Concept for a sustainable Management of ...

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Case negative: The Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in South Africa . ...... framework to be respected by each party, which has to adopt its own ...
Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Biology 2013

Concept for a sustainable Management of Astrochelys radiata (SHAW 1802)

Source: CRF. Image by Anders G.J. Rhodin, 2007

1st Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Jörg Ganzhorn 2nd Supervisor: Dr. Julian Glos

By Olinga Päplow Born in Hamburg; Germany: 28.04.1986

Biozentrum Grindel und Zoologisches Museum; Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany

Universität Hamburg 2013

Concept for a sustainable Management of Astrochelys radiata (SHAW 1802)

Olinga Päplow Born in Hamburg; Germany: 28.04.1986

Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Biology UNIVERSITÄT HAMBURG

2013 1st Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Jörg Ganzhorn 2nd Supervisor: Dr. Julian Glos

Biozentrum Grindel und Zoologisches Museum Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany

Abstract Sustaining biodiversity is a hotly debated topic today as it is a precondition of human wellbeing. In line with the value system of the Western world, one often tries to counteract loss of biodiversity by means of “top-down” regulations, i.e. measures for the restriction and prohibition of the use of the species concerned. In particular in lesser developed countries people often live in immediate dependence on nature and therefore the use of wildlife is more an imperative rather than a choice. However, restrictions on the use or trade of wildlife often cannot take effect due to insufficient funds, political turmoil, or conflicts of interest. Outside the country of concern the classification of being “protected” or “endangered” can also lead to an increased demand and market value of a species. Often an illegal market emerges in which monitoring and regulating becomes obstructed, leading even to conflict. What seems to be reasonable in theory can often not be put into practice. This problem is a typical dilemma of environmental conservation matters. An example of this conflict and the main topic of the present thesis is the radiated tortoise (Astrochelys radiata) belonging to the family Testudinidae. The tortoise is endemic to Madagascar and is restricted to the spiny forest, located in the southwest of the country. The tortoise is placed in Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), which excludes species largely from commercial use. Despite national and international preservation measures, the species is being exploited heavily and the population has decreased over the last years. The hypothesis of the present paper is that controlled trade in the context of Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management

(CBNRM)

can

contribute

both

to

preserving the species and improving the livelihood of the local population. CBNRM envisions a decentralized form of management in which the local population are granted property rights and also given responsibility of the resources. As stakeholders, the local population more readily develops incentives to preserve the resource. In CITES this approach is accepted for the most part, at least in theory, but comparably few species are managed this way. This paper develops a concept of sustainable trade of the tortoise in the sense of CBNRM, and offers suggestions for the realization thereof. The evaluation of the suggested management with a view to its probable influence on the present state of the tortoise and additional species regulated by CBNRM, confirm the proposed hypothesis: the species population will be stabilized and the livelihood of the local population will be significantly improved.

Zusammenfassung Die Problematik um die Wahrung von Biodiversität ist ein stark diskutiertes Thema, denn ihr Erhalt ist Voraussetzung für das menschliche Wohlergehen. Den Wertvorstellungen der westlichen Welt entsprechend, wird in der Regel versucht Biodiversitätsverlusten durch „TopDown“-Regelungen entgegen zu wirken, welche Nutzungsrestriktionen und Verbote vorsehen. In weniger entwickelten Ländern leben Menschen sehr häufig in direkter Abhängigkeit von der Natur, ihre Nutzung ist daher eine Notwendigkeit und keine freie Entscheidung. Handels- und Nutzungsrestriktionen nehmen der lokalen Bevölkerung wichtige legale Einkunftsquellen. Außerdem können sie durch unzureichende finanzielle Mittel, politische Missstände oder Interessenkonflikte häufig ohnehin nicht umgesetzt werden. Außerhalb des Herkunftslandes kann die Einordnung als „geschützt“ oder „gefährdet“ außerdem dazu führen, dass die Nachfrage und der Marktwert einer Art steigen. Häufig entsteht als Konsequenz ein illegaler Markt, wo Überwachung und Regulierung erschwert werden oder sogar zu konfliktreichen Prozessen führen. Was in der Theorie sinnvoll erscheint ist in der Realität oft nicht umsetzbar. Dieses Problem ist ein typisches Dilemma im Bereich des Naturschutzes. Exemplarisch für diesen Konflikt und Hauptgegenstand dieser Arbeit ist die Situation der Strahlenschildkröte (Astrochelys radiata), zur Familie der Testudinidae gehörend. Die Art kommt endemisch in Madagaskar vor und ist dort in ihrem Vorkommen begrenzt auf das Gebiet des Dornenbuschwaldes im Südwesten des Landes. Bei CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) steht sie auf Appendix I, welcher Arten weitestgehend von kommerziellem Gebrauch ausschließt. Trotz nationaler und internationaler Schutzmaßnahmen wird der Bestand dieser Art stark ausgebeutet, der Populationszustand hat sich über die letzten Jahre zunehmend verschlechtert. Hypothese dieser Arbeit ist, dass ein legal kontrollierter Handel im Rahmen von CommunityBased-Natural-Ressource-Management (CBNRM) sowohl zum Erhalt der Art, als auch zu verbesserten Lebensbedingungen der lokalen Bevölkerung beitragen kann. CBNRM sieht eine dezentralisierte Managementform vor, die der lokalen Bevölkerung sowohl Besitzansprüche zuspricht, als damit auch Verantwortung über diese auferlegt. Die lokale Bevölkerung generiert als Anspruchsvertreter leichter die Motivation, diese Ressource erhalten zu wollen und deshalb ihren Schutz zu fördern. In CITES ist dieser Ansatz in der Theorie weitestgehend akzeptiert, dennoch wird er bei verhältnismäßig wenigen Arten praktiziert. Im Verlauf dieser Arbeit wird ein Konzept entwickelt, welches einen nachhaltigen Handel mit der Strahlenschildkröte vorsieht und konkrete Umsetzungsansätze und Vorschläge liefert. Sowohl die Evaluierung des vorgeschlagenen Managements hinsichtlich dessen Einflusses auf den

aktuellen Zustand der Art, als auch Beispiele der Bestandsregulierung anderer Arten durch CBNRM bestätigen die aufgestellte Hypothese: Der Bestand der Schildkrötenpopulation wird sich erholen und stabilisieren und die Lebensumstände der lokalen Bevölkerung werden sich deutlich verbessern.

Table of contents Chapter I: Introduction ........................................................................................................... 8 I.1. The problem ........................................................................................................................................ 8 I.2. Astrochelys radiata as an example for biodiversity conservation through sustainable management: Biological background ...................................................................................................... 9 I.3. Astrochelys radiata: Socio-economic and cultural background .................................................... 13 I.4. Astrochelys radiata: The dilemma.................................................................................................... 14 I.5. Questions and hypothesis ................................................................................................................. 16

Chapter II: Currently: Influencing aspects on Astrochelys. radiata .................................. 18 II.1. Political and legislative basis .......................................................................................................... 18 II.1.1. National policies and political circumstances relevant for A. radiata ........................................ 18 II.1.2. CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora .. 19 II.2. Wildlife Trade ................................................................................................................................. 21 II.2.1. Illegal wildlife trade ................................................................................................................... 21 II.2.2. Illegal trade in reptiles ................................................................................................................ 22 II.2.3. Trade with Astrochelys radiata .................................................................................................. 25 II.2.3.1. In quantity ............................................................................................................ 25 II.2.3.2. The procedures ...................................................................................................... 27 II.3. Trade related aspects ...................................................................................................................... 30 II.3.1. Selective collection of female specimen..................................................................................... 30 II.3.2. Poverty........................................................................................................................................ 30 II.3.3. Law enforcement ........................................................................................................................ 32 II.4. Non-trade related aspects ............................................................................................................... 33 II.4.1. Utilization of the habitat ............................................................................................................. 33 II.4.2. Culture ........................................................................................................................................ 34

Chapter III: Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management .................................... 36 III.1. The evolution and basic functionality of CBNRM...................................................................... 36 III.2. Developments within CITES, relevant in the context of CBNRM ............................................ 38 III.3. Case studies of applied CBNRM .................................................................................................. 41 III.3.1. Case positive: The Markhor (Capra falconeri) in Pakistan, Torghar Hills ............................... 42 III.3.2. Case negative: The Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in South Africa ....... 44 III.3.3. Lists of other species (or certain populations of species) subject to CBNRM approaches ....... 48

Chapter IV: Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata ............................................ 50 IV.1. Recommendations for implementing CBNRM in the case of Astrochelys radiata ......................... 50

Chapter V: Discussion ........................................................................................................... 56 V.1. Evaluation of conservation outcomes in contemplation of the proposed management............. 56 V.1.1. Trade as influencing aspect ........................................................................................................ 56 V.1.1.1. Pet trade (compare: II.2.1.) ................................................................................................ 63 V.1.1.2. Trade for consumption (compare: II.2.1.) .......................................................................... 64 V.1.1.3. Selective collection of female specimen (compare: II.3.1.) ............................................... 64 V.1.2. Trade related aspects in contemplation of the proposed management ....................................... 57 V.1.2.1. Poverty (compare: II.3.2.) .................................................................................................. 57 V.1.2.2. Law enforcement (compare: II.3.3.) .................................................................................. 57 V.1.3. Non-trade related aspects with respect to the proposed management ........................................ 58 V.1.3.1. Utilization of the habitat (compare: II.4.1.) ....................................................................... 58 V.1.3.2. Culture (compare: II.4.2.) .................................................................................................. 58 V.2. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 59 V.3. Outlook.............................................................................................................................................. 62 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 58 References.................................................................................................................................. 64

Introduction

Chapter I: Introduction I.1. The problem Biodiversity: Life Insurance for our Changing World (Zedan et al., 2005). This slogan, under which the International Day for Biological Diversity 2005 by the United Nations was proclaimed, clearly emphasizes the vital importance which is nowadays ascribed to biodiversity on an international political level. This day was attended by the heads of the five leading international conventions dealing with biological diversity (CBD; CITES; CMS; Ramsar; WHC), who then signed a declaration to officially acknowledge the relevance of biodiversity for the present and all future generations. With this step they urged governments and civil society to actively help to conserve biological diversity and use this valuable resource sustainably, thereby granting everyone their share of benefits provided by a diverse world (CBD, 2005; Zedan et al., 2005). More classically defined “biodiversity is the variety of life on earth: genes, species and ecosystems” (Zedan et al., 2005) and is the foundation on which the life on our planet depends and allowed the development of our human society (UNRIC, 2005). Most evidently people benefit from biological diversity through its contribution to material welfare and livelihoods. Not apparent straight away is its contribution to security, resiliency, social relations, health, and freedom of choices and actions (MEA, 2005). It constitutes one of the pillars of sustainable development (IUCN, n.d.; Schally, 2011; TEEB, 2010; UNRIC, 2005). Biodiversity largely depends on the scope of the anthropogenic impacts, which in turn depend on a great part on human welfare. Nowadays it is well recognized that the absence of economic development, such as financial alternatives goes hand in hand with deficits in conservation (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; MEA, 2005; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; Roe, 2008; Schally, 2011). Many rural households, especially in developing countries, depend on wildlife for their livelihood. Some people use wildlife for subsistence living, others depend on the benefits derived by trade, generating part of their income (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009; Roe, 2008, Dickson, 2008). The world’s richest biodiversity areas are in lesser-developed economies. The poor people who have to coexist with wildlife (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009) are often obliged to bear the cost of maintaining biodiversity (Mathur, 2009). 8

Introduction

Considering that local people are largely dependent on the extraction of the respective species and that additionally laws or restrictions are not being enforced strictly enough due to poverty (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009), a cascade of events counteracting the envisaged conservation is started (see also: Fig. 3). Trade bans can lead to the completely opposite results to those which were the aim. Instead of providing protection a trade prohibition can stimulate the establishment of an illicit, unmanageable, and inequitable market (Palazy et al., 2011; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; Stoett, 2002; Cooney and Jepson, 2006). Monitoring and regulation become either an arduous and conflictive process or worse, a mute issue (Stoett, 2002). Furthermore illegal trade comes with unsustainable harvest methods (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Stoett, 2002; Cooney and Jepson, 2006) and can result in deteriorated conditions during transport and storage (Auliya, 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; TRAFFIC, 2013), due to lack of legal guidelines (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000) (see also: II.2.2.). Another side-effect of a trade ban and the associated emergence of illegal trade are escalating sales prices (Auliya, 2003; Palazy et al., 2011). The illegality permits traders to ask every desired price for the animals (Auliya, 2003). These high yields on the top of the trade chain encourage people to start trading (Mathur, 2009; TRAFFIC, 2008). The harvesters, at the very bottom of the chain are usually people from the poor local population (Auliya, 2003; Mathur, 2009; UN, 2008). In order to make a living and due to lack of alternatives their comparatively low earnings force them to continue trading, especially in bad times (Roe, 2008). The overall situation results in associated problems which will not be alleviated without intervention in the future (TRAFFIC, 2008).

I.2. Astrochelys radiata as an example for biodiversity conservation through sustainable management: Biological background The main subject of this work is the radiated tortoise or Astrochelys radiata (SHAW 1802). Varying regionally with the ethnic groups, other common names are “sokatra” (Merina), “sokaka” (Antandroy and Antanosy), and “kotroky” (Mahafaly) (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). In this work the tortoise will be referred to as A. radiata. The tortoise belongs to the family of Testudinidae and is endemic to Madagascar (Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008). The country which is an exceptional biodiversity hotspot (Myers 9

Introduction

et al. 2000) is renowned for its species richness and high endemism, especially among the herpetofauna (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). Reptile species reach an endemism rate of more than 90 % (Glaw & Vences 2007, as cited in Hammer, 2012; Harper et al., 2007). The tortoise is well adapted to a dry climate (Walker, 2011; WWF, n.d.) and inhabits a region characterized by a harsh climate with precipitation of merely 200 mm in average and therefore prone to recurrent droughts (WWF, 2010). Classified as xeric spiny forest, this region extends across southern and southwestern Madagascar (see: Fig. 1) (WWF, n.d.1).

