developments, applications and policies of renewable energy in turkey

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International Journal of Arts & Sciences, CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 5(7):23–41 (2012) c 2012 by UniversityPublications.net Copyright

DEVELOPMENTS, APPLICATIONS AND POLICIES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN TURKEY Muammer Ozgoren, Saim Kocak, Eyub Canli, Muharrem H. Aksoy and Sercan Dogan Selcuk University, Turkey Energy is a must of humankind anda stimulant for economic capacity, social progress. Turkeyacts as a connection between Asia and Europe, located at cross roads of energy transfer lines and it has three long coast bordering Black, Mediterranean and Aegean seas. The country is a net energy importerat a rate ofaround 70% of the total energy consumption. Turkeys 2023 goal is to become the 13th big economy in the world. In this paper, recent developments, applications and policies of renewable energy in Turkey have been explained and renewable energy potentials of solar, wind, hydropower, biomass and geothermal energy are presented. Energy policy of Turkey is to reduce dependency to external energy sources by diversifying renewable energy usage.In addition, increase in negative effects of fossil fuels on the environment has forced many countries, including Turkey, to use renewable energy sources. Turkish Government has put into applications new laws since 2001. For example, according to the 5346 numbered Renewable Energy Law and related regulations, a guarantee of purchase changing between 7-15 years with respect to the produced kWh electricity amounts of renewable energy sources have been given. Governmental incentives are determined according to the national production ratios of the power plants. For instance, these incentives are changing between 7.3-9.6 $cent/kWh for hydraulic energy, 7.3-11 $cent/kWh for wind energy, 10.5-13.2 $cent/kWh for geothermal energy, 13.3-18.9 $cent/kWh for biomass energy and 13.3-20 $cent/kWh for concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) systems. It is believed and proven that Turkey has been one of the fast growing markets and manufacture centers of the world, recently. In respect of end users and investors, renewable energy seems to be an effective alternative for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey due to its geographical advantages.Turkey expects an investment of 40 billion in renewable energy sector by 2020.In this paper, developments, applications and policies concerning with renewable energy in Turkey have been explained by means of a review process of therecent publications. Keywords:Energy regulations, Renewable energy, Energy policies of Turkey, Solar, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal, Biomass.

Introduction Humanity continuously grows in respect of population and daily needs. In the absence of a foresight plan for sustainable life, a global challenge in energy and environment had started to emerge. Today, humanity is facing with serious energy and environmental problems. Renewable energy sources are one of the major solutions for these problems regarding their low exhaust emissions and renewable nature. In future, their costs are also expected to be favorable comparing with fossil fuels because fossil fuel costs will be relatively high due to depleting

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resources.Considering huge potential of renewable energy sources, it was disappointing to know that only 0.1% of them has been utilized globally [1]. Recently, investments to renewable energy is nearly exceeds investments for conventional energy production from the power capacity aspect [2].Each year, renewable energy capacity grows at a rate of 10-60% considering the period starting from 2004 to date. Thegrowth accelerated in 2009 relative to previous years, especially for wind power. On the other hand, photovoltaic panels are the most invested area with annually average 60% growing rate [3].At the end of 2040, RE share in energy sector was assumed to be 50% or more in worldwide basis [4]. Turkeyhas an area of about 780,580 km2which is much larger than many European countries [5].The country is located between Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia. Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas border the country with three long coasts. Turkey has been one of the fast growing markets of the world in respect of both energy and capacity especially for the last two decades. Major elements in this development arethe young population, growing energy demand, rapid urbanization and economic development[6]. Turkey imports approximately twothirds of its energy need.Turkey has some important neighboring regions including Middle East, Caucasus and Balkans due to their political and economical situations. These neighbors constitute a strategically important state for Turkey. Economy of Turkey is 17th in the world and it possesses more than 73 million people [7].As one of the highest rates in the world, Turkey’s energy demand increases 8% annually [8]. This increase is illustrated in Figure 1.The increase is stimulated by the implication of more liberal policies starting from 80s. Oil sector has a large share in Turkey’s total energy requirements as much as approximately 40%. In addition, natural gas usage is increasingly taken place in electricity production. According to the Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR), 6 billion USD was spent for oil expense among which 24 million ton of oil was exported and 2 million tonwas produced locally [9]. Hence, there is a serious import dependency is in point of question [10].With growing needs and insufficient conventional domestic resources, governments in last two decade had decided to prepare a transportation role to Turkey for energy transportation so it can satisfy its energy sources deficit by transferring conventional energy sources such as natural gas from energy rich regions such as Iran and Azerbaijan to demanders such as Europe. Nabucco and Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipe Line are the latest and successful projects of Turkey. Statistics from International EnergyAgency (IEA) reveals that electricity production of Turkey in 2009 was done by coal (55,046 GWh), natural gas (98,144GWh), hydropower (51,796GWh); other sources are less than 7000 GWh. Electric generation of Turkey by primary energy sources is given in Table 1.Turkey has a large potential for renewable energies.Only hydropower, however, is significantly used among renewable energy sources. Turkish agriculture sector accounts for more than 35% employment along with its modern economy [6].In 2008, agricultural activities consumed about 422 GWh [11].Real gross national product growth mostly exceeds 6% however global economic crisis affects this trend, especially in 1994, 1999, and 2001. After these years, inflation levels were generally remained low, at one digit level. In 2005, 7.7% inflation rate was achieved which is the lowest value of last thirty years. Current account deficit is the only negative factor for the future of economy [5].A growth of approximately 15 million is expected for the population of Turkey in 2023 and the total population will be 85 million. Currently the population growth rate is 1.01%. Beside this increase, consumption of the population is also rising. Consequently total final energy consumption of the country is annually growing 9.6% averagely [12]. Turkey’s primary energy sources include hydropower, geothermal, lignite, hard coal, oil, natural gas, wood, animal and plant wastes, solar andwind energy. 32.5 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe)primary energy

