participants or of objects, e.g.: Along the dusty, rugged pathways that trickle across El-Geneina ... border with Chad, a slim, bright-eyed 11-year-old girl leads an ...
LUCIA ABBAMONTE* FLAVIA CAVALIERE**
Lost in translation - politically incorrect rendering: English vs. Italian Unicef “The State of the World’s Children 2004” report
1.
The Unicef 2004 Report and the Translation of
Documents and Reports within International Organizations
The text under analysis falls within the domain of socio-political document writing and translating in an international context. Let us first briefly refer to the condition of translating activities within international organizations, which is not free of controversy.1 On the one hand,
there is the process of growth in the number of
international organizations, either inter-governamental or nongovernamental, from the Second World War onwards, which consider *
Lucia Abbamonte’s contributions: sections 1,2,3,5. Flavia Cavaliere’s contributions: sections 4, Cocluding Remarks 1 Space limits do not allow here a more extensive analysis of this complex topic, for detailed investigations, see Pym 2001. **
1
multi-culturalism a ‘politically correct’ and explicitly pursued goal. On the other hand, powerful language learning policies have made it possible to communicate via ‘international’ languages, and no-profit organizations, which are very numerous, tend to employ voluntary translators: the result is the almost exclusive resort to English or French as international languages. These translation policies may not be very sensitive in respecting national or regional identities, but definitely help to reduce costs. Even within the European Union, attempts to support the more extensive use of national languages, against the all-pervasive spread of international English, have failed when faced with budgetary and organizational considerations. This is a situation which seems to worry many scholars, Professor Gotti among them, who emphasises how: “the increasingly globalising role played by English as a lingua franca causes alarm to the potential loss of many languages and cultures” (2003).2 Moreover, the vast majority of translators’ and interpreters’ international organizations and their members are in the capitals of central Europe; a phenomenon which highlights once more the situation of economic and cultural disadvantage of the developing countries, and which facilitates the pragmatic, but ‘politically incorrect’ tendency towards linguistic and bureaucratic centralization.
2
On the other side, the opposite, extreme, consequence is the possibility that “ English might fragment into mutually unintelligible local varieties” (Gotti, 2003). The spread of English, however, has already generated a number of cases of linguistic and cultural hybridism, the so-called New Englishes (see Mazzon:1984; Mc Arthur:1998; Gorlach:2002).
2
Such a ‘translational/international’ framework is the situational and textual context in which “The state of the World’s Children 2004” Report in the English, French and Spanish versions is produced. The pivot text available in the official UNICEF site is the English one, and from the same site it is possible to access to the French and Spanish versions – the official languages of the United Nations – whereas the Italian version can only be retrieved from the Italian UNICEF site. Versions in other national languages – there are 37 national UNICEF Committees, the so-called Donor Countries – can be retrieved from their respective sites.3 The official English Report is annually drafted by a team of writers on the basis of documents and data received from local UNICEF offices situated in different parts of the world.4 The documents we will investigate are the English and the Italian versions. A close reading of the English text, reveals that what one would expect to be a neutral, impersonal representation of data an official statement of facts - claiming for globality, in an informative language, is, instead, an ethically biased report. The parallel reading of its Italian translation, within the Applied Descriptive Translation
3
These national Committees are mainly located in Europe, but also in Australia, Japan, South Korea, and in the United States which have the double status of official UNICEF International Organization Leaders and of the seat of the National Committee as well. 4 Each year, UNICEF’s flagship publication, The State of the World's Children, closely examines a key issue affecting children, and includes supporting data and statistics, www.unicef.org/sowc04/.
3
Studies (Ap D T S) framework,5 has shown that in the documents under investigation many different types of strategies, both covert and/or overt, are at work. The 2004 edition focuses on the relevance of the education of girls. The girls born and growing up in developing countries, according to the data reported, are still doomed, in too many cases, to be deprived of even primary education. This is explained as the consequence of many factors, mainly the impossibility for poor families to meet the expenses, the unwillingness to renounce the girls’ labour in the home and/or in poorly paid jobs, and the distance and poor sanitation of the schools. In any case, when conditions are difficult, figures and testimonies (life- stories) show that the girls, much more frequently than the boys, are left out of school. The impact on society as a whole is evaluated as devastating, non only for the girls themselves but for future generations as well: the children of mothers unaware of the most basic notions of hygiene and nutrition are likely to grow up less healthy, and the burden for the sanitary system is therefore heavier – not to mention the high infant mortality rate and the spread of HIV/AIDS. It may be of some historical interest to remember how in Europe since the 18th century the focus of social and sanitary intervention was the Mother. In Great Britain, during the Industrial Revolution, with an infant death rate ranging from 50 to 70% (1730-1789), doctors realised how crucial was the education of the mother for reducing the 5
Cf Ulrich and Bollettieri Bosinelli, 1999.
4
number of diseases, and for the healthier life both of mothers and of children. The doctors described the causes and gave expression to their alarm and worries in not too dissimilar terms.6 The topic, as we can easily see, is among the most involving and has many ethical, political and gender-biased implications, that in many ways ‘trespass’ on the expected neutrality of the textual genre of the Report. It is now an accepted notion that no language can ever be a completely neutral medium, translated languages included. The supposed detachment of specialized discourse appears here to be denied by the author’s (unconscious or conscious) attempt to influence the readers’ response, negotiating a very necessary solidarity.7 Therefore, even though the declared communicative purpose is ‘to inform’, the ultimate aim is to attract the world’s attention to the urgent need for economic aid and political support - a real cry for help is distinctly audible. Emotion is an important feature of ST identity that explains the ‘committed’ uses of the language of the original English report. A quality, as we shall shortly illustrate, that is not fully shared by the Italian version, where a sensibly different stance-taking is recognizable. We will tackle the issue from two directions: by analysing within White’s Appraisal Framework (2002) the different textual and lexical choices in the ST and the TT and by evaluating the hidden (and
6 7
Newman 1944. For strategies of Engagement and the notion of ideal recipient, see Miller 2004.
5
possibly ideological) assumptions of the many examples of Implicitation and Omissions in TT.
