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Converting Environmental Concern into Ecotourism Purchases: A Qualitative Evaluation of International Backpackers in Australia Stephen Wearing, Sandra Cynn, Jess Ponting & Matthew McDonald Available online: 29 Mar 2010

To cite this article: Stephen Wearing, Sandra Cynn, Jess Ponting & Matthew McDonald (2002): Converting Environmental Concern into Ecotourism Purchases: A Qualitative Evaluation of International Backpackers in Australia, Journal of Ecotourism, 1:2-3, 133-148 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14724040208668120

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Converting Environmental Concern into Ecotourism Purchases: A Qualitative Evaluation of International Backpackers in Australia Stephen Wearing, Sandra Cynn, Jess Ponting and Matthew McDonald

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School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Faculty of Business, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Despite the provision of ‘green’ tourism products, research has failed to specifically explore tourists’ environmental behaviour in terms of ecotourism purchases within a holiday destination. In exploring this issue the paper reviews a range of literature concerning the relationship between environmental concern and environmentally responsible purchasing behaviour, and presents a qualitative evaluation of the ecotourism purchasing behaviour of Australia’s ‘backpacker’ market. Interviews were conducted with backpackers on completion of an ecotour, providing the basis for discussion of a range of possible explanations for the apparent inconsistencies between environmental concern and purchasing behaviour including problems with sampling, the lack of education and awareness about ecotourism products and accreditation programmes, and the apparent abandonment of environmental responsibility by tourists whilst on holiday. It is suggested that ecotourism marketing is directed at tourists in the pre-departure/planning phase of their holiday, perhaps through national tourism organisations in tourism-generating regions, to raise awareness of environmental issues surrounding tourism in natural areas; establish ecolabelling brand awareness and recognition of ‘green’ tourism products; internalise individuals’ locus of control regarding environmental concerns in their everyday environment; and to circumvent the environmental ethical malaise which seems to override a tourist’s normal environmental concerns and behaviour whilst on holiday.

Introduction and Background Introduction Approximately 70% of consumers occasionally consider environmental issues when purchasing products or services. There has been an increasing concern for the natural environment evidenced through support for environmental protection in Western liberal regimes. This increasing concern has led to the emergence of environmentally friendly products as part of general moves towards a ‘greening’ of the marketplace (Wagner, 1997;Weaver & Lawton, 2002). This trend is reflected in the tourism industry by the inception and increasing popularity of ‘green’, or ‘eco’-tourism products (Swarbrooke & Horner, 1999; Weaver & Lawton, 2002; Wight, 1993). The indications are that consumers concerned about the environment also tend to hold positive attitudes towards ‘green’ products and, in response to research surveys, claim to be willing to pay increased tariffs for goods and services that provide assurances of environmental responsibility (Kalafatis et al. 1999). However, do consumers’ environmental concerns actually influence their 1472-4049/02/02 0133-16 $20.00/0 Journal of Ecotourism