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production was recorded in 2012 and countering consumption was recorded as 109,26Mtoe (Figure 2). Thus production against consumption is at 29.7%. One of the fast solutions for primary energy account deficit is thought to be establishing nuclear power stations. In Turkey, however, there is no installed nuclear power stations yet [13, 14] but it is already planned to construct two nuclear power plants in near future. 300

Total Demand Increase Rate 2000-2009

262 250 200

174.8

Electric (%) Natural Gas (%)

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120.6 96.9

100 55.3

56.8

50

30.6

22 5.6 4.6

7.6 6.9

EU

OECD

0 China

Turkey

India

World

Figure 1. Total Demand Increase Rate of Turkey between 2000-2009 [15].

Table 1. Distribution of primary energy sources for electricity generation in Turkey[16]. Energy Source Natural gas Hydraulic Coal Wind Liquid fuels Geothermal Renewable Total

Power (GWh) 98,144 51,796 55,046 2916 2180 668 458 211,209

Three major concerns for Turkish energy policy were indicated in MENR strategic plan for 2010-2014: First of all is the security of supplying energy. Then regional influence in respect of energy and lastly environmental concerns are placed in the plan. Security of energy supply is about providing sufficient energy to industry and other sectors for proper economical growth and it was emphasized in the plan [3]. Due to the country’s import dependency in energy sector, diplomacy with supplier countries becomes more important and it is a key element in the energy policy. To obtain a sustainable energy supply to the growing economy, government firstly gives priority to domestic energy resources, especially to renewable ones and subsequently tries to diversify import sources. Improving energy efficiency and supporting investments in the sector are the promoting actions taken by the government [3]. By enactment of 2001 Electricity Market Law, Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA)was created as an independent institution which regulates energy market. This institution also deals with energy licenses. Turkey is trying to use its geographical position to become a transfer line in which oil and natural gas pass from

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Middle East and Caspian Region to demanding markets so it can achieve an important role in the area in respect of energy.By 2015, Turkey is planning to open electricity markets to all customers in whole scale or retail levels in a competitive manner and as an initializing step of this plan the country is privatizing its state owned electricity generation and distribution facilities [16]. 60 50

Ratio in production (%) 49.3

Ratio in consumption (%)

40 31.9 30

26.7 21.9

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14.5

14 8.2

10

4.6

4.2

6.5 1.9

0 Lignite

Hard Coal

Forestry

Petroleum

Natural Gas

Renewable

Figure 2. Primary energy consumption and production ratios of Turkey [15].

