used my education to [volunteer teaching] English for a summer at a Chinese Evangelical church. Another code required service for a Catholic high school graduation requirement. Alumnus Christopher stated, “I went to a Jesuit high school, and in order to graduate, you had to do at least 100 hours of community service.” Alumna Esther stated, We had a requirement as part of Catholic high school to complete 80 hours of volunteer work in your senior year. A group of us took a course for college credit which was based in service learning, in which we were required to do 200 hours of services in senior year. Often, mission trips disconnected volunteers from previous distractions they faced. Alumnus Aaron contributed,
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One could say that I was stuck with my decision, but, I believe that it really allowed me to let the distractions from home stay at home so I could more fully focus on why I was there. Beyond the fact that I was thousands of miles from home, mission rules meant that I could only use the Internet once a week for half an hour to check and send e-mail (this was when the Internet was still fairly new, now some missionaries use it for missionary work), and we were only allowed to call home (unless there was an emergency) on Mother’s Day and Christmas. It’s surprising how much the world can change in only two years when you aren’t fully able to participate in it. Undergraduate Cara stated, It’s like an outreach ministry for high school kids, so I got really involved in that, and I also contributed to volunteering, and I think the biggest experience I had with volunteering in high school was my mission trip to El Salvador, which was awesome. I went my junior and senior year [for] a week. Yeah, both times …We went down to a tiny village in El Salvador where the people really just have nothing. Yeah, and so we helped them. We brought them food, a lot of school supplies and we built them two schools. This has been a seven-year process of kids going down each year. Another supporting quote was “Understanding, helping others, understanding human interaction by serving.” Cara continued: I have a lot of good memories from volunteering at my first service site [at a Catholic] elementary school. At first, as a freshman [volunteer], I was nervous and not sure of what to expect, but I hope that throughout the year I could form relationships with the teachers and kids so my service would feel worthwhile. I remember really getting to know the kindergarten and first grade teachers that I was able to talk with them for hours about teaching, school and just life in general, while I was helping them with paperwork. Those few hours for sometimes very heartwarming! A subsequent quote was, “A mission trip to South America: service was more important in the present, than in the past or in the future.” Alumnus Aaron said, I think the[mission] experience really allowed me to be in a mindset while I served that, what I did before doesn’t really matter, and what I will do afterwards aren’t really important, it is the service right now that is most important.
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Religious aspect/ Christian mission trips reflected the study’s thematic findings. Participating in mission trips secured participants’ understanding of contemporary issues, as well as supported human interaction. The support for the code of human interaction. Within the pre-service learning theme, human interaction was evident as a code. Undergraduate Brianna concluded that volunteerism had two factors concerning working with people or rather with paperwork. For example, she appreciated having a choice between volunteering with people or doing secretarial jobs needed for an organization (e.g., stuffing envelopes, filing paperwork, constructing patients’ file folders). This choice of “tailoring” her experience enabled her to be more productive within the service organization. Alumnae Hailey and Gretchen mentioned that within human interaction, it was difficult to see the effects of volunteerism. They were on a college schedule and the students whom they were mentoring were on a K-12 schedule. The college students’ semester was finished a month or so before the K-12 schools completed their semesters. Alumna Esther stated that human interaction gave the participants a “moment of pride.” She and alumna Donna concluded that they never thought it was “uncool to volunteer,” but rather that it filled them with a sense of pride and accomplishment. It was also nice to be a part of a group during their volunteering. The realization of being needed within a society was a concluded element they deduced from their servicelearning.
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In the following quote that supports human interaction, there is a, “Difference between wanting to work with people and volunteering without a human connection (that is, paperwork for an organization),” Undergraduate Brianna continued: I just love the [SPVS]: I’m an ambassador. I tell everybody that it’s a great program and they should come and do it and you’ll learn a lot and especially, you can pick. I just love that you can go wherever you want to go and you can make the experience what you want to make it. So I think that’s important that if you want to be just sitting stuffing folders, you can do that. If you want to be out there, I know people who are doing like teaching and ... so they can go right in there and do student teaching experiences. I think that’s great and that you get to design like whatever your ideal experience is. You can tailor it to that, so I think that’s really important. Undergraduate Elizabeth “formed relationships with sponsoring teachers and aides” (in practicum). She concluded, Freshman year I was placed at [an inner-city] school. I was pretty nervous at first because I never have been at a city school. I grew up in a very suburban area and this was very new to me. I was placed in a kindergarten classroom and loved it. There were some troubled kids in there and one stood out in particular. The teacher asked me to help her with spelling words. The group of teachers thought that she was going to fail kindergarten and just wanted me to get some good experience I guess. I learned some techniques to my class that I used on (the student). The teacher said because of this technique she adapted and was able to move on to first grade. Within the next quote, “Volunteering was a ‘social event’- a fun thing to do,” Undergraduate Gail said that around Christmas time, Her school would hold a fundraiser for a school or something and they would need volunteers to come work it, so me [sic] and my friends would do it. It was at the point where I didn’t realize that that stuff was volunteer[ism]. It was just fun to do and you like to do it. Alumnus Frank stated,
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In high school, it was very much a social activity. When you’re volunteering with the youth group, you’re there to do things but you’re also there to hang out with your buddies and meet girls and things like that. It was very social in high school and it changed when you got into college. The next quote showed that, “Volunteering feels good because one is needed and wanted on the job site.” Undergraduate Alex stated, There are two times that really stick out last year and when I was a junior. Both times involve working with students third and second grade[s]. After an entire year of working with the students, even halfway through the year, I could feel we’re making progress. My junior year [working with a third grade boy] we were able to help him pass his tests, learn to read more efficiently, as well teach him to play chess. The second time is with a second (now third grade) girl. She grew up in a tough neighborhood, and is on vouchers. I helped her pass, and learn to protect yourself, as well as finding an outlet. She now loves drawing. At the end of the year the kids gave me the biggest hug and homemade cards telling me how much I meant to them. And listing all the things we did, many of which I didn’t think important, but to them it meant the world. Many alumni participants thought that this quote applied to their personal, collegiate, experiences: “It was tough to see effects of volunteering when college calendar does not align to the K-12 calendar.” Alumna Hailey said, I never got to follow through with [my volunteer projects] because I was done in May and graduated and not coming back and all these kids were graduating in June and my role was done. Right away, as soon as the school year started, applied with a special education program within the ... area and started out small there. Undergraduate Danielle stated, I was done with [volunteer projects] by first semester because I just wasn’t feeling like I was contributing to the community whatsoever. Then as far as working at the schools, I did enjoy working at the schools, however, they had different break schedules than we do [at the college level], so I never had enough hours. I was always scrambling at the last minute. ‘Ok, what do I need to do and how can I get it done?’