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purchasing behaviour? Research suggests that environmental concern does not always translate into environmentally responsible behaviour (Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Hines et al., 1986/87; Minton & Rose, 1997; Newhouse, 1990; Roberts & Bacon, 1997; Schlegelmilch, 1996; Schultz et al., 1995; Scott & Willis, 1994; Tanner, 1999). Despite a growing knowledge base concerning the relationship between consumers’ environmental attitudes, behavioural intentions and actual environmental behaviour (cf. Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Newhouse, 1990; Tanner, 1999), tourism research has insufficiently addressed this issue. Thus a theoretical grey area appears in understanding the conversion of environmental concern amongst tourists into environmentally responsible tourism product choice. This paper addresses the apparent gap in the tourism literature using a qualitative evaluation of international ‘backpacker’ tourists’ environmental attitudes and ecotourism purchasing behaviour in Australia. Recent research segmenting the Australian ecotourism market on the basis of attitudes and behavioural intent (Weaver & Lawton, 2002), and social and psychographic values (Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997) suggests that earlier studies based solely upon demographic analysis may have underestimated the heterogeneity of the market. More generally, Litvin (1996: 52) argues that ‘Ecotourism need not be looked at as a binary type decision. It is certainly possible that mainstream vacations can incorporate elements of ecotourism’. As such this paper scrutinises the ‘backpacker’ segment of the Australian tourism market as it remains under represented in ecotourism literature, yet is of great and growing importance to the Australian tourism industry and is characterised by a predilection for interactions with the natural environment (Buchanan & Rosetto, 1997; Haigh, 1995; Loker, 1993; Murphy, 1999; Pearce, 1990; Ryan & Mohsin, 2001). It is argued here that despite evidence indicating positive attitudes towards the natural environment amongst backpackers, these are not always matched by appropriate ecotourism product choices within holiday destinations (Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997; Christensen & Beckmann, 1998). Results are discussed in terms of existing literature, and implications for more effective marketing of Australian ecotourism products internationally are drawn out and recommendations made based upon the themes raised by respondents. The attitude, intention, behaviour relationship Based upon the combined works of Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1977, 1980) and later Ajzen (1985, 1991), recent research has stressed the distinction between attitude, intention and behaviour (Fransson & Gärling, 1999). According to Ajzen’s (1985, 1991) theory of planned behaviour, the causes of behavioural intention are related to a person’s attitude towards a behaviour (positive or negative), the existence of a subjective norm to perform the behaviour, and a perception of control over the behaviour. Attitude is positioned as a function of perceived consequences of behaviour, and a values-based evaluation of these consequences involving four main entities: a target (the attitudinal/behavioural object), an action (what one would like to do with that object), a temporal reference (a specific time), and a situational reference (a specific context) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977). In theory, attitudes and behavioural intentions affected by knowledge should

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in turn result in behaviour congruent with those stated attitudes and intentions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). However, research has revealed a gap between concern for the environment – generally driven by self-interest, anthropocentric altruism (fear for humankind given humanity’s current environmental trajectory), or an ecocentric worldview – and environmentally responsible behaviour (Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Newhouse, 1990; Tanner, 1999).

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The environmental concern/behaviour incongruence in tourism In a study of German tourists, Swarbrooke and Horner (1999) identified the environmental quality of a tourism destination as a factor affecting tourist satisfaction. However, this result did not represent the tourists’ concern for the environment in the destination region. Even if aware of environmental issues, little evidence was found that environmental concerns translated into actions. Simonsen and Jørgensen (cited in Hjalager, 1999) found that many tourists who go on non-polluting holidays such as bicycle tours (as opposed to car/bus tours) did so out of a desire for fun and exercise rather than out of regard for the natural environment. Similarly, Hjalager (1999) found that German tourists regard environmental issues more highly than other nationalities in tourism destination selection. According to Hjalager (1999) ‘green consumerism’ in tourism has been constrained by limited accessibility and availability compared to other green products, and environmental concern may in fact be over represented in research due to a desire in research subjects to address environmental issues in a politically correct manner. Swarbrooke and Horner (1999) suggest there is a relationship between nationality and environmental concern. German tourists were found to consider environmental issues when selecting a destination while British tourists appear to have a lower preference for ‘green’ holidays. The importance of attitudes was highlighted in the assertion that ‘green tourists can only exist where there are already green consumers’ (Swarbrooke & Horner, 1999: 206). Pembroke’s (1996) study of British Airways customers found 93% were extremely concerned or fairly concerned about the environment; 67% were moderately or extremely interested in receiving information on environmental issues. In the context of purchasing behaviour, given that the prices were all the same, 53% said they would choose an airline, or tour operator, that considers environmental issues. Quantification/evaluation of the actual purchasing behaviour of respondents was not investigated leaving the question of conversion of attitudes to purchases open. A survey conducted on Singaporean students, proclivity to buy ‘green’ tourism products found they were highly aware of environmental issues and would intend to buy ‘green’ tourism products (Litvin, 1996). The study illustrated that environmental awareness and intention do not necessarily lead to appropriate behaviour and actual purchase. Watkins (1994) probed tourists’ (US travellers) attitude towards and knowledge of environmentally sensitive accommodation. Seventy per cent of respondents indicated they were ‘extremely likely’ or ‘likely’ to stay in a hotel that adopts policies to protect the environment. However, few were willing to pay

