Consumption, anti-consumption and consumption ...

Chapter 23

Consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities: the football clubs and its fans Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro (PhD) Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) Business Research Unit (BRU/UNIDE), Portugal Ana Regina Pires University of Aveiro, Portugal Ricardo Cayolla University of Aveiro, Portugal Abstract Broadly, consumerism can be considered as a set of beliefs and values integrated, but not exclusive to the global market system, which is intended to make people believe that happiness is best achieved through possessions. In literature there are several other definitions of consumerism, consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to (i) present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. The current study also carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration of 60 minutes each. Findings revealed four main types of anticonsumption: Global impact consumers or anti-consumption society; Selective consumption or anti-loyalists market activists; Conservative or Simplifiers; and Rejection of brand hegemony. Football fans are avid consumers of many products, such as, information, knowledge, travels, tickets to matches, and diverse merchandizing from brands that sponsor the team and the club. Nevertheless, they are also selective consumers, rejecting everything connected to the rival clubs. Finally, the chapter provides insights for further research and managerial implications. In this vein, this chapter contributes to the existing literature giving insights for a better understanding of football clubs and fans as consumers and anti-consumers.

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INTRODUCTION According to the Oxford English Dictionary, postmodernism is a philosophical movement, largely a reaction against the philosophical assumptions and values of the modern period of the Western (specifically European) from the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries to the mid-20th century. Indeed, many of the ideas characteristically associated with postmodernism can fairly be described as the straightforward denial of the general philosophical viewpoints of modernism. The term postmodernism may have different perspectives (Borgmann, 1992; Rosenau, 1992); some have been linked to the loss of a sense of historical past or the replacement of reality by images, simulations, and even unchained signifiers (Featherstone, 1991, p. 11). Howsoever, postmodernism exercises its influence on consumption. As Firat and Dholakia (1982) noted, the postmodern consumer is the consumer and the consumed. The postmodern consumer is involved in consumption experiences (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Holbrook, 1987; Schmitt, 1999), materialism (e.g., Belk & Pollay, 1985), meanings of possessions (Belk, 1988; Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988), semiotics (McCracken, 1988; Mick, 1988; Sherry, 1989), and consumption patterns (e.g., Firat & Dholakia, 1982). Consumers seek to self and social express themselves through the products they buy; they do not hesitate to demonstrate feelings through products and brands (such as love and hate) (Batra et al., 2012); and consumer self-image is dependent on the symbolic meanings attached to products and the relationships established through them. Thereby, postmodern consumers have a large number of possibilities to choose from even in a simple everyday purchase. This selection process influences the identity and consumption becomes a ‘looming threat of personal meaningless’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 201). In this vein, the postmodern era becomes the tipping point for a new and more diverse vision of consumerism. So, consumption versus anti-consumption or alternative consumptions arises as a discussion topic, which will be addressed throughout this chapter. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is threefold: (i) to present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search for information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) to formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) to discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. Football consumption is a field which has not yet been extensively explored within the context of consumerism. However, given football’s worldwide importance in economic terms (Szymanski, 2003), popularity (Nicolau, 2011), and the existence of committed consumers (fans), it becomes relevant to explore consumption and anti-consumerism in this context. The remainder of this chapter is organised as follows. First, a systematic literature review on consumerism and consumption is presented. This is followed by the theoretical arguments about consumption and anti-consumption concepts, typology of anti-consumption, anti-consumption movements, a framework showing consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations, and a discussion on consumption and anticonsumerism in football (soccer) context. In order to better understand the consumption football phenomenon, this study carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration of 60 minutes. Finally, the chapter provides a set of future research directions and conclusions and managerial implications. 510

SYSTEMATIC

LITERATURE

REVIEW

ON

CONSUMERISM

AND

CONSUMPTION The search strategy of the present systematic review was implemented by using an automated search. The aim of this procedure is to collect information and increase the knowledge about consumerism and consumption. We intend to identify, document and conceptualize the key ideas of these concepts. In the context of the present systematic literature review, the following English search terms were used in the B-On System, containing electronic databases, such as Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI Web of Knowledge, which were used to search for information. The main search terms were “consumerism” and “consumption”. The variety of search terms used enhanced the possibility to include as much as possible relevant literature. Therefore, the preference for the search terms mentioned above emanates from the fact that they are sensitive for the present research topic. Here upon, this reduced the possibility of missing research papers that could be relevant to the present study. Moreover, the selection process for the identification and inclusion of the relevant research papers included the following three steps: •

A broad screen of the titles of the citations retrieved from the literature search and extraction of the studies irrelevant to the present study.

•

A broad screen of the abstracts of the citations passed from stage one and selection of the most relevant to the present research topic.

•

A strict screen of the remaining studies that passed the previous two stages and selection of the most appropriate and relevant ones to the present research topic.

Specification And Justification Of The Time Frame To Be Examined By The Systematic Literature Review Due to the fact that one of the objectives of this study is to identify and document all of the recent research about consumerism, we applied the last five years filter, i.e., we included the period ranging from 2009 to 2013 in our research. Ancillary Procedures During Search The references of all articles that fulfilled the selection criteria were screened to identify other articles within the review period that are relevant to the research question. The Aggregate Outcome Of The Search Strategy The sum of the results retrieved from the literature search is shown in Erro! A origem da referência não foi encontrada. as a flow diagram. Selection Criteria The selection criteria of the remaining 30 articles from the screening process are analysed below: 511

• Time frame - As already mentioned, the time period for the investigation of the existing literature was set from 2009 to 2013 in order to identify and document all the recent literature about the main theme. • Study topic and study type - Included only research papers, in English, which meet the aim of this study. Thus, studies that were irrelevant to the research propose were excluded from the final selection. Aiming to include only research papers on the bestquality evidence, this study excluded any literature that was not classified as primary. • Methodology adopted - As mentioned in the previous section, research papers that adopted both the qualitative and quantitative methodology approach were included for two reasons: to limit the possibility of excluding significant and highly relevant studies, and to maximize the possibility of finding and documenting the most recent literature on consumerism.

Consumption

Consumerism

1254555 articles retrieved

27037 articles retrieved

Using Filter parameters such as: - Time: Last 5 years; - Language: English

428854 articles identified


Using Filter parameters such as: Key-words; Articles from peer reviewed journals; - Articles with full text available.

