DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANAGEMENT-BASED DESIGN FOR

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Modeling) language, and combining ISO 9001, ISO 14040 and DfE principles. Such a ... based on the belief that Hazardous Substance Free products and ...
J. Environ. Eng. Manage., 17(6), 409-420 (2007)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANAGEMENT-BASED DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT (MbDfE) MODEL Allen H. Hu1,* and Yusuf T.Y. Shih2 1

Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management National Taipei University of Technology Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC 2 The British Standards Institution (BSI) Taipei 103, Taiwan, ROC

Key Words: Sustainable development, design for environment (DfE), IDEF0, management-based DfE (MbDfE) ABSTRACT From a life cycle perspective, the environmental impact of a product is believed to be minimized by up to 80% if environmental considerations are integrated into the product design and development stage. However, a successful product eco-design program requires the support of a well designed management system. Hence, enterprises not only need to implement proactive and innovative management to include pollution prevention in the product design stage, but also need to coordinate all the involved departments to maximize synergies. This study identifies the essential tasks in implementing “Design for Environment” (DfE) practices, including those conducted by interorganizational departments and upstream and downstream supply chain members. A conceptualized model was developed, based on the IDEF0 (Integration Definition for Function Modeling) language, and combining ISO 9001, ISO 14040 and DfE principles. Such a managementbased DfE model can enable enterprises that have already installed ISO family international management standards to easily adopt and establish the groundwork for their eco-design practices. INTRODUCTION Global economic activity and its residuals, including both production and consumption activity, commonly harms the environment [1-2]. Hence, reducing the consumption of non-renewable energy and resources, and promoting the use of renewable energy sources and resources is critical to sustainable development [3]. Kåberger and Månsson [4] also claimed that using solar energy as the main resource could transform human industrial activities into a sustainable system in which industry uses only relatively abundant elements, which are recycled. Kamien and Schwartz [5] concluded that technical progress, along with increasing capital accumulation and substitution, can overcome the limitations on non-replenishable resources. Krautkraemer [6] also identified technological progress as one of three factors that enable an economy to overcome the scarcity of nonrenewable resources. In this regard, technological innovation may be crucial to overcoming resource limitations and achieving sustainable development. *Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

Innovation does not necessarily involve high technology, and management changes represent a form of innovation [7]. Environmental technologies are evolving as techniques (technologies, equipment and operating procedures) and management approaches [8]. Meanwhile, eco-innovation, which addresses environmental issues during product design and development, is one of many approaches to sustainable product design. It has been developed as part of the global movement towards sustainable development [9]. Furthermore, eco-design (also called Design for the Environment (DfE)) concerns the whole product life cycle with the aim of minimizing the environmental impact of the product. It represents a new direction toward sustainable development [10-12]. The PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)-based ISO 9000 and ISO14000 family of international management standards are popular management tools and are applied and certified by organizations all over the world due to their usefulness, commonness and completeness. These standards are also fundamental to many other environmental-related management sys-

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tems, such as QC080000 of International Electrotechnical Committee, which is also known as IECQHSPM (IEC Quality Assessment System for Electronic Components, Electrical and Electronic Components and Products Hazardous Substance Process Management System Requirements). It is based on the EIA/ECCB Standard 954 which organizations implement to comply with the EU Directives of Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment [13]. QC080000 is also based on the belief that Hazardous Substance Free products and production processes cannot be achieved without effectively integrating management disciplines, and this specification is a supplement to and complements the ISO 9001: 2000 framework [14]. To summarize the above, eco-innovation management technology is critical to enterprises because current technologies still have its limit to conserve the resources of the earth by the most efficiency way. This study, firstly, discusses DfE, which is an innovative idea to consider the entire cradle-to-grave life cycle of the product during product design to eliminate any negative environmental impact by designing environmentally friendly products. Moreover, the interorganizational and upstream and downstream members of the supply chain that drive and constrain DfE activities are identified. Finally, a model that adopts the IDEF0 (Integration Definition for Function Modeling) language is presented to decompose ISO 9001 and ISO 14040 management disciplines and DfE principles and incorporates them into the product design process. INFLUENCES ON MBDFE Total Quality Management (TQM) has provided an important foundation for enterprise integration. And environmental assurance is an important element of TQM, so DfE fits naturally into this process [15]. The basic structure of product development remains unchanged when environmental requirements and information handling are incorporated [11]. Furthermore, the relationship between ISO 9000 and TQM is so strong that ISO 9000 can be treated as a documented structure as well as the core of TQM [16]. Most researchers agree that formally establishing and maintaining ISO 9000 discipline and registration will provide an improved foundation of TQM efforts [17]. Therefore, when environmental aspects are integrated into the product design process, the traditional design process (TDP) will be one of the factors influencing the management-based DfE (MbDfE); and ISO 9001 [18] clause 7.3 will definitely be the management discipline of the MbDfE. UNEP [11], USEPA [19] and ISO [20] have their own DfE approaches, and these three models adopt the life cycle assessment (LCA) technique to