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higher room rates. Though respondents recognised the long-term benefits resulting from responsible environmental behaviour, 85% believed that their efforts would not actually help in protecting the environment. Watkins concluded that environmentally aware consumers were not necessarily environmentally aware travellers. Thus a scenario begins to develop of individuals claiming to be concerned enough about the environment to factor these concerns into their choice of tourism products. However, under specific conditions these same individuals, as tourists in a holiday destination, seem unwilling to let concern for the natural environment affect their specific tourism purchasing behaviour. Explaining the environmental intentions/behaviour gap Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), and subsequent behaviour research based upon their work, attribute the apparent gap between attitudes and behaviour in research to methodological inconsistencies in the four attitude entities (target, action, temporal reference, situational reference) across attitudinal and behavioural measures. For example, knowledge of a German student’s recycling habits in Germany before travelling, by itself, is unlikely to prove an accurate basis for predicting choice between an accredited and a non-accredited ecotour operator in Australia years later. The more closely the four entities match across attitudinal and behavioural measures, the more accurate research becomes in its capacity to predict behaviour. Rajecki (1982) suggests that ‘multiple act’ criteria, the use of a multitude of measures of environmental concern (e.g. recycling behaviour, donations to environmental advocacy organisations, environmental activism, green product purchasing behaviour etc.) rather than a single measure, may provide a more accurate predictive model of environmental behaviour. Other writers suggest social norms, that is, expectations of how one should act in a particular situation (Schwartz, 1977), particularly those expressed or implied by researchers, have created a tendency for a general overstatement of environmental concern amongst research participants (Blamey et al., 1999; Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Hjalager, 1999; Newhouse, 1990). Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) found that attitudes more accurately predict behaviour where no established social norms exist. Hines et al. (1987) found that knowledge of specific environmental issues and appropriate behavioural strategies to address them positively influenced the ability to predict environmentally responsible behaviour from environmental attitudes. A range of researchers have also suggested that an internal ‘locus of control’, an individual’s belief in his or her ability to bring about change through personal behaviour, is an important determinant in accurately predicting environmentally responsible behaviour (Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Newhouse, 1990; Stern, 1992). Roberts’ (1996) review article revealed several themes concerned with consumer attitudes that may influence the acceptance of ‘green’ products in the market place. There is an ongoing perception that green products are too expensive (Magrath, 1992). Price, along with quality and convenience, generally remain more important factors in consumer decision making than the relative ‘greenness’ of a product (Ottman, 1994). It appears that many consumers are cynical about environmental claims made by green product sellers, are confused

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about green products (Schlossberg, 1991), and also sceptical about the ability of green consumerism to contribute to a better environment (Pearce, 1990; Stisser, 1994). Thirdly, Magrath (1992) reported hesitancy amongst some businesses to offer green products for fear of increased scrutiny by environmental organisations and statutory bodies. Blamey et al. (1999) suggest that consumers are in theory willing to pay more for a ‘green’ product; however, when it came to the real purchasing decision, their willingness was not matched by action. Respondents’ actual behaviour was found to be more closely related to brand recognition than concern for the environment. Thus it appears that the inconsistencies between environmental concern and environmental purchase behaviour in tourism have serious implications for ecotourism operators, marketers and researchers. Ecotourism and ecotourists Despite increasing utilisation of the term ecotourism, both in the tourism literature and the tourism industry, its meaning remains a point of some contention, allowing sections of the industry to engage in its inappropriate use in an effort to boost sales (Valentine, 1991; Wearing & McLean, 1998). Early definitions tend to highlight the nature-based elements of ecotourism (Blamey, 2001; Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987). More recent definitions have included elements of environmental education and supply-side sustainable management (Blamey, 2001; Buckley, 1994; Ross & Wall, 1999; Wight, 1994). Boo (1992: ii), for example, states that ‘ecotourism is nature travel that advances conservation and sustainable development efforts’. The Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA) defines ecotourism as ‘ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that foster environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation’ (EAA, 2001). Compiling a variety of contemporary definitions of ecotourism, Blamey (2001: 6) described three broad dimensions of the ‘main essence’ of ecotourism which have achieved a degree of consensus among tourism researchers: ecotourism is nature based, environmentally educated, and sustainably managed in terms natural and cultural environments. Those tourists involved in ecotourism activities have been described as ‘people who require environmentally compatible recreational opportunities … where nature rather than humanity predominates’ (Kerr, 1991: 248). They are ‘shrugging off the shackles of traditional tourism’ in search of knowledge and experience. Interest is not held by ‘lounging by hotel pools or hectic sightseeing schedules’ (Collins, 1993: 7), rather consumers of ecotourism products are thought to be ‘interested in visiting wilderness, national parks, and tropical forests, and in viewing birds, mammals, trees and wildflowers’; they want to ‘experience new lifestyles and meet people with similar interests to themselves’ and they want to see their travelling dollars benefiting the local economy and conservation efforts (Eagles et al., 1992). Research into the motivations of those undertaking ecotourism reveals that environmental features, such as ‘wilderness, lakes and streams, mountains, national and provincial parks, rural areas, and oceanside, hold more importance for ecotourists than general tourists’ (Eagles, 1992: 15–16). Ecotourists travelling in New South Wales, Australia, have been characterised by a desire to ‘look at the

