Crosssectoral and participatory approaches to

Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 140–154

Cross-sectoral and participatory approaches to combating desertification: The Iranian experience Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich Abstract Anti-desertification planning in Iran operates at the national level through the Five Year Development Plans, the National Plan to Combat Desertification — a long-running scheme for which the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organisation (FRWO) is responsible — and the recently developed National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (the NAP). The Iranian NAP was formulated following the country’s ratification of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and drew heavily on the experience, expertise and collaboration of personnel in FRWO. Development and implementation of the NAP has had major policy impacts in Iran in the two main areas of generating cross-sectoral cooperation between government instruments at the national planning level and by community participation in local projects to combat desertification. Documenting the evolution of cross-sectoral and participatory approaches to desertification in Iran shows that the NAP provided impetus towards a transformation of previous procedures, a policy impact that is continuing to generate change. narf_1299 140..154

Keywords: Cross-sectoral approaches; Combating desertification; Community participation; Iran; National planning.

1. Introduction Desertification is a continuing problem in many of the world’s arid and semiarid lands, affecting more than 10–20% of these areas and representing a major impediment to meeting basic human needs in drylands (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). International recognition of the seriousness of desertification was formalized in a 1977 Action Plan under the general guidance of the United Nations Environmental Programme (Glenn et al., 1998); and later, the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 paved the way for three important Conventions, including the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Desertification was defined by the United Nations Environmental Programme in 1977 as “the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land which can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions” (Lal, 2001: p.37). This earlier emphasis on ‘desert-like conditions’ has since shifted towards a more specific descriptor in which desertification is now considered to be “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich are at the School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Email: [email protected]. © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

various factors including climatic variations and human activities” (UNCCD, 1994: Article 1). Expansion of desert fringes constitutes only a small part of desertification (Glenn et al., 1998) and the perception of desertification as a process of desert enlargement has now been rejected (Mainguet and Da Silva, 1998). Desertification places sustainable development at risk by its adverse impacts on crop yields, rangeland carrying capacity, water resources and existing infrastructure. The diminution of productivity in turn puts economic and social stresses on communities in areas affected by desertification, and may eventually lead to local impoverishment and accelerated migration from rural to urban areas. Desertification-related processes such as a reduction in vegetation cover increase the formation of aerosols, dust storms, atmospheric aerosol loadings, reduced rainfall and changed atmospheric conditions (Geist, 2005; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). These processes eventually appear in the form of encroachment of sand dunes (onto productive agricultural areas, communities, oases and even roads and rivers), diminished visibility, health problems, and stripping of agricultural soils which may eventually result in out-migration (Ahmad and Kassas, 1987; Reheis, 2006; Hare et al., 1977). Sustainable development in desertified areas is likely to succeed only if social, economic, legal and technical

Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 140–154

measures are combined to address existing problems and minimize the risk of future land degradation. This paper presents a brief introduction to desertification and its management in Iran and examines the cross-sectoral and participatory approaches currently being used to combat desertification at the national and local levels. At the national level, attempts have been made to integrate the National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (NAP) of 2004 with the country’s Five Year Development Plans (FYDPs), and for these plans to be consistent with the long-running National Plans to Combat Desertification. At the local level, implementation of the NAP’s objectives has incorporated multiple stakeholders, including local communities, an approach which had not previously been attempted in Iran. This paper, using both English and Persian language sources, evaluates the approaches adopted by focussing on the NAP and its development as a key component of change, exemplified by two projects involving international and local participation under the impetus of the NAP. 1.1. Iran — background to desertification Arid and semi-arid regions cover vast areas of Iran’s land area of 1.64 million km2, with desertified areas affecting parts of 17 of the country’s 30 provinces. These 17 provinces include those arid and semi-arid areas which are influenced by wind erosion and shifting sand dunes (Anon, 2008a) and have mean annual rainfall as low as 141.1 mm

(Modarres and da Silva, 2007). Of a population of nearly 70 million, about 32% live in rural areas. Iran can be divided into five major climatic regions: hyper-arid, arid, semi-arid, sub-humid and humid (NAP, 2005) (Figure 1). The two humid climate areas cover a relatively minor proportion of the country and include a band of subtropical climate along the Caspian Sea (Koocheki et al., 2006). Most areas have an arid to semi-arid temperate climate. In different parts of the country, temperatures range from extended periods of subfreezing temperatures to high temperatures exceeding 40°C (Koocheki et al., 2006). Average annual precipitation reaches approximately 1200 mm in the north but is less than 100 mm in the central region (NAP, 2005). Two major mountain chains lie more or less parallel to the country’s international borders and effectively isolate the interior from rain-bearing winds. The Zagros Mountains extend from west to northwest and parallel to the western borders, and the Alborz Mountains are located in the north and parallel to northern borders (Firouz et al., 1970). The Zagros Mountains force uplift of air masses from the west during winter, leading to precipitation on western slopes but a blocking of rain-bearing winds to the interior lowlands which are much drier (Alijani, 2008). In the north, the Alborz Mountains act as a barrier to moist air from the Caspian Sea. Rainfall at the local scale is variable within generalized climatic regions. Available water resources are extensively utilized, mainly for agriculture. Agricultural lands cover about 11% of the country’s area, with forests, rangelands and deserts

Figure 1. Generalized climatic zones of Iran (based on Figure 3, p.16 of NAP, 2005) and approximate locations of the two pilot projects. © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