Fig.1.: Map of southern Madagascar showing the most relevant locations for this work. Image of Madagascar modified from Google Inc.: Google Earth 2013 (v. 7.0.3.8542). Accessed at: 25 th October 2013.

Published studies on the biology of A. radiata are limited and many originate from observations on animals bred in captivity (Leuteritz, 2003a); comparably few reports on field research exist (Hammer, 2012; Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz, 2003a; Leuteritz, 2002; Leuteritz, 2003; Leuteritz and Ravolanaivo, 2005). Even though research is currently on the rise knowledge about the biology of this species in natural populations remains incomplete (Hammer, 2012). Widely considered one of the world’s most strikingly beautiful tortoises (Arkive, n.d.; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Walker, 2011; WWF, n.d.), the body shape of A. radiata is characterized by a high-domed carapace, head, feet and legs are yellow, with a variably sized black patch on the top of the head (Lingard et al., 2003). The color of the 10

Introduction

carapace varies from bright yellow to nearly black. From the center of each carapace scute radiates a pattern of yellow stripes, eponymous for the species. The maculation differs in each individual (Hammer, 2012). Adult specimens may reach up to 38 cm carapace length and weigh up to 13 kg (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009). The species is of great longevity, with the maximum age considered to be 100 years (Randriamahazo et al., 2007) or even 150 years (Pedrono 2008, as cited by Hammer, 2012). A. radiata reaches sexual maturity between the age of 15 and 20 years (Coulson 2005, as cited by Randriamahazo et al., 2007). Generation time is about 42 years, with a deterministic growth rate (r) of 0.007 and thus an annual growth rate of 0.7 %, in the absence of any harvest from the wild. Unfortunately the population does not experience the conditions required to allow the estimated growth rates. Instead of the estimated growth capacity of 32 % in one generation, A. radiata is facing one of the most rapid population declines of any chelonian species today (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Walker, 2011). Latest population estimates by Rafeliarisoa et al. (in press) indicate a population size of 6.3 million animals in 2011 (Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). In 2005 a population size of 2.5-7.5 million animals was considered (best estimate: 4.5 million) (Randriamahazo et al. 2007). Calculations by Leuteritz et al. (2005) suggest a population size of 12 million animals in 1999/2000. The first scientific survey about population sizes of A. radiata was conducted in 1995 by Lewis (Leuteritz et al. 2005). His results predicate a population size between of 1.6-4 million in 1995 (Lewis 1995, as cited in Randriamahazo et al. 2007). Abundances in the aforementioned studies diverge substantially; this could partially result from non-standardized methods, e.g, non-random sampling due to inaccessible areas in the spiny forest (Leuteritz et al. 2005). Additionally Randriamahazo et al. (2007) did not perform field samplings but analyzed estimations from different stakeholders and the prior data from Leuteritz et al. (2005). The limited number of surveys and lack of homogeneous time series cause high uncertainties and therefore the actual population size and trends are difficult to assess. Nevertheless the geographic species range decreased by 20.9 % between 1975 and 2000 (O'Brien et al. 2003) (see: Fig. 2; for further details see also: II.2.3.1.). Local extinction and heavily fragmented populations, especially in the surroundings of large urban centers have been reported already (Behler, 2002; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Leuteritz et al., 2005; O'Brien et al., 2003). The species is currently classified as “critically endangered” on the IUCN Red List (Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008). Even though it has been technically protected under Malagasy law since 1960 (Decree No 60-126) (Lingard et al., 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; CITES, 2008) which provides fines and imprisonment for unauthorized 11

Introduction

trading (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000) (see also: II.1.1.) exploitation has increased in recent years (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). Internationally, the tortoise is protected through its placement on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (CITES, n.d.1). CITES is an organization which aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild. Appendix I excludes species largely from commercial use (CITES, n.d.2) (particular CITES regulations will be explained later on; see: II.1.2.; III.2.). Besides the constitutional legislation A. radiata enjoys additional protection in limited areas due to the existence of nature reserves (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000).

Fig. 2: Modified from Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009, with data from O’Brien 2002: Schematic map of southern Madagascar showing estimated ranges of A. radiata in the years 1865, 1975 and 2000.

Species decline is mostly caused by three major anthropogenic processes: habitat loss, introduced species and overexploitation (IUCN, n.d.). Within the range of A. radiata all three processes become apparent (Leuteritz, 2002; Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008; O'Brien et al., 2003; Walker, 2011). The tortoises are exploited for food, as pets and traded through souvenir markets for commercial as well as for subsistence use (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). The latter excluded, demand comes from national and 12

Introduction

international markets (O'Brien et al., 2003). Most scientists agree in the assumption that overexploitation is the dominant reason currently limiting the growth of the population (Behler, 2002; Lingard et al., 2003; O'Brien et al., 2003; Randriamahazo et al., 2007). However the primary exploitation motive remains controversial. While souvenir trading and local subsistence use are considered to be negligible (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000), some scientists consider exploitation for human consumption to be the main threat (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012), whilst others consider the pet trade to be more crucial (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; WCS, 2010). Nevertheless both threats are considered to be clearly intensifying (Behler, 2002; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). Additionally the human population in Madagascar is rapidly increasing (UN, n.d.). Prospectively an increase in human population will be followed by an intensification of the significant factors on the impact on the population of A. radiata and biodiversity in general.

I.3. Astrochelys radiata: Socio-economic and cultural background A. radiata is one of Madagascar’s flagship species, iconic for the inhabited region and accordingly of great interest as tourist attraction (WWF, n.d.). Tourism is an important economic factor as it generates jobs and accordingly income (CITES, 2008; UN, 2008). Especially in southern Madagascar, where the economy is particularly poor this is important (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). On international level experiencing A. radiata in its natural environment is of great international interest for tourists (Hudson and Horne, 2010; WWF, n.d.) and for keeping it as exotic pet (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). Also some Malagasy citizens keep A. radiata for pleasure but the main motivation here emerges from the belief that the presence of the tortoise protects their poultry against diseases (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). Additionally the tortoise has a cultural value for certain ethnic groups. In this regard, repeatedly mentioned is the fady (taboo) which prohibits the consumption or collection (Hammer, 2012; Lingard et al., 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). Until recently this fady was assumed to emerge from respect of an ancestral taboo. A. radiata was considered to be sacred and believed to contain the ancestor’s spirit by certain ethnic groups (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). Even though 13

Introduction

more recent findings neglect to mention the reduction of exploitation of the species due to its sacredness but instead caused through disgust, the tortoise remains of certain cultural importance in some of the groups or parts of them (Lingard et al., 2003). In other ethnic groups the species serves as part of the diet and thus embodies a more economically value, due to the “trade potential” of the animals. Therefore and as for the aforementioned significance as exotic pet, trade in the species is of great importance for local people and their livelihoods (Ganzhorn, 2011; TRAFFIC, 2008). A large breeding pair of the species may be valued up to $ 25,000 in the pet trade, and prices in the range of $ 5,000 for a single, not necessarily mature tortoise are not uncommon (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). It can be emphasized, that cultural and economic values can occur simultaneously. In the case of tourism as well as consumption, the attributed value depends from the subjected “user”. Tourism generates jobs and money whilst at the same time serves a cultural experience. Consumption can satisfy cultural habits or preferences for the consumer, while it constitutes an economic benefit for the corresponding supplier of the meat. The same applies in terms of pet trade. Keeping A. radiata as exotic pet can be a pleasure for the respective owner on the one hand, and an economic benefit for the supplier on the other. All above mentioned benefits, deriving from the presence of A. radiata are congruent to the “benefits” defined by Millenium Ecosystem Asessessment as “ecosystem services”. They differentiate the main service types as: (1) Provisioning services, (2) Regulating services, (3) Cultural services. According to their definition tourism, traditional perceived sacredness or pet keeping are accounted as cultural services. The benefits in terms of trade revenues are accounted as Provisioning Services (MEA, 2005).

I.4. Astrochelys radiata: The dilemma Trade in wildlife or its products is of particular importance in sustaining the livelihoods of many poor people in the developing world (Auliya, 2003; TRAFFIC, 2008; Woodford et al., 2004), as so, is the case in A. radiata (Ganzhorn, 2011). In contrast most conservation strategies adhere to western cultural values, which are generally contributed to the belief that use restrictions or prohibitions of wildlife are inherently good for conservation (AbenspergTraun, 2009; Hughes and Flintan, 2001; Roe et al., 2009; Stoett, 2002; Cooney and Jepson, 2006). 14

Introduction

As mentioned above international trade in wildlife is regulated by CITES. The convention prohibits or sets up trade restrictions for species considered to be threatened (see: II.1.2.). While the connection between poverty and biodiversity loss is widely acknowledged (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Kaufmann, 2006; Lingard et al., 2003; MEA, 2005; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; Roe, 2008; Schally, 2011; Woodford et al., 2004) (see also: III.) it remains much ignorance for the call to loosen trade restrictions (Roe, 2008; Scanlon, 2011). Current legislation generally thwarts all legal possibilities to benefit from CITES Appendix I listed species by the means of trade. Consequently these restriction and bans counteract the incentive to maintain this species on local level. Additionally to the elimination of a legal source of income, such trade bans accentuate the rareness of the respective species and can thus increases the interest to possess it and further be a driving force for illegal trade (Palazy et al., 2011; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008a). In the case of A. radiata trade related actions, such as consumption and pet trade are considered to be the driving force for the decline in the population (see: I.2.). Therefore, and as already mentioned A. radiata is protected both, by Malagasy law as well as by CITES (see: II.1.1.; II.1.2.). Admittedly this legislative framework does exist, on national as well as international level, but nevertheless locally its implementation lacks enforcement (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Rafeliarisoa et al., 2010; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; TRAFFIC, 2008). Lack of law enforcement is a common characteristic for developing countries (see: I.1), this is not necessarily deliberate but may originate from poverty and/or relative importance compared to other issues in the corresponding countries (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009; Roe et al., 2009; CITES, 2008; UN, 2008). Considering the lack of enforcement and the devastating consequences for the poor local population the conservative “top-down” approach (using restriction measures and prohibitions for trade regulations) seem to be an unsuitable measure to counteract biodiversity loss, especially in the developing world (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Jones et al., 2008; Roe et al., 2009; Stoett, 2002). In contrast a sustainable management of biodiversity can contribute significantly to conservation of certain species (see: III.3.); this is assumed to be the case for A. radiata. The above described the discrepancy between conservational effort and outcome is a common phenomenon in the field of nature conservation: What seems to be reasonable in theory can often not be put into practice. Conservation measures, adopted to safeguard the maintenance of species fail due to poverty induced exploitation and cannot be undermined for the same reason. This represents a classical dilemma in nature conservation management (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; TRAFFIC, 2008; Webster, 1997; WWF, 2010) (see: Fig.3). 15

Introduction

Fig. 3.: Main dynamics of the classical dilemma in top-down conservation management. Black arrows indicate direct consequences; uncolored arrows indicate pressure from negative feedback mechanism.

I.5. Questions and hypothesis To summarize: A. radiata is part of a unique ecosystem and its conservation contributes to a greater biodiversity. Further the species represents a cultural value to some people, displayed by its attributed sacredness and tourism. Keeping it as pet or consuming it is a pleasure to certain people and is of great economic importance to others. The preservation of A. radiata is thus of great importance, concerning not only biodiversity itself but further the livelihoods of many humans. Therefore it is absolutely necessary to rethink current management structures. As (illegal) trade is largely considered to be the primary threat (see: I.2.) it will be the initial and cardinal point of this work. Certainly illegal trade and the proceeding consequences are not solely responsible for the instability of the population of A. radiata (Leuteritz, 2002; Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008; O'Brien et al., 2003; Walker, 2011). Therefore a comprehensive analysis of all considered relevant aspects will be conducted.

16

Introduction

This study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. Are there possibilities to stabilize the population of A. radiata in the future? 2. What kind of management could be useful in this regard and what measures must be taken to achieve this in the given situation? The hypothesis elaborated throughout this study is that a down-listing from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II and the consequential opening for a controlled trade in the context of Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management (CBNRM) enables a stabilization and halt to population decline which can lead to improved livelihoods of the respective local population. The application of CBNRM is assumed to safeguard the maintenance of the above named “ecosystem services”, derived by the species (see: I.3.) and contributes largely to the Millennium Development goals. These goals were developed by the United Nations in 2000 and set to: overcome poverty and hunger, defuse global injustice, reduce epidemics outbreaks and stop the destruction of the environment (UN, 2001). With regard to the aim to elaborate the principles of a sustainable management for A. radiata, this study will give a detailed insight in the current circumstances surrounding and aspects influencing the status of the species in Chapter II. In the following section, Chapter III the functioning and evolution of CBNRM will be introduced. Furthermore examples of applied case studies will be given here. In consideration of the information gathered in Chapter II and III a proposal for CBNRM strategies for A. radiata will be presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V will discuss the potential efficiency of these proposed management actions. Therefore the influencing aspects itemized in Chapter II will be evaluated in contemplation of a successfully implementation of the proposed management in Chapter IV.

17

Currently: Influencing aspects on Astrochelys radiata

Chapter II: Currently: Influencing aspects on A. radiata This chapter aims to give insight into the institutional framework and political circumstances relevant for A. radiata. In the further course of this chapter all factors currently influencing the status of the species, considered relevant will be introduced. The separation into different categories of influencing factors was only made for a clearer structure. In fact they do often entail or influence each other and therefore shall not be seen as autonomous but as interrelated aspects.