510 abstracts selected

21 articles selected

Abstract Reading

Quality assessment process and Full Text Reading



125 abstracts selected

9 articles selected

Figure 1. Selection Process

Quality Assessment A quality checklist was developed in order to assess the quality of the selected studies, which includes four basic components: Validity, Reliability, Credibility and Integrity, each one graded with three marks. An explanation of these elements of quality measurement is provided below: 512

• Validity refers to how successful and accurate the study measurement is in relation to its research question. In other words, it concentrates on the study's successfulness when measuring what the researcher intents to investigate and measure (Caldwell et al., 2010). • Reliability refers to the consistency and the degree of replication of the results and how generalisable they are (Caldwell et al., 2010). • Credibility reflects the researchers appropriate academic qualifications in order to be able to undertake the research project along with the writing style of the paper (Caldwell et al., 2010). In addition, this study measures the credibility of the research papers according to the ranking of the journal in which they were published. The selected studies will pass the quality assessment only if they were published in journals that are included in the Harzing quality list of journals. The reason for selecting the Harzing quality list of journals rests on the fact that is based on the analysis and ranking of 19 business and management official journal rankings (Mingers and Harzing, 2007). By applying the Harzing quality list of journals as a credibility measure, the quality of this paper will be increased because it will include studies published in the best journals worldwide. • Integrity is translated on how robust the research study is and if there is a strict adoption of the chosen research process. It can be measured by evaluating if the methodology adopted by the researcher of the study is identified and justified (Caldwell et al., 2010).

Data Extraction In this systematic review, a developed data extraction form was used in order to extract the data from the selected studies and to document the data extraction process. Regarding the elements that have been extracted, we present a table providing a visualization of the general publications scenario about the developed theme. This process is done through a data extraction form that reduces human error and documented this process (Magarey, 2001; Tranfield et al., 2003; White & Schmidt, 2005). Table 1 shows the developed data extraction form along with the data extracted from each of the selected studies

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Authors

Journal

Key Concept

Key Results

Kozlowski, Bardecki, and Searcy (2012)

Journal of Corporate Citizenship

Fashion Industry; Apparel; Environmental impacts; Lifecycle assessment; Stakeholder analysis; Corporate social responsibility; Supply chain management

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a standard tool used to investigate the environmental impacts of all stages of a product’s life. An LCA provides a systematic means of identifying impacts of each stage and can lead one to an understanding of the appropriate responses. The stakeholder analysis is a systematic process of identifying individuals and groups whose interests should be taken into account when developing a policy or a program. This paper provides a conceptual and analytical framework by conflating LCA and stakeholder analysis to incorporate these considerations into the design process of fashion products, allowing for a systematic and holistic response. The paper illustrates that the identification of stakeholders and their interests, responsibilities and accountability provides a basis for the development and implementation of appropriate policies and programs.

Krishnamurthy and Kucuk (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Internet; Branding; Anticonsumption; Online consumption; Hate sites

Study 1 investigates the brand value's impact on the likelihood of the presence of anti-brand sites. Strong brands are more likely to have anti-brand sites. Study 2 is a content analysis of a representative sample of anti-brand sites that assesses the nature of the language used by such sites. Anti-brand sites use three types of language - market, ideological and transactional speech.

Sussan, Hall, and Meamber (2012)


Brand divorce; Brand relationship; Introspection meditation; Spirituality; Selftransformation

In this paper brand divorce is viewed as a benefit transformational experience from the perspective of the introspecting author. This view stands in contrast to literature which considers brand divorce, from the perspective of the firm as negative.

Wiedmann, Hennigs, Pankalla, Kassubek, and Seegebarth (2011)


Alternative fuels; Natural gas vehicles (NGV); Perceived risk; Innovation resistance

The results strongly suggested the presence of four clusters: The Status-Oriented Sceptics, The Ecology-Minded Non-Drivers, The Performance-Oriented Traditionalists, The Risk-Averse Drivers.

Cherrier (2009)


Consumer resistance; Identity; Voluntary simplicity; Culture jamming

By stressing the importance of hero resistant identities and project resistant identities, this article offers the concept of identity formation as central rather than peripheral to the development of consumer resistance.

Ahuvia (2008)

Journal of Economic Psychology

Happiness; Income; Life satisfaction; Motivation; Evolutionary theory

This essay has suggested that subjective well-being is not our only goal in life, that people are overly attracted to near-term rewards, and that our actions often are driven by evolved desires that can be inconsistent with personal subjective well-being.

Mady (2011)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Alienation from the marketplace; Readiness to embrace new technologies; Consumer sentiment towards marketing

Alienation from the marketplace is found to be negatively associated with sentiment towards marketing and the drivers of technology readiness, but positively associated with the inhibitors of technology readiness. More significantly, readiness to embrace technology is found to exhibit a strong and consistent relationship with sentiment towards marketing.

Davies (2011)

New Statesman

Football tourism

One excitement at time.

PortwoodStacer (2012)

Journal of Consumer Culture

Activism; Anti-consumption; Consumption; Ethics; Identity; Politics; Subculture

Analytically, they can identify at least five motivations for anti-consumption behaviour: individuals may be motivated by personal, moral, activist, identificatory, and/or social concerns. In any given instance, multiple concerns may be at play and at different degrees of consciousness or acknowledgement on the part of the anti-consumers themselves. It is useful to tease out the various types of motivations, not only because this gives a fuller picture of why people behave the way they do, but also because this can help us to

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assess the potential effects achieved by anti-consumption practices and lifestyles. Lee, Motion, and Conroy (2009)


Brand avoidance; Anticonsumption; Undesired self; Consumer resistance; Negative symbolic consumption

This study reveals three types of brand avoidance: experiential, identity and moral brand avoidance. Experiential brand avoidance occurs because of negative first hand consumption experiences that lead to unfulfilled expectations. Identity avoidance develops when the brand image is symbolically incongruent with the individual's identity. Moral avoidance arises when the consumer's ideological beliefs clash with certain brand values or associations, particularly when the consumer is concerned about the negative impact of a brand on society.

Black and Cherrier (2010)


Iyer and Muncy (2009)


Anti-consumption; Selfactualization; Assertiveness; Self-consciousness; Global impact consumers; Simplifiers

This research presents an initial attempt to develop scales that differentiate between people who engage in general anti-consumption for societal concerns and those who do so for more personal reasons. The results were promising, as a set of “We” anti-consumption statements and a set of “I” anti-consumption statements emerged from the factor analysis.

Ozanne and Ballantine (2010)


Sharing; Anti-consumption;

The study reveals four groups – Socialites, Market Avoiders, Quiet Anti-Consumers and Passive Members. Socialites enjoy the social benefits of active participation in their library. Market Avoiders also perceive social and community benefits, are interested in sharing and are the least materialistic of the groups. Quiet Anti-Consumers feel a sense of belonging to their toy library and hold strong anti-consumption, frugality and sharing values. Passive Members are not socially involved, nor do they hold strong anticonsumption values. Thus, the authors found evidence that sharing may be one possible alternative market structure that may be adopted by anti-consumption consumers.