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scenic beauty, to rest/relax physically, to be in an undisturbed natural area, … to explore the area, … to give the mind a rest, to learn more about nature’ (Blamey, 1995: 118). Research indicates that a significant percentage (77%) of ecotour consumers in North America commented that they had previous travel experiences in natural and undisturbed environments (Mihalic, 2001). Forty-five per cent of those experienced with ecotourism products were willing to spend over 1500 US dollars per person during their tour while 38% of consumers with an interest but no experience of ecotourism were willing to spend the same amount. Those interested in ecotourism, then, appear to repeat such experiences and value them highly. However, a stated willingness to pay for an ecotour does not necessarily lead to actual purchasing behaviour (Mihali , 2001). As mentioned in the introduction to this paper, recent research indicates an underestimation of the heterogeneity of the Australian international ecotourism market due to the almost exclusive use of demographic characterisations (Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997; Weaver & Lawton, 2002). Litvin (1996) usefully points out that tourists need not make binary decisions about the nature of their holiday (ecotourism or unsustainable, polluting mass tourism) or about themselves (ecotourist or non-ecotourist) in terms of environmental responsibility in tourism. It is likely that many mainstream tourists purchase ecotourism products as smaller facets of what, in its entirety, might be considered a more mainstream typology of tourist trip. International backpackers represent one such segment of the Australian tourism market. Backpackers Buchanan and Rossetto (1997: 2) defined a backpacker as ‘an international visitor who stayed for at least one night during their trip in backpacker [i.e. low-budget, usually dormitory style hostel] accommodation’. For the purpose of this paper, a backpacker was defined as an international tourist who spent one night in Youth Hostel Association (YHA) accommodation. In 1992 backpackers comprised 20% of all visitor nights in Australia (Ryan & Mohsin, 2001). Buchanan and Rossetto (1997) found that backpackers spent an estimated 884 million Australian dollars annually, representing 13% of total annual international tourist expenditure in Australia. The number of backpackers visiting Australia is steadily increasing, and by 1999 total backpacker expenditure was reported to be 1.7 billion Australian dollars (BTR, 2000). Table 1 illustrates the demographic characteristics of international backpackers travelling within Australia (Haigh, 1995). Backpackers’ perceptions of Australia as a holiday destination indicate that ‘natural attractions’ represent the main motivation for travelling to Australia (Murphy, 1999), the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru (Ayres Rock) being the two most important attractions for the segment (Loker, 1993). Desire to participate in environmental activities is very high amongst backpackers; however, actual participation rarely matches this desire (Pearce, 1990). The most common environmental activities include fauna observation, wildflower/flora tours, scientific research participation and environmental protection programmes such as tree planting (Pearce, 1990), and low-cost nature-based leisure activities such as swimming, surfing, scuba

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Table 1 Profile of Australia’s international backpacker market Age Gender Purpose of visit Duration of stay Activities undertaken

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Country of origin

Less than 30, 45+ Fairly split (52% male) Holiday, visiting friends or relatives Average of 60–80 nights Swimming, surfing , scuba diving, snorkelling, bushwalking/trekking UK, Germany, USA, Canada, Japan, New Zealand

Source: Haigh, R. (1995) Backpackers in Australia Occasional Paper No. 20, Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 12–34.

diving, snorkelling and bushwalking (Buchanan & Rossetto 1997; Loker, 1993; Murphy, 1999; Pearce, 1990).