identify environmental impacts, which can thus be eliminated during product design. As suggested by ISO 14040 [21], LCA can help to identify opportunities to reduce the environmental impact of products, so LCA is also element of MbDfE. Accordingly, ISO 14040: 1997 is introduced as one of the management disciplines of MbDfE. Purchasing and procurement personnel can be critical in minimizing the environmental impact of business activities [22-23]. The early involvement of purchasing personnel in product design contributes significantly environmental benefits to an organization [24-26]. Companies seeking to maximize the advantage of their environmental management process must incorporate other members of the supply chain into these processes [27]. Pérez and Sánchez [28] also reported that the early involvement of suppliers in product development can reduce the lead time and avoid costly downstream production problems. Furthermore, Khare [29] revealed that the Japanese commonly involve suppliers in product design and development. MbDfE can involve both early purchasing involvement (EPI) and qualified supplier management (QSM). Therefore, both clauses 7.4.1 and 7.4.2 of ISO 9001: 2000 can be incorporated in the management discipline of the MbDfE. Marketing provides the consumer with product and manufacturer information, as well as advice on how best to use the product, including reuse, repair, recyclability and disposal [30]. One of the roles of marketing is to translate the perceptions, preferences, and desires of a consumer into a usable format, enabling designers to incorporate these requirements in the conceptual stage of the design process [31]. Many companies have been actively designing and marketing environmentally friendly products to satisfy the growing public interest in environmental protection [32]. Nightingale [33] stresses the importance of “understanding user needs” throughout the company to ensure that the final product satisfies customer requirements. Floyd et al. [34] also suggested that the early and accurate identification of customer needs and expectations are crucial to new product development. According to the USEPA [35], consumer concerns about environmental issues will grow as consumers become increasingly aware of the environmental attributes of products. Graedel and Allenby [36] also indicated that environmental considerations should be identified and incorporated into the product development process. Additionally, Piasecki et al. [37] believed that when a company begins to adopt environmental strategies, its products or services will include environmental attributes. The above examples show that identifying product environmental attributes (PEA) from the demand side and enhancing customer communication are critical factors in the MdDfE model, so ISO 9001: 2000, clauses 7.2.1, 7.2.2 and 7.2.3 are essential aspects of management discipline in

Hu and Shih: Development of MbDfE Model

MbDfE. Finally, the traditional linear design system has an inherent problem in that the associated design process tends to ignore the needs from downstream departments, so we suggest that information integration in the organization is critical too [16]. Moreover, incorporating environmental, health and safety regulations normally depends on costly redesigns that further delay product realization, indicating that downstream product criteria are integrated into the design process by communication among all of those involved in product realization [38]. UNEP [11] also posits that “the basic structure of the product development process does not alter when environmental requirements are integrated and the involvement of new information handling is required”. Therefore, both internal communication and communication with suppliers are essential to the MbDfE model, and the requirements of clauses 5.5.3, 7.3.1 and 7.4.2 of ISO 9001: 2000 can be used as part of the management discipline of the MbDfE model. Numerous studies of the construction of the MbDfE model have been cited above. The critical elements that of the MbDfE model, displayed in Fig. 1, are presented below.

