Conditional and dynamic convex risk measures

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introduce a suitably defined dynamic version of the class of entropic risk measures. ... able X, representing a final payoff, a G-measurable random variable ρ(X), ...
Conditional and dynamic convex risk measures Kai Detlefsen1 , Giacomo Scandolo2 1

Center for Applied Statistics and Economics, Humboldt Universit¨at Berlin, D-10178 Berlin - Germany (e-mail: [email protected]) 2 Department of Mathematics for Economic Decisions, Universit`a di Firenze, 50134 Firenze - Italy (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract. We extend the definition of a convex risk measure to a conditional framework where additional information is available. We characterize these risk measures through the associated acceptance sets and prove a representation result in terms of conditional expectations. A suitable regularity property of conditional risk measures is defined and discussed. Finally, we introduce the concept of a dynamic convex risk measure as a family of successive conditional convex risk measures and characterize those satisfying some natural time consistency properties. As a reference example, illustrating all the proposed developments, we introduce a suitably defined dynamic version of the class of entropic risk measures. Key words: Conditional convex risk measure, robust representation, entropic risk measures, dynamic convex risk measures, time-consistency JEL Classification: D81 MS Classification (2000): 91B16, 91B70, 91B30, 46A20 This version: February 28, 2005

1

Introduction

In a seminal paper, Artzner et al. [1] proposed four basic properties to be satisfied by every sound financial risk measure, so defining the class of coherent risk measures. Delbaen [7] proved that, under a mild continuity assumption, every coherent risk measure can be written as a worst expected loss with respect to a given set of probabilities. F¨ollmer and Schied [13] and, independently, Frittelli and Rosazza Gianin [16] introduced the broader class of convex risk measures, by dropping one of the coherency axioms, and proved an extension of the Delbaen’s representation result which allows for a penalty function defined on the set of probabilities. However, the temporal setting in these approaches is static, meaning that the risk measures do not accommodate for possible dynamic elements, such as the availability 1

of additional information, the need for a continuous risk monitoring or the occurrence of intermediate payoffs. Concerning the last issue and the related concept of risk measure for processes that we are not dealing with in this paper, we refer, among others, to Cheridito et al [4, 5] and to Frittelli and Scandolo [18]. On the contrary, in this paper we concentrate on the first two aspects, studying the concepts of conditional and dynamic risk measure. If the additional information is described by a sub σ-algebra G of the total information F, then a conditional risk measure is a map assigning to every F-measurable random variable X, representing a final payoff, a G-measurable random variable ρ(X), representing the conditional riskiness of X. For simplicity, we will deal only with bounded random variables. The class of conditional convex (or coherent) risk measures is naturally defined, through a generalization of the coherency axioms. Every conditional convex risk measure is proved to satisfy a natural regularity property which, loosely speaking, states that ρ(X) should depend only on that part of the future which is not ruled out by the additional information. We then prove that every conditional convex risk measure can be written as a conditional capital requirement with respect to some acceptance set and, under a mild continuity assumption, also as a worst conditional expected loss with respect to a given set of probabilities, maybe corrected by some random penalty function. This latter result (Theorem 3.2 below) generalizes the analogous characterization theorem established, for static risk measures, in F¨ollmer and Schied [13] and Frittelli and Rosazza Gianin [16]. However, contrary to the proof in the static setting, standard convex duality cannot be directly applied, as conditional risk measures are not real functionals. We then address the second dynamic issue previously outlined: the continuous assessment in the time interval [0, T ] of the riskiness of a final payoff X occurring in T . If F = (Ft )t∈[0,T ] is the filtration of σ-algebras describing how the total information F = FT is disclosed through time, then it is natural to define a dynamic (convex/coherent) risk measure as a family (ρt )t∈[0,T ] of conditional (convex/coherent) risk measures. Plainly, ρt is a conditional risk measure with respect to G = Ft and represents the risk assessment performed at date t. Risk measurements of the same payoff at different dates should be related in some way; therefore we introduce three properties of time-consistency relating different components of a dynamic risk measure. Assuming that all the components of a dynamic convex risk measure are representable in terms of conditional expectations, we give some necessary and sufficient conditions on the family of random penalty functions for the time-consistency properties to be satisfied. As an important set of examples, we define the class of conditional entropic risk measures, which naturally generalize the entropic risk measures defined by F¨ollmer and Schied [14] in the static setting. Static entropic risk measures are proved to admit a dual representation where the penalty function is, up to a constant, the relative entropy with respect to a given probability. We extend this result to the conditional setting, where a conditional version of the relative entropy is introduced. Finally, we prove that a dynamic entropic risk measure, that is a dynamic risk measure whose components are entropic, satisfies all properties of time-consistency, under a suitable assumption. Many of the concepts and results that we have outlined are not completely new. Indeed, the notion of dynamic risk measure as a collection of conditional risk measures has been introduced by Wang [26] and further elaborated on within different formal approaches by

2

Artzner et al. [2], Riedel [22], Weber [27], Engwerda et al. [10], Scandolo [24], Frittelli and Rosazza Gianin [17] and Cheridito et al. [6]. Most of these papers deal (also) with dynamic risk measures for discrete-time processes rather than simply for random variables as we do. In particular, the issue of representability as worst conditional expected loss of a dynamic risk measure for processes is addressed, under two different notions of translation invariance, in [24] and [6]. In the references [26, 22, 10] only finite probability spaces are considered, while we deal with general spaces. Properties of time-consistency similar to those we are introducing have already appeared in multi-period utility theory (see Koopmans [19] and, more recently, Epstein and Schneider [11]). The issue of time-consistency is also addressed in most of the above cited papers, in particular in [2] where the concept of a rectangular or m-stable set of probabilities is proved to be crucial (see also Delbaen [8]). However, these earlier results on time-consistency apply to dynamic coherent risk measures only, while we deal with more general dynamic convex risk measures. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we introduce the set-up and define conditional convex/coherent risk measures, discussing, in particular, the property of regularity. Next we show that every conditional convex risk measure can be interpreted as a conditional capital requirement. Section 3 contains the characterization result in terms of conditional expectations and some minor results about the random penalty functions. In Section 4 we define the conditional entropic risk measures, providing an explicit dual representation for them. In Section 5 we introduce dynamic convex/coherent risk measures and discuss three natural time-consistency properties. The Appendix provides some reference results about essential suprema (infima) of a set of random variables.