II.1. Political and legislative basis II.1.1. National policies and political circumstances relevant for A. radiata As mentioned above, a national trade policy in Madagascar has been in place since the sixties, when Madagascar gained its independence. Decree No. 60-126 imposes royalties on trade in certain wildlife species. Fearing overexploitation, an additional legislation to protect tortoises was introduced in 1961. These measures sought above all to protect tortoises from commercial hunting and export by ensuring that these activities would not be detrimental to their survival (CITES, 2008). In 1975 Madagascar became a signatory to CITES and A. radiata was placed on Appendix I (CITES, n.d.1) (see: II.1.2.), but the conventions obligations were only partially implemented (CITES, 2008). In 1986 A. radiata had been categorized as “Vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List. Due to the rapid decline the species was upgraded to “Critically Endangered” in 2008 (Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008). In between, in 2002 Madagascar suffered from a political crisis (Abbass, 2013; CITES, 2008), which led to the existence of two governments at the same time, with the situation lasting for six month. Fearing the situation could be exploited and being unable to control the exit from and entry to the territory, all trade in wild species was suspended during that period. Trade was first resumed in 2003. In terms of wildlife trade policies this period was the pivot point. For the first time in the history of CITES a broad review of significant trade at the national level was designated. The CITES Action Plan was drafted and the implementation of CITES in Madagascar was strengthen. An operational Scientific Authority was established and the interest of international donors aroused. A series of measures were taken, while not all the aims could be accomplished. Constant changes of

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ministers, leaders and technical staff account for the major problem at the structural level (CITES, 2008). For this reason, it was not until the establishment of the Decree No. 2005-018 on international trade in species of wild fauna and flora in 2005, that Madagascar implemented clear legislation governing wildlife trade (Todd, 2011; CITES, 2008). This law, designed to bring the Malagasy legislation into accordance with CITES implies, that no specimen of any CITES-listed species may be exported without an export permit (UNEP-WCMC, 2010). Even though this law provided sanctions for its violation these did not come into force until 2007 (CITES, 2008). In fact, it took another year until detailed rules for the implementing of Decree No. 2005-018 were established (in Decree No. 2006-097) (CITES, 2008; UNEPWCMC, 2010). Since 2009 Madagascar has been stuck in a devastating political crisis. Since then the political crisis is not settled and economic growth decreased (Andrianaivo-Golz and Golz, n.d.). International tourism declined drastically and apparently natural resources are for sale to keep the government “running” by funding the payroll of federal employees (Hudson, Horne 2010, pers. comm. Ganzhorn, 2013). Political and economic stability are likely to alleviate after the recently held elections on October 25th 2013, postponed several times since 2009 (Abbass, 2013; Auswärtiges Amt, 2013).

II.1.2. CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora The legislation development in Madagascar emphasizes the major role of CITES as key institution for wildlife trade related issues. As noted above CITES aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild (see: I.2.). CITES is also known as the Washington Convention. In the 1960s it was recognized that international trade might pose a growing threat to many wild species and wildlife and is an issue wherein precautionary global action was both feasible and necessary (IUCN, 2000; Roe et al., 2009). A plenipotentiary Conference of members of IUCN resulted in the adoption of CITES on 3rd March 1973, which came into force on 1st July 1975 (IUCN, 2000). For many years CITES has been among the conservation agreements with the largest membership, currently 178 countries, regulating international trade in more than 30,000 19

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species of animals and plants through a system of reciprocal permits and certificates. Countries adhere voluntarily to the international agreement and are known as “Parties” from the moment they agreed to be bound on the Convention (“joined” CITES). Although CITES is legally binding for the parties it does not take the place of national laws. Rather, it provides a framework to be respected by each party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level (CITES, n.d.3). The regulatory framework of CITES is adjacent to a system of categorizing. Species are categorized and listed in appendices, allocating them to different levels or types of trade controls (CITES, n.d.2). It is differentiated between three appendices according to the magnitude of trade control demanded. The different levels of trade are regulated through the issuance of import and export permits by the national authorities (IUCN, 2000). Appendix I listings are for the most seriously endangered species; almost all trade of any parts of these species is prohibited except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance scientific research. When trade is permitted, both export and import permits are required; whereas import permits require a pre-arranged buyer (CITES, n.d.2). Exemptions in accordance with Article VII.4: If specimens of an animal species included in Appendix I bred in captivity for commercial purposes, or of a plant species included in Appendix I artificially propagated for commercial purposes, shall be deemed to be specimens of species included in Appendix II (CITES, 1979). Appendix II species can be traded, but export permits are required, and trade is prohibited if the CITES administrators determine it is not in the interests of the species survival (CITES, n.d.2). Appendix III includes species at the request of a party that already regulates trade in these species and that needs the cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation. Trade is s allowed only on presentation of the appropriate permits or certificates (CITES, n.d.2). Representatives of the Parties of CITES meet every two years at ordinary meetings of the Conference of the Parties (CoP) to (a) review implementation of the Convention, (b) revise procedures, and (c) review and amend the CITES Appendices in the light of current information on international trade and the conservation status of species (IUCN, 2000).

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II.2. Wildlife Trade “Wildlife trade means any sale or exchange of wild animal and plant resources by people. This can involve live animals and plants or a diverse range of products needed or prized by humans—including skins, medicinal ingredients, curios, timber, fish and other food products” (TRAFFIC, n.d.). Trade with endangered species constitutes only part of wildlife trade, just as illegal wildlife trade in endangered species is only part of trade in endangered species again. Sometimes they merge into one another. Nowadays wildlife trade is one of the biggest issues for nature conservationists (Todd, 2011). Most is considers within national borders but there is an additional large volume internationally. Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens (TRAFFIC, n.d.). Wildlife trade is a versatile topic and general statements are hardly possible about the particular trade procedure, especially in the illegal sector. As explained above all commercial trade in wild specimen of A. radiata is currently illegal. Information about proceedings is fragmentary and therefore difficult to be delineated by itself. In order to develop a holistic understanding despite the shortage of records and information, the focus will be placed generally on illegal wildlife trade first (see: II.2.1.). Later on certain illegal trade procedures and conditions applicable to different reptile species but believed to be applicable to A. radiata as well will be described (see: II.2.2.). Lastly all information gathered specifically about trade with A. radiata will be given (see: II.2.3.).

II.2.1. Illegal wildlife trade The percentage of illegal trade is almost impossible to value in quantity (Auliya, 2003; TRAFFIC, n.d.), but estimated to be hundreds of millions of dollars (TRAFFIC, n.d.). Illegal wildlife trade is a growing economy (Wyler and Sheikh, 2008) with a cash value only exceeded by trade in illegal drugs (Webster, 1997). Illegal trade ranges from small scale local income generation to major profit-oriented businesses, such as marine fisheries and logging companies (TRAFFIC, n.d.). Some of the most lucrative illicit wildlife commodities include tiger parts, caviar, elephant ivory, rhinoceros horn and exotic birds and reptiles (Wyler and Sheikh, 2008), with emphasis on protected, rare and endemic species (Courchamp et al., 2006; Palazy et al., 2011; Shepherd 21

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and Nijman, 2008a). As already outlined in the above described dilemma (see: I.4.), in particular those species receive strict protection by national and international law. The strict protection in turn increases the demand, due to “appetite for rarities”, as Auliya (2003, p. 64) aptly named it. The interest in rare and protected species (Auliya, 2003; Courchamp et al., 2006; Palazy et al., 2011; TRAFFIC, n.d.) and the enormous sums of money involved (Auliya, 2003) provide the main motive for illegal trade. Thus paradoxically measures against overexploitation tend to promote trade rather than prevent it (see: Fig. 3; I.4.). As one can see, illegal trade comes with a series of side-effects, detrimental to the species. Additional to the mere extraction from the ecosystem, the conditions under which the animals are commonly transported are often appalling. Operators are unscrupulous and neither care for the environment (Steinmetz et al., 1998; TRAFFIC, n.d.) nor for the animals (Castellano et al., 2010; Webster, 1997). Many times they even lack any knowledge about what they are transporting (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008a), leading to high death rates during transport (Auliya, 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Steinmetz et al., 1998). Accordingly the number of animals needed for trade increases (Auliya, 2003).

II.2.2. Illegal trade in reptiles As probably common in other forms of illegal businesses, illegal trade in reptiles involves a chain of different smugglers. They do not necessarily know each other, usually they do not even know the person at the start or the end of the respective operation. Usually specimens are collected by local people, living in or near the collection sites. Further the animals are sold to professional collectors or middlemen. Middlemen can negotiate between different people; can find an exporter for the collector or a buyer for the exporter. There may be only one or several middlemen, buying and selling from everyone in the supply chain, so it can be difficult to trace the exact origin of a specimen. Middlemen can be amateurs who work only once or on an occasional basis or they can be professionals who work on a more permanent basis (Auliya, 2003). While the “middle of the chain” may differ in length and execution, the starting point is usually the same. At the very bottom of the chain, operate the poor harvesters, earning the least. Usually they get paid only a fraction of the final price paid by the consumer (see: I.1.). One example from Tanzania illustrates the enormous discrepancy in revenue very clearly. Local collectors received approximately 0.012 % of the final price in this case (Pancake Tortoise). Already the middleman earned 733.34 % (or 7.3 times) of the price the local harvester got. The retailer earns even 810.000 % (or 8100 times) of the price the local 22

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harvester received (Auliya, 2003). Assumptions by Bidaud and Randria, from 2008 (as cited in Rioux Paquette et al., 2009) state that only 0.08 % of the final price is commonly received by the local harvester for tortoises. The high increase of the price is generally caused by compensation for the high mortality (Auliya, 2003) and due to lack of legal guidelines, which “allows” traders to ask every desired price (see: I.1.). It may further play a role, that the locals lack information and measures to revolt against their own exploitation. The high mortality during the transport is caused by the numerous temporary housing facilities the reptiles are placed in, while being passed from the collector to the final buyer (Steinmetz et al., 1998). When international demand for a certain species rises, the number of people involved in the trade chain of that certain species tends to increase simultaneously. The more people involved, profiting on the sale of the same animal, the higher the prices in the countries of destination. Frequent transport tend to have negative impacts on the animals welfare (Auliya, 2003) and can even lead to death (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Steinmetz et al., 1998). Therefore increasing demand results in the deterioration of transport conditions. Animals traded illegally suffer not only from the quantity of transport stages but additionally from inadequate transport quality (see: I.1.). Smuggling techniques for transport into other locations and countries are quite variable. For reptiles smuggling in double floors in lorries, interior side coverings of caravans, behind car seat covers and doors, in hidden compartments in luggage, inside clothing, in stockings, socks, undergarments and in pillowcases had been reported amongst others (Auliya, 2003). Whereas the above mentioned techniques apply mainly for trade inside the country of origin or a land border crossing, most international trade implies shipping or flying out of the country of origin. In this regard Thailand represents the main trade hub for many wildlife species (Nijman and Shepherd, 2010; Nijman, 2010; Roe, 2008; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). Thailand’s wildlife legislation contains fatal loopholes. Whereas the Thai legislation admittedly protect native CITES listed species, it does not adequately protect non-native species listed in the convention (Todd, 2011). Namely, once a non-native species has been smuggled into country, trade can be conducted openly unless the authorities can prove they were imported illegally, which is hardly possible (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). Lack in law enforcement and in capacity of the authorities make it easy to defraud the CITES regulations (Auliya, 2003). The confusion surrounding reptile taxonomy is utilized to misdeclare animals (Auliya, 2003). There are different ways in which misdeclaration can be used. The origin or the source of a specimen can be misdeclared, but also value or the purpose 23

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of trade can be declared incorrectly. One of the most common defraud is probably the intentional misdeclaration in terms of the animals origin to obtain “legal” import permits (Auliya, 2003; Nijman, 2010; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). For example, CITES listed species of wild origin are claimed to be captive-bred. Shipments or other transport of animals from the alleged countries do not actually take place but the process of application generates the necessary CITES permits. The issuance of import permit allows the issuance of re-export permits. Thus specimens retained in national trade can be traded “legally” afterwards (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). Yet it couldn’t be determined whether this process is an organized action by a few key dealers on behalf of the industry as a whole or whether it is used by separate dealers for their own trading activities. One dealer on the Chatuchak Market (Thailand) revealed that an internet company offers fake breeding operations to convince the Thai authorities of legal propagation activity. The dealer did not reveal how CITES permits were obtained (Todd, 2011). Although the precise laundering process remains vague, a large numbers of reptilian taxa listed in CITES gets certainly imported to Thailand. Many of them are reported as re-exported from Lebanon and often declared as captive-bred in Kazakhstan (Nijman and Shepherd, 2010; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). It is unlikely that breeding operations take place in either Lebanon or Kazakhstan (Nijman and Shepherd, 2010; Todd, 2011). The same processes were found for certain amphibian taxa. Several species were claimed as captive-bred in Kazakhstan but no exports had been documented there, during the corresponding periods (Nijman and Shepherd, 2010). Therefore it is justified to assume that well-organized illegal businesses rather than captive breeding operations are active on this route. Besides it is conspicuous that many of the exports were going via Lebanon, a country that has not been a Party to CITES until quite recently (Hance, 2011). Lebanon just became a member Party of CITES on 28th of February this year (CITES, n.d.5). It remains unclear if either Thai customs violate the CITES regulations or whether fraudulently acquired permits from Lebanon or Kazakhstan are presented. However, re-export permits are issued this way and illegally sourced specimens associated with laundered CITES permits enter trade. They are sent by air, mainly to Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan, from where they may be again re-exported (Todd, 2011). Interviewed dealers on the Chatuchak Market reported that the described route applies especially for Appendix II species. According to one of them Appendix I are generally smuggled via established overland routes to Malaysia through the border towns of Sadao and Betong (Todd, 2011). According to another interviewed dealer it seems likewise easy to get illegally obtained specimen, at least tortoises, 24

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out of the country by air even without the laundered certificates. He reported, that “one can put the turtles or tortoises in a suitcase, making sure to put tape over the legs and head, keeping the animal in one position, as movement would be noticeable on the X-ray machines at the airport.” He went on to say that “[…] small turtles and tortoises can be placed in pockets, whilst ensuring that there are no metal objects or cell phones on the person, as these would be detected when going through the metal detector. If the metal detector is not set off, the Customs officer will likely not conduct a search, and therefore the animals will not be detected.” This dealer went on to say that “[…] buyers from Malaysia, Singapore and Japan carry turtles and tortoises out of Bangkok, purchased from his shop, every month in this manner” (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008, p. 10). This statement demonstrates not only the ease to trade animals illegally but also the appalling conditions that animal are subjected to, during the process. The addressed trade routes and techniques may vary between species, countries or even within one species. But they give an idea about the organized character of illegal wildlife trade, which is of great concern for many conservationists (Auliya, 2003; Mongabay, 2013; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). In this context another statement, made by a harvester to a journalist who refused to buy a wild Boa is of particularly representative character. Apparently assuming that his offer was denied because it missed the personal taste of the potential buyer the harvester said: “We can get anything you'd like, [...] it will take only few hours.” (Webster, 1997, p. 3).