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At times, volunteers felt “moments of pride.” Alumna Donna stated, I do remember the sense of accomplishment and pride and happiness-- but I think that comes along with any volunteering. I never sensed it was “un-cool” or anything like that as HS can be like. Alumna Esther said, I agree with the sense of pride. It was being part of this group that it’s nice to be, especially coming as a commuter, it was nice to have this group of people that you knew on campus that were residents with something in common. We all thought volunteering was important. I think throughout the process at college and through the program was that realization of how much need that there was in society. I was working in pediatric units literally visiting patients that were my age and to see people that had had advanced diagnoses and that were living in the hospital. To me, it made it really real. Human interaction supported participants’ “moments of pride.” However, volunteer projects needed to have a variety of options that included the difference between either working with people or with paperwork. This choice elevated participants’ excitement to volunteer. The next section will describe time constraints. The support for the code of time constraints. Undergraduate Brianna stated how difficult it can be to balance service component of the service requirements, academic work, and extra-curricular activities. The leap from high school to collegiate service changed demands on students. She felt as if she had more time in high school for service than on the college level with so many components of the SPVS. Time constraints were also found in the feelings of stress during the school, as undergraduate Elizabeth wondered how she would accomplish her mandated hours. Again, at the high school level, one had more free time to conduct volunteer service than in the SPVS program. She mentioned that 200 hours a school year in college is lengthy. She mentioned that she had more hours in the summer months but not all were permitted into the 200. Finally,
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alumna Gretchen stated that time constraints contributed to an “emotional rollercoaster,” as she viewed the difficulty of balancing obtaining an education on top of the service requirements. One must accomplish the service-hours segment, and still earn good grades. Additionally, Gail felt that she had a tough time understanding those whom she was helping. She needed to consult the college’s administrator for help and schedule management. Undergraduate Brianna stated, I wish I had more time now, I mean if I could there every day I would, but it’s obviously not too simple. I felt like I had a lot more time before and I could spend that extra time and now it’s kind of … so if could do more, I would. The next quote was “with no high school time constraints on volunteering, volunteers did not have limits or restrictions. They felt like they got more accomplished.” Undergraduate Elizabeth said, I enjoyed volunteering in high school. It wasn’t something that I had to do so I never felt like it was mandatory, I have to get this done in order to earn this many credits or something like that. It was always something I did for myself and on my own time and there were no restrictions or limitations. Undergraduate Hannah stated, I started out when I was six years old. My dad got me involved in volunteering, because he had been volunteering for a long time--many, many years. I started out at the ... Museum in [small rural town in western section of] New York, doing building, interpreting, not at six, but I did building and interpreting, I did Yuletide, just all different summer programs and Earth Camp, everything that I could. I ended up volunteering 800 hours in 10 years [before college]. The next quote was, “If volunteers treat service ‘as a job’ it fits into their academic and extra-curricular schedules. Undergraduate Elizabeth stated that she learned through the SPVS “to value commitment too because you can’t really just give up on
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anything. [You have to do it because of risk of losing the scholarship component]. You have to stick to it.” Monetary contributions were also a faster option when time constraints were present. Alumnus Brian posited, Whether it’s just donations or finding time [to conduct volunteerism], and going up for needs and to having the knowledge or the ability to be that change or when you read about something, I can identify and figure out a way to make an impact whether back in college where they said, “You have to be here at this time, or be at this time,” and a car will take you there and from because [we weren’t allowed to have cars] on campus at that point. That’s pretty much is the desire I think for the value. Undergraduate Gail stated, One of them that I look forward to each year is the [local non-profit organization’s] gala. This event happens once a year and is a time used to reflect, celebrate and fund [raise].The reason this event is so memorable to me is because you get to see all the volunteers [and organizational owners and staff] in one place. A family speaks and a little while later there is a live auction. It is absolutely unbelievable to see how much is donated on the spot a very magical moment to witness. The next quote was: “feelings of stress during the school year, ‘When am I going to get all my hours in?’” Undergraduate Elizabeth posited, I guess in high school it’s more ... on your free time, you wanted to do it and this [collegiate volunteerism through SPVS] is more you have to do it. This is like: you have to get 200 within the school year. Right now, I think I’m at 90. Yeah. You can do 80 hours over the summer. I was at [one organization during] the summer. I think I have 150 hours [there] … but only 80 of them could count. Completing the mandated service hours were also labeled as an “emotional rollercoaster.” Alumna Gretchen stated, I would say emotional rollercoaster [concerning participation in the SPVS]. You have to get it done. You have a lot of other school [work] as you’re here for an education, so trying to balance that. I remember having awfully intense conversation with [a college administrator] about just not understanding. [It was
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the first time I had ever experienced] racism like, “You’re a white girl coming into our school. What do you know about this? You don’t know me. You don’t know our situation and it’s just …” It was a lot for a 20 year-old. Time constraints were evident in this study’s findings. Participants’ college calendars were not synchronized to the calendars of their kindergarten-Grade 12 volunteer placements. The next section will assess the code of curricular application. The support for the code of curricular application. In curricular application of pre-service learning, Alumna Esther applied service learning to the four levels of government: local, state, national, and international. She deemed that the seminars prepared her for understanding the need of service across these four levels; in addition, it aided her in understanding how much various organizations depend on volunteers. Leadership through self-development was a statement from undergraduate Brianna, who posited that she learned leadership skills as a precursor for her self-reflection: “How can it make me a better leader?” Finally, Undergraduate Johanna concluded that curricular application allowed the volunteer to reflect on who she was. The previous paradigm of self-development led to self-realization. Johanna stated that the SPVS made her work harder not only on the volunteer site, but on her classwork as well. Transference of managerial skills applied across both platforms of collegiate and volunteer work. Returning to the paradigm of “applying the Service-Learning (SL) curriculum to the four levels of government (international, national, state, and local),” the subsequent quotes are attached within the sixth code of curricular application. Alumna Esther stated: I sensed the true need in the community – local, state, national, and international. The seminars helped me to understand this, in conjunction with the volunteering
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experience. I started to appreciate the role of volunteers and the dependence of agencies on the service of volunteers. I appreciated how volunteering was more than just ‘about me.’ There was “leadership through self-development” as another quote. Undergraduate Brianna stated, I definitely learned leadership skills. They put us through our freshmen course that we took leadership through self development. So it really kind of help to say, “What am I doing? Why am I doing this? How can it make me a better leader and how can I step up during certain experiences to kind of become a better leader?” I think that makes me a socially better nurse, but better even as a volunteer because I can kind of identify those situations and know when you need to step up or when you can just tell when somebody needs help versus “Okay I’m making folders now. That person needs help.” The next quote was “curricular pre-volunteering helps one identify the times to be more pro-active or reactive.” This was exemplified with alumnus Frank stating: I had conflicting feelings [within the SPVS]. It was nice to be part of that cohort of models of people, so you felt like a little special team like some of the other folks alluded to, but it was also difficult to see some of … going through the experiences you went through to really see poverty or really get to know kids with cancer. Undergraduate Elizabeth stated that a code “helps the volunteer be more responsible:” [Through SPVS I have learned,] I guess ... knowledge ... definitely pertaining to my hours. I’ve learned to be more responsible. I do as much as possible because I’m also observing at school so it’s hard. I’m constantly going throughout the week. Friday’s [finally] my day off where I don’t really do anything. I guess responsibility … and knowledge. “Importance of social justice model” was another quote within this code. Alumnus Frank reported, Oh, yeah, for sure. Like I said at the interview, my parents had always raised us with the mindset that charity is good and giving back to the community is positive, but throughout college in the [Scholarship Program for Volunteer
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Service –SPVS] we really learned about the social justice model and things beyond just once or twice a year doing a volunteer opportunity. Becoming a [member of the SPVS] really enlightened me to how the rest of the world works. I lived in a very sheltered and suburban environment growing up, so it allowed me to see a whole different side of the world that I didn’t even know existed until college. Another quote showed the volunteer “who he was/ self-realization.” Undergraduate Johanna stated, [SPVS] makes me work harder on my school work too. It makes me slow down and work out things in more time management sense like start something way ahead of time so you are not paranoid to get it done like the day over or whatever. Curricular application was evident as students benefited from the “social justice model,” before they entered their field work. Participants stated that the curricular knowledge made them better-prepared to be proactive or reactive in the field. The next section will discuss the thematic findings of this study. Thematic findings. The resulting thematic findings were, (a) motivation, (b) religious application, and (c) pre-service learning. Motivation was supported by two codes of external and internal motivation. A third potential code of amotivation, the lack of self-determination with no self-monitoring (Gagné & Deci, 2005), was not found in this study. All participants were highly motivated during the interviews, while expressing their reasons for volunteering. On the religious application theme, students and alumni discussed their Christian mission trips. To them, the value of serving reflected the current, contemporary, needs of people. There was also a strong internal religious growth seen in these participants as their volunteer service changed from high school to the postcollegiate service learning opportunities. The pre-service learning theme was supported by this code: Students connected their curricular knowledge to the four levels of
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government: local, state, national, and international. Additionally, participants applied the curriculum to their individual volunteer sites while experiencing self-realization and metacognition. Although all appreciated the connection from the classroom to the service-learning site, more alumni, than undergraduates, extrapolated and transferred the learned classroom skills while on the volunteer job site. Upon retrospection, the alumni were more metacognitive in understanding their volunteer role and being the “source of change” on the four levels of government. For example, Alumna Esther knew that when the federal government suspended a mission trip overseas because of the safety of the volunteers, she projected accurately the consequences of the absence of supplies to those who were waiting. Traditionally, in a hermeneutic phenomenology, the central and subresearch questions are not answered individually, as if it were a case study (Hatch, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). However, hypothetically, the thematic findings of this study could also support the research questions. The three themes of (a) motivation, (b) religious application, (c) pre-service learning “answer” the following subresearch questions: Q1.