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SC QSM EPI

Fig. 1. Influence factors that identified in the MbDfE. Control

Input

MbDfE Activity

Output

IDFE0 ANALYSIS The flow of the MbDfE realization process must address the complex linkages and interactions among the various levels and functions of activities of enterprises, so a system modeling tool should be identified to clarify the process and results of integration. This study applies the functional and hierarchical modeling method of IDEF0, part of a comprehensive process definition and computer system implementation method developed more than two decades ago for the United States Air Force [39-40]. The IDEF0 model has also been applied to examine life-cycle environmental analysis [39,41], process improvement and analysis [40, 42-43]. Additionally, IDEF0 has been thoroughly tested and demonstrated to be a useful modeling language, through many years of use in the air force, governmental development projects and in private industry [44]. The essence of the IDEF0 model is a hierarchical approach [40], and diagrams in the graph form are major components of the model [43]. Kappes [42] noted that the IDEF0 method gathers the following activity-related data (Fig. 2). 1. Input: Data or material used to generate an activity output. 2. Control: Data that constrain or regulate activity, and hence also the transformation of inputs into outputs. 3. Output: Data or material produced by, or resulting from, an activity; must include the input data in some form. 4. Mechanism: Resources (typically people, machines

Mechanism

Fig. 2. ICOM of IDEF0.

or systems) that provide energy to, or perform an activity. These elements of the IDEF0 model are referred to as ICOMs (inputs, outputs, controls, and mechanisms), and the arrows that enter a box indicate the information required to perform an activity. Specifically, both a parent diagram representing the least detailed (top level) MbDfE activity, and a series of subsequent child diagrams representing more specific subjects (lower levels), are identified and decomposed into detailed ICOMs to integrate MbDfE realization, which is developed stepwise from its single, basic constituent activities according to ISO9001 and ISO14040. Finally, the arrow into an individual ICOM represents this MbDfE integration model. RATIONALE OF THE ACTIVITIES INCLUDED IN THE MBDFE MODEL As displayed in Fig. 1, essential MbDfE activities include TDP,, LCA, EPI, QSM, PEA, Customer Communication, Suppliers Communication, and Internal Communication. The ISO9001: 2000 stipulated management disciplines for these activities by clauses 5.5.3, 7.2.1, 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 7.3, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, while the ISO14040: 1997 stipulated the management discipline

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for LCA.

evaluated.

1. ISO 9001 and 14040 Profile

2. Top-down Structure Decomposition

The ISO 9001 [18] clauses applied above are summarized below. (1) Clause 5.5.3 specifies that top management should ensure that appropriate communication is established within the organization, and that communication takes place to ensure an effective quality management system. (2) Clause 7.2.1 specifies that the organization should determine product requirements before agreeing with customer’s requests. (3) Clause 7.2.2 specifies that the organization should review the requirements relating to organization commitment to supply customers with a specific product during a specific period. (4) Clause 7.2.3 specifies that the organization should determine and implement effective arrangements for communicating the relevant product information to customers. (5) Clause 7.3.1 specifies that the organization should plan and control product design and development. (6) Clause 7.3.2 specifies that the design input relating to product requirements should be determined and records maintained. (7) Clause 7.3.3 specifies that the design output should be provided in a form that enables verification against the design input. (8) Clause 7.3.4 specifies that systematic design reviews should be planned and implemented as necessary. (9) Clause 7.3.5 specifies that design verification should to ensure that the design outputs meet design input requirements. (10) Clause 7.3.6 specifies that design validation should be performed to ensure that the resulting product can meet the requirements for the specified application or intended use, where known. (11) Clause 7.3.7 specifies that design changes should be identified and recorded for review, verification and validation. (12) Clause 7.4.1 specifies that the organization should ensure that purchased products conform to specified purchase requirements, and should evaluate purchases based on their ability to supply products that meet organization requirements. (13) Clause 7.4.2 specifies that the purchasing information should describe the product to be purchased. Moreover, the organization should ensure the adequacy of specified purchase requirements prior to communicating with the supplier. ISO 14040 [21]: LCA specifies the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle, from acquiring raw materials to the final disposal, should be compiled and