II.2.3. Trade with Astrochelys radiata II.2.3.1. In quantity Information about the number of individuals for subsistence and commercial harvest or meat consumption consist of no more than estimates of precious few assessments. On of the most comprehensive works, assessing population size and quantity of harvest in A. radiata is probably “The Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop on Endemic Tortoise Species in Madagascar”, conducted in 2005 (Randriamahazo et al., 2007). As already mentioned above the best estimate of the population size was considered to be around 4.5 million animals (see : II.2.), and best estimation of harvest stands at about 60,560 animals each year. The harvest estimate is somewhat higher than assumptions from O'Brien et al. from 2003, who estimated that between 2,430 – 46,500 adult tortoises are harvested each year by harvesters of Tulear. Harvest estimates of O'Brien et al. (2003) appear frequently in literature (Hammer, 2012; Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz et al., 2005; Walker and 25

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Rafeliarisoa, 2012) and are assumed to be the most scholarly review on the level of overexploitation for this species (Hudson and Horne, 2010) (see also: Fig.2.). Nevertheless, Walker and Rafeliarisoa (2012) lately made aware of their own estimates, indicating a much more drastic decline. Rafeliarisoa et al. (in press), as cited by Walker and Rafeliarisoa (2012), estimated a population decline of approximately 518,000 tortoises per year in the last decade (2000 – 2011). O'Brien et al. (2003) themselves point out, that their estimates represents only a fraction of the total annual harvest (only harvesters from Tulear are included in their estimations). Moreover the estimations account for adult animals only and it is likely that these estimations leave out a significant quantity of tortoises harvested for pet trade, where mostly young animals are smuggled (Hudson and Horne, 2010). Obtaining accurate numbers of harvest is often difficult (Auliya, 2003). Especially when species subjected to illegal trade are affected by underreporting from poachers fearing prosecution and the limited opportunities in proving the origin of the individual after removal from the wild (Knapp et al., 2010; Márquez et al., 2007). Nevertheless, A. radiata had been the most common species found to be sold on the Chatuchak Market (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). The definite number of harvest remains vague; clear is, that current exploitation rates are unsustainable and must be put to an end in order to prevent extinction of A. radiata (Hudson and Horne, 2010; O'Brien et al., 2003; Randriamahazo et al., 2007; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). Even though Nussbaum and Raxworthy (2000) couldn’t find any evidence thirteen years ago, indicating that A. radiata was threatened with extinction during the next 20 years; they admitted reasons for concern and recommended further studies on life history and ecology of this species. The 20 years will soon to be over and more recent investigations indicate worrisome declines (Castellano et al., 2010; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). All population viability analysis scenarios conducted by the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment in 2007 predict extinction within 50 years in the wild, if harvesting is not greatly reduced (minimum 60 %) (Randriamahazo et al., 2007). Others predict extinction in the wild already within the next 20 years under current harvesting rates (Hudson and Horne, 2010; WCS, 2010).

II.2.3.2. The procedures There is no general information about collection and trade practices in A. radiata, probably no standardized handling at all. Hence the following paragraph will outline some observations 26

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originating from researchers and locals, to give an impression about trade procedures and circumstances for the animals. As mentioned there is no concordance if meat consumption or pet trade bears the greater threat to the species (see: I.2.). Observations alone do not always suffice to draw a clear line between the motives for trade until the animals arrive in “their intended destination”, which makes it difficult to assign them to corresponding procedures. While animals killed in situ are intrinsically destined for consumption (Castellano et al., 2010; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012) life transported specimen are not necessarily determined for pet trade. Nevertheless either way trade procedures have the same starting point. At the very beginning of the trade transaction is the spiny forest in southwestern Madagascar. Harvesters collect the tortoises here, within their habitat, load them onto zebu-carts (zebu = cattle species) (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003) or boats (Ganzhorn, 2011; Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz et al., 2005; O'Brien et al., 2003), and transport them to dealers. These dealers or middlemen sell the animals further out of the country or to markets and restaurants within other regions of Madagascar, especially the big cities (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). The coastal area between Itampolo till Androka is assumed to be the main trade hub within the country for animals traded for consumption (see: Fig. 1) (WWF, 2010). Nussbaum and Raxworthy (2000) observed the area between Tsiombe and Ampanihy, further inland as important collection site (see: Fig. 1). They assume the harvesting taking place for sale to restaurants and markets. It remains open if the “sale to markets” implies trade for consumption or either accounts for pet trade, or both. In this early stage of trade it is likely that procedures are quite similar anyhow. Several people are involved in the transaction of collecting and transporting to markets. Harvesting groups consist of people of all ages with 90 (WWF, 2010) to 100 (Andriamarohasina 2011, as cited in Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012) people per group. Around ten zebu-carts filled with tortoises from the coastal area between Itampolo till Androka (considered for consumption) are estimated to cross the Mahafaly Plateau each week (see: Fig. 1.) (WWF, 2010). Nussbaum and Raxworthy (2000, p. 11), who observed a transport by zebu-carts in the surrounding region of Ampanihy (see: Fig.1.) on their way to Tulear, described the transport to expose the animals to “[...] disturbingly inhumane conditions [...] 500-800 sokatra [...] piled on top of one another, fully exposed to the blazing sun, bouncing up and down on the extremely rough road.”. These inland routes with zebu-cart are generally managed by members of the Antanosy community (WWF, 2010). 27

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Likewise frequently reported is the transport by boat (see above) (O'Brien et al., 2003), which is assumed to be operated mainly by Vezo people (see: Fig. 4.; II.4.2.) (WWF, 2010). Especially in the area of Itampolo till Androka, where proximity to the coast facilitates transport of the plunders by sea (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz et al., 2005). Investigations indicate that these “fishing boat harvester groups” comprises 3–4 people, with one boat each group. 13 groups are estimated to be active only in Tulear (O'Brien et al., 2003). On the coast further north, west of the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park (see: Fig.1.) two boats with around 50–80 tortoises each are reported to leave every week (Ganzhorn, 2011). Recently Walker and Rafeliarisoa (2012) discovered additional high levels of poaching within the Menarandra and Linta river region, southwards adjacent to the area between Itampolo to Androka (see: Fig.1.). In contrast to the aforementioned uncertainty about the targeted destination and trade motive the latter had been absolutely explicit in this case. The left behind carcasses, product of newly adapted methods in the past years, apparently indicated trade for consumption. Up to the early 21th century poachers generally collected tortoises, loaded live animals onto zebu-carts or boats and transported them to vendors for further resale, as described above. Due to commonly undetected collection and disappearance after entering the trade chain this process made it almost impossible to get accurate levels of poaching. More recently poachers seem to slaughter the animals in situ, remove the meat and leave the carcasses behind (Castellano et al., 2010; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012), which facilitates transport and circumvention of police checks (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). On the other hand this method leaves a quantifiable record of those animals killed for consumption (Castellano et al., 2010; Hudson and Horne, 2010). Castellano et al. (2010) entered such a poaching camp during the process and gained a reliable insight on the methods and proceedings. Primitive metal hatchets had been used for the slaughter and tall plastic bottles filled with liver oil for the cooking lay around. One living tortoise was hanging in a tree with a rope sewn through a hole in its shell. The dried meat was filled in sacks, which were tied on carry sticks for the transport (Castellano et al., 2010). Much like the previously mentioned zebu-cart transport (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000), these observations once again illustrate the appalling conditions which go along with the entire process of illegal trade, irrespectively of the underlying motive. So far the above described procedures account for trade within Madagascar. Considering that probably most of the animals here end up as food (Castellano et al., 2010; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012) it appears “reasonable” that people do not care too much about animal 28

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welfare. Contrary one might expect more a little more careful proceedings concerning international trade, in order to ensure survival. Unfortunately this is not the case; instead a local gave information about the following awful method to avoid detection during export transactions: “[...] when in distress, the tortoises urinate-sometimes a noxious, crimson liquid that can tip off a wildlife inspector. The urine's smell can linger for hours or days after a tortoise has been taken. That is why most smugglers drop newly collected tortoises into mesh bags and swing them in circles above their heads, inciting the animals to spend their scent before export begins” (Webster, 1997, p. 4). Asia (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Roe, 2008; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011) and, as mentioned, especially Thailand is an often targeted trade hub for wildlife species (see: II.2.2.). Likewise this applies for A. radiata (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). Observations indicate excessive removal of juveniles from the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park (for location see: Fig.1.) and following shipment to Asia. And there is evidence, that thousands of juveniles leave Madagascar via the capital city, Antananarivo airport on direct flights to Bangkok, from where they are further distributed. Buyers from other parts of Asia, most notably China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia and Singapore and the former Soviet Union, buy large numbers of animals from the dealers on the Chatuchak Market for retail in their own countries (Hudson and Horne, 2010). Trade procedures described above can provide limited extracts from a multifaceted reality only, but offer a little insight and overview. Maybe harvesting techniques do differ between regions, harvesting groups or time and space. It is also possible that researchers were exposed to imponderables not known yet. Nevertheless, harvesting quantities (see: II.2.3.1.), even if estimations are vague, are of reasonable concern and the increased popularity and fashion associated with eating the meat exacerbates the situation (Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). Furthermore increased tortoise consumption appears to be a side effect of newly established activities in southern Madagascar, such as timber harvest (Castellano et al., 2010) and largescale international mining (Hudson and Horne, 2010). As tortoise populations have been extirpated in areas surrounding the southern large urban centers already (Tulear and Faut Dauphin), more recent evidence indicates that poachers search for the animals in distant and remote areas already (Hudson and Horne, 2010). In the past few years tortoise poaching has become a well-organized operation (Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012). Recently entire trucks on their way to Antananarivo, loaded with A. radiata and dried tortoise meat had been reported (Hudson and Horne, 2010), whereas only 29

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around a decade ago prominently zebu-carts had been observed (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003). Poaching gangs observed in present days are often heavily armed and can be really dangerous (Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012; WCS, 2010; WWF, 2010). They often collect tortoises within local community-owned, culturally important land and the locals are powerless to stop them (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009).

II.3. Trade related aspects II.3.1. Selective collection of female specimen Preferably large tortoises are collected for consumption (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz et al., 2005; O'Brien et al., 2003; Randriamahazo et al., 2007; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009), especially large females, because they might contain additional eggs (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Leuteritz et al., 2005). While no connection between body size and clutch size seems to exist, a correlation between body size and the mean egg size per clutch is known. The mean egg size increases significantly with increasing body size. This in turn influences the size of hatchlings (Leuteritz et al., 2005). Larger eggs result in significantly larger offspring (Hammer submitted, as cited in Hammer, 2012; Leuteritz et al., 2005) which is considered important in the harsh climate conditions found in the inhabited area (Leuteritz et al., 2005). Natural selection usually benefits larger individuals of the same species, which have the greater reproductive potential. The anthropogenic, unnatural selective extraction of the “fittest” individuals from the population affects the entire population (Randriamahazo et al., 2007; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012).