Moraes, Szmigin, and Carrigan (2010)

Consumptio n Markets & Culture

Anti-consumption; Consumer culture; Community; Ethnography

Reported findings are part of a three-year ethnographic research project and suggest that such communities have been overly perceived as presenting radical resistance to prevailing ideologies of consumer society. Collectively, they are more interested in entrepreneurial positive discourses, practices and choices, than in acting against consumer culture or markets. This view is buttressed by their varied production-engaged practices, which in turn are problematized in relation to (perhaps outdated) notions of consumers, producers and their interrelationships.

Sharp, Høj, and Wheeler (2010)


Proscription; anticonsumption; ban’s announcement; plastic bags;

Shoppers grouped according to their level of voluntary anti-consumption of plastic bags before the ban; the analysis finds that shoppers who voluntarily showed anti-consumption behaviour were the only group showing any voluntary shift in anti-consumption behaviours during the phasing-out period. These shoppers are supportive of forcing others to show anti-consumption, while the level of behavioural and attitudinal resistance from shoppers that showed little or no voluntary anti-consumption is low. These findings support the use of proscription to achieve anti-consumption behaviours; however, proscription does not necessarily engender full anti-consumption attitudes.

Albinsson and Yasanthi Perera (2012)


Alternative marketplaces; collaborative consumption; sharing; unconsumption; Sense of community

Their findings indicate that a sense of community is both a driver of participation and an outcome of these events. Organisers and participants utilise these venues to share knowledge and possessions for various ideological and practical reasons. Our findings also indicate that these events challenge the entrenched notions of exchange and reciprocity. Our research contributes to the literature by highlighting the importance of community, collaboration, and changing consumer mindsets to the success of such sharing efforts.

Banbury, Stinerock, and Subrahmanyan


Subjective personal introspection; Sustainable consumption; Ecology; Self-

The authors uncover several dimensions that, taken together, form a more comprehensive explanation of why individuals may or may not succeed in their effort to consume in a more sustainable way. Several of the dimensions revealed included the presence or absence of public infrastructures of one's place of residence, family composition, and the educational awareness of consumers.

Overall, we find that anti-consumption is an integral part of trying to live a more sustainable life and, in particular, the acts of rejecting, reducing and reusing consumption are key elements to sustainable consumption. Indeed, we found that green consumption, while practiced, is not an essential part of sustainable living.

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(2012)

fashioning Journal of Business Research

Social cognitive theory; Sustainable consumption; Reciprocal determinism; Sharing; Conservation

What is new in this article is the depiction of the interdependency of the three general factors – personal, environmental and behavioural – using an established theoretical framework, Bandura's social cognitive theory.

Cromie and Ewing (2009)


Anti-consumption; Brand hegemony; Open source; Brand dominance

Findings elucidate the necessary conditions for the rejection of brand hegemony to occur, revealing valuable lessons for vendors. These conditions comprise environment, positive motivation and negative motivation factors. The first two conditions are relatively constant, regardless of the vendor's actions, while the last is largely of the vendor's creation.

Peattie and Peattie (2009)


Consumption reduction; Sustainability; Social Marketing

McGinnis and Gentry (2009)


Anti-consumption; Creolization; Counterconformity; Globalization; Identification; Underdogs

Findings suggest that underdog consumers support underdogs out of empathy, as a way to ensure the maintenance of equal opportunity in competition, and as a way to provide personal inspiration. Some motives for underdog support can be interpreted to be anti-consumption (or, at least, anti-corporate) in nature. On the other hand, many underdog consumers support and identify with underdogs not necessarily as a way to keep the top dog down, but as a means to keep the little guy competing.

Wheeler (2012)

Cultural Studies

Citizen-consumers; consumer movements; fairtrade consumption; globalization; mobilization; reflexivity

The citizen-consumer has many faces depending upon the audience, from compassionate Christian/Oxfam supporter, to supermarket retailer, campaigning activist, caring government department, free-market champion and Western/middle-class supermarket shopper. This paper has shown how the Fair-trade movement can offer some consumers, retailers and organisations the opportunity to act as citizens both within the market and as political campaigners to improve the livelihoods of some producers in the developing world.

Youngberg (2009)

The Explicator

Edward Albee; Superficiality; American Dream

In our push to satisfy our own vain pleasures, in our vain attempts to “get satisfaction”, Americans just might end up spawning monsters and killing our own better selves in the process.

Varman and Belk (2009)

Journal of Consumer Research

Nationalist ideology; anticonsumption; Coca-Cola; Globalization

The research shows that the creation of national space is a reflexive local response to the historical perceptions about the displacements caused by globalization in the region. They identified the role of a nationalist ideology that, apart from the images of the economic exploitation of the local, involves invocations of tradition, patriotism, and an alternate local identity to create deeper challenges to authenticity. Their findings show that authenticity is being created around a particularized notion of nationhood. In the national space, consumers are reflexively taught to become like themselves. Temporal heterogeneity is a reflexive dimension of postcolonial anti-consumption that remains elided in extant theory.

Setmeyer (2010)

Dialog: A Journal of Theology

Consumerism, Theology of the Cross, Douglas John Hall, Stephen B. Bevans, Anthropology

Their message is anthropological and eschatological, not technical, though also practical. The message to North America, like is that there is “More!” and they will help you find it, set it free from within, and discover it in the humanity of others.

Penny (2012)

New Statesman

Capitalism; Consumerism; Teenagers; Shopping

The violence and frenzy of consumerism is terrifying – but that does not mean that shopping is inherently evil.

Hall (2011)

Geoforum

Ethics; Consumption; Ethnography; Ethical

By exploring the everyday ethics of money, waste and health choices in family consumption practices, this paper makes the case for recognising the ethical nature of everyday practices and choices of consumption. It is argued that rather than consumers subscribing

Phipps et al. (2013)

Rather than offer a contrary view, what this article proposes is a logical next step on how researchers conceive sustainable consumption and how researchers define the problems that they address.

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consumption; Family

to a given set of ethics in consumption, there are multiple ways of recognising consumption as an ethically-embedded process.

Tiwsakul and Hackley (2012)


Asian; Identity; Thai; Consumption; Cultural; Autoethnography

Their study supports the suggestion that consumption is a primary site for the negotiation of the deep identity conflicts and postmodern paradoxes generated by the Asian encounter with the West and its values. It also contributes to a more nuanced understanding of ‘Asianness’ as a complex, conflict and variable concept in Western consumer and marketing research, rather than an unproblematic unity.