2 2.1

Conditional convex risk measures Set-up and definitions

We denote with L0 , resp. L∞ , the space of random variables, resp. bounded random variables, defined on some fixed probability space (Ω, F, P ). A good feature of these spaces is their invariance with respect to the probability measure, provided it is chosen in the equivalence class of P . Let G ⊆ F be a sub σ-algebra and define the two subspaces L0G , {X ∈ L0 | X is G-measurable}, ∞ 0 L∞ G , L ∩ LG .

Moreover, we define the following two sets of probability measures: P , {Q is a probability measure on (Ω, F) | Q  P on F} PG , {Q ∈ P | Q ≡ P on G}. The probability measures in P can be interpreted as probabilistic models. An element X ∈ L∞ describes a random net payoff to be delivered to an agent at a fixed future date or the market value of a portfolio at that date. The σ-algebra G collects the information available to the agent who is assessing the riskiness of the payoff X. As a consequence the risk measurement of X leads to a random variable ρ(X) which is measurable with respect to G, i.e. an element of the space L0G . 3

Definition 2.1 A conditional risk measure is a map ρ : L∞ → L0G . Plainly, we interpret ρ(X)(ω) as the degree of riskiness of X when the state ω prevails. Remark 2.2 The σ-algebra G can be interpreted in different ways. It can model additional information available at date t = 0 to the agent. Alternatively, it can be interpreted as the information available at a future date t > 0, resulting from the observation of some variables related to the payoff X in the time interval [0, t]. In both cases, the sources of information can be public, i.e. shared by all agents, or private. Hence, conditional risk measures open a way to the analysis of the consequences of asymmetric information for risk measurement. Consider now the following three properties that can be satisfied by a conditional risk measure ρ : L∞ → L0G . Throughout the paper, all (in-)equalities between random variables are intended to hold P -a.s. • Conditional translation invariance For any X ∈ L∞ and Z ∈ L∞ G : ρ(X + Z) = ρ(X) − Z. • Monotonicity. For any X, Y ∈ L∞ : X ≤ Y ⇒ ρ(X) ≥ ρ(Y ). • Conditional convexity. For any X, Y ∈ L∞ and Λ ∈ L0G with 0 ≤ Λ ≤ 1: ρ(ΛX + (1 − Λ)Y ) ≤ Λρ(X) + (1 − Λ)ρ(Y ). Definition 2.3 A conditional risk measure ρ : L∞ → L0G is said to be a conditional convex risk measure if it satisfies the three properties above and ρ(0) = 0. Remark 2.4 Some basic economic considerations suggest to assume that ρ(0) is a constant random variable. The choice ρ(0) = 0 has no particular economic relevance, but it allows some formal simplification. However, from the mathematical viewpoint, the assumption ρ(0) ∈ L∞ G would be sufficient to ensure the validity of most of the following results, provided the obvious formal changes are made. Remark 2.5 The values of a conditional convex risk measure are always bounded so that in the above definition we can write ρ : L∞ → L∞ G without loss of generality. Indeed, if ∞ X ∈ L , then −||X||∞ ≤ X ≤ ||X||∞ , which yields −∞ < −||X||∞ = ρ(||X||∞ ) ≤ ρ(X) ≤ ρ(−||X||∞ ) = ||X||∞ < +∞ and as a consequence ρ(X) ∈ L∞ G . If we have no initial information, i.e. if G is the trivial σ-algebra, then the definition of a conditional convex risk measure coincides with that of a (static) convex risk measure as given by F¨ollmer and Schied [13]. The economic rationale behind the properties characterizing conditional convex risk measures is the same as in the static case (see F¨ollmer and Schied [15], for instance). In particular, conditional translation invariance provides the interpretation of a conditional risk measure as a conditional capital requirement as we will see in the following. Note that if ρ is a conditional convex risk measure, then ρ(X) = −X for any X ∈ L∞ G . Consider the following additional property for a conditional risk measure. 4

• Conditional positive homogeneity. For any X ∈ L∞ and Λ ∈ L∞ G with Λ ≥ 0: ρ(ΛX) = Λρ(X). Definition 2.6 A conditional convex risk measure which is also conditional positively homogenous is called a conditional coherent risk measure. Remark 2.7 Rosazza Gianin [23] states some sufficient conditions for a g-expectation to be a conditional convex or coherent risk measure. See also Peng [21].

2.2

The regularity property

In a sense, the additional information available to the agent has to be fully used when assessing the riskiness of a payoff X. This means, in particular, that if we know that an event A ∈ G is prevailing, then the riskiness of X should depend only on what is really possible to happen, i.e. on the restriction of X to A. This simple requirement is captured by the following property. Definition 2.8 A conditional risk measure ρ : L∞ → L0G is said to be regular if for every A ∈ G and X, Y ∈ L∞ XIA = Y IA =⇒ ρ(X)IA = ρ(Y )IA Some equivalent definitions of regularity are stated in the next proposition. Proposition 2.9 The following are equivalent for a conditional risk measure ρ satisfying ρ(0) = 0: a. ρ is regular; b. ρ(XIA ) = ρ(X)IA for every A ∈ G and X ∈ L∞ ; c. ρ(XIA + Y IAc ) = ρ(X)IA + ρ(Y )IAc for every A ∈ G and X, Y ∈ L∞ ; PN P ∞ and N ≥ 1. d. ρ( N n=1 Xn IAn ) = n=1 ρ(Xn )IAn for pairwise disjoint An ∈ G, Xn ∈ L Proof. a.=⇒ b. Since XIA = (XIA )IA and 0IAc = (XIA )IAc , by regularity we have ρ(X)IA = ρ(XIA )IA and 0 = ρ(0)IAc = ρ(XIA )IAc . Summing up we obtain ρ(XIA ) = ρ(XIA )IA + ρ(XIA )IAc = ρ(X)IA . b. =⇒ c. We have ρ(XIA + Y IAc ) = ρ(XIA + Y IAc )IA + ρ(XIA + Y IAc )IAc = ρ((XIA + Y IAc )IA ) + ρ((XIA + Y IAc )IAc ) = ρ(XIA ) + ρ(Y IAc ) = ρ(X)IA + ρ(Y )IAc . c. =⇒ d. The proof is an induction on N . When N = 1 just take Y = 0 in c. Suppose by +1 induction that c. holds for every index less or equal to N . If (An )N n=1 is a family of pairwise 5

disjoint events in G, define B , ∪N n=1 An ∈ G. Using c. we obtain N +1 X

ρ(

Xn IAn ) = ρ(

n=1

N X

n=1 N X

= ρ(

Xn IAn IB + XN +1 IAN +1 IB c ) Xn IAn )IB + ρ(XN +1 IAN +1 )IB c

n=1

=

N X

ρ(Xn )IAn + ρ(XN +1 )IAN +1 .