II.3.2. Poverty Madagascar is one of the so called least developed countries (UNCTAD, 2005; UN, 2012), with a GNI of $ 297 per capita (UNCTAD, 2009) and an HDI of 0.483 (UN, 2012). As mentioned, the human population in the country is rapidly increasing (see: I.2.) with far too little economic activities, especially in southern Madagascar (see: I.3.). Lack of economic development comes along with lack of conservation (see: I.1.), contributing its part to the outlined dilemma in classical nature conservation management approaches (see: Fig. 3; I.4.). Accordingly does, and increasingly will, the socio-economic condition affect on the population status of A. radiata. 30

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Poverty is considered as one of the major drivers forcing the rapid decline through overexploitation of A. radiata (Walker, 2011). The demand for meat is already high (Castellano et al., 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003; Walker and Rafeliarisoa, 2012) and can be expected to grow with an increasing population. Additional to, or attributable for the mentioned new fashion of eating A radiata (see: II.2.3.2.), the meat is relatively cheaply available. Between 2500 FMg (Francs Malagasy): around $ 0.23 for a dish (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000) and up to 3500 FMg: around $ 0.32/animal (Leuteritz et al., 2005). Furthermore wild tortoises are easily to get hold of, due to the speciescharacteristics. They can easily be picked up, without other equipment (Lingard et al., 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). People spontaneously debark from public transport or other vehicles and collect tortoises along the roads. Especially poor families who can’t afford meat every day take the opportunity to provide their families in this manner (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000), in particular during holidays or special occasions like Eastern or Christmas (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). As already predicted by O'Brien et al. in 2003, does poverty force and encourage harvesters to continue the poaching of A. radiata despite the recently increased travel distances (see: II.2.3.2.), due to local extinctions (Behler, 2002; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009) in immediate areas near to the big cities (Leuteritz and Rioux Paquette, 2008; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). As long as the demand is high enough and poverty is prevalent trade remains profitable for poachers (Auliya, 2003; O'Brien et al., 2003; Roe, 2008). In addition frequent, severe natural hazards such as droughts ravage the country. Several extreme droughts during the past lead to a severe lack of water in the range of A. radiata and affects both the tortoises and the people (Castellano et al., 2010; Hudson and Horne, 2010; Rafeliarisoa et al., 2010). The droughts led to diminished rice and agricultural production. Poverty exacerbated and as already predicted by Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000 it encouraged people to collect more tortoises, to feed on them and sell them to purchase rice and corn (Castellano et al., 2010; Hudson and Horne, 2010).

II.3.3. Law enforcement The above described unsettled political situation (see II.1.1.), legal uncertainties and poverty lead to corruption and inefficiency of trade policies, facilitated by the highest government officials in the country (Behler, 2002; Castellano et al., 2010; Webster, 1997; WWF, 2010). 31

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The Government provides comparatively little support for the implementation of CITES (CITES, 2008) and law enforcement concerning wildlife trade in Madagascar is accordingly modest (Behler, 2002; Castellano et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2008; Leuteritz et al., 2005; Randriamahazo et al., 2007). Nature conservation issues are considered of low importance in relation to other grievances (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009; Roe, 2008; CITES, 2008; UN, 2008). As Madagascar’s political programs largely depend on foreign assistance, CITES or wildlife trade in general, are not accorded sufficient attention because they are too sector based (CITES, 2008). Tortoise meat is sold openly and in high quantities, without strong fear of prosecution (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). Gendarmes and other officials appear to consume tortoises themselves (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; WWF, 2010). The laws protecting A. radiata (see: II.1) are generally well known to the Malagasy but largely ignored (Auliya, 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). Only the most blatant and exposed smuggling episodes are prosecuted (Behler, 2002). Actually a troubling trend of tortoise collection inside protected areas has been observed (Hudson and Horne, 2010; O'Brien et al., 2003; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). Lack of funding often prohibits appropriate monitoring (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Child, 2004; Mathur, 2009; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; WWF, 2010) and thus national parks and other protected areas or wildlife related laws cannot fulfill the anticipated protection (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Auliya, 2003; Child, 2004; Hudson and Horne, 2010). But as already broached under illegal trade in reptiles (see: II.2.2.) and trade proceedings in A. radiata (see: II.2.3.2.), corruption and lack of funding extends far from the national borders of Madagascar. Just in March this year (2013), right after the latest CITES meeting (CoP 16, Bangkok, 3rd-14th March 2013) the wildlife trade monitoring network (TRAFFIC) reports of two big seizures of tortoises at the Bangkok airport, discovering hundreds of threatened tortoises, including A. radiata. The smugglers had been able to access the baggage collection area despite not being passengers. It is believed that several airport authorities had been involved in this smuggling attempt (TRAFFIC, 2013). As explained above, Thailand plays a major role in wildlife trade. Interestingly the largest proportion of animals smuggled to the country comes from Madagascar (Nijman and Shepherd, 2010; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Todd, 2011). Accountable for the intense illegal trade in non-native CITES listed species are the aforementioned loopholes in the Thai legislation. This legislative flaw is heavily utilized, not only in the above explained laundering process but also in the every-day resale activities. Retailers on the Chatuchak Market were observed to acknowledge openly that many of the species they offered had been obtained 32

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illegally (see: II.2.2.). In fact they were advertising on the rarity, the status of endangerment and appendices of certain species. Even more they were describing to potential buyers a selection of techniques to smuggle these animals out of the country (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). This lack of prosecution allows sellers to recruit walk-by customers and to widen the circle of potential customers. As mentioned already, the responsible authorities lack the capacity to implement the existing laws (see: II.2.2.). A capacity building workshop for Thai officials revealed, that none of the participants were able to identify any of the freshwater turtle and tortoise species in question (Shepherd and Nijman, 2008). It is evident that the lack in law-enforcement is closely linked to a lack of relevant skills and funding (see also: I.4.).

II.4. Non-trade related aspects II.4.1. Utilization of the habitat A. radiata inhabits Madagascar’s spiny forest, which extends across southern and southwestern Madagascar (see: I.2.; Fig.1.). Despite conservation efforts, the ecosystem is heavily fragmented and degraded. Many native large animal species have been lost already and it is generally unlikely that the remnant populations maintain viable populations beyond 2020–2040 (Ganzhorn et al., 2001). Between 1999 and 2005 the WWF refers of deforestation rates, ranging from 1.2 % to 3.94 % per year (WWF, 2010). The main reasons for habitat destruction are due to clearings for agricultural land, slash and burn charcoal production and over grazing of livestock (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Rafeliarisoa et al., 2010; WWF, 2010, 2013). On the one hand livestock and tortoises compete for the same resources (Leuteritz et al., 2005; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000) which serve the tortoise for food and as protective cover for thermal regulation (Leuteritz et al., 2005). On the other hand the keeping of livestock causes additional land conversions due to the supplementary need of fodder. Land conversions force the tortoises to forage increasingly in fields, where many farmers kill them, due to the damage they cause (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009). Moreover, the cattle is suspected to pose a threat to A. radiata by trampling; the animals trample down vegetation, compact soil (nests are dug in well-drained sandy soil) and step on juvenile tortoises. The actual impact is not sufficiently investigated yet but seems probable (Leuteritz, 2003a; Leuteritz et al., 2005). 33

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Notwithstanding A. radiata was also found persisting at high densities in regions of heavily degraded areas (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; O'Brien et al., 2003), sometimes with higher abundances as in areas of relatively pristine habitats, including protected areas (O'Brien et al., 2003).

II.4.2. Culture The area of distribution of A. radiata is inhabited by people from four main Malagasy cultural lineages: the Vezo, the Antanosy, the Mahafaly and the Antandroy (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009) (see: Fig.4.). People from the Antandroy and Mahafaly culture generally follow a fady. As mentioned already, the fady represents a type of taboo, which prohibits the consumption or collection of the tortoises (see: I.3.). For many years this fady was assumed to provide a central protection for the species, due to local’s belief that the tortoises are sacred and contain the ancestors’ spirit, especially when found close to a grave (Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000). But the manifestation of the fady varies among ethnic groups, sometimes even among people within the same group (Lingard et al., 2003). In contrast to rural and remote regions, people from urban areas (mainly Antandroy) do not deny feeding on the tortoise in critical times, such as droughts or locust outbreaks, because they do not believe the tortoise to be sacred (Lingard et al., 2003). Their allegiance is rather rooted in disgust than sanctuary (Leuteritz, 2002; Lingard et al., 2003; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). It was also observed that some people tend to deny the fady in terms of crop protection (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). Others indeed avoid A. radiata but consider people being poorly educated, if they believe the tortoise is sacred. They rather obey the fady due to respect for these “poorly educated” family and community members (Lingard et al., 2003). Migration from other cultural lineages into the region weakens the local fady (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009; Leuteritz et al., 2005; Lingard et al., 2003; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003). Migrants not only erode traditional beliefs (WWF, n.d.1) but also poach the tortoise (Hudson and Horne, 2010). Migration is on the rise and Mahafaly and Antandroy communities seem to sell and consume tortoises more frequently themselves (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; WWF, n.d.1). In fact the tortoise populations become increasingly exploited despite the fady (Hammer and Ramilijaona, 2009). Further one has to keep in mind that Vezo and Antanosy communities, living adjacent to the range of the species, eat tortoise meat as part of their usual diet, (Leuteritz et al., 2005; 34

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Leuteritz and Ravolanaivo, 2005; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; O'Brien et al., 2003; Randriamahazo et al., 2007) and thus do not provide any cultural protection to the species anyways.

Fig.4.: Modified from Andrianaivo-Golz and Golz, n.d.: Schematic map of distribution of the different cultural linages in southern Madagascar.

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Chapter III: Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management The past three, almost four decades (since the implementation of CITES in 1975) have shown, that the listing of A. radiata led to completely opposite results as intended under the protective shelter of Appendix I. In the absence of effective law enforcement, total trade prohibition stimulated the establishment of an illicit, unmanageable, and inequitable market (Rioux Paquette et al., 2009) (see also: Fig. 3.; II.2.3.). Given the non-compliance of national laws and the international trade ban of CITES, associated with unsustainable illegal trade of the species, the need for an innovative approach becomes obvious. Despite shortcomings, such as the dependency on the political will and community involvement (preconditions which certain nations might be unable or unwilling to provide (see: I.1.; I.4.; II.3.3.), a significant number of scientists argue in favor of CBNRM to be the most appropriate, if not the only solution to safeguard conservation, especially in developing countries (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Jones et al., 2008; Rowan, 2011; Schally, 2011). This is primarily due to clear evidence, that a minimum standard of living and governance are basic conditions for the effective conservation of biological diversity, particularly outside protected areas (Schally, 2011; Woodford et al., 2004).

III.1. The evolution and basic functionality of CBNRM The constantly mentioned problem to enforce imposed conservation legislation, especially in developing countries (see: I.1.; I.4.) quite often promotes “open access situations” for wildlife. Without individual ownership, and little or no risk of punishment wildlife runs the risk of suffering from the so called “tragedy of the commons”. This theory predicates that people will inevitably overexploit a freely accessible resource over which they exert no ownership or control (Hardin, 1968). Over the last two decades recognition grew, that conservation policy is more complex than setting up restrictions and bans on wildlife use and that social or developmental concerns need to be considered in conjunction with biological ones (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Abensperg-Traun et al., 2011; DesJardins, 2012; Ganzhorn, 2010; Hughes and Flintan, 2001; Kaufmann, 2006; Lingard et al., 2003; Randriamahazo et al., 2007) (see also: I.1.; III.1.; III.2.). 36

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One of the first major attempts to address some of the shortcomings and problems associated with the classical top-down conservation strategies (see also: I.4.; Fig. 3.) was the Wildlands & Human Needs Program, launched by the WWF in 1985. By demonstrating that economic circumstances of rural people, sharing their land with wild and/or protected species can improve without degrading the natural habitats (WWF, n.d.2), this program was a total divergence to the customary preservationist approaches to protect environment (Hughes and Flintan, 2001). The program incorporated a portfolio of several so called Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), which evolved in the 1980’s as part of the World Conservation Strategy (by IUCN in conjunction with WWF and UNEP). ICDPs emphasize the common idea of incorporating components that aim to provide benefits to local communities through a variety of different activities (see below) (Hughes and Flintan, 2001). By increasingly taking into account different cultural values and the newly established view that countries and the communities concerned ought to decide themselves how to use resources in a sustainable manner (Kaufmann, 2006; Lingard et al., 2003; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009; Roe, 2008; Woodford et al., 2004) a concept of decentralization and the adjacent term CommunityBased-Natural-Resource-Management developed out of the original ICDP`s (Hughes and Flintan, 2001). According to the definition of Abensperg-Traun (2009, p. 955): “CBNRM involves pushing back the regulatory role of the State and transferring the responsibility for species conservation to local communities, which share their living space with wildlife in extensively managed areas outside protected zones.” This enables local communities to benefit directly by a variety of activities and makes them central stakeholders of conservation approaches (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Schally, 2011). Beneficial activities are divers and depend on the characteristics of the species, cultural values and traditions (see also: I.3.). They can encompass extractive and nonextractive use and further lethal or non-lethal use of a species. Ecotourism (non-extractive use), trophy hunting, hunting or harvesting for alimentation (extractive and mostly lethal), harvesting for pet trade or ornamental plants (extractive, but non-lethal) or other use, such as for medicine, wood etc. are among such activities (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Ekane, 2006; Marshall, 1998; Roe et al., 2009; Roque, 2008; Shepherd and Nijman, 2008; Woodford et al., 2004).

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The driving force behind the desired conservation activities is the correspondingly higher incentive for the communities to utilize wildlife sustainably, in order to maintain themselves the provisioning of the economic revenues (Jones et al., 2008; Schally, 2011). Other terms for community-based approaches, with similar definitions and conservation aims appearing in literature are amongst others People-Centered Conservation and Development and Eco-development (Hughes and Flintan, 2001). Equally many projects, not explicitly labeled as community approaches work with the same fundamental principles as CBNRM (Roe, 2011). The term CBNRM was chosen for this work because it was found to be specifically used in (southern) Africa (Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Bond et al., 2006; Roe et al., 2009; Roe, 2011) and seems to be the most contemporary and frequent one used today.