What were the students’ perceptions of faculty and volunteerorganizational managers keeping students retained in volunteerism?
SPVS participants perceived that it was their “duty to serve others.” They commented that since they grew-up in a privileged background, it was an “obligation” to help others who were less fortunate. Therefore, participants in this study never verbalized that it was the “job” of administration or faculty to help them be retained in their volunteer fieldwork.
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Q2.
What were the students’ motivational methods of volunteerism?
SPVS participants were motivated by multilateral external and internal factors. External factors included volunteering in order to maintain their scholarship component of this college program, or they volunteered because of the “pressure” from family and friends. Internal motivational factors included, “wanting to be perceived as helpful.” They were also “achieving a life goal,” by aiding others. Students also sought human interaction, especially after seeing their impact upon others in the community. SPVS participants viewed volunteering as a social event. Volunteers were more motivated to serve when their friends or family members joined them. Q3.
What were the surrounding influences of phenomena in volunteers’ experiences in the collegiate Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)?
The surrounding influences of two overarching phenomena were collectivism and individualism. However, one example in the thematic findings was religious aspect/ Christian mission trip. SPVS participants were influenced by their internal religious progress, while on a mission. They were influenced by the goals set by their churches. Alumni and undergraduates provided meals, housing, and spiritual guidance to those whom they were helping. SPVS participants stated that volunteer service was, “the right thing to do.” Evaluation of Findings The findings revealed a combination of two phenomena: collectivism (Appendix M) supported by the generational theory of Strauss and Howe (1997); and individualism
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supported by the economic theories of organization of Bass (2008). Bass’s theories (2008) may apply, in part, to support the economic drive found in human volition; he coined the term “the economic man [sic].” However, as Donaldson (1990) contended, any of the Bass theories of this economic man were erroneous to the humanistic criteria that participants understood and implemented cooperation and responsibility. The results of this study aligned to Donaldson’s (1990) response to Bass’s (2008) theories, since each phenomenon does not function in isolation. This study found that the participants were motivated highly to be cooperative as long as they were presented a choice in their volunteer projects. When the option was not there, morale was lowered and work level decreased; however, it was never to the point where it would be considered amotivation (or burn-out) because participants never lost sight of their internal monitoring process (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Haski-Leventhal & Bargal, 2008; Pisarik, 2009). Participants answered all questions willingly and enthusiastically. There were no amotivational codes of nonresponses or statements of indifference. Summary The findings were supported by two overarching phenomena: collectivism (Strauss & Howe, 1997) and individualism (Bass 1974/2008). Donaldson (1990) questioned the severity of Bass’s assertion that the so-called economic man was motivated by greed and that humans will not cooperate for the good of achieving the common goal. In this study, each participant interchanged collective and individualistic criteria of motivation while they were volunteering, as well as in their curricular
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experiences in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS). Students and alumni could not work in isolation of each phenomenon. Within the three thematic findings of the study, (a) motivation, (b) religious application, and (c) pre-service learning, students and alumni cited parental influence as an external motivating factor. Within internal motivation, participants had an astute selfrealization of being the “source of change” in others’ and their lives. Within the theme of religious application, participants felt a stronger and progressive religious connection and spiritual growth from the time they were in high school. In the final theme of pre-service learning, participants needed to have a choice between volunteering with people or working with paperwork within an organization. Without this choice, participants’ volition declined faster. The following chapter will describe the collective phenomenon of generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1997), as well as a description of its four components, their collective and individual purposes, and the representative archetypes. Bass’s (2008) economic theories of organization will be discussed and connected to the existing literature. Additionally, the study’s implications, recommendations, and conclusions will be addressed.