2.
Affective /Epistemic Positioning
The first, most evident findings of this parallel reading is the coexistence of two planes of discourse, that can be defined, in Hunston’s words, as an “autonomous plane”, where the informational terms prevail, and an “interactive plane”, where the authorial bias is more manifest. 8 They do not seem, however, to be evenly balanced: in our Source Text (ST) the interactive plane is prevailing, which means that the writer’s comment and evaluative attitude to the subject matter is more explicit and apparent, while in the Target Text (TT), where the autonomous plane is foremost, informational terms and a more neutral attitude are the most frequent choices. The presentational, intentional and pragmatic use of language pervades the English report whereas the Italian version sounds more informational and subject-matter like. It is not always easy to draw a line between the attitudinal/affective
and
evaluative
meanings
and
the
descriptive/epistemic ones. To this purpose White’s Appraisal
8 See Hunston / Thompson (eds.) 2000, Sweetser 1990 and Schiffrin 1987.
6
Framework9 offers useful tools in order to explore, describe, and select examples from the two texts, which will highlight the more significant differences in the respective lexico-grammar choices and modes of textuality. Within the features of White’s Appraisal Framework we aimed firstly at investigating the ways language is used to evaluate and to adopt stances; secondly to analyse how attitudes, judgements and emotive responses are explicitly presented in texts, and how these attitudes may be more indirectly implied, presupposed or assumed. In particular, we tried to highlight how the different ST and TT uses of evaluative language act to construct different authorial voices, and how rhetorical strategies in the English version convey underlying values and beliefs systems which shape the entire document; such values, however, seem to fade and lose significance in the Italian version. Attitude can be conveyed in various ways, some of which are easily identifiable while others call for a more careful scrutiny. In some cases, the choice of particular words or phrases overtly states the writer’s attitudinal position, but, generally, the situation is far more complex. Attitudinal position is often evoked not by single words (though individual words can be attitudinal) but by phrases and/or complete stretches of language, and, above of all, by the interaction of
9
Some of the key publications in Appraisal include: Iedema/ Feez/ White 1994, Christie/ Martin 1997, Martin 1997, Coffin 1997, Martin 2000, White 2000, White 2002.
7
diverse elements of the statements, which transmits the writers’ propositions and points of view, and, therefore, must be analysed as a whole. Depending on its more or less immediate ‘readability’, Attitude can be implicit or invoked, rather than explicitly indicated. Under Explicit Attitude we include overtly evaluative/attitudinal words, phrases or sentences, that is to say utterances which straightforwardly communicate a positive or negative sense. Under Implicit Attitude, on the contrary, it is not easy to locate instances of evaluative/attitudinal expressions in the utterance under analysis. In such cases, it is the reader’s particular sets of beliefs and expectations which will lead him to interpret and consider the writing as true or untrue, acceptable or unacceptable, appealing or unattractive, and so on. The same word or phrase can assume positive or negative value depending on the reader’s point of view.
Evaluative language can be expressed by means of two primary modes: dialogistic and attitudinal, which is the one prominently
used
in
the
documents
under
analysis.10
Considering the strong ethical implications of the content of our
10
Attitude can be analysed under different features: attitudinal positioning can be emotional, ethical and aesthetic. This leads to three main subtypes: Affect – which concerns emotion and shows the writer’s emotional commitment to the state of events described; Judgement – which refers to positive or negative evaluation of human behaviour by reference to set of rules and social norms; Appreciation – which relates to those evaluations which are concerned with positive and negative assessments of material objects, but also, in a wider sense, artefacts such as works of art .
8
ST and TT, Affect and Judgement will be the only categories we will take into consideration in our textual analysis, with particular reference to affective evaluation. As seen, it is precisely this category which allows us to trace the two writers’ different commitments. Affectual positioning in our ST is mainly indicated : • through verbs of emotion which indicate mental or physical processes, or verbs which metaphorically convey sympathetic commitment such as to embrace, to grip, to sabotage, to struggle; • through adverbs which specify circumstances of manner, such as desperately, unduly, widely, stubbornly, solitary, child-friendly; • through adjectives of emotion: heartbreaking, crippling, overwhelming, surmountable, dire; • through nominalization: failure of accountability, funding commitments, girls’ lack of education, learning achievements, willingness to help, readiness to lead, nurturing work; By comparing the previous and other examples from the ST and the corresponding loci in TT the differences in the intensity of the affective positioning will be more evident, as the following table will highlight.
AFFECTIVE
EPISTEMIC
to jump-start development
uno slancio per lo sviluppo
made a most passionate
si sono impegnati con
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commitment
convinzione
embraces
si è fatto carico
being involved
collaborare
being denied
vengono privati
parents often do not realize
molti genitori ignorano
they are not likely to demand
difficilmente si sentono in grado di pretendere
they may find it difficult
possono non riuscire
ensuring that all girls are educated il problema dell’istruzione femminile ignores human rights
trascura i diritti umani
huge
assai gravoso
heartbreaking
sacrifici dolorosi
efforts
Impegni
struggle desperately
combattere battaglie perse in partenza
girls lose out even more than boys le bambine si trovano in una posizione più difficile rispetto ai maschi poverty’s role
il problema della povertà
the cost is surmountable
i costi non sono un problema insormontabile
it is not enough to allocate
può essere inutile destinare
financial resources
risorse finanziarie
10
Table 1. Affective/Epistemic positioning.