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extending over approximately 8%, 55% and 20%, respectively. The remaining areas include lakes and saline areas, and those being utilized for industrial and residential purposes (NAP, 2005). About 126 billion cubic metres of water (including surface water) is harvested annually, of which about 100–118 billion cubic metres or more than 85% is utilized for agricultural purposes (NAP, 2005). Over-exploitation of fresh water resources, both surface and ground water, has become serious (Ghadiri et al., 2006). Iran has traditionally benefited from the continued use of Qanats, the ancient water transfer system found in arid regions. The Qanats are now in a state of decline due to over-exploitation of aquifers through deep wells and urban development (Motiee et al., 2006). Of concern is the suggestion that Iran will be in the absolute scarcity zone for fresh water by 2025 (Marcoux, 1996). Climatic and human factors have both contributed to desertification in Iran. Of the total land area, about 75 million ha are exposed to water erosion, 20 million ha to wind erosion and 5 million ha to other types of chemical and physical degradation (NAP, 2005); however, no published description is available for the methodology on which this assessment is based. Accurate records of water erosion are not available for different parts of the country, but estimated rates using the Modified Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee model indicate that average annual erosion rates in some watersheds may be 20 to 30 times the acceptable level (Jalalian et al., 1997). Overgrazing has also degraded the vegetation of rangelands and forests since the pre-historic era in Iran (Coad, 1980). One of the main causes of degradation is the clearing of forests as reported by Hajabbasi et al. (1997). Conversion of forests and rangelands to agricultural land, combined with uncertain rainfall, has led farmers to cultivate these lands while water is available, but to abandon them when water shortages and drought occur. This contributes to substantial soil erosion. The annual rate of deforestation is currently about 2.3% in the north and 1.1% in other parts of the country (Amirnejad et al., 2006). However in a small watershed in the Zagros Mountains, rural depopulation in recent decades has been associated with lifestyle changes, a reduction in livestock numbers, and an improvement in the forest canopy (Salehi et al., 2008). Other land use changes have involved expansion of orchards and farmlands into unsuitable terrain, with extensive farmlands becoming salinized and unproductive due to mismanagement. Salinization affects more than half of all agricultural land (Marcoux, 1996). As yet no map of desertification in Iran has been produced — such mapping of desertification using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems is a future objective of the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization. Defining indicators of desertification relevant to Iran is important both for mapping and monitoring purposes (NAP, 2005). Key issues and indicators of desertification have been categorized into

those of urban development, socio-economic factors, erosion, water, agriculture, vegetation cover, soil, geomorphology, and climate (NAP, 2005). Each issue has associated indicators: for example, climate has indicators of drought severity, drought indicators, and annual precipitation. No indicator listed for any issue is specifically described or quantitatively defined, nor is there a single aggregated “desertification indicator”. Concerns about defining desertification have not, however, precluded action being taken to respond to the severity of land degradation.

2. Iran — national plans and programmes to address desertification Desertification has appeared on the national agenda since the 1950s, when the main symptom recognized by the rural and urban communities living in the desertified provinces was of sand dune encroachment onto infrastructure (e.g., houses, schools, roads). Accordingly, a central Soil and Water Conservation Committee affiliated to the then Ministry of Agriculture was established in 1958 in Tehran (Anon, 2008a), representing the first national initiative to curb desertification. The Committee was later re-named the Bureau of Combating Desertification and Sand Dune Fixation (now the Bureau of Desert Affairs) and is part of the Iranian Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization. The Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization has played a key role in activities to combat desertification and has major inputs both to national plans and the implementation of local projects. Initial efforts to combat desertification at the national level have evolved both in terms of activities and stakeholders. The only case of significant early crosssectoral cooperation was between the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization and the Ministry of Oil. This joint engagement commenced at the beginning of anti-desertification programmes 50 years ago, when a by-product from refineries was used as oil mulch to stabilize sand dunes. This continuing cooperation involves liquid oil material being delivered to the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization at no cost, excluding the cost of transportation, by the Ministry of Oil. The desertification problem is now being addressed by a combined effort involving various Ministries (e.g., Ministry of Roads and Transportation), Organizations (e.g., Meteorological Organization), and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), for example environmental NGOs, in order to increase the scope and range of activities, to diversify and sensitize national stakeholders, and to embrace broader scientific, executive and local communities in policy-making related to combating desertification at the national level. Over the past decade, the concept of multistakeholder participation — a new approach to combating © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations


desertification in Iran — has been incorporated into antidesertification activities. It was recognized that national anti-desertification programmes requiring major funding and covering a wide range of activities were beyond the capacity of a single organization like the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization; and that projects are unlikely to be sustained unless supported by the local population. This latter consideration is in accord with the preamble of the UNCCD document stressing “the importance of ensuring the full participation of both men and women at all levels in programmes to combat desertification” (UNCCD, 1994: p.4). Multi-stakeholder cooperation involving different national government departments, provincial governments and local communities has been encouraged by explicit policies in government documents. The links between national policies and local programmes will be examined here especially in relation to new participatory initiatives embodied in national and project plans. Plans at the national level include the Five Year Development Plans, the National Plan to Combat Desertification, and the NAP. The effectiveness of implementation of such national plans at the local level will be examined for two projects: the Sustainable Management of Land and Water Resources, and Carbon Sequestration in the Desertified Rangelands of Hossein Abbad (CS). 2.1. The National Five Year Development Plans The first sign of development planning in Iran goes back to the period of 1925–1941 in which the primary development objectives were rapid industrialization and development of the country’s infrastructure (Daftary, 1973). Later, in 1946, a government-appointed commission prepared a development plan for the country which resulted in the formulation of the First Plan for a seven-year period, from 1949 to 1956, followed by the Second (1955–1962), Third (1962–1967), Fourth (1968–1972) and Fifth (adopted in 1973) Development Plans (Daftary, 1973). After the Islamic Revolution in 1979 a new series of Plans, the Five-year National Economic, Social and Cultural Development Plans (FYDPs), were instituted from 1990. Currently, the country is in the final stage of the Fourth FYDP (2005–2009). The FYDPs take precedence over programmes or projects in all ministries and organizations, which are expected to comply with the main objectives and philosophy of the national plans. Each ministry or organization provides a five-year outlook plan and submits it to the Government for approval and inclusion into the FYDPs. In the Fourth FYDP, 14 executive principles relevant to natural resource management are listed (FRWO, 2009a), including: • Improvement of national motivation in order to protect, reclaim, develop and increase the productivity of natural resources; © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