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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States, collegiate volunteerism rose until 2005. At the same time, a goal of many universities was to promote citizenship education, in order to provide undergraduates with tools and skills necessary to aid their journey to become personally responsible citizens. After 2006, undergraduate volunteerism began declining on a national scale (Dekker, 2009; Finkelstein, 2011; Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006; McBrien, 2008; McDonald, 2011; Zipin & Reed, 2008). Because undergraduate volunteerism has waned, the problem that this study addressed was scholars focusing more on recruitment and field-placement of student-volunteers instead of their retention in civil service projects (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological study was to investigate the lived volunteer-experiences of alumni and undergraduates of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS) at a private, Catholic college in western New York State. The method in this type of phenomenology incorporated both the descriptive and interpretive methods to find the surrounding phenomena of the SPVS participants’ volunteer experiences (Hatch, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). Data collection strategies in this study included (a) issuing a demographic questionnaire (Appendix E) and Critical Incident Reports (Appendix G) to all participants; (b) conducting a focus group session for the alumni SPVS participants; (c) conducting individual interviews to the undergraduate SPVS participants, and (d) debriefing all participants. Limitations of this study were that SPVS participants’ views may not have been the same as the entire college population, including those who were not SPVS participants. The alumni SPVS
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participants in the focus group session did not complete all the questions. Perhaps because they were younger and less experienced, undergraduates did not elaborate with as many details on questions as did the alumni. IRB approval was obtained from two universities before the data collection began. SPVS participants understood and signed the consent forms before participating, and they had the right to leave the study at any time or choose not to answer a question. There were no participants under the age of 18 years. SPVS participants answered a demographic questionnaire: these results indicated that most participants were female and European-American. This chapter contains the following segments: an assessment of, (a) collectivism and individualism, the two phenomena that support the SPVS participants’ lived experiences; (b) the three thematic findings in this study-- motivation, religious application, and pre-service learning; (c) an interpretation of how the three thematic findings connect to the two phenomena of collectivism and individualism; (d) a description of the two theories that support the two phenomena; (d) recommendations and a call for future research; and (e) conclusions. Implications Collectivism and individualism are the two resulting phenomena of this study. Collectivism may be defined as preparing individuals within a society to a) work together, (b) build values across all generations, and (c) empower youth and young adults so that they are independent and self-sustaining in the future (Strauss & Howe, 1997). Individualism may be defined as a person being motivated for the purpose of self-interest,
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self-promotion, egocentrism, and avoidance of participating in a society (Bass, 2008). In some circumstances individualism may also include an individual’s motivation based on greed (Bass, 2008). The following section will describe the two phenomena of collectivism and individualism, and how these phenomena support the three themes of motivation, religious application, and pre-service learning. It will also show the connection of the phenomena to the Central and Sub-research questions. Two Phenomena of Collectivism and Individualism Collectivism. Collectivism is a collaborative approach within society to prepare an individual (e.g., volunteer) for current and future civic involvement. Collectivism is an important phenomenon in this study because these data suggested that an individual cannot function alone and needs the collaboration of others. An example of this relationship is SPVS participants enjoying volunteering with others who have similar goals. Undergraduate SPVS participants preferred student-teaching when the aides and other teachers were approachable, helpful, and provided insight on lesson planning and student- discipline techniques. Additionally, both alumni and undergraduate SPVS participants enjoyed working and communicating with SPVS administration, faculty, and their peers. This collaboration enabled participants to discuss openly their concerns, or celebrations of achievement. The field (i.e., the different volunteer placements) includes a variety of locations from student-teaching opportunities to businesses in the community. Collaboration in their SPVS cohort or college classroom experiences aided participants to better understand a volunteer’s challenges and future career-goals.
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Collectivism represents how a volunteer understands the motives and needs of others. This includes how each generation fits into a society. Examples include SPVS participants working with children, young adults, and the elderly across various activities. Their volunteer goals included teaching different age groups to promote citizens being community-oriented and civic-minded. A goal of collectivism is to ensure various generations have the necessary skill-sets to be productive members of society (Howe & Strauss, 2000). Examples of being productive members of society include an individual understands domestic and foreign affairs, and their economies, family and society interaction, and crime prevention (Strauss & Howe, 1997). Individualism. Individualism is defined as motivation for an end-result of selfpromotion, egocentrism, and avoidance of participating in society (Bass, 2008). An individual needs to act independently from a group-structure, but that does not preclude that individual from contributing to the good of the whole society. This occurs so a volunteer can reflect on their personal decision-making process. These decisions lead an individual to self-promotion and the volition to do well. In the present study, SPVS participants were more motivated to serve when they had a choice of their volunteer tasks because each participant had unique needs and interests. SPVS participants were motivated internally when they had an option of either working with people in a group-setting, or alone with an organization’s paperwork. Without this choice, these data results revealed that students had high levels of boredom and frustration, the criteria leading to burnout. Individually, participants had high levels of self-interest and volition to accomplish the criteria of the SPVS program, whether it is
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in classroom or in the field. All participants were dedicated to meeting the SPVS components needed to graduate. Bass (2008) concluded that Americans were highest ranked of workers of 50 countries in aspects of individualism, stating that the work mentality of many includes a “take charge” attitude that was not found in other countries (p. 1007). This study supported SPVS participants’ affinity toward individualism. These data revealed the volunteers’ intrinsic motivation to (a) complete all mandatory service hours, (b) achieve individual time-management skills, and (c) influence others to conduct good deeds by their example. Three Thematic Findings Within this study’s implications, three themes supported the phenomena of collectivism and individualism. The themes were motivation, religious application, and pre-service learning. Each theme had codes that supported these data. Supporting codes were external motivation and internal motivation. Within the second theme of religious application, supporting codes were Christian mission trips, as well as Biblical learning and teaching. Finally, in the last theme of pre-service learning, supporting codes were the four levels of government, human interaction, time constraints, and curricular application. External motivation. External motivation may be defined as outside influences “acting” on an individual’s volition, for example, volunteering only to complete course credit, grades, receiving a promotion, or based on the feeling of obligation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2008; Niemiec et al., 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2006). An example in this study of
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extrinsic motivation was the need for SPVS participants to volunteer based on maintaining their scholarship component (that is, a one third tuition reduction). However, incoming SPVS students are currently receiving one half tuition reduction. This discrepancy has caused conflict between the undergraduate SPVS participants, their parents, and college administrators. The result of this conflict was that undergraduate SPVS students were “grandfathered” by their original contract, and the new ratereduction did not apply to them (Anonymous, personal communication, SeptemberOctober, 2013). The reaction of the SPVS participants to this administrative decision showed that undergraduates were motivated by economic factors. Other external motivational codes supported in this study were SPVS participants, (a) wanting to volunteer in order to meet new friends, (b) being influenced by their parents and friends who also volunteer, (c) feeling accomplished and needed, (d) wanting to be a part of a larger group setting, and (e) enjoying new service-experiences. Intrinsic motivation. When an individual has internal feelings to volunteer without an external influence, it is called intrinsic motivation. Examples include volunteers acting selflessly without needing a reward system. As a result, volunteers were satisfied from acting selflessly from the act of volunteering with no other external influences (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). Intrinsic motivational factors include volunteers being more enthusiastic and having more flexibility in designing volunteertasks (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2008; Niemiec et al., 2009). Also, internal motivation may be defined as volunteering in order to better oneself, for example, by conducting an act of kindness for no other reason but to see someone else happy (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2008;
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Niemiec et al., 2009). SPVS participants were aware that they could be the source of change in others’ well-being. They could also influence others to make good decisions and to develop spiritually. In general, examples of internal motivation include volunteering without being asked, connecting to another project, or working with new people or ideas. Individuals accomplish volunteerism without seeking a reward as compensation for their motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Niemiec et al., 2009; Pisarik, 2009). Theme of religious application. The codes that supported the second theme of religious application included Christian mission trips, as well as Biblical learning and teachings. Some SPVS participants thought that their own religious growth developed by volunteering to teach Bible studies to a third grade class. Many participants thought that serving on a mission helped volunteers focus on the current needs of others. All SPVS participants supported others through their religious application while participating in the SPVS. Data suggested this study’s participants’ accomplished church leadership roles, volunteer-teaching in a Christian youth group, or in elementary grade levels. Theme of pre-service learning. Four codes supported the theme of pre-service learning, and these four codes were most richly supported by data. The codes were SPVS participants’ connection to, (a) the four levels of government, (b) human interaction, (c) time constraints, and (d) curricular application. A code that supported the third theme of pre-service learning was the volunteers’ understanding how the four levels of government (local, state, national, and international) apply to their volunteer experiences. In the focus-group session, alumni participants
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discussed how U.S. governmental regulations prohibited the alumni SPVS participants from delivering needed supplies on a mission trip. Alumni SPVS participants understood the chain-reaction effect if they could not complete their end of the required task, and how it inadvertently affected others (i.e., those waiting for supplies would not receive them). Another code that supported the theme of pre-service learning was human interaction. Without human interaction, some SPVS participants wanted to stop attending their volunteer obligation in the field. SPVS participants enjoyed interacting with others; and the result was SPVS participants understood their own hierarchal role within a bigger organizational system. For example, participants in this study knew the difference in tone when speaking more professionally to field managers and owners than with friends. This was one of many important criteria taught in the SPVS classroom prior to entering the volunteer sites. The next code that supported pre-service learning was time constraints. The alumni group acknowledged that when they had limited time to volunteer, they preferred to donate by writing a check to an organization. This was not seen in the undergraduate data. However, undergraduates did have conflicts because of time constraints. This included knowing how to balance all college and SPVS requirements, especially during the first year of the program. However, undergraduates spoke to SPVS administrators and faculty for advice on how to improve time management. Undergraduates improved their time management skills as the year progressed and routines were established.