All of these stretches would deserve some specific comments, but this could be probably repetitive for the reader. It may be useful, however, to illustrate a few ones, by grouping them according to their authentic message. The passionate commitment of the English version conveyed by phrases such as made a most passionate commitment becomes in the Italian version “si sono impegnati con convinzione”, where the intensity, and physical connation of the ST lose strength. It is not only a matter of intensity, what is called in question is often the political bias. In the Italian text the authorial attitude towards the relationship between the peoples of the developing countries and their problems sounds, sometimes, derogatory: they may find it difficult is translated as “possono non riuscire”. In addition, what in the English version points more clearly to our moral obligation – as rich countries – to take on responsibility towards the poor of the world, in the Italian translation such an obligation becomes a heavy burden - ensuring that all girls are educated ; poverty’s role correspond to il problema dell’istruzione femminile, il problema della povertà. An issue pertaining to the developed countries, which are expected to provide energy, and to jump-start development, is left more exclusively to the initiative of the poor and is transformed into: “uno slancio per lo sviluppo”. A superable, if serious, difficulty becomes a problem, which, being too difficult to be solved, only leads to a waste of energy and money: the
11
cost is surmountable; it is not enough to allocate financial resources is translated as: “ i costi non sono un problema insormontabile; può essere inutile destinare risorse finanziarie”. Furthermore,
referring
back
to
White’s
Framework,
commitment can be expressed by means of either endorsed or disendorsed utterances: in the former the writer either directly or indirectly shows support for, or approval for the statement; in the latter, the writer distances himself from the content, either by indicating disagreement or by hinting at its unreliability.11 Endorsed utterances,
vice-versa,
are
generally
represented
as
factual,
trustworthy and, as such, worthy of consideration. In the documents under our analysis, the presentation of data and quotations of public officers and of Ministers in the English version are referred to with more emphatic, committed phrases whereas in the Italian version a more neutral, implicit mode is the common option (e.g. embraces becomes “si è fatto carico”). In some cases, endorsed utterances are completely omitted, as for the following reporting and reported sentences: In a closing statement, one of the Ministers echoed many of his colleagues when he declared “We can do it! Let me tell you we are bringing the gender gap to zero by 2005”.
11
This is generally done by means of a quoting verb such as ‘to claim’ and ‘allege’. Another recurrent mechanism for more indirectly indicating dis-endorsement is to mark the utterance as unexpected or surprising. Dis-endorsement can, however, reach the point of absolute rejection or denial of the attributed proposition.
12
We could now remember, with Umberto Eco (2003), Jakobson’s suggestion that a translator has to decide what the prevailing function or aspect of a text is and focus on that in order to make the right translation choices and exclusions.
The Italian translation of the
Unicef Report seems to be very far from this.
3.
Lexical/semantic shifts in the translation process:
gradation in emphasis
3.1.
Concrete vs Abstract Language
The most immediately striking feature when comparing the native and the translated Report is lexical diversity – i.e. a shift in perspective in the choice of words. Shifts of various kind are inextricably linked up with other translation decisions, and the expected result is an overall different functional effect. Shifts at micro level do not necessarily correspond to significant shifts at macro level in the global interpretation of the text, although some kind of cumulative effect is reached, as happens in our TT to a notable degree. The aim here is not to evaluate, but to emphasize how the main translational/semantic move is from a more specific and concrete to a more general and vague language. In the native text the language
13
carries with it – even though used as lingua franca for international communication – connotations and semantic implications of the source linguistic and cultural system. The lexical choices and, often, the use of tenses themselves in the ST are meant to convey the idea of a required and/or achieved efficiency in the UNICEF initiatives and work; this, in turn, should stimulate a chain reaction-like response in the reader, who is urged to be proactive and effective in offering his helping hand. In the TT, on the contrary, the frequent aspects of vagueness and the clear trend towards abstract terms create a kind of emotional gap between the text and the recipient, who is not so physically and empathically involved as when reading the English version. The force of the examples shown in the following table is lessened, owing to their being extrapolated from their original context: let us not forget that semantic/pragmatic values and the quasiconventional meanings of many lexical items and phrases are fully carried out only in their own particular context, not in others.
CONCRETE
ABSTRACT
less healthy than they could be
la loro salute è precaria
eradicate
eliminare
would follow
si potrebbe ottenere
is
sarà
framework of partnership
concetto di alleanza
backbone
alla base
14
to set up strategy to tackle
elaborare programmi per
underachievement by boys
migliorare l’apprendimento degli studenti maschi
stay on task
seguire il discorso
to prick the conscience of the
scuotere la coscienza dei più
comfortable
fortunati
bring home
messo in luce
Table 2. Concrete vs Abstract Language occurrences
3.2.
Visual/Spatial Language vs Bureaucratese
Another aspect that lexical choices in the native text seem to negotiate with the readers is the role of spectators, who are called to an empathic participation in the evoked scene. “To make them see” seems to be the main ST purpose. The most frequently chosen rhetorical tool aimed at using words to make visual experiences more evident in our ST is hypotyposis; it may work at denotative level, e.g. – the availability of safe, accessible and girl-friendly schools ( p.24), and through very precise spatial descriptions: the new school – a single classroom on the ground floor of a converted house – ( p.19), or using long, detailed lists of human participants or of objects, e.g.: Along the dusty, rugged pathways that trickle across El-Geneina in West Darfur, an area of Sudan near the border with Chad, a slim, bright-eyed 11-year-old girl leads an
15
impressive procession of three donkeys. The first is so overloaded with yellow grass that only its spindly legs and doleful eyes can be seen; the other two strain under their heavy cargoes of firewood and water (p.65); or through accumulation of events and characters and/or objects, e.g.: with its wide streets and friendly faces, Kuninga is a pleasant village with a market selling fruit, grain and third-hand shoes. There are also school books and pens for sale…( p.47). These represent marked and significant stylistic choices, that are not always fully rendered in the TT. This intentional accumulation effect of examples with a clearly rhetoric finality must have been considered somehow superfluous in the TT, and consequently are often omitted. At lexical level we can often notice a remarkable shift from words evoking visual/spatial scenes to more vague or bureaucratic language, as when to accompany on the road becomes “condurre verso”, or girls left out of school is replaced by “ragazze private del diritto all’istruzione”, or else, for seeing the right to an education fulfilled becomes “dare attuazione al diritto all’istruzione”.