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• Holistic view of natural resource management in order to achieve sustainable development; • Promotion of general knowledge on natural resources through extension and training initiatives; • Strengthening cooperation and participation of local communities and beneficiaries in natural resource management. In addition to the principle of achieving sustainable development, the FYDPs include specific reference to natural resource management plans. One of the Articles of the Fourth FYDP (Chapter 5, Provision 69, Article H) under Section 2: Conservation of Environment, Land Use Planning and Regional Balance, charges the Government with the responsibility for developing “green areas” and forest plantations over an area of 500,000 ha as well as identifying critical foci vulnerable to wind erosion and desertification over an initial area of 1.5 million ha in desertified provinces (FRWO, 2009a). Subsequently investigations covering 6.4 million ha throughout desertified provinces identified 182 critical areas (foci) with various erosion severities (Abbasi, 2006). Policies and programmes relating to desertification control are thus incorporated as a component within the FYDPs. At the level of implementation, projects now involve local communities and the Fourth FYDP highlighted the role of community participation, initiated by the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization, in natural resource management. According to a paragraph in Article 69 of this Plan, 15% of all forest and rangeland conservation programmes should be devolved to rural councils and local communities. 2.2. The National Plan to Combat Desertification The National Plan to Combat Desertification includes those projects that have been carried out mainly over the last 50 years in all desertified provinces and in areas around 97 towns. The Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization has been the main body responsible for planning, implementing and monitoring those projects, known as sand dune stabilization programmes, which include measures such as control of vegetation removal, range management, vegetation establishment, water resource development, soil protection, dune stabilization and some integrated land management, as well as run-off control (Farshad et al., 2002; Nateghi, 2006). Of the 6.4 million ha affected by shifting sand dunes and wind erosion in the country, programmes to stabilize more than 2 million ha have been completed by extensive plantings of resistant species (e.g., Haloxylon) and the construction of windbreaks (NAP, 2005). This has also included fencing and the recruitment of local villagers to ensure livestock are excluded. The diverse activities involved in the dune stabilization programme are illustrated by measures undertaken in 2006 (Table 1). Details of dune stabilization programmes are prepared annually by the Forest,

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Table 1. The sand dune stabilization programme in Iran in 2006 Activity Seeding and sowing Planting of seedlings Seedling production Seed gathering Replanting Oil-mulch spraying Exclosure Nursery establishment Establishment of biological windbreak Establishment of non-biological windbreak Construction of access roads Construction of troughs Irrigation Construction of wells Run-off control

Amount

Unit

27,724 31,056 7,348,000 239 245,000 4,452 816,831 322 1,087 41 61 31 34,344 20 734,300

ha ha seedling t seedling ha ha ha km km km — ha — m3

ha: hectare; t: tonne. Source: FRWO (2007).

Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization and submitted for approval to the Presidential Deputy for Strategic Planning and Control (formerly the Management and Planning Organisation) for implementation in the following year. Nateghi (2006) reviewed nearly 50 years of implementing government-funded programmes to combat desertification in Iran, and identified three distinct periods in which different approaches were taken: 1968–1988, 1989–2003 and 2004 onwards. Projects of the early period (1968–1988) concentrated solely on stabilizing sand dunes on a case-by-case basis in localized areas using oil mulch and establishing vegetation (mainly Haloxylon species). Some success has been reported, mostly because of increased wet spells (Nateghi, 2006). Lack of community participation, lack of technical plans, governmentorientation, lack of interaction amongst sectoral or crosssectoral bodies, and the use of a very limited range of plant species, have been blamed (Nateghi, 2006) for the failure to achieve project goals and delivery in this particular period (e.g., failure in reclamation of proposed areas, or a rise in plant mortality in re-planted areas). Between 1989 and 2003, dune stabilization projects were revised by relevant staff and authorities of the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization as well as local beneficiaries (e.g., villagers and rural people) and NGOs, and projects subsequently incorporated initiatives like increasing the diversity of plant species, establishing and maintaining runoff control schemes, and ensuring adequate project evaluation. Still, projects remained government-based, some were implemented without technical plans and the lack of community participation was a further weakness (Nateghi, 2006). From 2004 onwards, issues like implementing projects based on technical plans, increasing community participation, focusing on research and traditional

knowledge, and improving sectoral and cross-sectoral cooperation, have been emphasized (Nateghi, 2006). Central government still provides most of the funding for these projects. “Participation is defined as a process where individuals, groups and organizations choose to take an active role in making decisions that affect them” (Reed, 2008: p. 2418). Assessing the above-mentioned periods, it can be noted that participation was not a key element in anti-desertification projects especially before 2004. Local people were only asked to assist or take part as employees in projects which were mostly planned by staff from the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization. The nature of local participation, if any, in the two earlier periods of anti-desertification projects in Iran was limited to involvement in the implementation phases, rather than including decisions about project identification and planning. People participation and cross-sectoral cooperation have been enhanced and activities diversified in Iran in recent years. No research has been carried out to reveal the reason for such shifts in attitudes, although a general global increase in participation became “a norm in the sustainable development agenda of the 1990s” (Reed, 2008; p.2418). These attitudes in Iran have been influenced by an increase in international contacts and visits of the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization staff to successful international projects in other countries. The Organization has embarked on extensive cooperation in partnership with international agencies or institutions in carrying out projects, in addition to organizing overseas training workshops or study tours for eligible technical staff. These contacts have progressively extended over the last two decades, especially since the Rio Earth summit in 1992 (FRWO, 2009b). The well-established position of the National Plan to Combat Desertification and the pivotal involvement of the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization in planning and implementation since the inception of the Plans has resulted in the National Plan to Combat Desertification continuing to operate separately from the more recently formulated NAP, which acts as a national policy-making document and the focal point for international funding and cooperation for joint projects. 2.3. The National Action Programme to Combat Desertification The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was adopted in June 1994. Enhancing awareness of the desertification problem and triggering international projects, the UNCCD is the most significant policy framework addressing desertification at the global level (Juntti and Wilson, 2005). Member countries prepare a national action programme (NAP) which delineates future long-, medium- and short-term programmes and plans for © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations


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Figure 2. Current management structures and the Iranian NAP.

prevention of desertification and mitigation of the effects of droughts. The Parliament of the Islamic Republic of Iran ratified the UNCCD in 1996 and the Iranian NAP, a national-level policy framework, was finalized in 2004. The NAP allows for over-arching planning, monitoring and evaluating of programmes and activities related to land and water resource management, and for these principles and strategies to be incorporated into the National Five Year Development Plans. The Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization was designated the National Coordinating Body for administration issues relating to the UNCCD and formulation of the NAP (Figure 2). In turn, the National Coordinating Body encouraged the establishment of the multi-institution decision-making system of the National Committee to Combat Desertification which was unique at the time and is chaired by the Minister of Jihad-e-Agriculture upon the decree of the President. The Committee is comprised of the Deputy Ministers of Jihad-e-Agriculture; Energy; Oil; Foreign Affairs; Interior; Science, Research and Technology; Health; the Management and Planning Organization; Meteorological Organization; Geological Survey; and Department of Environment (NAP, 2005). The National Committee to Combat Desertification Secretariat is based in the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization. This committee has no link to dune stabilization plans, does not produce the National Plan to Combat Desertification, and has no local involvement. Its function is solely to report on projects to the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture. The © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

National Coordinating Body also appointed the Chair of the National Committee to Combat Desertification Secretariat as a National Focal Point (representative) to act as the country liaison to the UNCCD. 2.3.1. Management structure and strategies Iran’s NAP is considered a key document for monitoring environmental processes, especially desertification, at the national level. The NAP encompasses nine strategies to attain the stated goals of effectively combating desertification (NAP, 2005: p.34). These strategies were outlined by the National Committee to Combat Desertification (NAP, 2005) and are here grouped loosely into overlapping categories of those involving mainly government, knowledge-generation, and community participation (Table 2). The Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization has been given the responsibility of designing programmes and coordinating implementation of the NAP in cooperation with relevant sectors and institutions at the national level. The programmes are categorized as crosssectoral and sectoral (Table 3), with each programme being intended for implementation by the relevant sector. The cross-sectoral programme “sustainable management of energy resources” has focused attention on Iran’s potential for extensive use of renewable energy sources (NAP, 2005). In rural areas, wood and animal wastes dominate fuel usage for heating and cooking, but at the national level natural gas contributes approximately half of Iran’s energy consumption (Hessari, 2005). Although several energy

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Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 140–154 Table 2. The NAP strategies based on category of involvement

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Strategy description (NAP, 2005, p.34)

Government

Integration of sustainable development concepts into ministerial and organizational programmes Emphasis on population control and family planning policies especially in rural and nomadic areas Giving priority to preventative measures in curbing desertification Development of technologies to combat desertification through research/training programmes with emphasis on indigenous knowledge and technologies Reviewing existing laws and enactment of necessary regulations commensurate with sustainable development programmes Raising public awareness on risks and consequences of desertification Increasing public participation in planning, management and implementation of anti-desertification projects Directing financial resources towards realization of NAP objectives in national development Developing measures for the expansion of applied research and integration of indigenous knowledge

✓ ✓ ✓

Table 3. Cross-sectoral and sectoral programmes in the NAP (NAP, 2005) Cross-sectoral Programmes (involving the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture and other Ministries)

Sectoral Programmes (involving only the Ministry of Jihad-eAgriculture)

Applied research development Public participation programmes Population control programmes Social programmes Cultural programmes Legal reforms Reforming of the planning system Drought mitigation Sustainable management of energy resources Sustainable management of farmlands Sustainable management of natural resources Sustainable management of water resources

plans using renewable resources such as wind, solar (e.g., Hosseini et al., 2005) and biogas (e.g., Talegahni and Shabani Kia, 2005) have been designed, implemented and proposed especially for rural areas (e.g., Ardehali, 2006), consumption rates of these resources are still low (Hessari, 2005). 2.3.2. Iran’s NAP: benefits and challenges Development and initial implementation of the NAP had diverse benefits, including encouraging the involvement of a wide range of government departments, local authorities, and communities which extended beyond the previously necessarily limited structures of the broad policy objectives of the FYDP and the National Plan to Combat Desertification. At the government level, formation of the National Committee to Combat Desertification was a unique multi-institution decision-making system at the time it was established. While outlining macro-policies for antidesertification activities through its ministerial members, it has linked various governmental organizations, NGOs and relevant institutions in order to highlight the desertification issue in a broader context at the national level.

Knowledge

Community

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

One of the key policies within the NAP was increased public participation (strategies 2, 7 and 9) which in practice involves raising public awareness (strategies 3 and 6), developing relevant technologies (strategy 4), and providing financial (strategy 8), legal (strategy 5) and managerial (strategy 1) resources to achieve this. Local stakeholders and beneficiaries of different ages, socio-economic backgrounds and genders participated in the development of the NAP and were asked about current local environmental issues and necessary future projects and activities. Participation in combating desertification is defined as “the meaningful involvement of local communities in defining, identifying, monitoring and responding” (Stringer et al., 2007: p.199). Discussions began in the late 1990s and involved local experts and authorities of various organizations at the provincial level; and academics, relevant authorities, NGOs and experts at the national level. Following discussions, recommendations were then put forward and a national report was finalized, a cross-sectoral and participatory approach that was unprecedented in natural resources management in Iran at the time. Iran’s NAP has facilitated a more integrated approach to ecosystem management, which requires the bringing together of economic, social and environmental aspects of management (Vogt et al., 1997). Proposed programmes within the NAP framework involve socio-economic and ecological considerations aimed at reducing pressure on the exploitation of natural resources (e.g., introduction of renewable energy resources), increasing public awareness of the environment (e.g., holding national ceremonies on tree planting), poverty reduction and encouraging sustainable management of resources. Initial implementation of the NAP encountered some difficulties, with severe droughts occurring in many desertified provinces of the country in recent years. The drought of 1998–2001 was the worst in the last 30 years, with rainfall consistently less than 60% of mean annual rainfall in 18 provinces (Morid et al., 2006). Some of the most important drought damage included a decrease in © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations


diversity and viability of plant species, leading to instability of land and water resources as underground water levels declined and wind erosion increased (Nateghi and Amiraslani, 2002). At the national level, the Iranian NAP has given priority to preventive measures in curbing desertification (NAP, 2005: Article 3–1–2) rather than to rehabilitation of existing desertified land. Because the NAP attempts to incorporate “bottom-up” processes necessitating strong participatory understanding and procedures, it is different from other governmental plans in Iran and requires new thinking on the part of local communities. All staff, facilitators and governmental experts also need to be trained in the necessary concepts and fundamentals of participatory processes in order to successfully develop and implement the NAP. This has been a short-coming which it is now recognized and being addressed. 2.3.3. Iran’s NAP and cross-sectoral approaches Development of the NAP acted as a catalyst for crosssectoral cooperation and community involvement in the planning and implementation of programmes to combat desertification. The NAP also provided a national-level linkage to the Five Year Development Plans for the coordination of soil and water projects in attaining sustainable development goals. Relevant NAP provisions have been included in the Fourth FYDP (2005–2009) (Table 4). Initiatives lying outside the processes of formal plans include individual Presidential Decrees which may involve multi-stakeholder participation. Following the unusually high incidence of dust and airborne particles in many cities in early 2009, the causes of which are still being investigated, a Presidential Decree relating to combating and managing impacts of airborne sand and dust particles was signed in 2009 (IRNA, 2009). This Decree asks ministries and organizations to identify the problematic

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sand-producing foci, equip and monitor weather stations, publicize the issue, replant trees, and establish early warning systems in each of the affected provinces, especially the western and southern provinces (IRNA, 2009). The Decree involves numerous ministries for its implementation, including those of Jihad-e-Agriculture, Energy, Oil, Transportation, Health, Foreign Affairs, Interior, and Defence, as well as the Presidential Deputy of Strategic Planning and Control and the Department of Environment (IRNA, 2009). The Decree was also aimed at expanding collaboration in combating desertification with other countries in the region, including Iraq. Two projects are examined in this paper in order to investigate the effectiveness of implementing policies under the NAP. One of the four pivots in the NAP framework is “strengthening the role of rural communities in terms of decision-making, planning, designing, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation” of programmes to combat desertification (NAP, 2005: p.32); attention will be directed towards this aspect of the NAP. The first project, the Sustainable Management of Land and Water Resources (SMLWR), was initiated and carried out (1998–2003) before the formal introduction of the NAP. SMLWR was aimed at publicizing the NAP process (e.g., through holding local workshops) and forming a template for the NAP’s implementation. The project’s success (see section 3) led to it being extended for a further five years. The second project, the Carbon Sequestration in the Desertified Rangelands of Hossein Abbad (CS), began in 2003 while the NAP was being finalized and is recommended for a 5-year continuation. Both projects were jointly funded by the Iranian Government and international organizations and were pilot projects for community participation. In terms of policy, the SMLWR project was part of the development of the NAP which in turn is linked to the Five Year Development Plans and National Plans to Combat Desertification. The continuing key role of the Forest,

Table 4. The Iranian NAP in national legislation (modified after Shahsavar, 2007) NAP programmes Cross-sectoral Sectoral

Sub-programmes Drought management Sustainable management of farmlands Sustainable management of natural resources Sustainable management of water resources

* Article 17: sustainable management of water resources; Article 18: self-sufficiency in agricultural products; Article 58: biodiversity conservation; Article 59: valuation of ecosystems; Article 62: air pollution of big cities; Article 65: sustainable ecological development; Article 67: managing internal lakes and banning illegal wildlife hunting; Article 68: establishing private and public lands; Article 70: rangeland management; Article 81: monitoring pollutants and chemical fertilizers and pesticides; Article 96: management, exploitation and conservation of renewable natural resources; Article 134: sustainable management of water resources. © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

Relevant articles of the Fourth FYDP* Article 17 Articles 18, 65, 81 Articles 58, 59, 62, 67, 68, 70, 96 Articles 17 and 134

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Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization at all policy levels provides an on-going core of personnel, technical expertise, links with provincial project officers, and commitment to all anti-desertification programmes.

3. The Sustainable Management of Land and Water Resources (SMLWR) project The SMLWR was carried out in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization, with total international and Iranian funding of US$ 1.2 million and US$ 2 million, respectively. The project area is located in the Hable-Rud (Hablehrood) catchment in Semnan province (Figure 1), which has a population of about 590,000 of whom 25% live in rural areas. Average annual rainfall for the two climate stations closest to the project area is 131 mm (Modarres and da Silva, 2007; frequent visits to website of Iranian Meteorological Organization). Implementation stages of the SMLWR project are summarized in Table 5. It was one of Iran’s first attempts directed specifically towards integrated catchment management and which also involved deliberate efforts to ensure community participation at all stages. The SMLWR project was a first exercise in coordination of managerial activities between rural communities and local governmental experts (Hosseini et al., 2007). The achievements of the SMLWR project included coordinated management, community involvement, diversification of livelihoods, and reclamation of rangelands. At the community level, local people — particularly women — participated for the first time in all rural activities including income-generating schemes. Holding participatory workshops in the preliminary stages helped local people to understand and contribute to the overall context of the project and their role within it. This process was supported by several follow-up meetings and workshops at the local level. The key approach in the workshops was to ensure communication between all stakeholders.