Methodology A qualitative approach A qualitative approach capable of determining backpackers’ environmental attitudes and their environmental behaviour with respect to ecotourism purchases within time and budgetary constraints was established for this study (cf. Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Semi-structured, in-depth interviewing (cf. Minichiello et al., 1995: 62) was utilised to ensure that a consistent range of topics was covered in each interview and to implement Rajecki’s (1982) ‘multiple act’ criteria in gauging environmental attitudes. The level of entity (target, action, temporal reference, situational reference) congruency across these measures was maximised by the sampling methodology selected. Subjects Subjects for the study were chosen based on two essential criteria: (1) to be an international tourist having spent one night in Youth Hostel Association (YHA) accommodation while travelling in Australia, and (2) to have participated in either an accredited ecotour, conforming to the National Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) standards, or non-accredited ecotour whilst travelling in Australia. In total 13 backpackers participated in 10 interviews (three interviews involved couples), of up to one hour’s duration in each case. Subjects were interviewed directly after completion of an ecotour in the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, Australia. Sampling in this manner reduced inconsistencies between temporal and situational entities, as well as target and action entities across attitude and behavioural measures. In addition, ‘multiple act’ criteria were utilised in an effort to gauge whether conventional measures of environmental concern reflected the backpackers’ choice of tourism product (see Table 2). Data analysis and interpretation The first step in analysis was the reduction of data through transcription and

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Table 2 In-depth interview checklist 1. Purchase opportunities? 2. Purchase considerations? Do you usually consider environmental issues in general and in tourism-related purchases? 3. Expectation of product? 4. Importance of accreditation? 5. Constraints upon purchasing environmentally responsible tourism products? 6. Knowledge of ecotourism? 7. Worldview anthropocentric vs. ecocentric? 8. ‘Multiple act’ attitude criteria General green product purchase? Voluntary recycling? Support for environmental advocacy groups, Environmental political activism?, Do environmental principles travel with you or are they left at home?

elicitation of core themes and issues. These were then organised and grouped together for interpretation (cf. Van Maanen, 1990). The computer package NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data * Indexing Searching and Theorising) was used to assist with the categorisation of the core themes. Results are presented in the following discussion of issues useful in understanding inconsistencies between environmental concern and ecotourism purchases, and implications for ecotourism marketing.

Results and Discussion Whilst the aim of the research undertaken was not to provide a quantitatively meaningful cross-section of the ecotour purchasing backpacker market, it is interesting to note the demographic characteristics of the sample group. Six participants were from the United Kingdom, two each from Israel and Canada, and one each from Sweden and India. Most possessed at least certificate/diploma-level education and were currently in a profession (e.g. accountant, IT professionals, town planner, teachers, physician, etc.) or were engaged in tertiary studies in their home countries. Ages ranged from 20 to over 45. All but two of the respondents expressed overtly ecocentric views of the world typified by the following response. We are just a small part of the big system, the big earth, the big eco-system, big everything … Nature created us, we didn’t create nature. (David, non-accredited group) In general, participants had some experience as tourists in the natural environment and in Christensen and Beckmann’s (1998: 17) terms appeared to be using nature actively to learn from it and as an aesthetic objective, watching and admiring its beauty.

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I love the outdoors, I have done some international travelling, and I particularly prefer visiting natural areas than cities. (Jason, accredited group) Several participants also mentioned their use of nature ‘as a background for sporting activities in search of extreme experience’ (Christensen & Beckmann, 1998: 17). For example: I have done everything, starting from bungee jumping to rock climbing, you name it’. (Jason, accredited group)