VISUAL/SENSORIAL LANGUAGE
BUREAUCRATESE
all children are in school
istruzione universale
will need to win
dovrà fare opera di convincimento
to accompany on the road
condurre verso
impact
prezzo
girls left out of school
ragazze private del diritto
16
all’istruzione is child rights in action
e’ un esempio concreto di come dare attuazione ai diritti del bambino
for seeing the right to an education fulfilled
dare attuazione al diritto all’istruzione
action
impegni
to attract and retain girls and
permettere ai giovani di proseguire
boys in school
gli studi
create
avvicinare
fewer children will die
la mortalità infantile diminuisce
rooted in the belief
associato
flawed
priva di validità
has followed a slow path to the
si è arrivati tardi
realization push for girls’ education
trasformano il tema dell’ istruzione femminile
their feelings are right on target
si tratta di considerazioni fondate
flooded
invase
in the same vein
analogamente
have been shown to work on
già sperimentate con successo
the ground now being brought into the
altrove solo oggi si comincia a discutere
light sieged
attacco
17
have set a seal on
hanno convalidato
girls drop out
la dispersione scolastica femminile
the rhythm of schooling
l’abitudine alla scuola
to recognize and respond
prendere misure in merito
schools for the hard to reach
frequentare lezioni ai più svantaggiati
reach out to children’s individual needs in order to get more girls into school boys are not being reached
rispondere alle esigenze del singolo individuo per migliorare l’istruzione femminile sono in prevalenza i maschi a restare esclusi
clear goals
finalità principali
get them into school
introducendoli e mantenendoli nel sistema scolastico
starved
private
must take practical steps
devono prendere misure concrete
we cannot walk any deeper
non possiamo progredire
poor provinces
province dotate di scarsi mezzi
Table 3. Visual vs Bureaucratese language occurrences.
The quality of the native text language is sensibly nearer to the physical space used as recognizable referent, as for example when in the same vein, becomes “analogamente”. This seems to indicate a stronger belief in the capacity for action, and, more important, for
18
efficacy: underlying the authorial lexical choices of make change, action in ST vs. the Italian version “intervenire”, “impegni” there is a remarkably different stance-taking at work. Here we are not discussing the changes or usual strategies which the translational process between two different linguistic systems makes necessary and which do exist in our Italian Report, as for example the instances of substitution (i.e. “materie umanistiche” for language-based subjects, or “sedi locali” for clubs and chapters).
What is at stake here is rather the transitivity of language which signifies the faith in the transitivity of political intervention: the native text moves on a much more interactive discourse plane than the Italian version, where create rather than “avvicinare” is the goal. The bureaucratic, less visual (if sometimes more elegant) Italian stylistic choices appear to mask a more neutral, distant attitude.
4.
From Explicitation/Implicitation to Paraphrases and
Omissions
4.1.
Explicitation/Implicitation
One of the most striking features emerging from the parallel reading of the two texts has been the impression that the Italian translation of
19
the Report differs in a kind of norm-disconfirming way from its native text, as we shall analyse below in the discussion on the Explicitation/Implicitation ratio at discourse level. If we accept the generally shared notion that a tendency to Explicitation in translated texts is a Translation Universal, then the situation of the texts under analysis is remarkably different. The easiest way of illustrating the Explicitation/Implicitation ratio may be to start with the first.12 Explicitation has traditionally been described as the introduction into the TL of information that is implied in the SL, and which can be inferred either from the context, or, to use Malinowski’s words, from the ‘context of the situation’ ”(1923), or ‘context of culture’ that has wider implications. Every language is deeply embedded in its cultural context and no linguistic items can ever claim to be exclusively denotative. As a matter of fact, a springboard for investigating wider issues concerning the product and the process of translation is the study of the specific pressures, constraints and motivations under which translated texts are produced within their own social, cultural and pragmatic contexts. When considering transitions (or translations) from SL to TL texts these notions are crucial and intersections to and from linguistics to translation studies are significant. In later years, Firth in the 1950s, Hymes in the 1960s, van Dijk in the 1970s and Halliday and Hasan in the 1980s, among others, set up articulate frameworks for the
12
Cf. Blum-Kulka 2001 [1986].
20
description of the ‘context of the situation’ and of the linguistic functions involved. This by now shared knowledge has added a conscious contextual dimension to the process of translating – no longer, or perhaps never exclusively, concerned just with the co-textual (or specifically linguistic) features of the texts dealt with. Explicitating the context has now become a major issue, and, from a cognitive perspective, it can be considered as an unconscious mental process emerging automatically in every act of linguistic mediation - a kind of spontaneous negotiation of meaning. Translated texts are expected to be more ‘explicit’, and usually longer, than either the ST or an analogous text in the TL, as Pym very clearly states in his work-in-progress
“Explaining
Explicitation”
(2005).
The
“explicitation hypothesis”, he writes, is one of the few apparent discoveries that have been made by Translation Studies. Developed by Klaudy in relation to translation directionality and processes of implicitation, the hypothesis has been refined in such a way that we can now distinguish fairly well between explicitation required by different language systems (where explicitation in one direction is ideally matched by implicitation in the other) and explicitation as a feature of the translation situation itself (where the relation between explicitation and implicitation is asymmetric). In these terms, specifically asymmetric explicitation has been hailed as a potential translation universal [our emphases].
21
Here Pym is summarising Klaudy’s (1998) more analytical Explicitation frame, which distinguishes among up to four types of explicitation.13 Other researchers as Hervey and Higgins (1992: 248), introduce also Compensation as a frequently used “ technique of making up for the translation loss of important ST features by approximating their effects in the TT through means other than those used in ST”. Barhudàrov (1975:218-219) specifies that Compensation: is used in cases when given elements of the emitting language text for one reason or another do not have equivalents in the receiving language and cannot be transmitted through its means[sic]; in these cases in order to compensate for the semantic loss determined by the fact that a given unit in the emitting language remained untranslated or was translated incompletely (not for the whole spectrum of its meaning), the translator transmits the same information through another means, not necessarily in the same position within the target text as it was found in the original.
Let us now briefly turn to our Unicef report. What we are considering is not so much the explicitation required by different language systems; the domain of our analysis is rather within that of
13
Klaudy identifies obligatory (which arises from syntactic and semantic
differences between SL and TL); optional (dictated not by grammatically compelling reasons, but by mainly stylistic needs); pragmatic (required by cross-cultural differences, involving translators’ explanations of ST culture-specific concepts); translation-inherent (depending on the nature of the translation process itself).