n=1

d. =⇒ a. First note that b. easily follows from d. If XIA = Y IA then b. ρ(X)IA = ρ(XIA ) = ρ(Y IA ) = ρ(Y )IA and therefore ρ is regular.

implies 

Remark 2.10 The property of regularity has been already introduced by Peng [21] in the context of non-linear evaluations in a form similar to b. in the Proposition above. It appears, in this form, also in Frittelli and Rosazza Gianin [17] and Cheridito et al. [6]. In the unconditional case, i.e. when G is trivial, any risk measure ρ : L∞ → L0G = R is plainly regular. If G is not trivial, this is no more true: take ρ(X) , −EP X ∈ R ⊂ L0G , for instance. Proposition 2.11 If a conditional risk measure is conditionally convex and ρ(0) = 0 then it is regular. Proof. We prove that ρ(IA X) = IA ρ(X) for any A ∈ G and any X ∈ L∞ . Regularity then follows from Proposition 2.9. Since IA ∈ L0G , 0 ≤ IA ≤ 1 and IAc = 1 − IA , conditional convexity of ρ and ρ(0) = 0 yield ρ(IA X) = ρ(IA X + IAc · 0) ≤ IA ρ(X) + IAc ρ(0) = IA ρ(X). In particular, taking Ac ∈ G instead of A and IA X instead of X in the previous inequality we obtain 0 = ρ(0) = ρ(IAc IA X) ≤ IAc ρ(IA X). Concerning the inequality IA ρ(X) ≤ ρ(IA X), by conditional convexity we have: ρ(X) = ρ(IA (IA X) + IAc (IAc X)) ≤ IA ρ(IA X) + IAc ρ(IAc X). It then follows that IA ρ(X) ≤ IA ρ(IA X) ≤ IA ρ(IA X) + IAc ρ(IA X) = ρ(IA X) and we conclude.



It immediately follows that: Corollary 2.12 Every conditional convex risk measure is regular. Remark 2.13 Regularity of a conditional risk measure implies in particular the following natural property: if a final payoff X is constant on an event A ∈ G, that is XIA = γIA 6

P -a.s. for a constant γ ∈ R, then ρ(X) should be constant as well on that event. Indeed, if XIA = γIA P -a.s. for γ ∈ R and A ∈ G, then according to Proposition 2.9 regularity implies: ρ(X)IA = ρ(XIA ) = ρ(γIA ) = ρ(γ)IA = −γIA , so that ρ is constant on A as well.

2.3

Conditional capital requirements

If A ⊂ L∞ , then the map: ρA (X) , ess.inf {Y ∈ L∞ G | X + Y ∈ A},

(1)

provided it is finite valued, is called the conditional capital requirement associated to the acceptance set A. The chosen terminology clearly suggests the operative meaning of this construction, as in the static case. It is easy to show that a conditional risk measure ρ is conditionally translation invariant if and only if ρ ≡ ρA for some A ⊂ L∞ . If this is the case, then a possible choice is A = Aρ , {X ∈ L∞ | ρ(X) ≤ 0}. We refer to the Appendix for the definition and some properties of the essential infimum of a set of random variables. Proposition 2.14 If ρ is a conditional convex risk measure, then A = Aρ is: 1. conditionally convex, i.e. Λ ∈ L0G , 0 ≤ Λ ≤ 1, X, X 0 ∈ A ⇒ ΛX + (1 − Λ)X 0 ∈ A, 2. solid, i.e. X ≥ Y ∈ A ⇒ X ∈ A, 3. such that ess.inf {X ∈ L∞ G | X ∈ A} = 0 and 0 ∈ A. Conversely, if A ⊂ L∞ satisfies 1. to 3. then ρA is a conditional convex risk measure. Proof. Let ρ be a conditional convex risk measure. Then Aρ satisfies 1., resp. 2., as ρ is conditionally convex, resp. monotone. It satisfies 3. since ess.inf {X ∈ L∞ G | X ∈ A} = ∞ ρA (0) = 0. Conversely, if A ⊂ L satisfy 1. to 3., then plainly ρA satisfies conditional translation invariance and monotonicity and ρA (0) = 0; therefore it is finite valued and in particular takes values in L∞ G (see Remark 2.5). It remains to show that ρA is conditionally 0 convex. Suppose that X, X ∈ L∞ and Λ ∈ L0G , 0 ≤ Λ ≤ 1. Since A is conditionally convex, 0 0 0 0 if Y, Y 0 ∈ L∞ G are such that X + Y, X + Y ∈ A, then ΛX + (1 − Λ)X + ΛY + (1 − Λ)Y ∈ A. Therefore we have: ρA (ΛX + (1 − Λ)X 0 ) = 0 = ess.inf {Y ∈ L∞ G | Y + ΛX + (1 − Λ)X ∈ A} 0 0 ≤ ess.inf {ΛZ + (1 − Λ)Z 0 | Z, Z 0 ∈ L∞ G , Z + X, Z + X ∈ A}

= Λ ess.inf {Z ∈ L∞ G | Z + X ∈ A}+ 0 0 + (1 − Λ) ess.inf {Z 0 ∈ L∞ G | Z + X ∈ A}

= ΛρA (X) + (1 − Λ)ρA (X 0 ), 7

where in the second equality we applied Lemma 4 in the Appendix.



Remark 2.15 With little more proof it can be proved that if ρA is a conditional coherent risk measure, then Aρ is a conditional positive cone, meaning that X ∈ Aρ and Λ ∈ L∞ G , Λ ≥ 0, imply ΛX ∈ Aρ . Conversely, if A is a conditional positive cone satisfying 1. to 3. above, then ρA is a conditional coherent risk measure.