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The final code of curricular application that supported pre-service learning enabled participants to self-reflect on their volunteer-role. Self-reflection included SPVS participants to promote better leadership qualities in their volunteerism. SPVS faculty taught the curriculum before students entered the various volunteer placements. The alumni participants, not undergraduates, had a better understanding of how to apply the SPVS curriculum of pre-service learning to the field of volunteering. Specifically, this was exemplified by the volunteer knowing the organization’s needs, and then how to respond accordingly to them without being asked. Although SPVS participants comprehended the theoretical concepts of pre-service curriculum, some did not have the experience of applying it properly in the field. Two examples of theoretical concepts of pre-service learning are understanding community needs and action, and connecting the classroom curriculum to the goals of the organizational field-placement (Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, & Stephens, 2010). However, undergraduates had little perception of how their current efforts would affect long-term plans. For example, despite undergraduates arriving on time to their volunteer site, they did not understand how habitual tardiness would affect others’ trust in them. Collectivism and Individualism Supported by Two Theories Two theories supported the two resulting phenomena of collectivism and individualism. Strauss and Howe’s (1997) generational theory supports collectivism (Appendix J) and Bass’s (2008) economic theories of organization support individualism. Individual goals, as seen in this study’s results, may be applied to help the collective goals of an organization.
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Collectivism. Strauss and Howe (1997) established their generational theory (Appendix J). According to this theory, a citizen’s lifespan consists of four phases of time, while supporting a collaborative society. The generational theory aligned to the SPVS study by the following two examples. First, SPVS participants enjoyed forming relationships with others through their volunteer work. This included meeting new people in a student- teacher scenario. SPVS participants who were placed in a kindergartenGrade 12 (K-12) setting enjoyed meeting their sponsoring teachers, as well as planning their lessons with them. Second, SPVS students in other volunteer placements other than K-12 learned that regardless of the location, children were still dependent on the volunteer. For example, Undergraduate Alex noted that kids (on his volunteer site) “had learned to be defensive”; however, they were “very worried” about Alex if he were not punctual when arriving to work, even when it was only by a couple minutes. This showed that the young students’ behaviors needed the frequent structure of human interaction. Individualism. Bass (2008) developed the economic theories of organization. Although not all components of these theories were supported by this SPVS study, they were aligned in showing that an individual is motivated for economic reasons. Humanism was another element found within Bass’s (2008) economic theories and the SPVS study. Individually, SPVS participants did seek humanistic qualities in their motivation. That is, an individual who is motivated by self-improvement and intrinsic factors may also contribute to the good of society. Alumna Hailey was motivated to volunteer based on
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two humanistic memories she had-- not forgetting the 9/11 attacks, and the memory of her deceased friend who participated in the community service tasks on campus. Hailey represented the entire SPVS alumni participants when she described finishing her senior year as “ending an era” in this SPVS. Coupled with two distinctive events that occurred to all alumni participants on campus, SPVS alumni participants felt a need to volunteer based on the “stress” and heightened patriotism that resulted from the 9/11 Attacks. Additionally, Hailey’s friend died of cancer when these alumni were seniors. This student was an integral part of the SPVS and college community. Therefore, the alumni SPVS participants volunteered in order to keep his memory “alive.” Hailey spoke how the two examples helped her transition between graduation from the SPVS and “fitting into the real world.” These examples supported the concept that individuals have a proclivity to serve the collective good in society. Phenomena Supporting the Central and Subresearch Questions The objective of a hermeneutic phenomenology is to combine the interpretative and descriptive factors found in the SPVS participants’ lived experiences (Hatch, 2002; Van Manen, 1990). Two phenomena of collectivism and individualism were therefore supported by these collected data, the codes from the encoding process, and the subsequent themes. Central and subresearch questions. The central research question was, What were undergraduate and alumni’s lived experiences in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)? The subquestions follow:
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Q1.
What were the students’ perceptions of faculty and volunteerorganizational managers keeping students retained in volunteerism?
Q2.
What were the students’ motivational methods of volunteerism?
Q3.
What were the surrounding influences of phenomena in volunteers’ experiences in the collegiate Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS)?
The central and subresearch questions supported by collectivism. SPVS participants did not always feel unified with others while volunteering. At times, they felt disconnected to others in their volunteer-placements, especially if that placement had strong union policies and regulations. Data revealed if a patient entered the emergency room in need of specific care, SPVS participants (who were volunteers) could not assist that patient if it conflicted with the job description of a unionized employee. Therefore, some SPVS participants voiced in this study that because of this conflict they did not want to enter the medical profession with unionized employees. Collectively, volunteerism in the SPVS supported all aspects of life inclusive of work, family, and society. Participants stated that volunteering made them feel useful, exposed them to diverse people, and improved their leadership skills. They enjoyed volunteering in the area inner-schools especially since their services were found useful. Some schools in this location did not hire aides but relied instead on volunteers. At times, participants felt pressured from the SPVS requirements because of a discrepancy between inner-city students and the suburban setting of the SPVS participants. Therefore, SPVS participants found it difficult to assess others’ motivations since their backgrounds were
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asynchronous to each other. However, data revealed that SPVS participants were not deterred by this discrepancy. By collaborating with others, they continued to volunteer to help inner-city student achieve their academic and personal goals, resulting in improvements in SPVS participants’ leadership skills. Some of these skills included patience with others, attention to task detail, proper “follow-through” of goals and deadlines, and organizing group functions. The central and subresearch questions supported by individualism. Data supported that SPVS participants wanted to be perceived, individually, by others as helpful. They also believed that volunteering helped them achieve personal, religious, and life goals. They understood their role within a larger community, and that a single person can indeed impact many multilateral factors in volunteering. Individually, participants felt that their experience in the SPVS taught them to assess each task asked of them and to be introspective before reacting. Volunteers believed they learned who they were, and that the elements of their future career paths were shown to them. Alumni participants wanted to project their standards of volunteerism onto their children, as their parents had done to them. There was an understanding of promoting and supporting different generations. SPVS participants wanted to think positively about those whom they were helping, and to put people’s needs above their own. For example, undergraduate SPVS participants volunteered in a senior-citizen center by playing music and singing. Despite being hesitant of their skill-levels of musical talent, they continued providing concerts for the seniors.