22
explicitation as a feature of translation itself (“asymmetric explicitation”), and, to be more specific, the emphasis is on the influence of the communicative context on linguistic choices and significance. Some further, general considerations on explicitation are however necessary, before focussing on our texts. Firstly, meaning does not, obviously, belong to a universal, univocal and stable category for all that can be simply made explicit or implicit. The translator therefore tends to act as a an in-between, a link between the two parts, who plays the role of facilitator of communication as much as possible, both at systemic level, coping with the constraints of the two languages involved, and at cultural level. It is now acknowledged, in the fields of comparative linguistics and of translation studies, as Umberto Eco (2003) among others states, that translation is not between systems, but between texts, or, to use Saussurean terms, between parole, rather than langue14. Individual differences notwithstanding, the findings of corpus linguistics have highlighted some characteristics which are common to translated texts; they are generally longer, less varied in their linguistic choices, and the use of cohesion markers is more frequent. By and large, the whole process appears to be as an act of interpretation/explanation performed by the translator, according to his skills and the criteria adopted. Meaning can and has to be
14
Saussure (1957), however, in his famous Cours maintained that a systemic study of parole was unattainable.
23
modulated in different socio-cultural contexts, and translators can sometimes go beyond what is generally called the literalist approach if this allow better comprehension. Other modes of explicitating are clearly formulated by Klaudy and Károly (2005:16): Explicitation takes place, for example, when a SL [..] unit of a more general meaning is replaced by a TL […] unit of a more special meaning; the complex meaning of a SL word is distributed over several words in the TL; new meaningful elements appear in the TL text; one sentence in the SL is divided into two or several sentences in the TL; or, when SL phrases are extended or “elevated” into clauses in the TL, etc. Implicitation occurs, for instance, when a SL unit of a more specific meaning is replaced by a TL unit of a more general meaning; translators draw together the meaning of several words, and thus SL units consisting of two or more words are replaced by a TL unit consisting of one word; meaningful lexical elements of the SL text are dropped; two or more sentences in the SL are conjoined into one sentence in the TL; or, when SL clauses are reduced to phrases in the TL, etc [our italics].
The Implicitation process, as described above, is far more frequently recognizable than Explicitation in the Italian translation of the 2004, Unicef Report, as we shall presently see. The reasons for that will be a matter of discussion, especially for those Implicitation instances that are not justifiable in systemic terms. The TT we are dealing with seems to contradict the general tendency to Explicitation, which is definitely more common than Implicitation in translated texts, for different reasons. The choice whether to explicitate or not
24
can be determined by various factors: the degree of liberty allowed to the translator and the experience of the translator, or the lack of it (Blum-Kulka 2001; Levy 1965). A certain amount of redundancy (i.e. the epiphenomenon of Explicitation) is attributable to the effort of surmounting cross-cultural diversity and so enhancing understanding at a deeper level – translators being perfectly aware of the difficulties both of the reading and of the construction of meaning processes. Different ‘contexts of situation’ require more explicit communicative strategies. In other terms, text translation is not only a matter of processing linguistic information; but, more importantly, it entails taking account of a number of other factors underpinning textual statements, some of which include possibly dissimilar features of the socio-political system and cultural background of the country. Following the seminal studies of Halliday and Hasan (1985), de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), among others, texts are now considered as a form of social exchange, or negotiation, of meaning; therefore reading and translating are ‘situated’ activities. The larger the shared cultural area is, the easier the interpretation, and, consequently the less necessary the process of Explicitation.15 So far as our UNICEF texts are concerned, the most relevant aspect seems to be the prevalence of Implicitation over Explicitation. 15
Explicitation, since its first definition in 1958 by Vinay and Darbelnet - the process of introducing information into the TL which is present only implicitly in the source language, but which can be derived from the context or the situation - has been, together with Implicitation, the focus of much debate in Translation Studies, and there is still no agreement on their exact definitions. Research is making rapid progress, but, however interesting and stimulating the various issues may be, to offer a global perspective of the state of the art remains beyond the purposes of the present analysis.
25
Such a situation may occur for different reasons, as Puurtinen states: Implicitation can be caused by “insufficient skills and knowledge rather than ideological motivations”(Puurtinen, 2003: 53). In our case, however, as Implicitation examples range from the omission of single words to the summing up of whole paragraphs into a few lines or even just a few words, not to mention the omission of entire paragraphs, it is not always easy to leave out ideological motivation. Let us now illustrate our points with examples from the tables below. In the following Table we show the few examples of Explicitation we found. You can easily notice that even though they are classifiable as such, they do not particularly clarify nor amplify the meaning. They do not convey nor add any sympathetic move, but rather translate meaning in a more formal and bureaucratic language, as when the adjective poor becomes “dotati di scarsi mezzi”, or the phrase a violence-free school environment is translated as “un ambiente scolastico tutelato dalla violenza”.
EXPLICITATION ST unrecorded p.8
are gender-blind p.11
TT normalmente passa sotto silenzio p.8 non considerano l’approccio di genere p.11
26
fino a quando non si troverà un in the absence of a vaccine
vaccino per HIV/AIDS, l’arma
against HIV/AIDS, education is
migliore che le società hanno a
society’s best defence against the disposizione per difendersi dalla disease. p.48
malattia rimane l’istruzione.
p.
47 In ultima analisi per liberare Ultimately children will only be
l’infanzia dal lavoro minorile, dal
free from child labour, trafficking commercio dei bambini e dallo and sexual exploitation when:
sfruttamento sessuale, è
p.51
necessario che si verifichino le seguenti condizioni p.51 correlata con gli schemi di
connected with their traditional socialization as males. p.63
the gender balance of teachers p.63
their traditional socialization as males p.63
socializzazione maschile che hanno avuto modo di sperimentare p. 63 il rapporto numerico tra insegnanti maschili e femminili p.63 gli schemi di socializzazione maschile che hanno avuto modo di sperimentare p.63
Girls’ schooling can and should
Tra le misure che si sono
be promoted by actions such as:
dimostrate capaci di promuovere
p.76
l’istruzione femminile citiamo le
27
seguenti: p.76 Table 4. Occurrences of explicitation.