Following implementation of the SMLWR project, the pattern of reliance of communities on the natural resource base for their livelihood has changed. An example of this is the formation of the Women’s Bee-keeping Association. After a preliminary workshop, women of Rameh village prioritized unemployment as an important issue for local women and proposed income-generating schemes of which bee-keeping was selected based on their experiences and interests. Five groups of ten women selected a representative to visit an existing bee-keeping operation and, using a local credit fund established by the project and a provincial self-employment fund, prepared lists of required inputs including bee hives (Hosseini et al., 2007). Early assessments indicate that this small group of women are now very well aware of their surrounding environment and related challenges such as overgrazing, conservation of medicinal plant species, the side effects of chemical pesticides, and the carrying capacity of rangelands (Hosseini et al., 2007). The success and expansion of their bee-keeping project was encouraged further by a Global Environmental Facility small grant initiative, bringing US$ 30,000 to the bee-keeping scheme. Apart from bee-keeping, other income-generating activities, such as cultivation of medicinal plants, have contributed to a diversification of livelihoods. Since the introduction of the SMLWR project, local communities have implemented schemes to improve surface water resources, recharge aquifers and extend small-scale gardens and orchards. This has been achieved through water transfer schemes, reclamation of springs and water wells, tree planting, and expansion of orchards (e.g., walnut and olive orchards). Even though these projects have been carried out on a limited scale, they have encouraged a shift in local management attitudes towards sustainable utilization of natural resources. An independent international panel visited the SMLWR project in 2003 to evaluate its progress and achievements. They confirmed that the project involved a participatory process which was very innovative in Iran, and were

Table 5. Implementation stages of the SMLWR project Stage

Activities

Target groups

Goal

1

Data gathering

2

Holding preliminary meetings and workshops

Provincial organizations, local councils Villagers, land-users, local experts, Islamic councils, local authorities

3 4 5

Holding training workshops Establishing interested groups Preparing participatory schemes

Collecting preliminary information on demography, geography, geology and sociology of the project site Introducing the project principles and aims and establishing linkages with local communities; Identifying local problems and issues relating to land and water resources Training in Participatory Rural Appraisal methods Coordinating future executive activities Prioritizing issues raised in stage 2; Providing preliminary schemes

6

Implementation of schemes

Local experts and facilitators Villagers and farmers Villagers, provincial experts and local facilitators Local communities

Construction of necessary infrastructure (eg. water reservoirs) Expansion of tree plantations and gardens (e.g., olive orchards) Introducing income-generating activities (e.g., bee-keeping)

Source: Modified after Tahmasebi et al. (2004). © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations


particularly impressed by the success of the project in leading to local community understanding of the causes of land, water and general environmental degradation (Mirkiaee, 2007). Important reasons for continuing the project for a further 5 years were the strong willingness and enthusiasm of local people, especially women, to continue these activities; the existence of valuable practical experience in implementing participatory schemes; and the availability of local capacity in relation to infrastructure and staff (Anon, 2005a). In particular, the previously marginalized local women are now able to have their voices heard, feel self-sufficient, have income, work effectively in group situations, are able to prepare reports and financial statements, and undertake marketing of their products (Hosseini et al., 2007). Due to earlier technical training, this group of women now have more knowledge about their environment and its challenges (Hosseini et al., 2007). They are determined to continue these efforts in the future, despite their concerns about degradation of rangelands, losing earlier financial support or possible future markets, and some members of the group discontinuing the involvement (Hosseini et al., 2007). Building on this initial local participation, a key objective of the second phase of the project was to focus on “empowerment of rural communities in Iran” (State Forest, Range, and Watershed Management Organization, 2007: p.2). Initial implementation of the SMLWR project yielded valuable experience which was applied to address identified shortcomings. Inadequacies included poor understanding of community participation by the public sector and a lack of sectoral and inter-sectoral coordination. It was recognized that the second phase of the project must include a well-defined plan with improved integration between different levels of the organizational structure (national and provincial governments, central and provincial project officers, and the United Nations Development Programme) and the local participating community (FRWO, 2007); and that real participation at the local level involves people contributing actively to the decision-making process and sharing responsibilities.

4. The Carbon Sequestration in the Desertified Rangelands of Hossein Abbad (CS) project The second pilot project, the CS project in South Khorasan province (Figure 1), was conducted in cooperation with the Global Environmental Facility and the United Nations Development Programme and also involved local communities in managing natural resources. The province has a population of 636,000, 49% of whom live in rural areas. Average annual rainfall for the closest climate station to the project area is 179 mm (Modarres and da Silva, 2007; frequent visits to the website of the Iranian Meteorological Organization). In the following discussion, attention will be directed towards community participation and project © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

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management structures rather than to technical aspects of carbon sequestration. The main goal of the CS project is to increase CO2 sinks in soil by re-vegetating areas using woody plants especially local shrubs which, once established, require no further watering. At the same time the project addresses and promotes capacity-building and social communication through participatory approaches and empowerment of local communities (Amiraslani, 2005; Amiraslani and Zehtabian, 2006). The project is consistent with implementation strategies based on a co-management approach which stresses partnership with communities as well as within communities (Anon, 2005b). The CS project supports alternative livelihood opportunities to enable local people to adopt sustainable resource management practices (Anon, 2005b). The first challenge in establishing community participation in the CS project was publicizing project goals and attracting different gender and age groups at the local level. This was accomplished by holding workshops and local exhibitions, publishing brochures and producing local newsletters (awareness-raising). In order to encourage a broader and more diverse participation at different levels, workshops were held for local authorities, experts, stakeholders and community members in different venues including the local project office, local schools and at village gatherings. Early meetings were participatory workshops in which communities were invited to be briefed about the CS project goals and to voice their local issues and problems. Subsequently training workshops were held, and these were aimed at improving the skills and knowledge of local people, particularly women, on matters such as carpetweaving, livestock vaccination, sowing, agronomy, animal husbandry, birth control and so on. Following the project’s establishment, study tours and field visits have been conducted each year for local people and the project team. Project concepts need to be transferred to the grass-roots level and effective linkages established between project staff and local communities in order to integrate the “top-down” and “bottom-up” components (Stringer et al., 2007) of project management. To assist in achieving this, recruitment of local facilitators was proposed within the CS project and then implemented by communities who elected literate local male and female villagers. Having knowledge of the local language, culture and customs, they are serving as a bridge between local people and the project team. In addition, they participate in bi-monthly project meetings to report on progress and propose future plans. An important benefit of the CS project is that rural people of different ages, socio-economic level and gender have been organized into village development groups for the first time in the area. In 2005, these groups covered 13 villages; by 2008, 23 villages were involved, comprising 1,270 members of whom 54% were men and 46% women (Anon, 2008b). The groups are responsible for managing their local funds, guarding rangelands, identifying training needs, and

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Table 6. Income-generating plans requested by the village development groups of the Carbon Sequestration Project in 2007 (Anon, 2008b) Type of VDG

Number of VDGs

Number of loan applications

Men

6

45

Women

6

146

Mixed

6

34

Repayment period

Examples of income-generating activity

Ranging between 1 month to 1 year Ranging between 1 week to 1 year Ranging between 40 days to 1 year

Fertilization, poultry farming, melon cultivation, forage production Carpet-weaving, handicraft making, sewing Vegetable farming, turkey farming

VDG: Village Development Group.