Soper (2008)

Cultural Studies

Consumerism; sustainable consumption; alternative hedonism; needs and desires; aesthetics of consumption

In pressing the case for the development of a new ‘hedonist imaginary’ with which to subvert current perceptions of the attractions of a consumerist material culture, the article also considers the possible contribution of cultural and artistic activities to the formation of an anti-consumerist aesthetic.

Sklair (2010)

Theory, Culture & Society

Consumerism; globalization; iconic architecture; shopping; transnational; capitalist class

In this article the author has tried to show that most iconic architecture of the global era is also best analysed as a form of hegemonic architecture, serving the interests of the transnational capitalist class through the creation of consumerist space or, more accurately, through the attempt to turn more or less all public spaces into consumerist space.

Table 1. Data extracted from the selected files

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CONSUMPTION, CONSUMERISM AND ANTI-CONSUMPTION Based on the systematic literature review, a group of the most relevant definitions of consumerism, consumption and anti-consumption is shown in Table 2. Consumerism or better yet the culture-ideology of consumerism (Arnould & Thompson, 2005) is a set of believes and values which ensure that happiness is best achieved through consumption, possessions, materialism (Sklair, 2010). Consumers desire to find fulfilment in things, objects and God is not part of the equation (Setmeyer, 2010). For Campbell (1995, 2004) the pleasures of consumerism lie in the endless deferral of the pleasure of fulfilment (Campbell, 1995, 2004). Consumption is the use of goods and services that somehow represents the understanding of ourselves in the world (Miller, 1995). Borgmann (2000), in turn, considers consumption as an everyday process. Thus, ethical consumption emerges as a postmodern idea. Ethical consumption requires making adaptations in consumer lifestyle, aiming at reducing the negative effects on the environment, people and animals (Clark, 2006). Ethical consumption has been associated to terms such as fairtrade (e.g., Clarke et al., 2007; Dolan, 2008), local (Pratt, 2008; Seyfang, 2006), organic (Clarke et al., 2008; Dombos, 2008), sustainability (Seyfang, 2004), environmental responsibility (Hobson, 2006), and community (Thompson & CoskunerBalli, 2007). For Lee et al. (2009) anti-consumption literally means against consumption. Zavestoski (2002) considered anti-consumption, in a postmodern area, as a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption. Research in anti-consumption tends to focus on the reasons behind product/brand avoidance and sustainable lifestyles. Anti-consumption is to try to live a more sustainable life. For example, green consumers refuse to purchase products that are adverse to the environment (Moisander, 2007), ethical consumers reject products from enterprises which are not socially responsible (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006), and consumers with strong political ideology do not purchase products/brands that do not correspond to their political ideology (Sandıkcı & Ekici, 2009; Black & Cherrier, 2010). The alternative consumptions are motivated by alternative intrinsic pleasures, the alternative hedonics. For example, alternative hedonics could be the pleasure of walking and cycling instead of driving a car, to cut down on packaging and plastic, to spend time cooking rather than consuming fast food (Soper, 2008). Consumerism The culture-ideology of consumerism refers to a set of beliefs and values integral, but not exclusive, to the system of capitalist globalization, intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions (Sklair, 2010, p. 135)

Consumption Use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world. (Miller, 1995, p. 30).

It is the phenomenon produced by the misdirected desire to find fulfilment in things outside of God, particularly in the consumption of material possessions (Setmeyer, 2010, p. 306)

Consumption is an essential everyday process; ‘to live is to consume’ (Borgmann, 2000, p. 418).

Anti-consumption Anti-consumption is ‘a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally’. (it is not merely a behavioural phenomenon but also an attitudinal one) Zavestoski (2002, p. 121) in (Cherrier, 2008).

Table 2. Conceptualization of consumerism, consumption and anti-consumption

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The systematic literature review allows formulating a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (see Figure 2). The components of the framework are explained in next sub-sections. Consumer cooperatives (late 1800s to early 1900s)

Consumer information (1930s)

Mass consumption (1960s)

Green to ethical consumption (late 1980s)

Consumption Evolution

Types of anti-consumption

Motivations for anti-consumption

Personal Moral Activist Identificatory Social

Global impact consumers or anti-consumption society

Selective consumption anti-loyalists market activists

Conservative or Simplifiers Rejection of brand hegemony

Figure 2. Framework of consumption wave and anti-consumption motivations and types.

Consumption Waves and New Consumption Communities According to Lang and Gabriel (2005), Hilton (2003) and Moraes, Szmigin and Carrigan (2010), the Western consumption movements’ cycles evolved over four main waves beginning in the late 1800s, (1) consumer cooperatives (late 1800s to early 1900s), (2) consumer information (1930s), (3) mass consumption (1960s), (4) green to ethical consumption (late 1980s): (1) The consumer cooperatives wave is marked by a strong desire for social change (in this period the first consumer cooperatives were organised). (2) The consumer information wave was the “first time that consumer activism saw itself as enabling consumers to take best advantage of the market, rather than trying to undermine the market through cooperative action or political agitation” (Lang & Gabriel, 2005, p. 44). (3) The mass consumption wave accepts capitalism and the market. (4) The green to ethical consumption wave emerged because of the rapid growth in consumer organisations and coalitions and proliferation of internet access. Groups of consumers are more aware of ethical issues and their purchase process takes into consideration societal, environmental and animal welfare concerns (Harrison, Newholm, & Shaw, 2005). The green to ethical consumption wave is the birthplace of the new consumption communities, innovative, creative and collaborative through the diffusion of networking technologies. Consumption in online environments is indivisible from production. Consumers act as double agents, entrepreneurs and buyers in a market evolving into experience service. Therefore, social networking sites, websites, blogs and other online sites become the new marketplace. 519

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Motivations for Anti-consumption Portwood-Stacer (2012) considers and explains five motivations for anti-consumption behaviour, that is, (1) personal, (2) moral, (3) activist, (4) identificatory, and/or (5) social concerns: (1) Personal motivations relate to immediate personal benefit achieved through alternative consumption experiences. (2) Moral describes the practices motivated by judgments about right and wrong. (3) Activist. Activist consumers act to put pressure on a system or larger entity to alter a pattern of immoral practice. As Kozinets and Handelman (2004, p. 693) pointed out, activists “repeatedly emphasized that they were also trying to elevate consumers’ collective awareness and, through it, change consumer culture and ideology”. (4) Identificatory. Norms, rituals can establish “practices which an individual embraces, not only because such practices fulfil utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular narrative of self-identity” (Giddens, 1991, p. 81). Anti-consumers who wish to be identified as anarchists would be motivated to orient their behaviours towards those ideas and habits that are most commonly accepted by their peers (the anarchist group they belong to) and perceive themselves as authentically anarchist. (5) Social. Social anti-consumption is a means of achieving solidarity among participants in the anarchist movement. The anarchist anti-consumers reject the mainstream consumption (Veblen, 1994). Therefore, they unite around their symbolic rejection of mainstream consumption.