Far stronger is the impact of the numerous instances of Implicitation, which in the TT we are dealing with is multifaceted, including, as we hinted above, Paraphrase and Omissions (see the corresponding tables). In the table below we have selected some of the more significant examples from the text that can be classified as pure Implicitation. Implicitation here works by moving from more specific to more general meaning, as in the case of behaviour and attitudes replaced by “scelte”, and being constructive with both support and advocacy for change when needed by “offrendo critiche costruttive”, or else a unique positive force replaced by “un’occasione unica”, and still the fruits of economic growth by “la crescita economica”. Predictably enough, the dropped items are those having positive connotations and belonging to the semantic area of support and enhancement:
IMPLICITATION ST child trafficking
TT p.8
traffico p.8
the price of losing p.8
perdere p. 8
experiential knowledge that will
bagaglio di conoscenze al quale
accompany the governments
far ricorso nel difficile compito di
through the difficult tasks of
attuare il diritto all’istruzione
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facilitating education as a human
p.11
right p.11 literacy and language skills gained l’alfabetizzazione delle bambine by girls p.18
p.18
every parents knows this to be
tutti i genitori lo sanno p.19
true p.19 how the status of women relative
come la condizione femminile
to men affected their participation potesse influenzare il contributo p.21
delle donne p.20
move closer p.38
più vicini p.38
ensuring children the best start in
il miglior inizio possible p.45
life p.45 care for, entertain and help
l’educazione dei bambini in età
educate pre-school-age children
prescolare p.48
p.48 children affected by HIV/AIDS
i bambini e l’ HIV/AIDS p.49
p.50 Table 5. Occurrences of implicitation.
These instances have been included only according to their relevance in the particular context of the Explicitation / Implicitation ratio, in order to highlight the pragmatic move at work from a more interactive to a more autonomous plane of discourse. This, among the others, supports the hypothesis of the norm-disconfirming value of our TT,
29
which, to refer to a quantitative datum, is 143 pages long, i.e. 5 pages shorter than the ST!
4.2.
Paraphrases
Implicitation works also through paraphrases by conjoining two or more sentences in one, with an undeniable loss of the emphatic aspects of the ST language. For example, the emotional attitude to poor women and their hardship gives way to a simply informational perspective, as it can be seen in the first example of the following table.
PARAPHRASES ST
TT
these cuts hit poor women particularly hard colpendo in particolare since they had to step up their workload
le donne, che per far
both inside and outside the home so that
sopravvivere la famiglia
their families could cope. p. 21
dovevano addossarsi un maggior carico di lavoro, sia in casa che fuori. p.21
this failure to reduce the overall number of
e queste cifre
30
children who do not attend school is
nascondono situazioni
worrying enough – especially bearing in
ben più gravi se si
mind the hazards, from exploitative child
considerano determinate
labour to HIV/AIDS, to which these out-of- aree del mondo.
p.31
school children are disproportionately exposed – but the global figure hides an even more disturbing truth at the regional level. pp. 31-32
If the spirit of the Millennium Declaration
Appare evidente che i
and the targets of the Millennium
governi dei paesi in via
Development Goals are to be met – and the
di sviluppo dovranno
education goals are only one part of the
assumersi la loro fetta di
picture – it is clear that governments in
responsabilità, che è
developing countries will have to bear the
senza dubbio la
lion’s share of the responsibility. 37
maggiore. 37
but the evidence presented in this report
tutti sono chiamati in
demonstrates that the challenge of
causa: p.73
education for every girl is a challenge to developments in all its sectors: p.73 Table 6. Examples of paraphrases
31
4.3.
Omissions
The climax of the Implicitation process in our TT is represented by an extreme form of replacement, which could be labelled as ‘Zero Degree Substitution’, and goes from single words (150 words) to impressively large stretches of text. Even though there is no loss of essential information and data, and the main communicative aim of the Report textual genre is respected, what gets partially lost is the undeclared but perhaps more authentic communicative purpose of the ST: advocacy for political and economic support. The connotative function of the ST loses force remarkably in the TT; it is therefore at the pragmatic level that the change is more pervasive, as you can notice in the Clause and Sentences Omissions table.
Even though our analysis was both quantitative and qualitative, owing to space limits, in the data reported in the following table you will find only a selection of meaningful examples. What makes these omissions difficult to classify is their lack of homogeneity; they include both contextual /historical and intra-textual references and information, [underlined in the table], apart from comments of various nature: value-indicating [in bold] and epistemic/evidential [in italics] being the more recurrent. (Not infrequently, they include pieces of information, whose loss is not,
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however, seriously detrimental for the informational level). It is not easy to draw a line between the functions and communicative purposes of the different omissions, thus a certain amount of overlapping and intersection cannot be avoided. Nearly all omissions are affect-connoted, and references and information are not clearly separable from the epistemic dimension. The choice has been made according to what appears to be their foremost quality.
CLAUSE AND SENTENCE OMISSIONS ST
OMITTED IN TT
No other policy [i.e. to educate a girl] is as powerful in increasing the chances of education for the next generation.
Vii
…girls continue to systematically lose out on the benefits that an education affords.
p.1
The events of 11 September 2001 and the battle against terrorism around the globe have occupied much of the world’s headline attention and soaked up resources that could have been devoted to human development. p. 2 Millions of children under five will continue to die needlessly over the same time.
p. 2
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Without the foundation of gender parity in education as the necessary step towards the equality of women, any achievements towards the later goals will not be sustainable.
p.3
In a closing statement, one of the Ministers echoed many of his colleagues when he declared “We can do it! Let me tell you, we are bringing the gender gap to zero to 2005.”
p.3
Despite these commitments, the ideal of universal education remains unfulfilled and gender gaps persists until today.
p.4
And scores of countries are without the talent, energy and creativity these millions of children could bring to the development of their societies. p.7 Education will open up the world to her.
p.7
asking mothers or caregivers whether their young children attend school.
p.7
Using different methods – enrolment and attendance – helps get closer to the real number of children who might be denied their right to an education, and so in need of our intervention.