5. Discussion — cross-sectoral and participatory approaches in Iran

development of the Iranian NAP whose formulation was a key process for establishing stronger cross-sectoral links within the country and for leading to social, economic and environmental change at the local level, indicating its strong policy impact. As already mentioned, community participation has been treated as a key issue in the development and implementation of the NAP. In Iran, formal participation of local people in antidesertification projects was an innovation which required new thinking and a modification of traditional “topdown” (vertical) management approaches. This change in approach was generated largely by the initial consultation processes accompanying development and implementation of the NAP. The Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization was the main driver in this process which, in accordance with UNCCD policy, facilitated the “participation of local populations, particularly women and youth, with the support of nongovernmental organizations, in efforts to combat desertification” (UNCCD, 1994: Article 5d). In addition to community participation, the NAP also instigated greater cross-sectoral cooperation (“horizontal” transfers) in relation to anti-desertification plans and their implementation. This change is apparent in the marked increase in relevant ministries, departments and organizations contributing to anti-desertification efforts after 2004 (Table 7). Stakeholders involved in anti-desertification programmes have thus become more diversified and NGOs, local communities, universities, and private consultants have played tangible roles in designing and implementing programmes and schemes. Stringer et al. (2007) noted that local implementation of the UNCCD policy on community participation has been more complicated than initially envisaged. Based on data and information gathered during the implementation of the SMLWR and CS projects (Hosseini et al., 2007; Mirkiaee, 2007; Anon, 2005b; Anon, 2008b; personal notes*) and

At the national level, desertification management comprises corrective measures that provide the bases for sustainable development of land and water resources (Kassas, 1995), with effective measures relying on both prevention and rehabilitation (Puigdefabregas, 1998). The international protocol of the UNCCD provided impetus for the

* Based on the first author’s experiences while serving in the Forest, Rangeland and Watershed Management Organization as a coordinating member from the commencement of the Iranian NAP preparation phase in 2000; as an Assistant to the National Project Director of the Carbon Sequestration (CS) project; and as a member of the National Committee to Combat Desertification Secretariat until 2007.

engaging in activities such as meetings, local marketing, tree planting, and seed gathering. A local micro-credit fund was established through the village development groups to encourage income-generating activities and to allocate loans for personal or medical purposes. In 2007, nearly 51% of available funds were allocated for income-generating applications, mainly for small-scale farming activities (Table 6). Disbursement of loans is administered by the village development groups based on priorities set by each administrative board, the availability of credit, and other conditions according to a set of 20 rules. The CS project has involved local development plans including the provision of potable water by construction of a pipeline from a water supply outside the area, producing fresh water using solar energy, expansion of vegetated areas and the paving of roads. In order to protect the remaining vegetation and encourage use of energy sources other than wood fuel, solar energy and natural gas have been introduced into the area for the first time. These energy sources are now being utilized by local people in gasfuelled bakeries and solar-heated baths (Anon, 2008b). The CS project benefited from experiences and lessons learnt from the SMLWR project. In particular, the CS project had a comprehensive monitoring plan (including social, economic and environmental aspects) from the beginning; and documentation has played a key role in the CS project, reflecting success stories, experiences, lessons learnt and the voices of rural people which are presented in brochures, newsletters, billboards, TV and radio programmes, and a website. This information is intended to promote awarenessraising among participating villages, neighbouring villages, school children, local leaders and provincial and national authorities (Khorashadizadeh et al., 2009).

© 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 140–154 Table 7. Stakeholders involved in plans/programmes to combat desertification in Iran since the 1960s (additional stakeholders in the NAP period are indicated in bold) Stakeholders Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture Management and Planning Organization Ministry of Oil Ministry of Foreign Affairsa Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture Management and Planning Organization Ministry of Oil Ministry of Foreign Affairsa Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture Management and Planning Organization (currently PDSPC) Ministry of Oil Ministry of Foreign Affairsa Department of Environment Ministry of Energy Ministry of Transportation Ministry of Interior Organization of Meteorology NGOs Universities Private consultants Local people

Plans/programmes FYDP

Period 1. 1968–1988

(to 1979) no link to NPCD

NPCD

FYDP

2. 1988–2003

(from 1990)

NPCD

FYDP

3. 2004 onwards

NAP

NPCD

a only where international agreements are involved; FYDP: The National Five-year Development Plan; NAP: The National Action Programme to Combat Desertification; NGOs: Non Governmental Organizations; NPCD: The National Plan to Combat Desertification; PDSPC: Presidential Deputy of Strategic Planning and Control.

experiences gained during the preparation of the NAP, several lessons have been learnt about initiating community participation in a socio-economic environment where it had not existed previously. These experiences include ways of gaining the trust of local communities; encouraging their interest in combating desertification; developing a free flow of ideas and concerns; providing financial, technical and other resources to ensure effective participation; and emphasizing the importance placed on community involvement by government agencies engaged in activities to combat desertification. In attempting to encourage participation through a gathering of rural people, it is important to invite and involve all local elders and leaders, as they have influence within their communities and their initial cooperation assists in creating positive attitudes towards projects. In addition, it is important that a preliminary agenda be distributed before visiting a village and, during the visit, the pace of change not be forced nor local knowledge under-estimated: this knowledge needs to be publicly recognized and considered © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations

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in any local planning. As an example, one of the issues propounded by local people during workshops for the NAP was to increase water resources through reclamation of Qanats; unfortunately, despite the effectiveness of the Qanat system in Iran as a dryland country, none of the proposed water management schemes in the Iranian NAP considered such a system. Now however, reclamation of Qanats is regarded as one of the national priorities for water management in most parts of the country. This difference in perspectives between a national-level document like a NAP and local community concerns has been noted elsewhere (e.g., in Swaziland by Stringer et al., 2007). In the Iranian anti-desertification programme, these “bottom-up” concerns are now incorporated within projects. Reed (2007) noted that locally-based, participatory approaches to environmental management will generate practices that respect local circumstances, skills and concerns. Respect for local elders and cultures in a multi-ethnic nation like Iran allows information about local needs to flow more freely among project decision-makers and for links to be established between government and local communities based on reciprocal trust and realistic expectations. Continuing local interest can be maintained by conducting tour visits to successful projects, presenting promotional films, and arranging rural celebrations. A need for capacity-building of local experts and staff seems to be crucial. Extension workers in Semnan province consider that capacity-building is enhanced mainly by holding practical demonstration workshops, conducting promotional visits, and showing promotional TV and video programmes (Motevalli, 2006). These initiatives will also encourage people to participate in future activities within their own areas. In the SMLWR and CS projects, a lack of trained experts and facilitators in the field of participatory management was an impediment to progress, resulting in considerable funding contributed by the international donor being allocated in both projects for recruiting international and national consultants, consultants’ travel expenses, personnel costs, and international study tours for project staff. Experience gained during implementation of the SMLWR and CS projects has indicated that community participation in environmental management projects increases timely project delivery, improves sustainability of projects, increases local capacities and knowledge in implementing projects, strengthens bilateral relations between government and local people, reduces monitoring and logistics costs, and increases the involvement of marginal groups (Hosseini et al., 2007; Mirkiaee, 2007; Anon, 2008b). The Iranian NAP is a comparatively recent document which introduces new processes of cooperation and communication between all contributors and is therefore moving towards a more integrated approach to combating desertification. This approach involves numerous stakeholders within and beyond government, and at the

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Farshad Amiraslani and Deirdre Dragovich / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 140–154 Table 8. Participation of cross-sectoral stakeholders in combating desertification in Iran

Programme

Stakeholders

Application level

Application in plans/projects to combat desertification FYDP

Preparation of executive and strategic documents related to combating desertification Enhancing scientific and executive cooperation at regional or international level Fuel supply to rural areas Setting-up solar baths/heaters/ovens in rural areas Carrying out baseline and feasibility study on land and water resources Holding participatory and training workshops Establishing drought early warning systems Stabilizing sand dunes using oil mulch

MA; MFA; MI; MO; OM; NGOs; DOE; universities; local people MA; MFA; MI

National level

MO; MI; local people MA; ME; local people MA; NGOs; universities

National level 17 desertified provinces 17 desertified provinces

MA; MI; NGOs; universities; local people MA; OM MA; MO; local people

17 desertified provinces

NPCD

NAP

SMLWR

CS

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

National level

17 desertified provinces 17 desertified provinces

✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓

CS: The Carbon Sequestration project; DOE: Department of Environment; FYDP: The National Five-year Development Plan; MA: Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture; ME: Ministry of Energy; MFA: Ministry of Foreign Affairs; MI: Ministry of Interior; MO: Ministry of Oil; NAP: The National Action Programme to Combat Desertification; NGOs: Non-Governmental Organizations; NPCD: The National Plan to Combat Desertification; OM: Organization of Meteorology; SMLWR: The Sustainable Management of Land and Water Resources project.

national, provincial and local levels. A summary of stakeholder involvement in combating desertification is provided in Table 8. An important change in government economic policy since 2000 has been the active promotion of private sector involvement in the economy, including in government programmes to combat desertification. As a result, private companies have become responsible for diverse contributions to anti-desertification programmes, including producing seedlings, providing consultants for baseline studies, arranging logistics for field visits, and constructing small dams.

6. Conclusion Desertification in Iran is a national problem which is being addressed through the Five-Year National Development Plans, the long-running National Plan to Combat Desertification, and the recent NAP. The NAP gives priority to preventive measures in vulnerable lands and promotes sustainable management of land, water and vegetation resources in affected areas. Rehabilitation of already degraded areas is accompanied by activities to prevent the further spread of desertification. As a national plan, the NAP provides greater coherence to initiation of provincial and local anti-desertification projects. The recent trend towards a combined management approach, involving cross-sectoral and community-inclusive participation as stressed throughout the UNCCD document, is still evolving. The external impetus provided by Iran’s ratification of UNCCD led to the formulation of the country’s NAP which incorporated new ideas on linkages between government

ministries (cross-sectoral collaboration) and on broadening the definition of those being identified as stakeholders in combating desertification, including especially local communities. As a result, formulation and implementation of the NAP acted as a catalyst for change both in relation to national planning linkages and to inclusion of local communities in planning and implementation processes. A key benefit of the NAP was the change in policy approaches to anti-desertification measures which accompanied its introduction. Anti-desertification measures in Iran have been in place over the last 50-years and are continuing, with a gradual shift towards greater cross-sectoral and community participation being apparent in recent years. The general goal of anti-desertification plans in Iran is to achieve ecological sustainability and improve the welfare of local communities affected by desertification, by placing greater emphasis on more technical executive and research plans (Anon, 2008a); these goals are in accordance with the provisions of Iran’s NAP and the Five Year Development Plans at the national level. In addition, cross-sectoral and community participation is being encouraged at all levels. The administrative and participatory changes prompted by development and implementation of the NAP provide a sound basis for future activities to combat desertification in Iran.

Acknowledgement The first author would like to acknowledge the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Work Relations for providing an Endeavour Postgraduate Award. © 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 United Nations


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