Based on the above IDEF0 discussion, we start with top-down structure decomposition. First, a toplevel activity will have to be selected, and naturally, the MbDfE representing general activity is that numbered A0. A0 is decomposed into the following five activities to combine ISO9001 and ISO14040 and integrate DfE principles into product design. ‧A0 - MbDfE ◆A1 - ISO14040, LCA ◆A2 - ISO9001, 7.3 design and development of the product ◆A3 - ISO9001, 7.4 purchasing ◆A4 - ISO9001, 5.5.3 internal communicate ◆A5 - ISO9001, 7.2 identify environmental attributes of product, and customer communication A2, A3 and A5 are further decomposed to yield more specific information on top-level activities. ISO9001 clause 7.3 comprises seven sub-clauses, so A2 is further decomposed into the following two activities. ‧A2 - ISO9001: design and development ◆A21 - ISO9001, 7.3.1 design planning ◆A22 - design realization However, the activities of A22, A3 and A5 do not suffice to implement the design, purchasing, identification of environmental attributes and customer communication, so further decomposition is required. Since A22, A3 and A5 are treated as parent activities, A22 is further divided into six child activities, as follows. ‧A22 - design realization ◆A221 - ISO 9001, 7.3.4 design review ◆A222 - ISO 9001, 7.3.2 design input ◆A223 - ISO 9001, 7.3.3 design output ◆A224 - ISO 9001, 7.3.5 design verification ◆A225 - ISO 9001, 7.3.6 design validation ◆A226 - ISO 9001, 7.3.7 design change A3 is also further divided into two child activities, as follows. ‧A3 - ISO9001, 7.4 purchasing ◆A31 - ISO9001, 7.4.1 purchasing process ◆A32 - ISO9001, 7.4.2 purchasing information A5 is broken into three child activities, as follows. ‧A5 - ISO9001, 7.2 product environmental attribute identification, and customer communication ◆A51 - ISO 9001, 7.2.1 determination of required environmental attributes of product ◆A52 - ISO 9001, 7.2.2 review of required envi-

Hu and Shih: Development of MbDfE Model

ronmental attributes of product ◆A53 - ISO 9001, 7.2.3 customer communication Figure 3 depicts the top-down decomposition node tree. Before the graph is plotted, the requirements of ISO9001 and ISO 14040 should be analyzed and converted into the ICOMs for each child activity. Table 1 presents the detailed ICOMs that correspond to each individual child activity. Additionally, Table 1 presents activities associated with ISO 9004 [45], to describe concisely this application of the MbDfE principle. Third, the information flow required to perform the activity and ensure suitable interaction among all activities must be established to reveal the meaning of the MbDfE graph, so arrows indicate the beginning of child activities and the completing of connections through ICOMs. A detailed analysis follows. (1) Control Enterprises can use such resources as manpower, objects, capital and schedules, all of which are finite. When these resources are abundant and enterprises make inappropriate plans or arrangements of them because of other factors, MbDfE will certainly be controlled by those factors. Therefore, activity (2) in Table 1 should become the control of the child diagrams A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5 of the MbDfE model. According to clause 7.3.1 of ISO 9001, the output activity (8) of A21 can control child diagrams A221, A222, A223, A224 and A225. According to the clause 7.3.4 of ISO 9001, the output activity (9) of A211 can be the control of child diagrams A222, A223, A224, A225 and A226. (2) Mechanism The commitment of top management, identification of organization and responsibility, development of a management system, establishment of training, cognition and capability of personnel, proper infrastructure, working environment and operation facilities, documentation procedure, and effective communication are all essential to the MbDfE model. Therefore, activities (3) and (26) in Table 1 are the mechanisms associated with child diagrams A1, A21, A221, A222, A223, A224, A225, A226, A31, A32, A4, A51, A52 and A53 of the MbDfE model. According to clause 7.3.1 of ISO 9001, output activity (14) of A21 may be the mechanism of child diagrams A1, A221, A222, A223, A224, A225, A226, A31, A32 and A4. According to clause 7.3.4 of ISO 9001, activity (4) of Table 1 can be the mechanism of A211. According to clause 7.3.2 of ISO 9001, activity (17) of Table 1, which related to the examination of the suitability and requirements of completeness, precision and disputability before the design input is adopted, can be the mechanism of A222. According to clause 7.3.7 of ISO 9001, activity (7) of Table 1, which relates to the examination of design alternation, verification, checking before acceptance, evaluation of the effectiveness of the manufactured products, and