Typology of Anti-consumption Cromie and Ewing (2009) propose that anti-consumption emerge from at least two distinct phenomena and four distinct sub-groups. The two phenomena are: (1) the consumers who seek to reduce consumption and (2) consumers who have no such intention. The first group of consumers refers to the social movements intending to reduce society's acceptance of consumption as a way of life (Kozinets, 2004; Zavestoski, 2002) and those who are conservative and motivated by personal values. The second group does not have a direct intention to reduce consumption, but is intentionally selective in its consumption, selection of product/brand based on political, values or lifestyle conviction, or rejects brand hegemony; the people in this group tend to avoid dominant brands in the market. Iyer and Muncy (2009) suggested a similar typology of anti-consumers regarding four groups: (1) global impact consumers, interested in reducing the general level of consumption for the benefit of society; (2) simplifiers, who wish to adopt a less consumer-oriented lifestyle (Zavestoski, 2002), they believe that it is morally wrong to focus so much energy on self-serving consumption activities (Shaw & Newholm, 2002); (3) market activists are those who avoid using a product/brand because it could cause a specific societal problem; (4) anti-loyalists are consumers not committed to repurchasing a brand and avoid purchasing a product because of perceived inferiority or because of a negative experience associated with it (Lee et al., 2009).

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The first group, global impact consumers, is designated by Cromie and Ewing (2009) as the anti-consumption society. The second group, simplifiers, is similar to what Cromie and Ewing (2009) mentioned as conservative. The third group of market activists is known by Cromie and Ewing (2009) as the selective consumption. Finally, anti-loyalists are connected, in part, to selective consumption, but also to rejection of brand hegemony.

SPORTS IN POSTMODERN SOCIETY The following parts and sub-parts are devoted to the discussion of sports in postmodern society and consumption/anti-consumption of football fans. For such, in addition to the literature review, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans personalities with an average duration of 60 minutes. Some comments made by them are inserted in the text and their names showed in brackets and/or in italic. In the last two decades, professional sports have been studied from perspectives like sociology, ethnography and anthropology (Benkwitz and Molnar, 2012), public relations (Hopwood, 2007; L’Etang & Hopwood, 2008), sponsorship (Frank, 2012), cultural studies (Benkwitz & Molnar, 2012), demographic characteristics (e.g., Branvold, Pan, & Gabert, 1997), attraction motives (e.g., Snyder, Lassegard, & Ford, 1986), cognitive, affective and behavioural factors (e.g., Madrigal, 1995), even committed sport fans (e.g., Mahony, Madrigal, & Howard, 2000) and also a variety of ideological positions (e.g., Sugden & Tomlinson, 2000). Football and society are not separated by the Wall of China (Claussen, 2006, p. 587), but football seems to have been almost ignored as a consumer behaviour (consumption) topic of research, especially because it has always been seen as having characteristics that fall on the less 'respectable' and relevant set of dichotomies that assures the dominant social values (Tiesler & Coelho 2006). Football, as team sport, provides a social experience that is not easy to describe: the whole is more than the sum of its parts (Claussen 2006, p. 584) as “the individual no longer merely prefers the team, but by making it a part of the self, the team becomes an extension of the individual” (Funk & James, 2004, p. 11).

Football Fan as Consumer If consumption is an everyday essential process (Borgmann, 2000, p. 418) and consumerism is a result of human activity (Setmeyer, 2010), the football fan is a consumer. Knowing that football allows the possibility to attract to the level where the senses and emotions are well presented (Morrison & Crane, 2007), we can define consumption as the “use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world” (Miller, 1995, p. 30). Assuming consumption as a behaviour that generally provides consumers with self-satisfaction of needs and comfort (Zavestoski, 2002), then football fans are consumers. Based on the definition of consumerism by Sklair (2010, p. 136), that is, a “set of beliefs and values intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions”, it seems that this definition is silent regarding emotions. We would include the emotions here, those emotions that Bagozzi, Gopinath & Nyer (1999) refer as emotions from the events or thoughts. But even these emotions are not enough to explain the phenomenon. To be a football fan is a way of being, with repercussions at professional 521

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and family levels. According to Setmeyer (2010, p. 306), a football fan is just “more”. To be a football fan is more than a “consumption of material possessions” or the “misdirected desire to find fulfilment in things outside of God”, it is a unique experience, with rituals, a pride in the club, a lifetime experience, sometimes more important than family and work.

Consumption Society Nowadays “living and consuming are more complexly interdependent than at any other time in human history” (Mick, 2006, p. 1). Individualism and materialism have led individuals to purchase goods regardless of its usefulness. The concept of consumer society emerges, precisely, from these practices and the high degree of dependence on consumables (McCracken, 1990). We do not speak only of basic needs in order to have a better quality of life. Consumerism is to acquire something superfluous and unnecessary, sometimes persuaded by several advertising means. Consumers tend to acquire expendable goods, setting the overconsumption as a frequent practice, placing themselves in situations of high dependency and fragility (McCracken, 1990). A football fan might follow his/her team, even travel abroad. To be connected to the club is not something superfluous, it is a way of life, and it is his /her identity. We live in a time when “the industry has evolved into a complex, fragmented, global system which at its very core is based on the notion of continual consumption of the ‘new’ and the discarding of the ‘old’” (Kozlowski, Bardecki, & Searcy, 2012, p. 18). The case of football equipment, for instance, in one season there is one primary, two alternatives and even equipment for commemorative editions or special ones. The following year, everything starts again. So, consumerism also has unpleasant consequences. “Consumerism is now compromised by its specific displeasures (stress, congestion, pollution, ill-health...)” (Soper, 2008, p. 567). Nevertheless, consumers nowadays are playing a role in the consumption process (Barnett, Cloke, Clarke, & Malpass, 2005). Look at this example: “I would rather have two sandwiches for lunch and have money for football” [Sara Pereira]. Having physiological needs minimally met, who defines what is needed? Is there any of “thermometer of needs”? Some “scale of needs”? We cannot forget that the beliefs and cultural values have a clear interference in the decisions of consumers.