3

A robust representation result

We remind that every (static) convex risk measure ρ : L∞ → R which is continuous in a mild sense, admits the representation: ρ(X) = sup {−EQ X − α(Q)},

X ∈ L∞ ,

Q∈P

in terms of a so called penalty function α : P → [0, +∞]; for a proof see F¨ollmer and Schied [15], for instance. We prove below that a similar characterization holds as well for conditional convex risk measures which are continuous in a sense to be specified. In this more general representation formula, the expectations are conditional on the available information G, the penalty function is random-valued and the supremum is understood in the essential sense. Moreover, in the conditional case the additional information allows to a-priori exclude some probabilistic models. In fact, we show that only the models in PG ⊆ P may enter the representation. This fact can be easily interpreted: the smaller is the information G, the larger is the subset PG of probabilistic models which can be considered in the worst case representation. Set L0G (R+ ) , {X ∈ L0 (R) | X is G-measurable, X ≥ 0}, where L0 (R) is the space of extended-valued random variables (see the Appendix). Definition 3.1 A map ρ : L∞ → L∞ G is said to be representable if ρ(X) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − α(Q)},

X ∈ L∞

(2)

Q∈PG

for a map α : PG → L0G (R+ ). In this case, α is called a (random) penalty function for ρ. It is immediate to check that the right-hand side in (2) is G-measurable and that any representable map with a penalty function α satisfying ess.inf α(Q) = 0 Q∈PG

is a conditional convex risk measure. Under a mild continuity condition the converse holds, as the following theorem shows. Theorem 3.2 Let ρ : L∞ → L∞ G be a conditional convex risk measure. Then the following are equivalent: 8

a. ρ is continuous from above, i.e. Xn & X P -a.s. implies ρ(Xn ) % ρ(X) P -a.s.; b. ρ is representable; c. ρ is representable in terms of α(Q) = α∗ (Q) , ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X)}, X∈L∞

Q ∈ PG .

Proof. c. =⇒ b. This implication follows immediately. b. =⇒ a. Suppose that ρ is representable with a penalty function α and that Xn & X P -a.s. By monotone convergence we have that −EQ (Xn | G) − α(Q) % −EQ (X | G) − α(Q) for every Q ∈ PG . Hence, the robust representation yields ρ(X) = ess.sup { lim [−EQ (Xn | G) − α(Q)]} Q∈PG

n→∞

≤ lim inf ess.sup {−EQ (Xn | G) − α(Q)} n→∞

Q∈PG

= lim inf ρ(Xn ). n→∞

On the other hand, the monotonicity of ρ implies lim inf n→∞ ρ(Xn ) ≤ ρ(X). a. =⇒ c. The inequality ρ(X) ≥ ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q)} Q∈PG

easily follows from the definition of α∗ . Indeed, for every Q ∈ PG and X ∈ L∞ it holds ρ(X) ≥ −EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q) and thus the inequality is recovered taking the supremum over all Q ∈ PG . Hence, in order to prove the representability of ρ it suffices to show that EP [ρ(X)] ≤ EP [ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q)}]. Q∈PG

To this end, consider the map ρ0 : L∞ → R defined by ρ0 (X) , EP [ρ(X)], X ∈ L∞ . It is simple to check that ρ0 is a (static) convex risk measure; furthermore, if Xn & X P -a.s., then ρ(Xn ) % ρ(X) P -a.s. and, by monotone convergence ρ0 (Xn ) = EP [ρ(Xn )] % EP [ρ(X)] = ρ0 (X), so that ρ0 is continuous from above. Hence, Theorem 4.31 in [15] implies that ρ0 has the following representation: ρ0 (X) = sup {−EQ X − α0∗ (Q)}, Q∈P

where α0∗ (Q) , sup {−EQ X − ρ0 (X)}. X∈L∞

9

We now prove that if α0∗ (Q) < +∞, then Q ∈ PG . To this end, note that if X ∈ L∞ G , then by conditional translation invariance of ρ we have ρ0 (X) = EP [ρ(X)] = −EP X. Suppose now that Q(A) 6= P (A) for some A ∈ G, then α0∗ (Q) ≥ sup{−EQ (λIA ) − ρ0 (λIA )} λ∈R

= sup{−λQ(A) + λP (A)} = +∞. λ∈R

Since EQ X = EQ [EQ (X | G)] = EP [EQ (X | G)] for every Q ∈ PG , it follows that ρ0 (X) = sup {−EP [EQ (X | G)] − α0∗ (Q)}. Q∈PG

Next we prove that EP [α∗ (Q)] = α0∗ (Q) for every Q ∈ PG . We claim that for every Q ∈ PG the set BQ , {−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X) | X ∈ L∞ } is upward directed (see the Appendix). In fact, if X, Y ∈ L∞ we can define Z , XIA + Y IAc ∈ L∞ , where A , {−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X) ≥ −EQ (Y | G) − ρ(Y )} ∈ G. Since both IA and IAc are G-measurable, 0 ≤ IA ≤ 1 and IAc = 1 − IA , the conditional convexity of ρ yields: ρ(Z) = ρ(XIA + Y IAc ) ≤ IA ρ(X) + IAc ρ(Y ). As a consequence −EQ (Z |G) − ρ(Z) = = − EQ (XIA + Y IAc | G) − ρ(XIA + Y IAc ) ≥[−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X)]IA + [−EQ (Y | G) − ρ(Y )]IAc ≥ max(−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X), −EQ (Y | G) − ρ(Y )), thanks to the definition of A, and therefore BQ is upward directed. Then it follows by Lemma A.2, for any Q ∈ PG , EP [α∗ (Q)] = EP [ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − ρ(X)}] X∈L∞

= sup {−EP EQ (X | G) − EP [ρ(X)]} X∈L∞

= sup {−EQ X − ρ0 (X)} = α0∗ (Q). X∈L∞

Finally, we obtain EP [ρ(X)] = ρ0 (X) = sup {−EP [EQ (X | G)] − EP [α∗ (Q)]} Q∈PG

≤ EP [ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q)}], Q∈PG

and the proof is complete.