p.7
And because of the persistent and often subtle gender discrimination that runs through most societies, it is
34
girls who are sacrificed first, being the last enrolled and first withdrawn from schools when times get tough. p. 9
The effort is morally imperative; it must also be practical and it must be catalytic.
p.12
The international community has committed itself, time and again, to fulfilling the education rights of girls as well as boys. The research community has demonstrated, in study after study, the social value of providing girls with an education.
p.13
There is no acceptable excuse for denying her the opportunities to develop to her fullest potential. Education saves and improves the lives of girls and women. p.17 If they miss out on this, they inevitably miss out on secondary education and all the good that goes with it. p.17 [Education has an impact on areas beyond learning], extending a positive influence into most aspects of a child’s life. p.19 Growth remained limited in all but a few developing countries and no consistent evidence emerged to show that this type of growth alone would reduce poverty or inequality.
p.21
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Beyond these broad international trends are other factors that have stopped girls’ education from gathering the attention it deserves.
p. 23
For poor families, bearing the opportunity cost of sending a girl to school may not seem economically justifiable in the short term. p.23 In some powerful quarters there will still be overt discrimination and determined resistance to the idea of giving girls an equal chance. Many politicians, administrators or aid officials who pay lip service to the principles of gender equality remain uncomfortable with programmes that have a specific gender focus, and passively fail to implement them. p.25 Logically and inevitably, a multisectoral approach will yield the greatest results for girls’ education. p.27 Now this new approach and these Goals hold promise for the lives of girls and the fate of nations.
p.27
‘All’ implies that girls and boys must be equally well provided for. p. 31 This highlights the need for urgent, targeted action.
p. 34
In many cases, countries might show no
36
enrolment gap between boys and girls but a serious gap in learning achievements, reflecting a difference in the quality of education received by girls and boys.
p.35
These countries are ready for the societal transformation to help them make the leap and to further advance girls’ participation in society.
p.37
…and how girls’ education can drive the international efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Girls’ education is the most effective means of combating many of the most profound challenges to human development. […] contributing stability to the lives of girls and boys and helping families to heal and look forward. For communities, the strategies for providing girls with the opportunities to complete their education yield benefits for all.
p.45
[growth and development of young children are] achievable only through universal access to a broad range of basic services.
p.45
Efforts to protect children from violence and abuse will also ensure sound early cognitive
37
development. p.45 [the programme] has helped the women realize their responsibilities as parents and their vital role in child development.
p.47
… and those who are in school spend less time in risky situations. And girls, who have traditionally had less access to the benefits of education, have an even greater need than boys for the protection that education can provide. p.48 The fight against HIV/AIDS then – just like that for girls’ education – is multifaceted, and progress on one front cannot be divorced from progress on another.
p.49
Schools now being targeted have reported a decline in the number of pregnancies and dropouts. After families, education is the next perimeter of a protective environment for children. Schools can be a powerful protective force in most children’s lives, especially for girls and others who are highly vulnerable. This is not only because schools physically remove children from potential harm for much of the day but also because they help children learn skills and
38
gather information so that they can protect themselves. p. 51 The unconditional [worst form of child labour] that should be eliminated. p.51 [Education] should be given priority and started as soon as possible. In families with scant resources [girls] are often given substantially less food than boys. Thus girls benefit even more than boys from school-feeding programmes. […]Such programmes – along with accompanying messages about healthy eating – can also trigger better nutrition practices within families, thereby improving the health and well-being of the whole community.
p. 55
…since the school playground can be a brutal place in which physical weakness is exploited and outsiders can be victimized and bullied. With this in mind, making schools safe is a cause pursued as passionately on behalf of boys as of girls.
p. 59
A study by the Jamaican Government showed that gender differences in achievement can be attributed to a range of factors from socialization by parents in early childhood through to gender-biased messages in society as a whole, and also to the fact that boys and girls were treated differently in the classroom.
39
p. 63 A few years ago, it became evident that the boys were having trouble distinguishing love from sexual desire, so a curriculum unit was added on ‘men’s responsibility in sexual relationships, love and marriage’.
p. 64
Education must be embraced as the right of every child. […]Programmes that work must be scaled up. 76 Table 7. Examples of clauses and sentences omissions
Petrilli (2000), refers Eco, very effectively defines translation as a “discorso indiretto mascherato da discorso diretto”. The introductory, implicit metalinguistic formula in any translated text sounds like “L’autore tale ha detto nella sua lingua quello che segue” (Eco 2003: 232-233). This consideration underlies to some extent any translating act, since, as above mentioned, no completely neutral, stance-free language, either native or translated, can exist. It cannot be denied, however, that
Nella traduzione […] vige un tacito principio, per cui si è tenuti al rispetto del detto altrui, anche se è interessante problema giurisprudenziale stabilire cosa s’intenda per rispetto del detto altrui nel momento in cui si passa da una lingua all’altra….
40
Riterrò truffaldini tagli di brani o di interi capitoli… e certamente mi scandalizzerò se scoprirò che il traduttore ha fatto dire o fare a un personaggio il contrario di quel che aveva detto. (Eco 2003: 20-21).
So Umberto Eco states in his Dire quasi la stessa cosa bringing to a close his reasoning about the expected deontology of translators. Considering the documents under analysis we cannot help quoting his words, even though they do not fully represent our situation. If we want to exclude the possibility of “tagli truffaldini”, other interpretations are possible. The cuts could be due, as we mentioned when discussing Implicitation, to the degree of freedom allowed to the translator, and to his experience, or the lack of it. Contrary to this hypothesis, however, is the undeniable general level of translational expertise. At this point we must take into consideration specific extratextual pressures under which the version has been produced: the translator of the Italian version has not worked in a totally independent way. His work has been supervised and edited before publication, and this may account for the trend towards conciseness being space constraints one of the limitations that influence editing practice
in the Italian UNICEF Drafting Team.16 Since there is
interaction between the translator and the editor, it is not always feasible, nor useful, to distinguish between their individual contributions; therefore all we have to evaluate is the final product – the Italian TT, within its situational context. 16
This is what we learnt during an interview we had with one of the editors in charge of Italian Unicef Gruppo Redazionale.