III.2. Developments within CITES, relevant in the context of CBNRM At its inception CITES focused exclusively on conservation through trade restriction measures. Since then the linkages between livelihoods of poor people, biodiversity and conservation had been increasingly recognized by the convention (Roe, 2008). Several Resolutions and Decisions of the Conference of the Parties had been established, paving a prudent way for CBNRM. The ones regarded most important are outlined below. In 1992: On the 8th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP), the first formal acknowledgement, to take into account the consequences of listing decisions on livelihoods of the poor was made within CITES: CoP 8 (Resolution Conf. 8.3 (Rev. CoP13)): The CoP recognizes that “implementation of CITES-listing decisions should take into account potential impacts on the livelihoods of the poor” (CITES, 1992). The Parties have also recognized “that commercial trade may be beneficial to the conservation of species and ecosystems and/or to the development of local people when carried out at levels that are not detrimental to the survival of the species“ (CITES, 1992a, p. 10). In 2000 (and 2004): Not until several years later this was first turned into action. At CoP 11, there was a proposal to list Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens and H. zeyheri) in Appendix II. This found a number of objectors (CITES, 2004) and lead to the submission of a 38

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proposal to the CoP 13 (Doc. 9.2.1) in 2004, calling on the Secretariat to consider ways of including information about livelihood impacts in listing proposals (CITES, 2004a). In 2004: Further in this year the Secretariat on wildlife trade policies and economic incentives was called on, to: (13.74 a): “conduct a review of their national policies regarding the use of and trade in specimens of CITES-listed species, taking into account economic incentives, production systems, consumption patterns, market access strategies, price structures, certification schemes, CITES-relevant taxation and subsidy schemes, property rights, mechanisms for benefit sharing and reinvestment in conservation, as well as stricter domestic measures that Parties apply or are affected by” and (13.74 b): “to compile and synthesize the information provided by the Parties, and produce a report analyzing the impacts of national policies for trade in CITES-listed species in terms of socio-economic and conservation benefits and costs, including on the economic value of the species, levels of legal and illegal trade, improvement of the livelihood of local communities, and on how they affect the role of the private sector involved in such trade” (CITES, 2004d). This is of particular importance in the context of the acceptance within CITES, to embed the idea of CBNRM as a conservation measure; especially due to the focus on economic incentives and potential, property rights and economic value of species. In 2007: The Conferences adopted the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable use of Biodiversity in Resolution 13.2 (Rev. CoP14). These guidelines consist of 14 interdependent practical principles, operational guidelines and some instruments for their implementation that govern the uses of components of biodiversity to ensure the sustainability of such uses. The principles provide a framework to assist Governments, resource managers, indigenous and local communities, the private sector and other stakeholders on how to ensure that their use of the components of biodiversity will not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity (CITES, 2007). Practical Principles 2 and 12 clearly articulate the need to involve local communities in resource management, and as beneficiaries of associated economic benefits. 2:” Recognizing the need for a governing framework consistent with international/national laws, local users of biodiversity components should be sufficiently empowered and supported by rights to be responsible and accountable for use of the resources concerned.”

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12: “The needs of indigenous and local communities who live with and are affected by the use and conservation of biological diversity, along with their contributions to its conservation and sustainable use, should be reflected in the equitable distribution of the benefits from the use of those resources” (CITES, 2007). The need to involve local people in the implementation of CITES-listing decisions is therefore well accepted in the convention, while the definition of sustainability or sustainable use had to be borrowed from the Convention on Biological Diversity (CITES, 2004c): “sustainable use means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the longterm decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations (CBD, n.d.). The Strategic Vision 2008– 2013 (also CoP 14, 2007) strengthen the position, that sustainable trade in wild fauna and flora can make a major contribution to achieve the broader objectives of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation, and meet the objectives of the UN Development Goals 2015 (CITES, 2007a) (see also: I.5.). The CoP further called on the Standing Committee to oversee a process to develop: a) “tools for voluntary use by the Parties for the rapid assessment at the national level of the positive and negative impacts of implementing CITES listing decisions on the livelihoods of the poor, in conformity with Resolution Conf. 8.3 (Rev CoP13)” (from 1992; see above). b) “draft voluntary guidelines for Parties to address these impacts, particularly in developing countries. The guidelines should, where possible, assist Parties to develop local, national and regional initiatives that take account of the impacts of implementing CITES listing decisions on the livelihoods of the poor”(Decision 14.3) (CITES, 2007b). These Decisions (1) reinforced the commitment, to take into account impacts on the livelihoods of the poor (that had been already made in Resolution Conf 8.3 (Rev. CoP13)), and (2) makes a course of action available, to support Parties that wished to do this. Taken together the principles and basic requirements for CBNRM are well accepted in the convention, the application of CBNRM, however, must be consistent with the obligation of a State Party to effectively implement the convention and to ensure that CITES trade is legal, sustainable and traceable. The Secretary-General of CITES notes, that “CBNRM is not a panacea, and its application must be consistent with a Party’s obligations under the Convention. But it is one viable option to explore when determining how to achieve more effective 40

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implementation of the Convention. CBNRM as a CITES implementation tool therefore merits deeper examination as to how it works, when it works and when it does not work” (Scanlon, 2011, p. xii).

III.3. Case studies of applied CBNRM This section aims to prove the hypothesis that CBNRM displays the urgently needed conservation approach for A. radiata, through the means of case studies which apply CBNRM approaches. Taking one positive (Markhor; see: III.3.1) and one negative case (Southern White Rhinoceros; III.3.2.) will provide a closer insight into the respective practices. A supplementary list of other species (or certain populations of species) subject to CBNRM approaches will be given to demonstrate the potential of this management (III.3.3: Tab. 1. Tab. 2.). Due to limits on the scope of this work the given examples represent only a very limited selection of all existing community-based approaches (also note the varying designations in literature, see: III.1.) and therefore can only give an impression about species involved in the cases presented. The examples do not represent relative proportions of successful and less successful approaches, but rather their relative traceability. Consulted literature was chosen more or less randomly from articles and literature found via internet (scholar.google.de; google.de and Monagabay.com) using the searching terms “Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management”, “Communitybased natural resource management” and “Failures of community-based natural resource management”, and from literature surveyed throughout this work, or references cited therein. The Markhor and the Southern White Rhinoceros as exemplified case studies were chosen because applied management of them includes extractive use, which will also be proposed for A. radiata in the course of this work (see: Chapter IV). Both species do not actually meet the biological traits of A. radiata but other reptile species were not comparable due to (1) conservation through ranching approaches (crocodiles: for instance in : Abensperg-Traun, 2009) and (2) the major threat actually through lethal extraction, but preferred collection of male specimens due to their greater body size (Tupinambis species: Fitzgerald, 1994), instead of the stated threat of collecting female specimens in A. radiata (see: II.3.1.). As external circumstances, such as economic development and political situation are regarded to have the strongest influence on conservation efforts (see: I.1.) the chosen examples remain comparable 41

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despite fundamental biological differences. External circumstances, i.e., economic development and the political situations showed the comparably strongest parallels with A. radiata among all examples found, involving extractive use in their management. Therefore they are considered of comparable likelihood in viability. (1) Case positive: The Markhor (Capra falconeri) in Pakistan, Thorgar Hills: The main threats to the species have been illegal trade, loss of habitat and competition with livestock. The number of livestock has increased due to the growth of human population (Shackleton, 2001, Valdez, 2008) and Pakistan’s diverse range of faiths has given rise to continuous political unrest and instability (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Khan, 2005; Woodford et al., 2004). With an HDI of 0.515 (UNDP, 2012a) the country is seen as slightly more developed than Madagascar who has an HDI of 0.483 (see: II.3.2.). (2) Case negative: The Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in South Africa: Even through comparably less intense, political struggles lack of economic development due to strong income inequality and illegal trade are mentioned problems in this country (AbenspergTraun, 2009; Mongabay, 2013; UNDP, n.d.).

III.3.1. Case positive: The Markhor (Capra falconeri) in Pakistan, Torghar Hills In the 1950s the mountains of northern Balochistan were rich in wildlife and held a significant population of the Markhor (Capra falconeri). Uncontrolled hunting and competition for grazing with livestock lead to a devastating decline in the species. With less than 100 animals left (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Kamaal, 2010) the species was on the brink of extinction in the 80s (Große et al., 2001; Woodford et al., 2004). Therefore the Markhor was placed on Appendix II at the inception of CITES in 1975 and transferred to Appendix I in 1992 (CITES, n.d.4). The tribal lands in Balochistan are largely autonomous and are beyond the effective control of the federal and provincial governments. Despite the Provincial Forest Department technically having the responsibility for wildlife management over these tribal lands, it is the local tribal leaders who exercise a considerably higher power (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Woodford et al., 2004). One of the most charismatic leaders from the region during 1980s was Nawab Taimur Shah Jogazee. As a hunter himself he realized that if nothing was done, the Markhor would disappear. 42

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He decided to impose a total hunting ban, which he was able to enforce through both his tribal authority, as well as his official status within the government (Woodford et al., 2004). On his account and with technical help from the USA and the world’s leading wildlife conservation organizations (e.g.: WWF, IUCN; UNEP; Conservation Force) the Torghar Conservation Project (TCP) was born (later renamed into the Society for Torghar Environmental Protection) (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Woodford et al., 2004). The main objectives of this program were the conservation of the Markhor and the development of welfare programs for the people of Torghar (Woodford et al., 2004). The program was launched with the involvement of the local communities (Kamaal, 2010) in order to establish incentives through the use of a sustainable model. In return to the agreement of the locals not to hunt any of the wildlife species of the region, they were to receive certain benefits, deriving from controlled trophy hunting revenues (Woodford et al., 2004). Around 80 % of the trophy fees go directly to the communities for conservation activities and local development (Baldus, 2011). Welfare projects include the construction of dams, the establishment of nurseries and orchards, the sinking of wells and installation of hand pumps, construction and maintenance of irrigation canals, the building of retaining walls, the cleaning out of springs to increase the volumes of water, the construction and maintenance of roads and the on-going provision of medical supplies for both the people and their livestock and paying salaries to the locals, who act as game guards (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Shackleton, 2001; Woodford et al., 2004). These local game guards belong to different sub-tribes and are employed with equal distribution across them. Every sub-tribe selects their individual responsible game guard. In this way, it is not only him, that patrols against poachers, but almost all other male members of a sub-tribe (Shackleton, 2001). The allocation of legal hunting quotas is decided upon by the National Council for the Conservation of Wildlife. The quotas are distributed amongst all provinces of the Markhor conservation areas and based on information provided by the provincial governments who submit Markhor conservation plans. The plans are developed by the communities in conjunction with an NGO, the provincial wildlife department, or both. Site-specific quotas are then communicated to the provinces, who issue hunting licenses on application from hunters or outfitters (Shackleton, 2001). Due to the transfer to Appendix I in 1992 (CITES, n.d.4), coinciding with the temporary end to all trophy hunting programs in the country (Sajjad, 2008), the TCP had problems with the legal 43

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status of the issuance of trade permits (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011). In 1993 the country drew interest in establishment of community-based approaches due to the TCP’s success (Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Sajjad, 2008). Therefore, at the 10th CITES meeting of the CoP in 1997, it was decided to permit Pakistan to export up to six Markhor each year (Shackleton, 2001). Since the implementation of TCP the Markhor population in the region increased steadily, (Große et al., 2001; Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011; Shackleton, 2001) and saw an end to poaching (Große et al., 2001; Shackleton, 2001). Due to trophy revenues, the program is financially almost independent (Große et al., 2001). Community attitudes towards wildlife and biodiversity conservation had changed considerably and many communities reduced the number of livestock. With less than 100 animals in the area, when the program started, the population increased markedly with an estimated number of 2540 animals in 2010 (Shackleton, 2001; Woodford et al., 2004). Torghar is now home to the largest population of Markhor in the world. The conservation and sustainable use has not only resulted in recovery of the Markhor, but also benefited other species of fauna and flora in the region (especially the Urial) (Kamaal, 2010). In 2010 the TCP was awarded the prestigious Markhor Conservation Award , which recognizes and celebrates outstanding conservation performance by personalities, private and government institutions, enterprises, or conservation projects that link the conservation of biodiversity and human livelihoods through the application of the principles of sustainable use, in particular hunting, as part of wildlife and ecosystem management. The award is regularly granted by the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) and was issued to the TCP on the 10th CoP of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CIC, n.d.). An UN press release stated: “Torghar has certainly emerged as a successful model with the extensive efforts of the communities to manage their resources on sustainable basis. The local community has successfully managed their resources and ensured the benefits to the whole community. Statistics show that it has generated and contributed a significant amount to provincial coffers, in addition to their ecological value” (Kamaal, 2010, p. 1).