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A2

A1

A3

A4

A5

A22 A31

A21

A 221 A222

A 223

A224

A225

A32

A51

A52 A53

A 226

Fig. 3. Decomposition node tree of the MbDfE (real line: the relationship between parent and child activities; dotted line: the relationship between ISO 14040 and ISO 9001)

the recording and maintenance of necessary actions, can be the mechanism of A226. According to clause 5.5.3 of ISO 9001, activity (25) of Table 1, which corresponds to the establishment of a communication procedure within an organization, can be the mechanism of A4. Finally, based on the requirements of ISO 14040, activities (20), (21), (22) and (23) of Table 1 are related to life cycle inventory, impact assessment, interpretation, compliance auditing, and internal and external expert auditing, and can all be the mechanisms of A1. (3) Detailed Explanation of Input and Output of Each Child Diagram A. Market surveys, user demand, policies and communication are all important to business, so activity (1) of Table 1 is the input of A1, A4 and A53. Additionally, according to clause 7.3.6 of ISO 9001, activity (1) of Table 1 is the input of A225. B. Child Diagram A1 According to clause 7.3.7 of ISO 9001, LCA should assess all design alternatives, so output (15) of A226 can be the input of A1. Besides, based on the requirements of ISO 14040, activity (18) of Table 1 is related to quantitative and qualitative information of product LCA, and can be the input of A1. Activity (16) of Table 1, regarding the identified environmental aspects and functions, as well as the physical characteristics, of products, can also be the input of A1. Furthermore, the output of A1 (16) can be the input of A222, A32, and A21. C. Child Diagram A21 As analyzed above, activities (1) and (16), and (8) and (14), can be the input and output, respectively, of A21. D. Child Diagram A221 According to clause 7.3.7 of ISO 9001, any design alternative can be the input of A221. Therefore, activity (15) of Table 1 can be the input of A221. As analyzed above, activity (9) of Table 1 can be the output of A221.

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Table 1. Detailed explanation of ICOMs for each child activity No. Contents 1 Environmental attributes of products indicated by a market survey; product DfE development strategy; mid and long-term organizational plans; environmental, safety and health commitments; results of internal and external communization; needs of stakeholders, including customers and end-users. 2 Limitation of organizational resources; scheduled product development and production; inappropriate planning and arrangement. 3 Commitment and support of top management; definition of responsibility and authority; establishment of QMS, EMS and OHSAS; personnel training, awareness and competence; determination, provision and maintenance of infrastructure, work environment and facility; other management tools. Top management should ensure that the organization has defined, implemented and maintained the necessary design and development process to respond efficiently the needs and expectation of its customer. 4 Participants in such reviews shall include representatives of functions concerned with the design and development stages under review. Records of the results of the reviews and necessary actions shall be maintained. Before implementation, the changes shall be reviewed, verified, validated and approved. 5 Functional and performance requirements. Applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. When applicable information is derived from previous similar designs and developments. Results of the contract review. External inputs include: 1. customer or marketplace needs. 2. changes in relevant statutory and regulatory. 3. industry codes of practice. 4. contributions of supplier. Internal inputs include: 1. policies and objectives. 2. technological developments 3. records and data on existing processes and products. 6 Design and development outputs meet the input requirements for design and development. 7 Design and development changes shall be reviewed, confirmed and validated, as appropriate, and approved before implementation. The review of design and development changes shall include evaluating the effects of the changes on constituent parts and products that have already been delivered. 8 Identifying the following MbDfE activities: 1. design and development 2. review, verification and validation that are suitable for each MbDfE stage. 9 In appropriate stages, systematic reviews of design and development shall be performed as planned to evaluate the ability of the results of design and development to meet requirements; identify any problems, and propose suitable responses. Reviewing function could be as following: 1. adequacy of input to perform the design and development tasks. 2. progress of the planned design and development process. 3. meeting verification and validation goals. 10 Design and development inputs shall be reviewed for adequacy and recorded. Requirements shall be complete, unambiguous and mutually consistent, and the main priority will be to evaluate the environmental impacts. Requirements of configuration of products that are crucial to environment, such as: 1. operation, installation and application. 2. storage, handling and delivery. 3. requirements for disposal of the products. 11 The outputs of design and development shall be provided in a form that enables confirmation against the design and development input, and the outputs shall be approved before release. Design and development outputs shall provide suitable information to support purchasing, production and service provision; contain or reference product acceptance criteria, and specify the characteristics of the product that are crucial to its environmental friendliness, safety and proper use. Outputs include: 1. data demonstrating the comparison of process inputs to process outputs. 2. product and test specifications. 3. acceptance criteria. 4. user and customer information. 5. purchase requirements. 12 Design and development are confirmed as planned to ensure that the design and development outputs satisfy the design and development input requirements. Records of the results of the verification and any necessary activities shall be maintained.