41
Considering the ideological bias of the omitted parts, (that are among the most committed and enthusiasm-raising textual stretches) the hypothesis of political directives is not easily dismissible, though unconceivable
and
above
all
incompatible
with
UNICEF’s
institutional aims. More logical and convincing is the perspective of a purpose-driven approach to the act of translating/editing: the literality of the text has been altered in order to more effectively convey its meaning, according to Italian uses of language. The resulting ‘deviance’ of the text is evident if the ST pragmatic aspects are considered: an empathic, involving message becomes more informational, partly betraying the more authentic purpose of the native text. An alternative hypothesis could be that the translator opted for a reader-oriented interpretative path, negotiating with his potential recipients a ‘refracted’ text, nearer to what he might have imagined to be their expectations. He may have aimed at a version which would be more readily ‘felt’ and stylistically appreciated by a public belonging to a more restricted geographical area and no longer identifiable with a given Anglo-Saxon linguistic system. The Italian “context of the situation” is obviously different from that of authors working nearer to the heart of UNICEF, who are perhaps more directly involved with the situations described in Reports; their drafting of the texts reflects this ‘unity of text and context’, to borrow Hasan’s words, which is somehow lessened in the Italian version.
42
From another perspective, we may also contemplate the possibility that our translator has been conditioned by the tendency towards institutional and bureaucratic language. Translators used to working for International Organizations, in an institutionally-oriented framework, may start considering mainly their colleagues and the Institutions themselves as receivers, rather than the common readers outside the organization. There is no denying the powerful drives towards linguistic and bureaucratic centralization, which do certainly not encourage the adoption of variety and richness of linguistic registers when translating. The result is, as in our case, a kind of ‘sanitised’ or ‘refracted’ text, i.e. a text which has been modified in order to become more ‘palatable’ to the expected recipients.
5.
Commitment vs Distancing
This distance between the ST and TT planes of discourse can be described by using many different approaches or categories; the more general and comprehensive perspective, however, may be to consider the variation in the degree of commitment to the topic exhibited in the two texts. The authorial voice in the ST indicates agreement, support, engagement, endorsement and involvement towards the topic. Underlying the English author’s single sentences and discourseconstruction mode a well-defined and action-oriented system of values
43
is at work. Its more evident pragmatic purpose is to effectively address the belief systems of the intended audiences – that is the rich countries. The ST teleological implicatures are finalised to involve the reader in ethical and charity enterprises, and solidarity is textually conveyed by means of particular lexico-grammatical and discourse choices, which, as seen above, are often substituted, or even omitted, in the TT. In the Italian version a certain degree of ‘distancing’ is usually felt and, in a way, the social meaning and ideological implications of the English version seems to have been altered, as we have highlighted by comparing the corresponding parts of the ST and TT. This ‘shift of attitude’ can also be explained in terms of the general ethics of translation, which include all communicative genres, from fictional to documents and reports (Gouanvic 2001). If we agree that ethics is to be situated in the preserving of the significance of translated texts, compared with the significance of their source texts, this implies that its foundation needs to be the construction or the careful recognition of potential homologies between the two language communities involved. The scope of the UNICEF Reports, however, is much wider, virtually unlimited, since the Reports are written in a super-national context and addressed to a global audience. Their communicative purpose is to appeal to and, in a way, to identify or, even create, a world-wide discourse community that should be able to recognize as common and universal the local (though all-important), situated needs
44
of the developing countries. Not ‘us’ as opposed to ‘them’ but an holistic ‘we’. The distancing move of the Italian version, on the contrary, is conducive to a kind of re-setting of the perspective: their needs, our intervention – a yawning gap, difficult to bridge. The TT stylistic choices seem to build up a kind of compensation area where information is exchanged rather than commitment negotiated.
Concluding remarks
Our analysis, which has included aspects of both what is “in” and what is “of” the texts15, has highlighted how the expected language of the Report – a neutral statement of facts – is not to be found in our ‘State of the World’s Children 2004 Report, whereas, we can observe many different types of strategies, both covert and/or overt, that witness the authors’ undeniable involvement and their (un)conscious attempts to influence, and enhance the reader’s response. Neutrality is denied on the ground by targeted options which, ranging from lexicogrammatical and textual choices up to discoursal ones, contribute 15
More recently, Hatim (1999) has argued that so far in translation studies an important distinction has been ignored. This distinction is between what is "in" and what is "of" the text. "In" refers to the language itself, which can be analysed through text analysis, while "of" refers to the text in its entirety, its overall effect in terms of ideology.
45
altogether to ideologically and socially connotate the text and bias the recipient. Useful tools for our ST/TT comparison have been White’s Appraisal
Framework,
and
the
present
results
of
Explicitation/Implicitation research, by which we have evaluated the different positioning and authorial bias of the English and Italian version, defined as Affective and Epistemic respectively, which in turn contribute to unveil the different ideological perspectives of the source and the target cultures. What in the ST are involving denounciations in the ST often sound like bare statements of unavoidable facts, perhaps to offer the addressee (a donor country ) a ‘domesticated’ text. Dynamic differences in authorial stance towards the topic of the report discourse are manifest – commitment and distancing being the main categories for ST and TT respectively. In a discourse-internal perspective we have seen how, in the native text discourse, pragmatic value is oriented towards mediating between the needs of poor developing countries and, above all, towards ‘changing the minds’ of the recipients, so as to get their substantial help. In the same perspective, the translated text discourse socio-cultural mediation appears to be mainly referential up to the point of evoking an alterity dimension, where the emotional relevancies of the Report topics fade in the interdiscoursive systems of bureaucratic language.
46
In a discourse external perspective or, more specifically, in the inter-textual perspective of ST/TT observation, what appears to be eroded is the expected shared focus of attention on the Report’s contextualized meanings. The dimension of alterity is here more coherently visible: diversities in perspective are undeniable, conditioned as they are not so much by different linguistic systems as by partly discrepant beliefs and attitudes to the major motivational and emotional relevancies.
47
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