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Implications summary. An investigation through a lens of hermeneutic phenomenological framework was warranted to investigate the SPVS participants’ lived experiences. Since 2006, undergraduate volunteerism has waned nationally, and scholars have focused more on recruitment and field-placement of student-volunteers instead of volunteers’ retention in civil service projects (Brudney & Meijs, 2009). The resulting phenomena of collectivism and individualism supported the purpose and problem statements because all participants wanted to feel unified with others while volunteering. SPVS participants could not volunteer alone in isolation; they needed and wanted a choice in selecting (a) their volunteer projects, (b) with whom they were working, and (c) a project over which they had some control of the surroundings in their fieldwork. SPVS participants attempted to match their volunteer tasks to their skills and interests, in order to decide where they would be needed most. Participants showed collectivism by showing humanistic goals: collaboration with others, setting personal and professional goals, and working toward societal betterment. SPVS participants demonstrated individualism by showing personal motivation. This drive, or volition to achieve, depended on their unique role of what they could offer as a volunteer. When SPVS participants combined the two phenomena, they were able to achieve (a) individual acts of personal, professional, and spiritual goals; (b) collaborative work within a society, and (c) reflections on how to improve individual and collective elements.
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Recommendations for Future Research Based on the field notes and findings of this study, future research should include the following: 1.
Consistent groups of participants, that is, all undergraduates or all alumni (Patton, 2002).
2.
Fewer participants and longer interview times per participant, so that deeper issues of individual experiences of volunteer service could be extrapolated (Patton, 2002).
3.
A quantitative study to assess how college volunteers’ fiscal needs best represent their motivation (Bass, 2008).
4.
Program administrators provide SPVS undergraduates with a choice of diverse, practical volunteer tasks within their field placements (Gottlieb & Robinson, 2006).
Conclusions Nationally, undergraduate volunteerism rose after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States until 2006. Since 2006, college volunteerism has continued to decline. This study examined the phenomena surrounding the participants of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service (SPVS). The study concluded that undergraduate volunteerism needed multiple elements of both collectivism and individualism. Strauss and Howe (1997) and Bass’s (2008) theories best represent the two phenomena of collectivism and individualism discovered in this study. Without these
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two phenomena, SPVS participants could not achieve their personal, professional, spiritual, and societal goals. Despite SPVS participants volunteering in high school (or earlier) as a result of an external motivational “push” from either family or friends, they continue to volunteer in college and post-college in their professional careers. This motivational “push” is now based internally; SPVS participants volunteer to help others without rewards or focusing on themselves. All participants in this study exemplified that change from external to internal motivation is possible. This study concluded that college volunteers needed a choice in their volunteer tasks. Study participants also enjoyed the choice of working in groups, or working individually. When no choice was offered to them, SPVS participants showed signs of lowered morale and work ethic; however, it was not considered burnout or amotivation. Finally, college volunteers were economically motivated in this study by maintaining their scholarship component; however, recommended next steps include examining how other economic factors could affect undergraduate motivation.
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Appendix A: Brief Overview of Self-Determination Theory A brief overview of the macrotheory self-determination theory, inclusive of behavior, motivation, regulatory styles, locus of causality, and pertinent processes. Table A1 Self-Determination Theory
Note. Adapted from “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being,” by R. M. Ryan and E. L. Deci, 2000, American Psychologist, 55(1), pp. 68-78. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/55/1/images/amp_55_1_68_fig1a.jpg
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Appendix B: Volunteers’ Five Phases of Change Table B1 denotes a volunteer’s five phases of change. Table B1 A Volunteer’s Five Phases of Change timeframe 1-2 months before entrance
themes/ phases Nominee
activity
emotions
relationships
Applying to volunteer
Excitement, fears and fantasies
First months
Newcomer
Entering the field; trying to help as many as they can
Avoidance and frustration
4-8 months
Emotional involvement
Giving actual help
“ups and downs” deep sadness with high satisfaction
After a year
Established volunteering
Giving actual help to fewer clients
Detached concern, burnout and fatigue
After a year or two years
Retiring
Separation from group, organization, and clients
Sadness mixed with relief
Some relationships with other volunteers; attraction to target population and organizational image Marginal members of group and organization; recipients distrustful; helping by “being” and focusing on quantifiable factors to help Close relationships may cause dilemmas. Helping by “doing” focusing on quality of help; important group members Closer relationship with fewer clients, no new contacts. Helping by “being”- central and influential group and organization members Rites of passage and separation. Remembering the clients
motivation & commitment Motivation to volunteer: altruistic, egotistic and social; low commitment
attitudes & perceptions Romantic idealism; high ambiguity, low satisfaction
costs & benefits A good feeling emerges as one applies to volunteer
Contract commitment; do not feel particularly needed
limited idealism; high ambiguity; low satisfaction
Emotional strain; frustration and sadness
Highest commitment; Identifying with clients and organization
Sober idealism causes sadness; low ambiguity, high satisfaction
High emotional costs and secondary trauma mixed with feelings of satisfaction and meaningfulness
Levels of commitment and feeling needed are low again
Realism and cynicism, low ambiguity (regarding long-term results)
High awareness of the variety of costs and benefits related to volunteering
General commitment volunteerism and social change
Gain back some general idealism
Hard to let go; putting everything gained into perspective
Note. Adapted from “The Volunteer Stages and Transitions Model: Organizational Socialization of Volunteers,” by D. Haski-Leventhal and D. Bargal, 2008, Human Relations 61(1), pp. 67-102. doi: 10.1177/0018726707085946
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Appendix C: Civic Responsibility Assessment Rubric The following rubric can be used by faculty or students to assess their current level of civic responsibility. Table C1 Civic Responsibility Assessment Rubric Elements
Level of Quality
Assessment Options: oral, written, visual
Developing- 1
Proficient- 2
Exceptional- 3
Community Involvement
Students rarely engage in community events. No recognition between community and cultural factors. Does not solve community- problems peacefully. Students hardly acknowledge diverse community issues. Do not express goals or positive attitudes toward community members. Do not work well with group members.
Students consistently engage in community events. Recognition between community and cultural factors. Continually solve community- problems peacefully. Students acknowledge diverse community issues. Express goals or positive attitudes toward community members. Work well with group members.
Reflection Log Pre-/Post-(civic event) essay Dialogue Journal Oral Presentation Pre-/Post--(civic event) video
Interpersonal Skills
Model Citizenship
Students do not challenge political and civic issues. Cannot connect societal needs to community issues. Will not participate in political issues. Students rarely recognize how organizations have a direct and indirect influence on those whom they serve.
Students sometimes engage in community events. Some recognition between community and cultural factors. Considers community-problems peacefully. Students will acknowledge some diverse community issues. Begins to express goals or positive attitudes toward community members. Begins to plan with other group members. Students begin to challenge political and civic issues. Connect societal needs to community issues. Participates in some political issues. Students begin to recognize how organizations have a direct and indirect influence on those whom they serve.
Students challenge consistently political and civic issues. Connect societal needs to community issues. Participate often in political issues. Students recognize clearly how organizations have a direct and indirect influence on those whom they serve.
Reflection Log Pre-/Post-(civic event) essay Dialogue Journal Oral Presentation Pre-/Post--(civic event) video Oral Presentation Pre-/Post-(civic event) essay Pre-/Post--(civic event) video
Systems Analysis
Reflection Log Pre-/Post-(civic event) essay Oral Presentation
Note. Adapted from K. Gottlieb and G Robinson, G. (Eds.), 2006, A Practical Guide for Integrating Civic Responsibility Into the Curriculum (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Community College Press.