Remark 3.3 Riedel [22] and Engwerda et al. [10] state some representation results, similar to our Theorem 3.2 above, which however apply only to conditional coherent risk measures when the probability space is finite. Weber [26] concentrates his attention on conditional 10

convex risk measures which are law-invariant in a natural way and provides a different type of characterization for them. A more general version of Theorem 3.2 applying to conditional convex risk measures for discrete-time processes appears, under two different generalizations of translation invariance, in Scandolo [24] and in Cheridito et al. [6]. Remark 3.4 As in the static setting, the penalty function α∗ in the preceding theorem is the minimal penalty function which may enter a robust representation for ρ, i.e. α∗ ≤ α for all penalty functions α for ρ. The following useful equality holds α∗ (Q) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | G)},

Q ∈ PG ,

X∈Aρ

as in the unconditional case. The following lemma will be useful in Section 5. Lemma 3.5 If α∗ is the minimal penalty function of a representable conditional convex risk measure ρ and H ⊆ G is a sub-σ-algebra, then EP (ρ(X) | H) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | H) − EP (α∗ (Q) | H)}, X ∈ L∞ . Q∈PG

Proof. First we prove that the set CX , {−EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q) | Q ∈ PG } is upward directed. Indeed, for any Q0 , Q00 ∈ PG define the probability measure Q on F by Q(B) , Q0 (A ∩ B) + Q00 (Ac ∩ B),

B ∈ F,

where A , {−EQ0 (X | G) − α∗ (Q0 ) ≥ −EQ00 (X | G) − α∗ (Q00 )} ∈ G. It is immediate to observe that Q ∈ PG and that EQ (X | G) = IA EQ0 (X | G) + IAc EQ00 (X | G) for any X ∈ L∞ . By applying Lemma A.3 we obtain α∗ (Q) = ess.sup {−EQ (XIA | G) − IA ρ(X)}+ X∈L∞

+ ess.sup {−EQ (XIAc | G) − IAc ρ(X)} = X∈L∞

= ess.sup {−IA EQ0 (X | G) − IA ρ(X)}+ X∈L∞

+ ess.sup {−IAc EQ00 (X | G) − IAc ρ(X)} = X∈L∞

= IA α∗ (Q0 ) + IAc α∗ (Q00 ). As a consequence −EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q) = = IA (−EQ0 (X | G) − α∗ (Q0 )) + IAc (−EQ00 (X | G) − α∗ (Q00 )) ≥ max(−EQ0 (X | G) − α∗ (Q0 ), −EQ00 (X | G) − α∗ (Q00 )), 11

by definition of A. Hence, the set CX is upward directed. Then Lemma A.2 in its conditional form yields EP (ρ(X) | H) = ess.sup {EP (−EQ (X | G) − α∗ (Q) | H)} Q∈PG

= ess.sup {−EQ (X | H) − EP (α∗ (Q) | H)}, Q∈PG

as we desired.



Remark 3.6 Note that the restriction to PG in the choice of the probabilistic models gives sense to expressions like ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) | Q ∈ Q}. Indeed, if Q ∈ PG , then L0G (P ) = L0G (Q); therefore EQ (X | G) ∈ L0G (P ) for every Q and the supremum is well-defined. In the proof of the previous theorem, we also made use of the natural equality EP [EQ (X | G)] = EP X, which holds if and only if Q ∈ PG . Moreover, it is important to observe that if Q and P are not even equivalent on G, then it may happen that EQ (X | G) ∈ / L0 (P ) and in that case the expectation of EQ (X | G) with respect to P is meaningless. As in the unconditional case, it can be easily shown that the minimal penalty function of a representable conditional coherent risk measure ρ vanishes on the convex set Q∗ , {Q ∈ PG | EQ (X | G) ≥ −ρ(X) ∀X ∈ L∞ } and elsewhere takes the value +∞. Therefore any conditional coherent risk measure which is continuous from above can be written as ρ(X) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | G)}, Q∗ ∈Q

for some Q ⊆ PG . Conversely, any map with such a representation is a conditional coherent risk measure. Example 3.7 For a parameter Λ ∈ L∞ G with 0 < Λ < 1 we consider the set of probabilistic models dQ QΛ , {Q ∈ PG | ≤ Λ−1 }. dP The corresponding conditional coherent risk measure AVaRΛ (X) , ess.sup {−EQ (X | G)},

X ∈ L∞

Q∈QΛ

is called the (conditional) Average Value at Risk at level Λ. It generalizes the unconditional risk measure AVaRλ (see F¨ollmer and Schied [15]). For an example of a conditional convex risk measure which is not coherent we refer to the entropic risk measures to be introduced in the next section. 12

4

The class of conditional entropic risk measures

In the unconditional case, the notion of entropic risk measure has been introduced in F¨ollmer and Schied [13]. In the definition of this class of risk measures, it is assumed that an agent’s preferences are represented by an expected exponential utility U (X) = EP uγ (X), where uγ (x) = 1 − exp(−γx) and γ > 0 is the risk aversion coefficient. The agent’s acceptance set is then naturally defined as Aγ , {X ∈ L∞ | EP uγ (X) ≥ EP uγ (0) = 0}, which is solid and convex; therefore ργ (X) , inf{m ∈ R | X + m ∈ Aγ } defines a convex risk measure which is called the entropic risk measure associated with the risk aversion γ. It has been proved (see [15]) that the risk measure ργ is continuous from above and that its minimal penalty function in the robust representation is α0∗ (Q) ,

1 H(Q|P ), γ

where

 H(Q|P ) , EP

dQ dQ log dP dP



is the relative entropy of Q with respect to P . Remark 4.1 If we replace in the previous construction the exponential utility with another, increasing and concave but otherwise general, utility u we obtain the larger class of utility-based convex risk measures. An interesting issue is the comparison between the initial preference structure, X  Y ⇔ EP u(X) ≥ EP u(Y ), and the derived one, X 0 Y ⇔ ρu (X) ≤ ρu (Y ), where ρu is the risk measure induced by u. In Frittelli and Scandolo [18] the entropic risk measures have been characterized as the only ones - apart from those induced by linear utilities - for which  and 0 coincide. We now pass to the conditional case in which a sub-σ-algebra G ⊆ F is fixed. We assume, as before, that the agent is characterized by the exponential utility uγ (x) = 1 − exp(−γx) for a risk aversion γ > 0. The (random) expected utility of the agent conditional on the information G is therefore Uγ (X) , EP (1 − e−γX | G) = 1 − EP (e−γX | G) ∈ L0G . Consider, as in the unconditional case, the acceptance set Aγ , {X ∈ L∞ | Uγ (X) ≥ Uγ (0) = 0} = {X ∈ L∞ | EP (e−γX | G) ≤ 1}. It satisfies the conditions in Proposition 2.14 and thus the related conditional capital requirement is a conditional convex risk measure ργ that has the explicit representation ργ (X) , ess.inf {Y ∈ L∞ G | X + Y ∈ Aγ } −γX = ess.inf {Y ∈ L∞ | G) ≤ eγY } G | EP (e