III.3.2. Case negative: The Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in South Africa South Africa is the premier rhinoceros range state globally, conserving 83 % of Africa’s rhinoceroses and 73 % of wild rhinoceroses in the world (Emslie et al., 2013). The Southern 44

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White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum), currently listed by the IUCN Red List as “Near Threatened” (Emslie, 2012) had been widespread in the bushveld areas all over southern Africa, south of the Zambezi River, until it was on the brink of extinction in the end of the 19th century (Amin et al., 2006). The devastating decline was caused by uncontrolled hunting in the colonial era (WWF, n.d.3). Already considered extinct, the species survived with a remnant population of about 20-50 animals in KwaZulu-Natal. By 1977, all African rhinoceros species were listed on CITES Appendix I, and all international commercial trade in rhinoceroses and their products was prohibited (Emslie, 2012). To help reduce illegal trade (mainly for their horns (Emslie, 2012)), and to complement CITES international trade bans, a number of “consumer states” implemented domestic anti-trade measures and legislation in the 1990s (Amin et al., 2006; Emslie, 2012). Protection within South Africa was mainly provided through fenced sanctuaries, conservancies, conservation areas and intensive-protection zones, which enabled enforcement through easier monitoring. Moreover effective monitoring provided the necessary information to allow wildlife managers to focus on rapid population growth. The resulting surplus of animals were relocated within and outside the former range of the species, to establish new populations (Amin et al., 2006). Increasing integration of local communities into conservation efforts, through nonconsumptive (ecotourism viewing and live sales) and consumptive sustainable use (sport hunting of limited numbers of surplus males) established the demand and incentive to establish a private sector. Following a continued increase in numbers (Emslie, 2012), the South African population of the Southern White Rhinoceros could be down-listed in 1994 to Appendix II, with the annotation for trade in live animals to “approved and acceptable destinations” and for the “export of hunting trophies only”(CITES, 1994). By the end of 2003 the numbers of the species had recovered to over 11300 animals, around 30 % of them in private ownership (Amin et al., 2006), with a continuing increase until today (Emslie, 2012). The commercialization of the Southern White Rhinoceros allowed formal state conservation agencies to remove surplus specimen, preventing overstocking in the populations and thus solving a biological-management problem. Simultaneously this generated additional revenue, substantial enough to cover some of the funding shortfall caused by declining state budgets in conservation areas. The movement of Southern White Rhinoceroses onto private land has also significantly increased the range area for the species. The high growth rates there 45

Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management

contributed significantly to the overall growth in numbers. The materialization of an economic value for rhinoceroses paved a way to convince magistrates in certain cases, that crimes against these animals were serious offences deserving of heavy deterrent sentences. The economic value further helped conservation-resource economists in South Africa to suggest to politicians that conservation is a valid economic form of land use and not “a waste of land” (Amin et al., 2006). Over this time the Southern White Rhinoceros has grown to the most abundant rhinoceros species in the world. In around one century the species recovered from 20–50 to approximately 12000 animals (including those in captivity) (Amin et al., 2006). As seen above, this success was not only the result of strict national conservation measures. The legalizing of trophy hunting made the species once again attractive to private landowners and this enhanced the population growth and the re-colonization of/or re-introduction to regions from which it had previously become extinct. Considered as one of the world’s greatest conservation success stories once (Amin et al., 2006, WWF, n.d.3) the number of illegal rhinoceros killings in South Africa began to rise steadily around 2008 (Carnie, 2012; Emslie, 2012; Emslie et al., 2013). The country has become a flashpoint for rhinoceros poaching as it holds more individuals than any other country on earth (Emslie et al., 2013; Hance, 2013). 2012 saw with 668 animals a record number of rhinoceroses poached. This year’s poaching numbers, close to 700 have already surpassed those of last year, even though the year is not finished yet (Mongabay, 2013). Most of the rhinoceros killed are Southern White Rhinoceroses (Hance, 2013). Despite increased numbers of personnel, the formation of an interim National Wildlife Crime Reaction Unit, increased intelligence gathering and several other measures (Emslie et al., 2013), statistics show a parallel between the sharp rise in rhinoceros poaching and a decline in the number of rhino related arrests. It is supposed, that illegal trade has become highly sophisticated (Mongabay, 2013). Many point to corruption, lack of adequate law enforcement, and light penalties for poachers as the main reasons to exacerbating the problem (Hance, 2013). It has also been argued, that the increased killing, early this year is a response to the Environmental Minister Edna Molewa, who called for the legalization of international trade in rhinoceros horn, as measure for conservation (Mongabay, 2013).

46

Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management

Nevertheless, despite high and increasing levels of poaching, the species continued to increase in the wild, but if poaching were to continue to increase at the current rate it is estimated that deaths could begin to exceed births as early as 2015-2016 (Emslie et al., 2013).

47

Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management

III.3.3. Lists of other species (or certain populations of species) subject to CBNRM approaches Tab. 1.: Examples of applied CBNRM approaches in plant species Species Ramin (Gonystylus Spp.) African Cherry (Prunus africana) Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum Spp.) Pernambuco (Caesalpinia echinata)

p (positive); n (negative); (aspects found for both in the same paper); i (indistinct) p p/n (in total positive but improvements needed); p (corresponding authors in the same order)

Literature/Information

Internet

Abensperg-Traun, 2009

-

Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Ekane, 2006

-

p/n (improvements necessary)

CITES, 2004 Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009;

-

i

Abensperg-Traun, 2009

-

48

Community-Based-Natural-Resource-Management Tab. 2.: Examples of applied CBNRM approaches in animal species Species Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Leopard (Panthera pardus) Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) Lion (Panthera leo) Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilu) Yacare Caiman (Caiman yacare) Broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris) Argentine red tegu (Tupinambis rufescens) Gold Tegu (Tupinambis teguixin) Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) Ureal (Ovis vignei blandfordi) Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) Pacific Salmons (Oncorhynchus Spp.) Tiger (Panthera tigris)

p (positive); n (negative); (aspects found for both in the same paper); i (indistinct)

Literature/Information

Internet

p

Abensperg-Traun, 2009

-

p

Abensperg-Traun, 2009

-

p

Abensperg-Traun, 2009 Abensperg-Traun, 2009; Mathur, 2009; Baldus, 2011

-

Hance, 2013a

p

Baldus, 2011; Roque, 2008; Mathur, 2009; Sahley et al., 2007; Roe, 2008

p

Roe, 2008

-

p

Roe, 2008

-

p

Roe, 2008

-

p

Fitzgerald, 1994

-

p

Fitzgerald, 1994

-

p

-

Hance, 2012

p (little improvements needed) p; p; p; n (corresponding authors in the same order) p; n (corresponding authors in the same order)

Große et al., 2001; Shackleton, 2001 Roe et al., 2009

Jackson and Mackintosh, 2011 Hance, 2012; Hance, 2013b; Mongabay, 2013

Kellert et al., 2000; Rechlin et al., 2008

-

p/n, (dependent on the project); p

Abensperg-Traun, 2009

-

p p

-

-

49

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

Chapter IV: Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata In view of the longstanding failure of conserving A. radiata using conventional top-down management, I highly recommend a community based management as introduced above (see Chapter III.) and taken into consideration and suggested by several others before (Hudson and Horne, 2010; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Randriamahazo et al., 2007; Walker, 2011). In order to enable a legal and sustainable trade of the species and to improve the current conditions for the tortoises as well as for locals relying on trade in them the down-listing from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II is mandatory to avoid complications in receiving necessary CITES certificates. This had been suggested before by Nussbaum and Raxworthy in 2000 and also Rioux Paquette et al. 2009. Several authors advise on the high abundance of animals found in the wild, despite all reasons for concern (Hammer, 2012; Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 2000; Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). If management amendments are being introduced soon this is a significant chance to impede further population decline and avoid the predicted extinction. As seen above CITES itself promotes sustainable use of species for their protection and considers CBNRM as an option to archive this objective, even though it is argued that CBNRM is not a panacea for conservation (see: III.2.) (see also: Rowan, 2011; Roe, 2011). Obviously CBNRM did not always deliver the anticipated results (see: III.3.2.; III.3.3: Tab.1.; Tab.2.), but it should be remembered that many projects are still in their infancy and there are many other projects with an outstanding record of conservation outcome (Schally, 2011) (see also: III.3.1.; III.3.3: Tab.1.; Tab.2.), Therefore many scientists declare CBNRM as promising measure to combat poverty and biodiversity loss due to strategies for sustainable use (see above and III.) There is no universal formula for a successful CBNRM, rather every project needs its own design, most suitable for the respective needs and circumstances (Bond et al., 2006; Hughes and Flintan, 2001), wherefore the following recommendations had been worked out.

IV.1. Recommendations for implementing CBNRM in the case of Astrochelys radiata The following points shall be seen for what they are: Recommendations. All points need to be checked for scientifically and ethnological sound compatibility with the situation in reality. 50

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

Additionally it has to be mentioned that certain points are connected somehow and sometimes depend on each other. The chosen order was considered to be best comprehensible and does not necessarily value the importance of implementation. a. Awareness campaigns: Set up awareness campaigns in the area, as well as in the big cities close by, to inform people about the rapid decline of the tortoise and the possibilities if managed carefully: -posters containing information in shops/schools etc. (easy to understand) -theatre groups in public places, such as markets and in schools, to explain illegal and legal trade in comparison (Both are conceivable to be conducted by people from all in trade involved ethnic groups) b. Capacity building: Biological knowledge: -detrimental effect for the population in the course of collection of large female specimen; -inform about appropriate harvesting and storage methods to improve animal welfare Economic knowledge: -income opportunities in the course of CBNRM; -transparency in price formation for the animals (information about sale prices in consumer countries, transport costs etc., bureaucracy induced cost) (see also point: e) Legislative basis: -workshops for customs, police, monitoring staff and all other involved authorities (Capacity building could be conducted partly by Antanosy and Vezo (“non fady groups”) to compensate their loss of revenue to some degree and prevent the attempt of illegal hunting. They could alternatively be incorporated in custom services, due to their knowledge of how to recognize the tortoise)

c. Safety measures: Measures to protect against and combat poaching gangs: -Personnel- related: -allocation of one or more directly responsible contact persons from (1) the police or military and (2) from the CITES or TRAFFIC (joint program of 51

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

IUCN and WWF: the wildlife trade monitoring network) authorities and (3) delegates of the community for monitoring -in regard to police and military it makes sense to have specific people for distinct areas, to enforce administration, due to direct responsibility -In terms of materialistic measures: -transport facilities: bikes, motorbikes; trucks (for a fast escape and to raise alarms) -communication facilities: mobile phones (if applicable), (satellite-based) internet (to spread alarms and to gain and/or provide information to safeguard trade transparency)

d. Establishment of a trade quota: -set up a quota of animal allowed for trade in accordance with the CITES guidelines -in accordance with Randriamahazo et al. (2007) I recommend the number of not more than 9000 animals per year (or 0.2 % of the population), or on basis of the precautionary principle a little less (this is around 85 % less than current number of harvest) e. Price formation: eventually rate fixing: If necessary due to price dumping a fixed rate per specimen traded might be helpful; price formation then must take into account that: -taking all animals traded per year or month the price must be high enough to provide an adequate income. -low enough to (1) avoid mass migration (due to anticipated profit making) and (2) to avoid civil disturbances where people have a significant lower income and (3) to be competitive with captive breeding specimens in Europe, USA or other countries -willingness to pay may fall with the shift from Appendix I to Appendix II -the price must be too high to be attractive for the “common consumer”, otherwise the demand will ensnare people to keep on illegal trade -the sale price must co-finance the issuance of CITES export permits -and co-finance governmental support measures, e.g. monitoring staff, police and custom controls and CITES or TRAFFIC delegates to combat illegal trade (see point: c) -co-finance delegates of the community, responsible for monitoring (see point: c; j)

52

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

-introduction of marked-based instruments if necessary (imposition or removal of taxes or subsidies)

f. User rights and trade permission: -user rights and trade permissions must be (1) set out legislatively and (2) transferred to local communities in the respective areas and (3) divided amongst all communities located in the range of A. radiata

g. Conceivable compensation plan for livestock reduction: -make the reduction of a specific number of livestock a prerequisite for the issuance of trade permits: According to Ganzhorn and Walker (unpublished) the value of one tortoise is around 10 times, or more the value of one zebu (=100 goats, =1000 chicken).)

h. Safeguard responsible behavior by linking user rights to user responsibilities: -to safeguard limited hunting and transport methods health controls are useful -to safeguard a fair distribution of the trade revenues between all members of the community levies should be collected for: -common property (health and education institutions or requirements) -possible uncertainties (emergency funds), such as droughts, locust outbreaks or epizootics -protection measures (see point: c) -monitoring staff, eventually CITES or TRAFFIC delegates (see point: c) -awareness campaigns (see point a) -capacity building programs (see point b) -eventually other conservation projects in Madagascar i. Control measures: Issuance of certificates: To ensure transparency and also the shortest trade chain possible: -the provisioning of the obligatory CITES export certificates should be organized by delegates from the respective area which stay in contact with the CITES authorities or by CITES delegates itself (as supposed in point c)

53

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

-if necessary hunting permissions shall be transferred to established middlemen (the fady will hinder certain people to use their right/permission of trade): -it makes sense to establish fixed share in profits all over the range of the species for these middlemen to avoid price dumping -alternatively it is conceivable to establish a system of reciprocal dependency between locals in the respective area (Mahafaly and Antandroy) and people from other regions (“non fady groups”, predominantly Vezo and Antanosy): -locals (Mahafaly and Antandroy) sell hunting permits to Malagasy from outside regions for a pre-determined fixed payment via delegates (the higher share of revenue must be provided to the Mahafaly and Antandroy from the region, in order to avoid mass migration from other regions, (see point: e)): (1) the transferred trade permission can only be issued via Mahafaly and Antandroy delegates in accordance or collaboration with CITES (delegates) (see point. c) to secure the compliance to the quota and to determine responsibilities (2) with the transfer of a trade permission comes the obligation to prove adequate methods and health status of the tortoise to the locals again

j. Establishment of democratic structures: In order to avoid discrepancies and resentment in the communities, management structures must be set up in accordance with the majority (all adult women and men) of the respective community (small scale variations between the different communities might make sense or can be necessary in some cases (provision of flexibility for an adaptive management (Hughes and Flintan, 2001)). Democratic elections about: (1) management structures, to: -define clear penalties for violations of the applied management -decide about the issuance of emergency funds or any other expenditures -decide about positions in which delegates are required

54

Sustainable management in Astrochelys radiata

(2) one or more responsible authority to: -administrate funds -stay in contact with CITES authorities (alternatively a direct CITES delegate (see point: c) -monitor and stay in contact with TRAFFIC or other authorities (see point. c) -to be contacted in case of law violation or sighting of illegal poaching gangs, with the responsibility to contact a state’s authority (police/military) (see point c) -impose defined penalties -others - if necessary and proposed above (see above: j.(a))

k. Precautions against laundering: As the past has shown Appendix II specimen can easily become victims of laundering activities (see: II.2.2.). Therefore the above listed monitoring (see point c) and capacity building measures (see point b) are of particular importance. Further measures can be: -Microchipping of animals entering trade: due to the problems associated with marking animals under a certain size (Auliya, 2003), trade in them should be banned (the minimum size and weight to safely fit an animal with a microchip is considered to be 100 mm shell length or a weight of 500 gram (Blahak et al; TPG, 2008)). -Along with the ban the risk of confusion between the different tortoise species under a certain size, as feared by Leuteritz et al. (2005) decreases likewise