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Appendix D: Consent Forms
Northcentral University- Informed Consent Form What is the study about? You are invited to participate in a research study being conducted for a dissertation at Northcentral University in Prescott, Arizona. The study is interested in your thoughts and opinions regarding ... You were selected because you responded to a flyer about the study. There is no deception in this study. What will be asked of me? You will be asked to answer some questions/ or participate in a focus group interview... . Who is involved? The following people are involved in this research project and may be contacted at any time: Are there any risks? Although there are no known risks in this study, some of the questions might be personally sensitive since some of the questions ask about . This can be distressing to some people. However, you may stop the study at any time. You can also choose not to answer any question that you feel uncomfortable in answering. What are some benefits? There are no direct benefits to you of participating in this research. No incentives are offered. The results will have scientific interest that may eventually have benefits for people who procrastinate. Is the study anonymity/ confidential? The data collected in this study are confidential. Your name or personal information is not linked to data. Only the researchers in this study will see the data. Can I stop participating the study? You have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. You can skip any questions on any questionnaires if you do not want to answer them. We would be happy to answer any question that may arise about the study. Please direct your questions or comments to: . Signatures I have read the above description for the study. I understand what the study is about and what is being asked of me. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in the study. Participant’s Name : _________________ Researcher’s Name: ______________ Participant’s Signature: _______________ Researcher’s Signature:___________ Date:_____________
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Consent Form From the College Where the Data Collection Occurred Institutional Review Board Debriefing Form Title of Study:
Name(s) of Researcher(s): Address/ Phone:
Faculty Supervisor/ Phone: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Purpose/ Hypothesis of the Study:
Methods used:
Expected results:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------If you would like results of this study, please provide the following information: Name: Address: Phone:
Thank you very much for your participation. Feel free to contact the researcher or the faculty supervisor listed above if you have any questions.
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Appendix E: Demographic Questionnaire 1. What is your gender? o Male o Female 2. In what year were you born? ________ 3. What is your marital status? o Never married o Currently married o Widowed o Divorced/ Separated 4. What is your highest level of education? o Current undergraduate, no degree o Associate’s degree (completed) o Bachelor’s degree (completed) o Master’s degree (completed) o Professional or Doctoral degree (completed) 5. Employment Status: Are you currently...? o Seeking employment o Not- seeking employment at this time o Employed full-time o Employed part-time (or a student-worker) 6. Please specify your race. o American Indian or Alaska Native o Asian o Black or African American o Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander o White o Prefer not to answer __________ Note. Adapted from The U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. Census Bureau, 2010. Available
from http://www.census.gov/
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Appendix F: Debriefing Form Institutional Review Board Debriefing Form Title of Study:
Name(s) of Researcher(s): Address/ Phone:
Faculty Supervisor/ Phone: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Purpose/ Hypothesis of the Study:
Methods used:
Expected results:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------If you would like results of this study, please provide the following information: Name: Address: Phone: Thank you very much for your participation. Feel free to contact the researcher or the faculty supervisor listed above if you have any questions.
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Appendix G: Outline of a Critical Incident Report Critical Incident Report Outline1 When reflecting on a time during your volunteer experience in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service Program, what is one memorable moment (good or bad)?
In 1-2 paragraphs, please answer the following: What were you trying to achieve? What were you thinking you could do to move forward from that situation?
1
Adapted from Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap From Beginning to End by L. D. Bloomberg and M. Volpe, 2008, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Appendix H: Matrix of Alumni Interview Questions Table H1 Matrix of Alumni Interview Questions QUESTION FOCUS BEHAVIORS/ EXPERIENCES
PAST Describe your volunteer program/ experience in high school
PRESENT Describe your current volunteer program – SPVS & on-site opportunities
FUTURE Describe your ideal volunteer program after college
OPINIONS/ VALUES
Describe your values of volunteering prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Describe your current values of volunteering in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Describe your future values of volunteering after completion of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program (What values would you like to have?)
FEELINGS/ EMOTIONS
Describe your feelings during your high school volunteer program & prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Describe your feelings during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Hypothesize your future feelings toward volunteering after completion of the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program (What would you like to feel?)
KNOWLEDGE
Describe your knowledge about your high school volunteer program
Describe the current knowledge you’ve obtained during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Hypothesize your future knowledge in a volunteer experience (What would you like to know?)
SENSORY
Describe what you sensed during your high school program
Describe what you sensed during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Hypothesize your future senses in a new volunteer opportunity
BACKGROUND
Describe your background contributing to your high school volunteer program
Describe your background contributing to the current Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
Hypothesize how your background could connect successfully to a future volunteer opportunity
Note. Adapted from Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.), by M. Q. Patton, 2002. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE.
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Appendix I: Matrix of Changed Undergraduate Interview Questions Table I1 Matrix of Changed Undergraduate Interview Questions QUESTION FOCUS BACKGROUND
PAST 1. Describe your background contributing to your high school and current volunteer program
PRESENT 2. Describe how your background changed from high school to college (in service programs)
OPINIONS/ VALUES
3. Describe your values of volunteering prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program 5. Describe your feelings during your high school volunteer program & prior to the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
4. Describe your current values of volunteering in the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program 6. Describe your feelings during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
FEELINGS/ EMOTIONS
7. Describe the current knowledge you’ve obtained during the Scholarship Program for Volunteer Service program
KNOWLEDGE -
(metacognitive)
-
-
FUTURE -
-
-
-
8. Describe the factors of an ideal volunteer experience
Note. Adapted from Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.), by M. Q. Patton, 2002. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE..