=

1 log EP (e−γX | G). γ 13

Definition 4.2 The conditional convex risk measure ργ defined above is called the conditional entropic risk measure associated with the risk aversion γ > 0. Concerning the definition of a conditional entropic risk measure see Remark 5.6 below. The name entropic derives, as in the unconditional case, from the form of the penalty function in the robust representation. Therefore, we extend the notion of relative entropy to the conditional setting. Definition 4.3 For every Q ∈ PG the conditional relative entropy of Q w.r.t. P is   dQ dQ HG (Q|P ) , EP log |G . dP dP For Q ∈ PG , we have the representation   dQ   EP dQ log | G dP dP dQ HG (Q|P ) = = EQ log |G , dP EP ( dQ dP | G) because EP ( dQ dP | G) = 1 is the density of Q w.r.t. P on G. Interpreting Q and P as regular conditional probabilities the conditional relative entropy can also be introduced pointwise as (unconditional) relative entropy. With this notion of conditional relative entropy, we can represent the minimal penalty function of entropic risk measures. Proposition 4.4 For any γ > 0, ργ is representable with minimal penalty function α∗ (Q) =

1 HG (Q|P ), γ

Q ∈ PG

Proof. Using monotone convergence it is straightforward to prove continuity from above. According to Theorem 3.2, ργ is thus representable. The form of the minimal penalty function can be derived as α∗ (Q) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − ργ (X)} X∈L∞

= ess.sup {−EQ (X | G) − X∈L∞

=

1 log EP (e−γX | G)} γ

1 ess.sup {EQ (Z | G) − log EP (eZ | G)}, Q ∈ PG . γ Z∈L∞

Finally, we conclude thanks to Lemma 4.5 below.

Lemma 4.5 For any Q ∈ PG it holds ess.sup {EQ (Z | G) − log EP (eZ | G)} = HG (Q | P ). Z∈L∞

Proof. ”≤”. For any fixed Z ∈ L∞ , the random variable ϕZ ,

eZ EP (eZ | G) 14



is strictly positive, integrable and EP ϕZ = 1, so that it is the density w.r.t. P of a probability measure P Z ∼ P . Hence, we have Q  P Z and Z − log EP (eZ | G) = log

dP Z dQ dQ = log − log dP dP dP Z

which yields EQ (Z | G) − log EP (eZ | G) = EQ (log

dQ dQ | G). | G) − EQ (log dP dP Z

Since P Z ∈ PG , applying Jensen’s inequality to the convex function g defined by g(x) = x log x for x > 0 and g(0) = 0 we obtain EQ (log

dQ dQ dQ | G) = EP Z (g( Z ) | G) ≥ g(EP Z ( Z | G)) = g(1) = 0. Z dP dP dP

We then conclude EQ (Z | G) − log EP (eZ | G) = HG (Q | P ) − EQ (log

dQ | G) ≤ HG (Q | P ). dP Z

”≥”. Set ϕ , dQ/dP and define the sequence of bounded random variables Zn , (−n) ∨ log ϕ ∧ n. By considering the conditional expectation EP (eZn | G) separately on the sets {ϕ ≥ 1} and {ϕ < 1} we find that EP (eZn | G) → EP (elog ϕ | G) = 1. Moreover, Fatou’s lemma yields lim inf EQ (Zn | G) = lim inf EP (ϕZn | G) ≥ EP (ϕ log ϕ | G) = HG (Q | P ). n→∞

n→∞

It then follows ess.sup {EQ (Z | G) − log EP (eZ | G)} ≥ Z∈L∞

≥ lim inf {EQ (Zn | G) − log EP (eZn | G)} n→∞

= lim inf {EQ (Zn | G)} ≥ n→∞

≥ HG (Q | P ) and we conclude.



Remark 4.6 It is possible to consider random risk aversion coefficients Γ ∈ L∞ G , Γ > 0 and random utility functions uΓ (x, ω) = 1 − exp(−Γ(ω)x). This generalization could be employed to model the preferences of an agent whose utility is exponential, but whose risk aversion depends on the additional information G. It is straightforward to see that Proposition 4.4 holds true also in this case under the assumption Γ−1 ∈ L∞ G . 15

5

Dynamic convex risk measures

In this section we investigate conditional risk measures in a dynamic framework where successive measurements are performed. Consider a finite set of dates 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tN = T when the riskiness of a final payoff at time T is assessed. We introduce a filtration (Fn )N n=0 where Fn models the information available at time tn . Moreover, we assume that F0 is trivial ∞ and that FN = F. Set L0n , L0 (Fn ) and L∞ n , L (Fn ) for any 0 ≤ n ≤ N . ∞ → L0 is a Definition 5.1 A dynamic risk measure is a family (ρn )N n n=0 where every ρn : L conditional risk measure. It is a dynamic convex (coherent) risk measure if all components ρn are conditional convex (coherent) risk measures.