55

Discussion

Chapter V: Discussion V.1. Evaluation of conservation outcomes in contemplation of the proposed management V.1.1. Trade as influencing aspect V.1.1.1. Pet trade (compare: II.2.1.) Pet trade will generate a reasonable source of income and therefore reduce poverty for Malagasy citizen, especially for the local population in the respective regions. A study has shown, that chameleon collectors received 6.5 % of the final trade revenue when export controls were liberalized in the early 1990s (Carpenter et al. 2005, as cited in Rioux Paquette et al., 2009), instead of around 1.05 % (Carpenter and Robson, 2005) or 0.012 % in the case of Pancake Tortoises (Auliya, 2003) or around 0.08 % for tortoises in general (Bidaud and Randria 2008, as cited in Rioux Paquette et al., 2009). Due to this newly generated economic incentive locals will develop a higher willingness to preserve the species within the range of their property and will contribute to the prevention of illegal hunting, which makes illegal trade more complicated and thus less attractive for migrants. The clientele of customers will probably change. Customers and collectors lured by the status of rarity and thrill of illegality are assumed to decrease but not to impair the demand needed to keep trade active. Responsible-minded pet-keepers who eschewed to buy this species, in fear of unsustainable and illegal hunting methods are likely to compensate the other. Additionally, if price formation is well-thought-out, as proposed above (see: IV.1.e) legally acquired wild animals can compete with captive-bred specimen of Europe and USA. Guidelines for harvesting methods and transport are likely to be enforced due to obligated CITES certification and related controls (see: II.1.2 and IV.1.c;-h;-i). This will greatly benefit the well-being and health conditions of every individual traded and reduce mortality. In consideration of animals taken despite protection by the locals and decreasing demand, guidelines concerning hunting methods and transport conditions are in fact more likely to be violated. Traders will continue to ignoring them because they do not depend on the issuance of trade certificates, at least if trade procedures are confined to Madagascar. But in accordance with the aforementioned assumptions this is expected to apply for a negligible amount of animals related to the whole population.

56

Discussion

V.1.1.2. Trade for consumption (compare: II.2.1.) For the same reasons as assumed to work against illegal pet trade, locals are expected to protect the tortoises against illegal trade for consumption (see: V.1.1.1.). The price for a legally traded specimen will be much too high for the average Malagasy consumer and will lead to a significant decrease in demand (Leuteritz et al., 2005) (see also: IV.1.e). For animals taken despite protection by the locals, hunting methods and storage conditions are unlikely to improve, but as already argued above this is considered to be a comparably negligible amount of animals (see: V.1.1.1.).

V.1.1.3. Selective collection of female specimen (compare: II.3.1.) Harvesting of large females, with the highest reproductive potential will be reduced considerably due to capacity building (see: IV.1.b) and the incentive to maintain a stable population. The risk of a decreasing fitness of the currently remaining population will be eliminated.

V.1.2. Trade related aspects in contemplation of the proposed management V.1.2.1. Poverty (compare: II.3.2.) Poverty will be greatly reduced in the respective region. Applied CBNRM will moreover generate jobs in certain sectors in cities on the edge of the range of the species. For instance qualified as teaching staff for capacity building workshops for custom authorities or as in the custom service themselves (see: IV.1. a; -b).

V.1.2.2. Law enforcement (compare: II.3.3.) The local population will clamp down on illegal harvesters themselves, to maintain a stable population of the species and ensure their revenues through trade in them (see above: V.1.1.1.; V.1.1.2.). Law enforcement by state authorities is expected to strengthen as well due to the fact, that legal trade provides tax revenues to the state, which in turn raise the relative importance of the issue for the government (see: I.4.; IV.1.e). If applied as proposed above, increased monitoring of and capacity building for custom authorities and police, plus the transfer of direct responsibilities will lead to stricter law enforcement (see: IV.1.a; -b; -c). 57

Discussion

V.1.3. Non-trade related aspects with respect to the proposed management V.1.3.1. Utilization of the habitat (compare: II.4.1.) Habitat destruction accounted only as peripheral concern hitherto. Nevertheless survival of the species is only likely up to a certain degree of destruction, because it provides the basis for a stable population. The increasing human population and poverty will impact the habitat considerably and consequently accelerate the pressure on A. radiata (see: II.3.2.). An increasing human population will correspondingly increase the need of agricultural areas and charcoal production, as well as the number of livestock, accompanied with the string of events explained above. The possibility to trade A. radiata for adequate wages will curb agricultural activities and livestock farming enormously. The above proposed compensation plan for livestock reduction can act as additional incentive in this regard (see: IV.1.g). Less land conversions to agricultural areas will cause less conflict between people and the tortoises foraging in fields. Less cattle will lower the potential competition for food, means less compacted soil (effect on nesting) and less risk of juveniles to dying from trampling, if relevant. Habitat destruction for charcoal production remains a problem, because it cannot be addressed through the proposed measures. Nevertheless, the habitat will benefit greatly through the other mentioned points and therefore A. radiata will additionally function as umbrella species (Shackleton, 2001) for any species suffering from habitat degradation in the respective region (e.g. endemic mammals: Lepilemur leucopus; Galidictis grandidieri, Microcebus griseorufus or reptiles: Pyxis arachnoides (WWF, n.d.1)).

V.1.3.2. Culture (compare: II.4.2.) As noted above, the observance of the fady is slowly fading away and not likely to protect the tortoises from overexploitation in future. The explained main causes will not vanish through the implementation of CBNRM: Nothing can really change the non-existent belief in sacredness for instance and migration cannot be influenced either, but CBNRM will not derogate the fady in any way for its part. The maintenance of local management institutions, such as the fady are assumed to greatly depend on property rights (Jones et al., 2008). Thus it

58

Discussion

is very likely that CBNRM contributes at least to its maintenance, where still existent which contributes to the species conservation.

V.2. Conclusion Community-based approaches for the Southern White Rhinoceros in South Africa turned out to be incapable to clamp down on poaching satisfyingly (see: III.3.2.). Nevertheless it should be emphasized, that despite increased poaching of the Southern White Rhinoceros in South Africa the birth rates still exceed death rates. The higher density of the animals naturally favors poachers by facilitating access to them. Furthermore do the good performances of successfully implemented CBNRMs, such as illustrated for the Markhor and by the comparably higher number of positive examples found (see: III.3.1; III.3.3.: Tab.1.; Tab.2.) promise great potential for an effective adaptation of this approach also in the case of A radiata. The evaluation of all examined aspects, currently concerning the status of A. radiata, in consideration of a successful implementation of the proposed management additionally strengthen the hypothesis introduced above, that a down-listing from CITES Appendix I onto Appendix II, and the consequential opening for a controlled trade, in the context of CBNRM enables a halt of population decline and contributes considerably to the livelihoods of the respective local population. The prospect of a return to improved political and economic stability after the recently held elections can provide support for the proper implementation of the proposed management in due time (see: II.1.1.). The adaption of the proposed management is not only promoted by the current popularity of CBNRM for several scientists, committed to nature conservation (see: Chapter III and IV) but farther by philosophers and sociologists (DesJardins, 2012). The grown interest is also reflected in increasing efforts to accomplish the United Nations Millennium Development Goals 2015, and the growing interest to establish monetary values for ecosystem services, such as those deriving from A. radiata and described in the introduction (see: I.3.). The Millennium Goals are: to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (Goal 1); achieve universal primary education (Goal 2); promote gender equity and empower women (Goal 3); reduce child mortality (Goal 4); improve maternal health (Goal 5); combat HIV/AIDS,

59

Discussion

Malaria and other diseases (Goal 6); ensure environmental sustainability (Goal 7); develop global partnership for development (Goal 8) (For detailed information see: UN, 2001). An implemented CBNRM for A. radiata, as the one proposed can meet the Millennium objectives of all goals, in several ways in varying scope. A legal, sustainable trade as alternative source of income contributes to the achievement of Goal 8 and in particular to Goal 1. The quantity of trade will decrease due to the expected strong reduction of trade in terms of consumption (strong contribution to Goal 7, see below), but the value of each trade transaction will increase considerably, due to fairer conditions and far exceed current revenues of locals (Goal 1). In turn improved livelihoods will provide reliable means to finance education and health programs and/or institutions etc. (see also: III.1.; IV.1.h), contributing to the achievement of Goal 2 and in the broader sense to Goal 3, -4, -5 and -6. Additionally, the establishment of democratic structures (see: IV.1.j) promotes gender equity and empowers women (contributing as well to Goal 3). All aspects found are connected in somehow with trade in A. radiata and therefore depend on a stable population of that. The strong reduction of poaching for consumption, as already briefly denoted above will not merely provide a stable population of the tortoise but rather contribute to a greater biodiversity by functioning as umbrella species in the region (Goal 7) (see also: V.1.3.1.). In consideration of the main objective of this work, the latter mentioned point represents the greatest success to be achieved in this context. Environmental sustainability (Goal 7) further benefits from a decline in livestock due to the alternative source of income. The achievements to this goal are of particular importance because degradation or other environmental damages are a barrier for all the other UN development goals (Roe, 2008). In order to ensure a livestock reduction, the proposed “Conceivable compensation plan for livestock reduction” (the option to issue trade permits in return to curtailed number of cattle (see: IV.1.g)) can provide certainty in this case. The growing interest to translate ecosystem services into monetary values, addressed by the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity study, arose due to increasingly perceived need to accommodate the diverging economic, social and biological interests in a coherent way to protect more effectively against destruction and overexploitation (TEEB, 2010). Analyses throughout this work confirm that “the presence of A. radiata” causes the provisioning of the ecosystem services identified in the introduction (see: I.3.). The corresponding ecosystem services were not assigned to definite monetary values in the course of this work, but their identification already is a fundamental condition for the attempt to express them monetarily at 60

Discussion

all. The examination of ecosystem services, provided by A. radiata shall be seen as impulse for further research in this field. Given the theoretical character of the proposed management, one has to keep in mind that reality can turn out differently. The occurrence of unexpected events can make it impossible to implement the management approach as proposed. Further there is the risk, that critical factors, which the author is unaware about, are not included in the analysis. Nonetheless, the principal assumption is that current exploitation can hardly get worse and therefore an attempt with the proposed management approach is strongly recommended despite existing uncertainties, but after scientifically sound and ethnological decent assessment of compatibility with the situation in reality, as declared above (see: IV.1.). The CommunityBased Natural Resource Management Manual can be helpful in this regard (Bond et al., 2006). Of particular importance in this context is the elaboration of a precise quota, the licensing procedures and the examination of market-driven mechanisms influencing trade in A. radiata and potentially required fixed rates (see: IV.1.e). Further emphasis should be placed on the examination of potential loop-holes, such as described for Thailand (see: II.2.2.), as well as potential risks for other species to suffer from a legalized trade in A. radiata. The justified concern by Leuteritz et al. (2005), that the Malagasy spider and ploughshare tortoises (Pyxis arachnoides and Geochelone yniphora) will suffer due to identification difficulties in juveniles is given attention under “Precautions against laundering” (see: IV.1.k) and therefore assumed to be prevented through introduced microchip measures. Summarizing it is to note, that a lot of evidence suggests a positive confirmation of the initial question “are there possibilities to stabilize the population of A. radiata in the future?”. The supplementary question: “What kind of management could be useful in this regard and what measures could be taken to achieve this in the given situation?” has been worked out in the process of finding the answer to the previous question. As already indicated the initially proposed hypothesis is assumed to be confirmed by the positive outcomes in the evaluation of all examined aspects, currently concerning the status of A. radiata, in consideration of a successful implementation of the proposed management.

61

Discussion

V.3. Outlook Due to the more or less autonomous character of CBNRM decreasing dependency on external funds for protection measures concerning A. radiata are expected in the long term. Money and/or funds can be conserved and redistributed to provide financial support elsewhere in the country. The proposed management is further assumed to not only preserve a stable population of A. radiata itself, but to make it function as umbrella species for the whole region. The expected contribution to the preservation of the spiny forest will consequently benefit

various

species

in

the

region

(see:

V.1.3.1.;

V.2.;

WWF,

n.d.1).

62

Acknowledgements: My main thanks go to Professor Dr. Ganzhorn and his research group at the University of Hamburg, who gave me the possibility and support to work on this topic. Furthermore I want to give thanks to my friends and family, who supported me during the process of this work. Thanks everyone for standing my temper, for the delighting with joy and laughter and for your comforting words in times of low spirits! I wish to thank in particular my uncle Dirk Köhne, who saved me from several mental collapses due to technical problems! Special thanks to Ester Vogt for all the lively and encouraging discussions, Julia Friese for assisting me a whole Saturday night in the structural and formal design of the work. Also thanks to Jenni Grossmann who untangled many of my beloved nested sentences with her brilliant English skills and clear mind. I also thank LiHao Zee and Anne Hetherington who corrected my English grammar.

63

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Hiermit bestätige ich, dass die vorliegende Arbeit von mir selbständig verfasst wurde und ich keine anderen als die angegebenen Hilfsmittel – insbesondere keine im Quellenverzeichnis nicht benannten Internet–Quellen – benutzt habe und die Arbeit von mir vorher nicht einem anderen Prüfungsverfahren eingereicht wurde. Die eingereichte schriftliche Fassung entspricht der auf dem elektronischen Speichermedium. Ich bin damit einverstanden, dass die Masterarbeit veröffentlicht wird.

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