Renewable Energy Policies in Turkey Turkey’s economical feasible renewable energy potential is approximately twice the current electricity production of the country and the numerical value of the potential is495 TWh/year [3]. By these energy sources, diversification of energy supply and less import dependency can be achieved. Henceforth an intensive attention should be paid to the local renewable energy sources [18].From the environmental point of view, local renewable energy sources will heavily contribute to Turkey’s goal about the Kyoto Protocol. By the geographic location of Turkey, all sorts of renewable energy are highly available for economical utilization. Current renewable energy contribution to energy production, however, is relatively very low. Turkey comes first in EU in terms of interms of potentials of hydro power, wind power and geothermal energy and second in terms of solar energy. Because of its big agriculture sector and population, it has also a high potential of biomass energy. Approximately 9% share of renewable energy in primary energy consumption is targeted in 2020 according to MENR prediction [19]. Among the 28 IEA countriesTurkey is in the tenth position for the RE share in total primary energy supply (TPES) [16].The share order is hydropower with 95%,wind power with 4%, biomass and geothermal energy with the remaining 1% [3]. In the other hand, utilization of new renewable energy installations areprogressively continuing.For heating, still forestry products such as wood are being used. 5Mtoe of firewood was recorded in 2008 for heating of residences. In the same year, 0.9 Mtoe geothermal energy was recorded for the same purpose[3]. Solar power in water heating is also widely used in Turkey. Turkey is second in the

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world after China in respect of total capacity of solar water heaters. However a huge part of the potential is still remaining unused because 1% of Turkey’s technical solar power potential is harnessed by these solar collectors with12km2of surface area [16]. Geothermal and solar electricity production has been drawing attention of the government in last few years.Turkey has targets for electricity production from renewable energy sourcesin, though the country does not have a legal obligation for reaching these targets. In 2009Electricity Market and Security of Supply Strategy,at least a rate of 30% of renewable energies in electricity generation is expected in2023 [3]. A special attention is paid towards Turkey’s economical hydroelectric potential in the plan and all economical potential is aimed to be utilized.Similarly 20 GW of wind power and 600 MW of geothermal power are intended to be obtained [3]. In regards of solar energy, investments and governmental incentives focus on two branches; photovoltaic and concentrated solar power stations. The important legislation about renewable energies and electricity production from them in Turkey is the Law on the Utilization of Renewable EnergyResources for the Purpose of Generating Electricity and it was enacted in May 2005. Other relevant regulations and legislations are Electricity Market Law enacted in 2001, Geothermal Resources Law enacted in 2007 and Energy Efficiency Law enacted in the same year. These legislations regulate reduced fees for project preparation and land acquisition,feed-in tariffs and purchase obligations,reduced license fees, connection priority and exemptions from license obligation for small-scale generators.These positive achievements have been obtained in the last ten years [3]. Aforementioned legislations and regulations are provided below with brief descriptions and law numbers. The Electricity Market Law (EML) No: 4628;it was enactedin February 2001.EMRA is authorized for the promotion of RE. 99% less capital is required for RE generators for the initial licensing fee. During the first eight years of operation, REelectricity generation power stationsare exempted from the annual license fee. Connection of Re power plants to the grid has priority against conventional ones [3].Turkish government enacted 5436 numbered Law for promoting renewable energy usage for electricity production. In this law, following incentives were provided; retail sale license holdingentities are entitled topurchase RE certified electricity in an amount declared by EMRA. Until the end of 2011Council of Ministers is entitled to raiseapplicable price up to 20% at the beginning of each year. Municipalities and governorates will prefer geothermal and solar energy primarily for their heat energy needs. Another law for renewable energy sources is law no 5686 which is enacted for Geothermal Resources. Exploring, producing and protecting geothermal and naturalmineralwaters are regulated by this law. New Electric Market Legislation was enacted with law no: 5784. With this law, up to 0.5 MWe can be produced without obtaining a license. In 2010, the law of Renewable Energy is amended by Law no: 6094 [3].Support for renewable energies is specified by this law and it states some methods especially in article 6 for pricing, time periods and payments. Renewable Energy Branches Turkey Geothermal Energy

The heat energy contained deep in Earth is called as geothermal energy. This heat energy can be directly used in heating and indirectly in electricity production and cooling. Water carrying heat to earth surface has sometimes sanative effects. For generation of electricity, hot water