Hu and Shih: Development of MbDfE Model

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14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

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28 29

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31 32 33

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Examples of verification activities: 1. evaluation against lessons learned from past experiences, such as corrective and preventive action for nonconformity. 2. testing, simulations or trials to check compliance with specific input requirements. 3. alternative design and development calculations. Design and development are validated according to planned arrangements to ensure that the resulting products fulfill requirements of the specified application or intended use, whenever known. Records of the results of the validation and any necessary actions shall be maintained. Examples of verification activities: 1. validation of engineering designs prior to construction, installation or application. 2. validation of services prior to spread instruction. The interfaces of groups, including internal and external groups, and suppliers involved in design and development shall be managed to ensure effective communication among them. Results of any changes in design should be documented, and should also be executed and maintained. 1. Identifying environmental, safety, health and functional or physical requirements of the product life cycle. 2. Identifying the impact of environmental, safety and health impact of product life cycle, and DfE strategy. These inputs shall be reviewed for adequacy, by applying the requirement that they are complete, unambiguous and nonconflicting. Quantitative and qualitative data regarding the smallest portion of the product system. 1. Defining goal, scope, system boundary and functional unit. 2. Data quality requirements. 3. Comparisons among systems. Life cycle inventory analysis and the calculation of energy flow. Life cycle impact assessment, including classification, characterization and evaluation (including weighting). Interpretation of the results of the inventory analysis and impact assessment. Critical review, including internal and external expert reviews. Top management shall ensure that appropriate communication processes are established within the organization. Communication shall take place on the effectiveness of the quality management system and environmental management system. Ensure that the implementation of MbDfE is effective. The following communication activities can ensure MbDfE implementing effectively: 1. management- led communication 2. team briefings and other meetings 3. notice board, in-house journals 4. emails and websites 5. employee surveys schemes Information on purchasing, where appropriate, shall include 1. requirements for approving the product, procedures, processes and equipment; 2. required qualifications of personnel, and 3. requirements of the MbDfE model. The purchased product shall conform to specified purchase requirements. In other words, the raw material purchased shall meet the criteria of MbDfE output. The suppliers shall be evaluated and selected according to their capacity to supply product that satisfies the requirements of the company. Criteria for selection, evaluation and re-evaluation shall be established. In certain circumstance, the early involvement in design activities by qualified supplier is needed and recommended. Records of the evaluation results and any necessary activities that arise from the evaluation shall be maintained. For management purpose, any information, data, document, and record for qualified supplier that is conformity to MbDfE output shall be maintained. The company shall ensure the adequacy of specified purchase requirements prior to their communication to the supplier. The MbDfE output should be informed to supplier before purchasing. Product information; customer requirements; contract and order information; any modifications; feedback and complaints from customers. Decisions and arrangements required for communicating with customers. This could be included as following: 1. requirements of customer. 2. contract requirements. 3. competitor analysis, 4. processes due to statutory or regulatory requirements.

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Special customer requirements; anticipated requirements; legal and regulatory requirements, and organizational requirements. That is to say, the designer should have an understanding of the process requirements of the customer. This understanding and its impact should be mutually acceptable to the participants.