FOOTBALL FANS A football fan, who evolved through a process of internalisation in order to fully integrate a football team within the self and makes the team and the football club an extension of him/herself, can be regarded as having a deep passion, being in love with a football club. Strongman (1996) pointed out that love includes various emotions, some of them being positive. The following positive emotions contribute to the explanation of this very complex phenomenon: interest, joy, pleasure, happiness, euphoria, victory, own intense satisfaction, delight, and so many others. Those emotions are present in football sport. In fact, Ahuvia (1993, 2005a, 2005b), an empirical research pioneer in the field of brand love, found that many consumers do have intense emotional attachments towards some loved objects such as a brand, a product, or a service. With respect to service there is not discussion about the intellect (Heaven & Ciarrochi, 2012), for the football fan the important thing is past experiences, emotions, feelings, joy, meetings, routines, needs and even the meaning of life. Even when all needs are satisfied “individuals still experience deficiencies in their human fulfilment” (Iyer & Muncy, 2009, p. 162). See the testimony of José Pedro Ribeiro: 522

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“After an intense week at work, football is my way to get some adrenaline pumping.” But, in football not everybody can win and in the end the victory is just for one team. So, what about fans of other team, the team that loses? Why do they follow their teams? Supporters of small clubs do it not only to keep the smaller teams in the competition (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009), but also because of personal issues: "Being a fan of my club is the greatest honour of my life" [António Américo], which confirms the words of Sussan, Hall, & Meamber, (2012, p. 520): "It is equally important to report how consumers dispose of their dependence on brands which may contribute to their wellbeing". As in the school context, personality plays an important role in the way of being and experiencing the club (Heaven & Ciarrochi, 2012, p. 521). For the people we interviewed, to be committed to the club is forever. Building the self-identity through the club brand gives confidence. A self-transformation occurs with the brand always present. It is through the club brand, with the club brand. “After people, my team is the most important thing in my life” [Fernanda Rita]. Curiously, after the interview, Fernanda Rita talked about several episodes showing that she missed the birthdays of her parents because of team matches. She manages her time depending on matches, spends several hours on club blogs, and even puts her marriage at risk.

Consumer Motivations The individual motivations and values play a very important role in their consumption activities and behaviours. Campbell (2005a, p. 23) notes that “the consumer typically brings skill, knowledge, judgment and passion while being motivated by a desire for self-expression.” Hall (2011, p. 627) remembers that “our consumption may also impact our appearance and health.” It is true, but not only that: what about the confidence? The mood? The willingness to work? Ahuvia (2008, p. 497) added that “the pursuit of subjective well-being is not the ultimate end of all action, but just one possible value competing with others such as the pursuit of honour or the desire to follow cultural traditions”. “When I was a kid, if there were a match, every Sunday afternoon I was there in the stadium with my grandfather. First, we went to the same restaurant, over and over, and then to the stadium.” [Artur Sampaio] The sharing of a set of values and beliefs is a function of individual strengths, social and cultural rights, encouraging the formation of groups with similar values, and conditioning consumption. Consumption is a behaviour that generally provides consumers with satisfaction of self-needs and comfort, and assists them in constructing their self-identity (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009; Zavestoski, 2002). Consumers’ motivations emerge from a wide range of ideals including culture, socialization (Albinsson & Perera, 2012), negative market-based experiences, and political ideology (Sandıkcı & Ekici, 2009). Nowadays, where the consumer browses between goods and services, the factors 'want' and 'need' are clearly different and circumstantial (Hall, 2011, p. 631), even more so for a football fan. However, here, a ‘need’ is defined as something that cannot be compromised upon, as a necessity. On the other hand, a ‘want’ is something that is desirable but not necessarily vital or worthy of sacrifice (Miller, 1998). "I'm unemployed, I'm single, and instead of living with my mother I live in a rented room because my mom does not understand that I follow my team as I do, spending money I often do not have and we were always arguing. Thus, I ended all arguments. I live much worse materially speaking (accommodation, food, facilities), but I do what I need for my wellbeing.” [Sara Pereira]

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Self and Social Identity People use “consumption not just to be happy, but to manage their identity and social relationships” (Ahuvia, 2008, p. 504) and in the case of football, the club and the team are like an anchor that shapes the daily life of the fan (Tuominen, 2007). Being a supporter requires means to have rituals, whatever that may be: the scarf they take to the stadium, putting the right foot first when entering the stadium, the restaurant where to eat and so on. Indeed, the fans have different behaviours. Some fans prefer to stay home and watch football alone. Others prefer to go to the café with friends or go to the stadium. But a few just only want to hear the result. "My father stopped watching matches because he lost control. He was very nervous, he kicked the air, this was the degree of his involvement in the match, besides all the screaming and swearing.” [Hilary Cruz] Rituals are very important because they create the link between the self-concept and these symbolic practices (Giddens,1991), they give meaning to the fun life and have an implication on identity. Through consumption, the fan builds a strategy to defend himself/herself from the ‘looming threat of personal meaningless’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 201). This authenticity (Varman & Belk, 2009) is created around the notion of team, the values of the club. Considering our consumption behaviour, some authors do not give much credit to personal choice, but instead give importance to collective norms, practices and institutional frameworks, where people act (e.g., Shove, 2003a, 2003b; Halkier, 2010; Southerton, Chappells, & Van Vliet, 2004; Warde, 2005). Others mention the importance of being “contextually embedded” (Banbury, Stinerock, & Subrahmanyan, 2012, p. 498). Identity-making is a dialectical process, continuously negotiated between our internal voices and the external world (Tiwsakul & Hackley, 2012) where the behaviour of the team has great impact. Considering the undesired self and image congruity, fans intend to maintain their self-concepts, while simultaneously avoiding objects that could add undesired meaning to their lives, or objects they consider to be incongruent with their existing self-concept (Banister & Hogg, 2004; McCracken, 1989; Sirgy, 1982). These are the “symbolic resources for the construction of the self” (Tiwsakul & Hackley, 2012, p. 492), where even having in consideration the “memory decay” with time (Nenycz-Thiel, Beal, Ludwichowska, & Romaniuk, 2013, p. 225) the fan has multiple means to fight that. “I have a brief movie of the most important victories of my team on my cell phone and I watch it lots of times and I’m thrilled every time.” [João Soares] We may say that “most of us have many layers of identity” (Khan, 2012) but the importance of the club for the identity of the fan is huge. “My name is in the stadium as a founder and every match I go and I see it on the wall, it is an honour, an unspeakable pride” [AR]. In a world where everything moves so fast and with technologies that help to shape our way of being, act and consume, we have a “new visibility and its consequences” (Thompson, 2005, p. 32), where “these self-conscious consumers are concerned about how society views them and hence they make conscious decisions to do the right things by engaging in behaviour that is very visible to the outside world” (Iyer & Muncy, 2009, p. 166).