Remark 5.2 Similar general definitions of dynamic (maybe convex or coherent) risk measures appear in [26], [22], [27], [10], [17] and [6]. A dynamic convex risk measure maps a random variable X ∈ L∞ into the adapted process (ρn (X))N n=0 and can be seen as the result of a risk assessment of a final payoff through time. Definition 5.1 is quite general: in fact it can be completed by some properties linking different components of a dynamic risk measure. • Time consistency. For any X, Y ∈ L∞ and 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1 it holds ρn+1 (X) = ρn+1 (Y ) =⇒ ρn (X) = ρn (Y ) • Recursiveness. For any X ∈ L∞ and 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1 it holds ρn (X) = ρn (−ρn+1 (X)). • Supermartingale. For any X ∈ L∞ and 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1 it holds ρn (X) ≥ EP (ρn+1 (X) | Fn ). The financial meaning of time consistency is based on a general intuition: if two payoffs will have tomorrow the same riskiness in every state of nature, then the same conclusion should be drawn today. The case for recursiveness, on the contrary, strongly relies on the validity of conditional translation invariance for the components ρn and hence on their interpretation as conditional capital requirements. In fact, if ρn+1 (X) is the conditional capital requirement that has to be set aside at date tn+1 in view of the final payoff X, then the risky position is equivalently described, at date tn , by the payoff −ρn+1 (X) occurring in tn+1 . Finally, the supermartingale property can be interpreted as follows: as time evolves, the information about the payoff X increases. This should lower the perceived riskiness - not almost surely, but in (conditional) mean. Proposition 5.3 For a dynamic convex risk measure, time-consistency and recursiveness are equivalent. Proof. Assume that (ρn )N n=0 is time consistent and fix n; by translation invariance of ρn+1 we have ρn+1 (−ρn+1 (X)) = ρn+1 (X), so that ρn (−ρn+1 (X)) = ρn (X). The converse implication is trivial. 

16

Remark 5.4 Properties very similar to our recursiveness have been defined in the context of multi-period utility by Koopmans [19] and in the theory of non-linear evaluations by Peng [21]. In the context of risk measures, properties of temporal consistency type have been introduced and discussed, with little general agreement on the terminology and the exact definitions, in [26], [2], [22], [27], [17] and [6]. Remark 5.5 Arztner et al. [2] show in a two period example that the dynamic convex risk measure whose general component is a conditional Average Value at Risk with a fixed parameter is not time consistent. An example for a dynamic convex risk measure that shares all three above mentioned properties is given by the dynamic entropic risk measures whose general components are, by definition, 1 ρn (X) , log EP (e−γX | Fn ), X ∈ L∞ γ with a fixed risk aversion γ > 0. Remark 5.6 Dynamic entropic risk measures are studied by Barrieu and El Karoui [3] who stress their representation as solutions of a suitable BSDE, under the assumption of Brownian filtration. Mania and Schweizer [20] introduce an underlying incomplete market and study the dynamics of exponential utility indifferent prices, a notion which is strictly related to dynamic entropic risk measures. Proposition 5.7 Every dynamic entropic risk measure is time consistent and satisfies the supermartingale property. Proof. For any n and X ∈ L∞ we have 1 log EP (e−γX | Fn ) γ 1 1 = log EP (exp{−γ(− log EP (e−X | Fn+1 ))} | Fn ) γ γ

ρn (X) =

= ρn (−ρn+1 (X)). The process (ρn (X))N n=0 is a P -supermartingale since it is a concave function of the P martingale (EP (e−γX | Fn ))N  n=0 . We now assume that a dynamic convex risk measure (ρn )N n=0 is representable, meaning that every component is representable. In this case, for every n it holds ρn (X) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn ) − αn∗ (Q)},

X ∈ L∞

Q∈Pn

where Pn , {Q ∈ P | Q ≡ P on Fn } and αn∗ (Q) , ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn ) − ρn (X)}, X∈L∞

Q ∈ Pn .

Plainly, Pn+1 ⊂ Pn for all n and PN = {P }. Our aim is now to relate the dynamic properties ∗ N of the family (ρn )N n=0 to some properties of the family of minimal penalty functions (αn )n=0 . We begin with a sufficient condition for the supermartingale property. 17

∗ Proposition 5.8 If EP (αn∗ (Q) | Fn−1 ) ≥ αn−1 (Q) for any Q ∈ Pn , then the process N ∞ (ρn (X))n=0 is a P -supermartingale for any X ∈ L .

Proof. We have EP (ρn (X) | Fn−1 ) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn−1 ) − EP (αn∗ (Q) | Fn−1 )} Q∈Pn

∗ (Q)} = ρn−1 (X), ≤ ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn−1 ) − αn−1 Q∈Pn−1

where Lemma 3.5 has been applied in the first equality.



From now on, we assume that for any probability measure P on F and any sub-σ-algebra G ⊆ F, a regular conditional probability of P given G exists. Remind that a regular conditional probability of P given G is a map PG : Ω × F → [0, 1] such that PG (ω, ·) is a probability measure for each ω and PG (., A) is a version of EP (IA |G) for every A ∈ F. This assumption is satisfied if (Ω, F) is a Polish measurable space or, more generally, if F is countably generated (see Faden [12] for other sufficient conditions). In what follows, Pn will denote the regular conditional probability of P given Fn . Definition 5.9 If Q  P and G ⊆ F is a sub-σ-algebra, then the pasting of P and Q in G is the probability measure P QG defined, for any A ∈ F by P QG (A) , EP (QG (·, A)). It is not difficult to prove that EP QG (X|H) = EP [EQ (X|G)|H] for any X ∈ L∞ and any sub-σ-algebra H ⊆ G. Proposition 5.10 The family (ρn )N n=0 is time consistent if and only if for every n the map ∗ αn (Q) , EQ (αn+1 (P Qn+1 )|Fn ) + ess.inf {αn∗ (R) | R ≡ Q on Fn+1 },

defined on Pn , is a penalty function for ρn . Proof. For every X ∈ L∞ Lemma 3.5 yields ρn (−ρn+1 (X)) = ∗ = ess.sup {ER (ess.sup {−ES (X | Fn+1 ) − αn+1 (S)} | Fn ) − αn∗ (R)} R∈Pn

=

ess.sup R∈Pn , S∈Pn+1

=

ess.sup R∈Pn , S∈Pn+1

S∈Pn+1

∗ {−ER (ES (X | Fn+1 ) | Fn ) − αn∗ (R) − ER (αn+1 (S) | Fn )}

{−ERSn+1 (X | Fn ) − βn (R, S)},

∗ where βn (R, S) , αn∗ (R) + ER (αn+1 (S) | Fn ). Note that {RSn+1 | R ∈ Pn , S ∈ Pn+1 } = Pn . The inclusion ”⊆” is easy to see. For the converse, observe that a probability measure Q ∈ Pn can be written in the form Q = RSn+1

18

if and only if Q ≡ R on Fn+1 and Qn+1 ≡ Sn+1 (P -a.s. as probability measures): these conditions are met by taking R = Q and S = P Qn+1 . Hence ρn (−ρn+1 (X)) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn ) − αn (Q)}, Q∈Pn

where αn (Q) , ess.inf {βn (R, S) | R ∈ Pn , S ∈ Pn+1 , Q = RSn+1 } ∗ = ess.inf {αn∗ (R) + ER (αn+1 (S) | Fn ) | R ≡ Q on Fn+1 ,

S ∈ Pn+1 , Sn+1 ≡ Qn+1 } ∗ = ess.inf {αn∗ (R) + ER (αn+1 (P Qn+1 ) | Fn ) | R ≡ Q on Fn+1 }.