E. Child Diagram A222 As analyzed above, the outputs of A1 (16) and of A226 (15) can be the inputs of A222. According to clause 7.2.2 of ISO 9001, activity (5) of Table 1 is associated with the results of the review of product characteristics, so the output of A52 (5) can be the input of A222. According to clause 7.4.1 of ISO 9001, activity (29) of Table 1 is related to the evaluation results of suppliers, which means that the output of A32 (31) can be the input of A222. According to clauses 7.3.2, 7.3.3, 7.3.5 and 7.3.6 of ISO 9001, activity (10) of Table 1 is related to the determined design input and can be the output of A222; the output of A222 (10) can also be the inputs of A223, A224 and A224. F. Child Diagram A223 As analyzed above, the output of A222 (10) can be the input of A223. According to clause 7.2.3 of ISO 9001, activity (15) of Table 1 is related to the results of design alternatives and should be the input of A223, so the output of A226 (15) can also be the input of A223. According to clauses 7.3.3, 7.3.5 and 7.3.6 of ISO 9001, activity (11) of Table 1 is related to the determined design output and can be the output of A223; the output of A223 (11) can also be the inputs of A224, A225 and A32. G. Child Diagram A224 As analyzed above, the outputs of A222 (10) and A223 (11) can be the inputs of A223. According to clauses 7.2.5 and 7.3.7 of ISO 9001, activity (15) of Table 1 is related to design alternatives and can be the input of A224, so the output of A226 (15) can also be the input of A224. According to clause 7.3.5, activity (12) of Table 1 is related to the results of the design verification and can be the output of A224. H. Child Diagram A225 As analyzed above, the outputs of A222 (10) and A223 (11) can be inputs of A225. According to clauses 7.3.7 of ISO 9001, activity (15) of Table 1 is related to the design alternatives and can be an input of A225. According to clauses 7.3.6 and 7.3.7, activity (13) of Table 1 can be an output of A225, as well as an input of A226. I. Child Diagram A226 As analyzed above, outputs of A222 (10), A223 (11), A224 (12) and A225 (13) can be inputs of A226. The output of A226 can also be the input of A1, A221, A222, A223, A224 and A225. J. Child Diagram A32 As analyzed above, the outputs of A1 (16) and A223 (11) can be inputs of A32. And the output of A32 (31) can also be an input of A222. According to clause 7.4.2 of ISO 9001, activity (27) of Table 1 is related to information about purchased products and can be an input of A31.

K. Child Diagram A31 As analyzed above, the output of A32 (27) can be an input of A31. According to clause 7.4.1 of ISO 9001, activities (28) and (30) of Table 1 are related to the conformity with the purchased products and the results of the evaluation of suppliers; they can be inputs of A31. L. Child Diagram A4 As analyzed above, activity (1) of Table 1 can be an input of A4. The output of A4 (26) can be the mechanism of A221, A222, A223, A224, A225, A226, A31, A32, A4, A51, A52 and A53. M. Child Diagram A51 According to clauses 7.2.1 and 7.2.3 of ISO 9001, activities (1) and (33) of Table 1 can be inputs of A51. According to clause 7.2.1 of ISO 9001, activity (34) of Table 1 can be an output of A51; the output of A51 can be an input of A52. N. Child Diagram A52 As analyzed above, the output of A51 (34) can be an input of A52; the output of A52 (5) can be an input of A222. O. Child Diagram A53 According to clause 7.2.3 of ISO 9001, activities (1) and (32) of Table 1 can be inputs of A53. As analyzed above, the output of A53 (33) can be an input of A51. In sum, Fig. 4 presents the concept of MbDfE (Fig. 3, A0). Figure 5 shows an integrated and complete MbDfE model (Fig. 3, from A0 to A1-A5). Figure 6 shows in detail the decomposition of design and development activities (Fig. 3, from A2 to A21A22). Figure 7 shows in detail the decomposition design realization activities (Fig. 3, from A22 to A221A226). Figure 8 shows in detail the decomposition of purchasing processes (Fig. 3, from A3 to A31- A32). Finally, Fig. 9 details the decomposition of environmental attributes and communication respectively (Fig. 3, from A5 to A51- A53). CONCLUSIONS This study identifies eight influences that are screened out enterprise supply chain management activities as part of MbDfE practice. It then presents a model using the IDEF0 modeling language to incorporate the management discipline stipulated by ISO 9001, ISO 14040 and the DfE principles in the product design process. Such a MbDfE model has the following functions and characteristics. 1. Traditional DfE function: This function can systemically identify the environmental impacts of the various stages of the product life cycle, and integrates these environmental aspects into the product

Hu and Shih: Development of MbDfE Model

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5 29 31

Node:

A-0

Title: MbDfE

11

15

2

Number: Fig 4

3

4

26

7

17

Fig. 4. A0 of MbDfE. Node:

2

19

ISO 14040; Assess Life Cycle Impacts of Product

18

A2

Node: Detailed decomposition from A2 to A21-A22

Number: Fig 6

Fig. 6. Decomposition for design and development model.