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Lifestyle A lifestyle can be defined as “a more or less integrated set of practices which an individual embraces, not only because such practices fulfil utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular narrative of self-identity” (Giddens, 1991, p. 81). In this journey of identity, the individual focuses on “positive ways of living,” even the underdog (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009). To be a fan it is not simply to look for a positive way of living, it is a necessity, a recharging of energy, or a social life. “I have to, I need to see my team play.” [Nicolau Oliveira] The fan does not live in a bubble isolated and, therefore, the behaviour of each fan can be adjusted due to the constant exchange of information (internal and external) (Bandura, 1986). “It took me another year to finish my degree. This was not well understood by my parents, who have made sacrifices for me to be able to study away from home, with increased expenditure. This happened because I always followed my team, so I had to work in order to get money to be able to do this without overburdening my parents. Clearly, the studies were affected.” [David Arnês]

Sharing Football clubs are part of a brand community. Brand community is defined as “a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relationships among admirers of a brand” (Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001, p. 412). A fan should be engaged in a group, to feel part of a whole where the emotional component is so important (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012). However, if brand communities are described in the literature as “communities of consumption” (Cromie & Ewing, 2009, p. 219), then the football fans group is not a classic brand community. Although the first three traits that characterise brand communities a) consumption and co-creation b) connection to the brand, c) interrelationship brand-community can occur in football fans communities, the fourth trait d) the brand and the product, is not under anyone’s control, it rather results from a complex set of factors, unstable and highly permeable to sudden changes in performance. In a match, if one player fails a penalty it usually implies a defeat for his team. Consider the following example: Emirates CUP 2013, a friendly tournament between four teams: Arsenal, FC Porto, Galatasaray and Napoli. In the first match between FC Porto and Galatasaray, FC Porto had failed, in regular time, two penalties. The final result was 1-2. This defeat has led to: i) the loss of the first trophy of the season, ii) the creation of doubts in the team considering the beginning of the season, iii) increased difficulty to impose a new coach before a group accustomed to victories. And who failed the penalties? "Only" the top scorer for the previous season (Jackson Martinez) and "only" the most charismatic team player [Lucho Gonzalez]. Who controls the brand? Overall, football fans collaborate in the community (with few exceptions): “To go to the stadium, the singing, the noise, to celebrate the goals, the cheers. Having my seat and watch the match with my friends, everything is perfect!” [José Américo]. To travel to other countries with the football team, where the most wealthy fans can even travel in the same flight as the players, the fact that there are services that provide team sweaters thus creating a uniform colour throughout the wave of supporters, means that there are new services and business models (Botsman & Rogers, 2010). The European crisis is forcing fans to be more engaged in community, for instance, sharing a car to go to the matches that according to Sheth, Sethia, & Srinivas (2011) 525

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facilitate a simultaneous reduction in personal consumption. Moreover, fans are part of the experience, they contribute to create the events and sustain the magic (Piven, Davis, & Lim, 2012), as Soper (2008 p. 568) mentioned “as a matter of private expenditure, self-styling and gratification.”

Pleasure of Consumption Consuming is inevitable (Clarke, 2003), it is in the human nature itself (Clarke, 2003; Elliott, 1997, p. 289). Consumerism probably reflects the moral nature of contemporary human existence as much as any other widespread modern practice; significant change here would therefore require not a minor adjustment to our way of life, but the transformation of our civilization (Crocker & Linden, 1998). Football is uncertainty, it is out of the routine, it is passion, it is joy, and it is socialization. Football helps to mitigate this insatiable quest for gratification, allows us to have moments where monotony and the pillars of a life insipid and repetitive (Giddens, 1991; McCracken, 1990) disappear as if by magic, even for brief moments. "When I see a football match, during that hour and a half I do not think of anything else, to me it seems that the world stops." [José Saraiva]. Although there is no support in the literature for increasing happiness with wealth and material possessions (Argyle, 1987; Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Layard, 2005), what we do know is that football fans experience is more than achieving happiness, it is “the emotion-laden experiences of the consumer” (Elliott, 1997, p. 293). Being a football fan, following the team with passion and devotion, the fan shows his/her behaviour as a sign of “capacity to support and enhance life” (Mick, 2006, p. 1), his life, and consequently the life of those around him. As Campbell (2004, 2005b) states, the pleasures of consumerism lie precisely in the endless deferral of the pleasure of fulfilment.

ANTI-CONSUMERISM IN FOOTBALL Considering anti-consumption as a consumer-based phenomenon on a “conscious choice” (Cherrier, 2009, p. 186), that can be manifested in many ways, somehow a football fan can be an anti-consumer, when he/she rejects a product not based on its negative tangible features, but because it resembles a rival club, even if the product has nothing to do with the rival club. For example, in clothes: “I never wear any clothes with the colour red, I don´t feel good, I do not like it.” [JPR]. Zavestoski (2002, p. 121) described anti-consumption as “a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally”. The football consumer, the fan is selective, specific, cannibal: “I never drink Sagres beer. I do not give them money, they can support the rivals but not with my money! It is a matter of congruency.” [Ricardo Silva] Regardless of the extent of the change, “one of the main qualities of an anti-consumer is that they choose to become an anti-consumer voluntarily (Sharp, Høj, & Wheeler, 2010, p. 473)”. To be a football fan is a personal choice, linked to a way of being, as a code of honour. For the fan “anti-consumption is better understood as a lifestyle orientation than as a straightforward description of actual abstinence from consumption” (Portwood-Stacer, 2012, p. 88). Globally, anti-consumers are less likely than others to use consumption to satisfy needs (Zavestoski, 2002), instead they cultivate non-materialistic sources of 526