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The behaviour of this type of tourist may be more harmful to nature, as interest lies in directly utilising nature for enjoyment. Environmental education in ecotourism A desire for, and interest in, environmental learning was expressed by the backpackers taking part in this study. It is just interesting to know how everything works, like some plants need bush fires to regenerate their seeds and things like that. If you were walking around and if you did not have anybody to tell you about that it will be just a normal walk like a walk in the park. (Nigel, non-accredited group) We were walking through the rain forests and they have all sorts of healing power and Tim [tour leader] was telling us about the regeneration, how quickly trees can regenerate after a fire. (Amanda, accredited group) Environmental education as a component of an ecotourism experience provides the opportunity for participants to reassess their attitudes. However, environmental education does not automatically lead to environmentally responsible actions (Hines et al., 1987; Hungerford & Volk, 1990; Newhouse, 1990). Beaumont (2001) suggests that a single ‘green tourism’ experience may not be enough to influence a tourist’s environmental attitude into the future. However, tour leaders and environmental interpreters can play a highly significant role in influencing tourists to firstly think ‘green’, then continue to purchase ‘green’. The importance of environmental interpretation A recurring theme through the data was the important role of the tour leader as environmental interpreter. Wearing and Metry (1999) argue that tour leaders constitute a key component in ecotour companies and outdoor education programmes. As well as managing a tour group’s impacts upon the natural environment, tour leaders need to interpret the natural environment effectively in order to provide a quality experience (Beck & Cable, 1998; Ham, 1992), influence the environmental attitudes of tourists, and encourage environmentally responsible behaviour (Orams, 1996). Subjects in this study supported these assertions. For example: I think it makes you realise how important everything is … you go to the outback and they explain to you how each little bit works, they explain how to look after everything else, you learn that from the guide. (Kat, non-accredited group) There are so many things that you just learn from the guide … the names of the

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plants and the birds flying by, it was just amazing … I have learnt so much. (Mary, accredited group) The restrictions and regulations enforced by ecotour leaders seem to have positively influenced backpackers’ behaviour towards the natural environment.

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They said not to drop anything and to please keep to the path and do not mess around with anything … which is fair enough, it is good to act like that. I probably would not have acted the same, if we were not told. (Nigel, non-accredited group) The above responses reflect the wider sample group’s ecotour experiences and are in accordance with existing studies in demonstrating that behavioural restrictions applied by ecotour guides in the context of impact minimisation increased tourists’ respect for the environment and satisfaction with the larger experience, potentially leading to pro-environmental behaviour (Beck & Cable, 1998; Ham, 1992; Orams, 1996, 1997; Weaver & Lawton, 2002). Ecotour leaders have the opportunity to bring environmental responsibility in tourism within the tourist’s ‘locus of control’. Research suggests that those with an internal locus of control concerning environmental issues are more likely to act in an environmentally responsible manner (Newhouse, 1990). ‘Green’ behaviour in tourism Participants in this study demonstrated a pre-existing tendency to engage in a range of ‘modest’ green behaviours, such as domestic recycling and donating to environmental organisations in their home countries. However, not one considered conservation in their ecotour purchase decision. When asked why participants considered environmental issues in general product purchases in their home countries, but not necessarily in the context of tourism products in holiday destination regions, the general response was ‘I don’t know’. Perhaps this is a further indication of a lack of awareness of environmental issues associated with tourism, as well as a lack of knowledge about environmentally responsible tourism products. For example, Stephen, who had unwittingly completed an accredited ecotour earlier the same day as sampling, commented that consideration of the environmental performance of tourism products had ‘really never come to mind till this moment, now that you’ve mentioned it’. Another common response to probing on the lack of consideration of green tourism products was for participants to reiterate that they were on a holiday. For example, I think it is because we don’t think about it. You know, you come on a holiday and I know it would not be hard to look for ecotours, but I think that because we are on a holiday, you sort of click off. You know, relax. (Nigel, non-accredited group) Thus, it appears that participants abandon normal environmental concerns and social norms whilst on holiday. Common motivations for engaging in tourism include the desire to escape from the everyday environment and to relax (Cohen & Taylor, 1976; Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977). These elements were used to justify the lack of environmental responsibility in tourism product choices made by some participants. For example:

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I don’t know, I’m on vacation. I mean I care about the environment … I want to enjoy my time and do the things I want to do and leave preserving and taking care of the environment to the experts. It is already tough enough to plan what you want to do and go where you want to go without adding factors like are they environmentally friendly. (Jason, accredited group) This supports Lübbert’s (2001) research into German tourists’ consideration of environmental concerns when choosing a holiday: despite holding positive environmental attitudes, tourists did not feel environmentally responsible when on a holiday. In escaping daily life and routine on holiday, tourists tend to behave differently than in their home environment. Therefore it may be more effective for the tourism industry to promote ‘green’ products and accreditation programmes in tourism-generating regions, rather than solely within holiday destinations. This observation holds particular relevance to the backpacker market segment as the relative ‘greenness’ of tourism products does not appear to be particularly significant in determining purchase choices in the destination. Such a change in marketing strategy would provide the tourist with more time to consider these products before departure, and allow more time for ecotourism operators and organisations to educate potential markets and lobby for inclusion in tourist budgets from the outset. Promoting ‘green’ tourism products The weak link between environmental attitudes and behaviour has been a vexatious issue in the marketing of environmental products (Schlegelmilch, 1996). This link appears particularly wide in the tourism sector, where situational references influencing environmentally responsible product choices within destinations are often greatly removed from those influencing environmental concern outside the tourism experience. Buckley (2001: 23) reported that consumers do not ordinarily purchase eco-labelled tourism products due to their ‘low penetration, low reliability, and low consumer recognition and considerable uncertainty in environmental outcomes’. Buckley’s findings were supported by the responses of the sample group in this study. None of the participants had heard of any Australian ecotourism accreditation schemes, even those who had completed an accredited tour on the same day that sampling took place. This corresponds with the results of previous studies into awareness of accreditation programmes (Taylor et al., 2000; Vacaflores, 2000) and implies a lack of effective promotion of such programmes to international tourists. On having the National Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) explained to them, most participants expressed their intention to consider the programme in future ecotourism purchases: ‘I would look for it, now that I know’ (Julie, accredited group); and ‘I would probably consider the accreditation system or the logo next time’. (Nigel, non-accredited group). However, several expressed scepticism about the quality assurances such programmes claim to offer. For example: If there is a company that has a logo saying that they are environmentally

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friendly then that is good for them, but I do not think it proves anything. (David, non-accredited group)

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I do not see any difference in tours that say that they are eco-friendly and a tour that does not say they are eco-friendly. (Amid, non-accredited group). Effective ‘green’ tourism marketing may require promotional procedures distinct from mainstream tourism products. Further research into the development of distinct marketing techniques specifically promoting eco-labelling would be an excellent start. The focus of such a study would be to better understand the phenomena of purchasing behaviour in relation to green tourism products, as opposed to product price and destination image. Moreover, the sociocultural background of those purchasing ‘green’ tourism products should be measured in order to create a more thorough understanding of the market (Sharpley, 2001). In addition to low consumer recognition of ‘green’ tourism products, the issue of low reliability and credibility of eco-labelled tourism products in the tourism marketplace needs to be addressed.

Conclusion The purpose of this paper was to explore the relationship between environmental attitudes, intentions and environmentally responsible purchasing behaviour of backpackers within the holiday destination with a view to increasing the conversion of environmental concern into ecotourism purchases. As the body of knowledge illustrates, the relationship between environmental awareness, intention and behaviour is tenuous, particularly in the context of tourism, as the relationship between the three main factors becomes even more fragile once the tourist leaves his or her home country. The gap between awareness, intention and behaviour poses a significant challenge to the future of the ecotourism industry. A range of possible explanations and inconsistencies between environmental concern and behaviour in tourism have been discussed including problems with sampling, the lack of education and awareness about ecotourism products and accreditation programmes, the need to internalise a locus of control in terms of individual environmental responsibility and the apparent abandonment of environmental responsibility by tourists whilst on holiday. The review of literature and qualitative evaluation of backpacker’s environmental purchasing behaviour undertaken in this paper has important implications for increasing the conversion of tourists’ environmental concerns into ecotourism purchases. Given the complete lack of awareness of accreditation programmes and environmental issues concerning tourism amongst the sample group, and the abandonment of environmental concerns whilst on holiday or at least a lack of association between green consumer behaviour and tourism purchases, it seems that the promotion of ‘green’ tourism products and ecotourism accreditation programmes may be more effective if undertaken in the tourism-generating region during the pre-departure stage of a holiday. This would provide the tourists with more time to consider these products and make provision for them with regard to their values system, which appears to wane significantly once out of their home environment, as well as their budget. Promotion aimed at explaining

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the importance of environmentally responsible tourism choices to potential tourists, explaining the merits of accreditation programmes and developing brand recognition and trust in such programmes, and attempting to internalise the locus of control (‘your choices make a difference’) in terms of the natural environment in the potential market, would be likely to increase conversion of environmental concern amongst international tourists into ecotourism purchases. Correspondence

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