24

6

2

8

6

16

1 20 21 22 23

ISO 9001; 7.3.4; Review the Design

9

1 1

ISO 9001; 7.3; Design the Product

11 14 5 16

15

2

ISO 9001; 7.3.2; Input to Design

29 31

10

2

ISO 9001; 7.4; Purchase

28

ISO 9001; 7.3.3; Output to Design

29 30

3 31

11

3

ISO 9001; 7.3.5; Verify the 12 Design 4

ISO 9001; 5.5.3; Communicate with Internal 26 Staff

1

ISO 9001; 7.3.6; 13 Validate the Design

4

5

32

ISO 9001; 7.2; Identify Env . Attributes and Com./with Customers

5

ISO 9001; 7.3.7; Change the Design

5 4 3

Node: A0

15

6

17 7

25

Title: Detailed decomposition from A 0 to A1-A5

Number : Fig 5

14 Node: A22

4

7 Title: Detailed decomposition from A22 to A221-A226

17

3

26

Number: Fig 7

Fig. 5. Integrated and complete MbDfE model.

Fig. 7. Decomposition for design realization model.

design to increase the eco-efficiency of products; 2. Characteristics of management discipline: This novel MbDfE model represents the essential DfE activities of a company and its downstream and upstream supply chains. It incorporates the management disciplines specified by the latest ISO 9001 and ISO 14040 standards. Therefore, this MbDfE model standardizes management disciplines, not only driving a company to achieve a reasonable

management outcome, but also initiating the integration of management systems, such as the PDCAbased ISO 9001, ISO 14001 [46] and OHSAS 18001 [47]. 3. The proposed model is integrated by IDEF0 hierarchic analysis. Such a method can be promoted to become a tool for implementing the processes specified by ISO 9001 and the life cycle inventory analysis specified by ISO 14040. It can also be used

J. Environ. Eng. Manage., 17(6), 409-420 (2007)

418

2

ISO 9001; 7.4.2; Identify Purchasing Requirements

11

16

31

Node:

A3

14

29

1

2

3

28

ISO 9001; 7.4.1; Process Purchasing

27

30

26

Title: Detailed decomposition from A3 to A31-A32

Number: Fig 8

Fig. 8. Decomposition for purchasing process model.

2

to form the MbDfE model. Notably, ISO 9001 aims to improve customer satisfaction, and so future research should consider the influence and concerns of other interested parties. The customer satisfaction and product quality objectives of ISO 9004 are extended beyond those of ISO 9001, and involve satisfying all interested parties and organizational performance. Therefore, the current MbDfE model can be further examined in relation to the ISO 9004, rather than ISO 9001. In conclusion, this study recommends that the novel MbDfE model should be interpreted as a nonindustrial specified model. When the MbDfE management disciplines are interpreted for extended applications, then the individual size, type, nature and complexity of each company should be considered. The MbDfE model developed study is not only useful in DfE, but is also easy to interpret and apply owing to its ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 family international management standards based discipline. REFERENCES

1

32

ISO 9001; 7.3.3; Communicate with Customers 3

33

ISO 9001; 7.2.1; Identify Product Attributes

34

1

ISO 9001; 7.2.2; Review Product Attributes

5

2

3

Number: A5

26

Title: Detailed decomposition from A5 to A51-A53

Number: Fig 9

Fig. 9. Decomposition for environmental attribute identification and communication model.

for identifying the environmental aspects specified by ISO 14001, and hazards identification and risk assessment specified by OHSAS 18001. 4. Because of the above merits, the MbDfE model developed herein may become an alternative to applying the DfE model. Environmental issues are of concern not only to companies and members of supply chains, but also to members of the demand chain and all related stakeholders. Providing a product with environmental attributes that satisfy all stakeholders is essential to companies. This study addresses both the driving and the constraining factors and activities of interorganizational and downstream and upstream members of the supply chain. It then applies ISO 9001 and ISO 14040 management disciplines to these factors and activities

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