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satisfaction and meaning (Etzioni, 1998). That could be, in part, the case of football fans. For the football fan, the motivations of not consuming do not have to do with having an immediate advantage in that action or have benefits in experiencing alternative consumption. The motivations, beyond the question of social and peer recognition, are clearly intrinsic and personal, are a matter of personal affirmation, a way to be clear and objective in his/her life: “Just got the coded sports channel to watch the matches from my club. Just that. Not even the matches of the national team. It is an added cost that shows how much I love my club.” [JA]. A football fan is a consumer of products related to their loved team and club (e.g., matches, travel to follow the team, team and club merchandizing), but avoids or boycott what is not about his/her team and club. Craig-Lees and Hill (2006) suggest that although anti-consumption behaviour often focuses on the reduction of all consumption activities, it is also possible to focus on the reduction of the purchase of specific products and brands. Kozinets and Handelman (2004, p. 692) conceptualize consumer resistance as movements, but positioning them against the “ideology and culture of consumerism” and Cherrier (2009) refers that it is not merely a behavioural phenomenon, but also an attitudinal one. In other words, for consumers to become anti-consumers they need to hold attitudes that are in line with their anti-consumption behaviours (Iyer & Muncy, 2009). Understanding the relationships between the fans and the club is crucial to understand the importance of the behaviour of the fan in his/her daily living (Cherrier, 2009). For consumers, “brand benefits are less significant, but the penalties are potentially burdensome” (Cromie & Ewing, 2009, p. 220). When a brand does not satisfy its consumers or the consumers do not have money to buy that brand’s products, the consumers will change brands, they can even trade it for a cheaper brand. However, this behaviour is not comparable to brands which are at the same time football clubs. Football fans will not change clubs, not even when the team loses or when the benefits are apparently smaller than the sacrifices, not even when fans have no money to go and watch the matches: “Just because I have no money I’m not a worse fan compared to those who have money and can follow the club everywhere. I am always present even if only in thought and I help my club a lot, maybe much more than others.” [João A.] Phipps et al. (2013, p. 1232) summarised it: “The question remains as how to think about the relationship between behaviour and the wide variety of personal factors related to behaviour.” Peattie & Peattie, (2009, p. 262) argued that a tool that has “considerable potential to contribute to consumption reduction is Social Marketing” (Andreasen, 1995; Kotler, Roberto, & Lee, 2002) as a means to influence an audience to voluntarily act differently towards society.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Regarding future empirical research, some suggestions may be made: (1) Investigate the drivers to anti-branding attitude, who are the initiators, the leaders and the organisers of the bloggers or other viral mechanisms of anti-branding movements; what are the new attitudes and behaviours. (2) A new group of constructs should be developed and the relationship among them explored: spirituality, brand divorce, and consumption choices. 527

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(3) Integrating the research in an international context with several possible economic (e.g., fuel price ratio), ecologic (e.g., directly human life affecting climate change effects), social–cultural (e.g., different perceptions of eco-friendly behaviour), political (e.g., public regulations dictate to the automotive industry), and technological factors (e.g., development of zero-emission vehicles). (4) Understanding if the postmodern activist consumers are really motivated and mobilized for projects of social change. (5) Analysing the meaning and the relationship between post-material values, anticonsumption and frugality; to understand if green consumers are truly interested in environmental and sustainable issues or if it is more about self-interested issues. (6) Differentiating between global impact consumers and simplifiers, the new constructs and scales developed may change from “I” to “we”. (7) Studying consumer behaviour concerning sharing behaviour, such as, car sharing, home sharing through co-housing, free cycling or clothes swapping, to determine whether other groups of sharers also hold anti-consumption attitudes. Moreover, future research could examine permanent facilities and programs that foster sharing and their effect on the communities. For example, North Carolina’s Warren Wilson College’s Free Store, a storefront stocked with goods donated by university members that are, in turn, available to the campus community, and sharing programs such as university sponsored ride and car sharing programs. How to engage consumers, with individualistic-oriented self-enhancement values (i.e., power and achievement), in collaborative consumption efforts is fodder for future research. (8) Understanding the political process to drive sustainability (civic engagement), for instance, a change in behaviour can influence personal motivations, which, in turn, can reinforce behaviours. (9) Differentiating more effectively underdogs from loser consumers. Study is needed to determine just how much of underdog preference is due to resentment towards “corporate” entities, and how much is due to strong attractions to the underdog itself. To the extent that the latter is more important than the former, pro-active positioning of the underdog may be far more effective than any anti-corporate style of positioning, even if done in a subtle fashion (10) Exploring how ethics in consumption is translated from narrative and experience into practice, and to recognise ethics as something that is integral to consumption choices, as the ‘ethical everyday’. (11) Understanding how Asian traditions and practices, in a globalized economy, can influence Western marketing and consumers. (12) Go further in understanding the effect of iconic architecture and space on postmodern consumer behaviour, as well as in understanding how sport culture and spirit influence postmodern consumers.

CONCLUSION AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS The current chapter carried out a systematic literature review which allows researchers, managers and marketers to have a glimpse of society and consumers’ behaviour changes in a postmodern era. The chapter presents a discussion of definitions and typologies on consumption, consumerism and anti-consumption. The consumption waves over time were shown in a framework of consumption wave and anticonsumption motivations and types. The chapter also deals with the emerging 528

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phenomenon of consumption and anti-consumption in the sports (especially football) context. Football fans could be avid consumers of information, knowledge, travels (to follow the team abroad), tickets to matches, diverse merchandizing, brands that sponsor the team and the club and so on. However, they could also be anti-consumers or at least selective consumers, when they have resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption of everything connected to rival teams. In an emerging postmodern era where uncertainties and doubts are numerous, there is much to investigate. Thus, as a suggestion for future research, this chapter presents a set of 12 lines for future research directions. Thereby, the chapter provides readers with the most up-to-date knowledge about new trends in consumption and new consumers’ attitudes, behaviours, values and ethics. Considering managerial implications, managers should be aware of the new communities of consumers who reject brand hegemony or are selective or even simplifiers. The knowledge about these new consumers, their profile and behaviour help managers to design appropriate products/brands. However, marketing is not only about products/brands, it is also about establishing and maintaining relations. Marketing can operate in such communities, for instance, as a facilitator for new types of productive-consumptive relations and an integral part of the cultural structure of enduring communities of production-engaged consumption. Marketers and managers should follow and listen to how anti-consumption movements operate and inform consumers and change their view and the way they communicate products/brands. Consumer practices are a mix of an expression of independent, personal and unique identities and a vehicle to facilitate the relationship and harmony with others and groups affiliation, like football. The process in which fans (consumers) become deeply committed to a football club brand should be better understood. For instance, football club are brands, but fans do not see it has a brand (a profit-oriented brand). As we exposed above, we can find several motivations for why a consumer becomes a fan of a certain football team and, when it happens, the relationship between a consumer (fan) and a brand (football club) becomes a lifestyle.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Consumerism, Consumption, Anti-consumption, Consumption Consumption society, Systematic literature review, Football fans

communities,

Consumerism: a set of beliefs and values, integral but not exclusive to the system of capitalist globalization, intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions (Sklair, 2010, p. 135) Consumption: use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world (Miller, 1995, p. 30). Anti-consumption: a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally (Zavestoski, 2002, p. 121). Consumption communities: consumption in online environments (social networking sites, websites, blogs and other online sites become the new marketplace), green and ethical consumption.

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Consumption society: individualism and materialism have led individuals to purchase goods regardless of their usefulness; high degree of dependence on consumables (McCracken, 1990). Systematic literature review: retrieve, appraise and summarise all the available evidence on a specific thematic (designed to reduce the effect of the reviewers' own bias; the appropriate resources should be in place before undertaking a review; identify relevant work; extract relevant data on outcomes and quality; summarise the evidence; and, interpret the evidence). Football fans: a way of being with repercussions at professional and family levels; it is a unique experience, with rituals, a pride in the club, a lifetime experience, sometimes more important than family and work.

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