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Appendix J: Data Themes, Codes, and Supporting Quotes Table J1 Data Themes, Codes, and Supporting Quotes Themes Motivation
Codes External motivation
Quotes -mandated high school volunteer hours -students telling volunteers how much they mean to them/ making cards for them -students were worried that volunteers wouldn’t show-up -school pressure to help kids who are gang affiliated -parental push to volunteer -push from friends to volunteer because they were at the same time -volunteer service needed for college entrance, resume builder, or high school graduation or club mandates -must serve to keep scholarship component, fear of losing scholarship -feels like a job -volunteering to help skills develop in a future employment setting -unionized/ organizational policy constraints -volunteering for a religious sacrament requirement -volunteering to honor the memory of a deceased friend -volunteering to not forget the impact of the 9-11 attacks
Motivation
Internal motivation
-didn’t think volunteer experience was important, however to those whom they were serving: it meant “the world” -service is “a duty” in a privileged background to those who are less fortunate -watching a family be surprised with a donated Thanksgiving meal that had never had before -understanding the conflict between those serving: some kids only want new shoes at $20 and can’t get them, some wealthier children want a $400 gaming system -hearing disadvantaged children not blaming their parents for their socio-economic situation -wanting to be perceived as “helpful” -internal religious development grew while volunteering -service site so enjoyable, that it was not considered “mandated volunteering” -achieving my “life goal” by volunteering -switches site because volunteers didn’t feel “needed” at a particular placement -hard to say “no” to volunteer experiences
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-“This is what ‘good kids’ do [volunteer]” -cognizant that the volunteer is a “source of change” toward others’ well-being -wanting to project volunteerism onto the next generation -wanting to think positively with a “trouble population” -putting other people’s needs above my own Religious application
Religious aspect/ Christian mission trips
-outreach ministry to high school kids
- mission trips to Central America: gave food, built two schools, gave school supplies, built a church -fundraisers for church- trunk sales, bake sales, bottle-drives -biblical teaching- elementary grade levels (regular & special education) (gratis) -language teaching for church (gratis) - mission trip to South America: service now is more important than the past and the future -volunteered in a Catholic school: one-on-one tutoring most-effective - need to complete hours for sacrament criteria fulfillment -volunteer opportunities found in church bulletin -required service component in Catholic high school graduation requirement -service is the exchange for the volunteer’s blessings received in life -church youth group: holiday toy-drives and family meal donations -“it is the right thing to do” -mission trips disconnect volunteer from previous distractions -understanding, helping others, understanding human interaction by serving Pre-service learning
Human interaction
-(acc. to volunteers): kids are defensive- have learned to protect themselves -(acc. to volunteers) kids grew dependent on the timing of volunteers. Were worried when they showed-up late. - don’t being able to help as a volunteer since they weren’t paid employees (hospital setting) -difference between wanting to work with people and volunteering without a human connection (paperwork for an organization, e.g.) - formed relationships with sponsoring teachers and aides (in practicum) -wanted to spend more time with disadvantaged youth, one-on-one mentoring - want to go to 3rd world countries to help its citizens - volunteering was a “social event”- a fun thing to do! -appreciation by volunteers matures with age between high school and college -volunteering feels good because you are wanted and needed on the job site -a single person can impact the community (self-realization of impacting community) -volunteering builds stronger bonds and friendships -tough to see effects of volunteering when college calendar doesn’t align to K-12 calendar (college’s semester ends earlier)
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-volunteers can still offer their service despite their skill level -volunteers feel “moment of pride” -difficult to balance service requirement component, academic work, and “extracurriculars” -some volunteers’ high schools had mandated service hours, others did not -some volunteers chose non-human connection volunteer activities when they are short on time (paperwork, fundraising organization) - with no high school time constraints on volunteering, volunteers didn’t have limits or restrictions. Felt they got more accomplished. -only 80 hours counted during the summer months when college was not in session: some volunteers served more hours. -if volunteers treat service as a “job,” it fits into their academic and extra-curricular schedules -“values evolve in time”- high school service hours, then 160 freshman year, then 200 each additional year -monetary contribution also a faster option when time constraints are present -volunteers in this program must have a different time management schedule than others. Volunteer services start early in the morning- often. (6am)- also with no cars on campus freshman year. Often volunteers relied on school transportation. -Feelings of stress during the school year- “when am I going to get all my hours in?” -“emotional rollercoaster”- since the hours “had to get done” - have to fit-in volunteering with family members when you can - the senior year of college was an end of an era, a friend died of cancer (who was a part of the service organization of which many volunteers were apart), and there was stress felt from the 9-11 attacks. “I felt lost in holding onto what I had at [college], had to figure-out where I fit in with the world outside [college].” -high school requirements of “shadowing” also counted toward volunteering - time with kids in the classroom does have an impact on their learning
Pre- service learning
Time constraints
Pre-service learning
Curricular -apply Service-Learning (SL) curriculum to the 4 levels of government (international, application federal, state, & local) -leadership through self- development (as a result of curriculum) -curriculum pre-volunteering helps one identify the times to be more pro-active or reactive -helps the volunteer understand there is always more needed and not to be complacent -helps the volunteer understand what he enjoys through the service projects and what he doesn’t -helps the volunteer be more responsible -volunteers help inner-city school when they don’t hire aides -helped the volunteer see the need in the area -knowledge how much one person can affect the entire community -makes the volunteer slow-down to evaluate situations -people’s needs do not need to be aligned to volunteer’s skills -service incorporates all aspects of life: work, family, and societal criteria -importance of social justice model -taught the volunteer “who he was” -taught the volunteer elements helpful for future career path
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Appendix K: Completed Selection Critical Incident Reports
Completed Selection of an Alumna’s Critical Incident Report ________________________________ I remember wanting to expand my volunteer experience and my nursing school experience; and therefore, I signed up to be a hospice volunteer. My mom was a hospice nurse and loved it. I was sure I would be the same. I went through 24[hours] of classroom orientation and was excited to begin. I was at my first visit at a hospice placement. I realize quickly I was not meant for this job. The patients often did not have family/ friends, were unconscious, and very near the end of life. I was so bothered by this, I cried at each session (In fact the nursing home staff saw me so upset, they thought I was family!) I lasted about two weeks and realized nothing was improving. I was thankful to the volunteer coordinators who understood and let me out of my volunteer contract. My confidence in volunteering was shaken from this. I thought I could do anything, but learned through this experience that it takes special people to do special jobs. It was through this experience that I gain the confidence to apply to be a pediatric volunteer at a local hospital. I thrived in that environment as did my patients. It was this experience that brought me to my first job as a nurse! I am grateful!
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Completed Selection of an Undergraduate’s Critical Incident Report ________________________________ One memorable moment during my volunteer experience in the SPVS was during my sophomore year. I had just entered a new volunteer site, volunteering at a local Catholic church in [a suburb of Western NY]. My volunteer role was to help teach a faith formation class to four students with severe disabilities. It was really difficult to try to maintain the students’ attention and there were definitely some rough patches, like biting, trying to run away from the classroom, etc. I felt really discouraged because when teaching the students, I felt like I was just talking to myself. The students had a difficult time responding to questions. However, on the last class of the year, I was told by one student who has severe Autism, to “Come back and visit soon!” and “Don’t forget about us!” This meant the world to me because I discovered that all the hard work that I had put into the lessons and the time I spent with these children really did have an impact on them. I use this memorable moments when I am feeling discouraged while teaching in the field and at my service site.
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Appendix L: Findings From the Study
Table L1 Findings From the Study
phenomena
collectivism
individualism
supporting theories
Generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1997)
Economic theories of organization (Bass, 2008)
motivation
themes
religious application
pre-service learning
codes
external motivation
internal motivation
religious aspects/ Christian mission trips
human interaction
time constraints
curricular application
quotes
social activity
internal religious development
biblical teachings on the elementary level
difference between volunteering with/ without people (i.e., paperwork)
difficult to balance service requirements, academic work, and extracurricular activities
apply service learning to the four levels of government: international, federal, state, & local
parental influence
achieve a life goal in exchange for received blessings
understanding the human element
tough to see the effects of volunteerism when college calendar does not align to K12 service sites
feelings of stress during the school year: “when will the service hours be completed?”
leadership through selfdevelopment
unionized/ organizational policy constraints
enjoy being the source of change
missioning to So. Americaservice more important in the present, not past and future
moment of pride
emotional rollercoaster
volunteer selfrealization
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Appendix M: Strauss and Howe’s (1997) Generational Theory Table M1 Generational Theory (Strauss & Howe, 1997)
Time frame
Duration
Description
Archetype
Saeculum
80-100 years 20-25 years
Represents one lifetime for an individual Collectivism is high, individualism is low, New civic order Spiritual disorder, new values attack former civic order Individualism is high, old civic order decays Secular disorder, values regime propels replacement
-
Within saeculum: First Turning (“High”) Second Turning (“Awakening”) Third Turning (“Unraveling”) Fourth Turning (“Crisis”)
20-25 years 20-25 years 20-25 years
Representation
Prophet
Growth/ upbeat era
Nomad
Maturation/ passionate era Entropy/ downcast era Destruction/ decisive era
Hero Artist
Note. A table of differentiated time and criteria of humans within an epoch. Adapted from Fourth Turning: An American Prophecy by W. Strauss and N. Howe, 1997. New York, NY: Broadway Books.