Finally, observe that if R ≡ Q on Fn+1 , then ER (Y |Fn ) = EQ (Y |Fn ) for any Y ∈ L∞ n+1 ; consequently ∗ αn (Q) = EQ (αn+1 (P Qn+1 ) | Fn ) + ess.inf {αn∗ (R) | R ≡ Q on Fn+1 }.

We easily conclude, observing that ρn (−ρn+1 (X)) = ρn (X) if and only if αn defined above is a penalty function for ρn .  If a dynamic coherent risk measure is representable, then for every n we have ρn (X) = ess.sup {−EQ (X | Fn )}, Q∈Q∗n

where Q∗n , {Q ∈ Pn | EQ (X | Fn ) ≥ −ρn (X) ∀X ∈ L∞ } is the set where αn∗ vanishes. Corollary 5.11 Any representable dynamic coherent risk measure: 1. satisfies the supermartingale property provided Q∗n ⊆ Q∗n−1 for any n. 2. is time consistent if and only if for any n, ρn can be represented in terms of Qn , {Q ∈ Pn | P Qn+1 ∈ Q∗n+1 and ∃Q0 ∈ Q∗n s.t. Q0 ≡ Q on Fn+1 }. Proof. This is an immediate consequence of Propositions 5.8 and 5.10.



Remark 5.12 The property expressed in the point 2. of the above corollary is an alternative form of m-stability for the sets of probabilities entering the representation. This property has been introduced, under the name of rectangularity, by Epstein and Schneider [11] in the context of multi-period utility and extensively studied by Artzner et al. [2] and Delbaen [8] in the context of risk measures, where a characterization as in Corollary 1 is derived. Similar results in finite probability spaces appear also in Wang [26], Riedel [22] and Engwerda et al. [10]. Some explicit examples of m-stable sets are presented e.g. in Cheridito et al. [6]. 19

Conclusion Under a weak technical assumption we provide a representation for a conditional convex risk measure as a worst conditional loss with respect to a set of probabilistic models and a penalty function. The main difference in comparison with the unconditional setting is provided by the random nature of these two objects. This is natural, since they describe, in some sense, the degree of trustworthiness towards different models, which depends on available information and thus may change in time. In the representation we propose, additional information is reflected both in the conditional nature of the expectations and in the random nature of the penalty function. This issue is particularly important when successive risk measurements of the same payoff are performed or, in our terminology, when a dynamic risk measure has to be constructed. In this case, a penalty process has to be chosen, describing how the degree of trustworthiness of different models evolves through time. In the last section it is shown how this choice is constrained by some basic natural consistency properties. Notwithstanding, in our opinion the class of dynamic convex or coherent risk measures is still too large from an economic viewpoint, so that other consistency properties have to be discussed even in connection with the theory of updating information. Finally, a complete economic interpretation of the penalty term still lacks, even in the classical setting. This interpretation could be related to some sort of preference structure in the dual space, that of probabilistic models. We leave this important issue to further investigation.

A

Appendix

Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space and denote by L0 (R) = L0F (R) the space of extended random variables, i.e. P -equivalence classes of F-measurable maps from Ω to R , [−∞, +∞], where the natural extension of the Borel σ-algebra is considered on R. The preorder initially defined on L0 naturally extends to this larger space; we refer to Section II.4 in [25] for other natural conventions. For any subset X ⊆ L0 (R), the family of dominating random variables D(X ) , {Z ∈ L0 (R) | Z ≥ X, ∀X ∈ X } is not empty, since it contains +∞. Theorem A.1 For any X ⊆ L0 (R) there exists a unique element X ∗ ∈ D(X ) such that X ∗ ≤ Z for any Z ∈ D(X ). If in addition X is upward directed, i.e. for any X1 , X2 ∈ X there exists X ∈ X such that X ≥ max(X1 , X2 ), then there is an increasing sequence (Xn )n∈N in X such that Xn % X ∗ P -a.s. Proof. See e.g. [15], Theorem A.32.



The random variable X ∗ characterized in the previous theorem is called the essential supremum of X in L0 (R) and denoted ess.sup X . The essential infimum is defined by ess.inf X , −ess.sup (−X ). It can be proved that if every X ∈ X is G-measurable, where G is a sub σ-algebra, then ess.sup X and ess.inf X are G-measurable as well. The definition of (conditional) expectation is naturally extended to L0 (R): see again [25] for details.

20

Lemma A.2 If X ⊆ L0 (R) is upward directed then it holds EP (ess.sup X ) = sup EP X, X∈X

provided the expectations exist (finite or not). Proof. ”≥” This relation follows from ess.sup X ≥ X for all X ∈ X . ”≤” According to Theorem A.1 there is a sequence (Xn )n∈N in X such that Xn % ess.sup X . Then EP (ess.sup X ) = EP ( lim Xn ) = lim EP (Xn ) ≤ sup EP (X), n→∞

n→∞

X∈X

thanks to the monotone convergence theorem.



The previous result holds as well if expectations are replaced by conditional expectations with respect to some sub-σ-algebra G ⊆ F and in the right hand side the essential supremum is considered. The following Lemma is stated without the standard proof. Lemma A.3 If X , X 0 ⊆ L0 (R) and Λ, Λ0 ∈ L0 , Λ, Λ0 ≥ 0 then ess.sup {ΛX + Λ0 X 0 | X ∈ X , X 0 ∈ X 0 } = Λ ess.sup X + Λ0 ess.sup X 0 , where the convention 0 · (+∞) = 0 is used. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Hans F¨ollmer, Marco Frittelli and Alexander Schied for useful discussions and an anonymous referee for valuable suggestions on the literature.

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