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temperatures over 130 oC are required [20].Over the world, 58 countries were identified as they utilized geothermal energy and geothermal resources were highlighted totally in 80 countries [21]. Geothermal resources have their own advantages and disadvantages as always similar to other resources. Advantages can be listed as; low CO2 compared with fossil fuels, relatively simple and easy to operate, local energy source, required relatively small areas and geothermal wastes are less harmless. Disadvantages are some toxic metal wastes, water need, hydrogen sulfide emission, appearance in sites of beautiful nature. Also there are some debates about its renewability due to the possibility that it can be decline in following 100 years [12]. Turkey is one of the important countries in respect of its geothermal energy potential. It is estimated that 14% of Turkey’s total energy need (heat and electricity) can be met by its geothermal potential. Hence geothermal energy is always in consideration in Turkey when it comes to renewable energy [12]. Out of Turkey’s total geothermal potential, around 94% is appropriate for thermal use (temperature less than 130 oC) and the remainder for electricity production (temperature more than 130 oC) [22].The reservoir temperature fields more than 130 o C are given in Table 2 [16]. Abundant geothermal energy sources of Turkey is due to its location in Mediterranean side of Alpine Himalayan tectonic belt and Turkey is in the first seven countries about geothermal energy.However there are lots of things to do for Turkey because only 2-3% of its potential is in use. Most of this usage is for heating and Turkey is the Þfth richest country in the world in terms of non-electricity geothermal energy generation [23]. Electricity generation capacity potential from geothermal energy is estimated at 2000 MW (16 TWh/year) and at 2013 it is expected that a generation capacity of 550 MW can be obtained from geothermal energy [22]. Turkey’s geopolitical position also put geothermal energy in a different position. Because Turkey is a candidate country to European Union, it intends to use its geothermal potential as an advantage in negotiations. Turkish geothermal energy would be a great step in achieving EU’s 1000 MW geothermal energy goal which corresponds to 7 TWh of electricity per year [6]. Geothermal sources and applications map of Turkey is given in Fig.3. Table 2. The reservoir temperature fields more than 130 oC in Turkey [16]. Fields with temperatures higher than 130 oC Denizli-Kõzõldere Aydõn-Germencik-Ömerbeyli Manisa-Kavaklõdere Aydõn-Pamukören Manisa-Salihli-Göbekli Aydõn-Salavati Çanakkale-Tuzla Kütahya-Simav Aydõn-Umurlu øzmir-Seferihisar Manisa-Salihli-Caferbey Aydõn-Sultanhisar Aydõn-Hõdõrbeyli øzmir-Balçova Aydõn-Yõlmazköy Aydõn-Nazilli-Bozyurt-Güzelköy

Temperature (oC) 242 232 223 187 182 171 175 162 155 153 150 145 143 142 142 140

Region South-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region Center-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region Center-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region Marmara Region Center-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region Center-Aegean Region Center-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region Center-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region South-Aegean Region

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Figure 3. Geothermal sources and application map of Turkey [24].

The gap between costs of geothermal energy electricity production and electricity production from fossil fuels are very small. Among renewable sources, geothermalenergy comes third (together with wind energy) after hydro andbio power when costs are listed from least to highest.Drilling cost is one of the major part in total cost in geothermal energy. It changes between USD 750,000.00 to 3 million. Considering total cost, 5–8 cents/kWh electricity is achievable.This is very competitive when compared with conventional thermal andhydropower stations [25]. Geothermal energy will take a huge part in near future of Turkey. Heating with geothermal widely accepted among local consumers due to its relatively low costs. Cooling applications however yet to be improved. There should be more work for a specific legislation for geothermal energy.More incentives must be sourced by the government. Domestic industry must be educated and encouraged for producing and implanting system components. Care should be paid to power stations because generally these stations are located in wild life regions. Agriculture, greenhouses, food processing industries are promising industries where geothermal energy can be efficiently used [26, 27, 28]. Wind power

Wind energy is the fastest growingenergy source in the world and wind power is one ofthe most widely used alternative sources of energy today [29].Turkey has three long coasts along north, west and south sides of the land and these coasts are highly favorable for electricity generation with wind energy. Average wind speed is approximately 2.5 m/s annuallyand power densityis

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25.8 W/m2annually in these coasts. 20 GWwould be obtained if all feasiblewind energy areas were exploited in Turkey [12, 30]. Availability of areas with at least 20 km/h and maximum wind turbines in these areas determine the maximum wind energy [12, 31]. The wind energy potential map of Turkey for 100 m altitude is given in Fig. 4.The biggest share of global wind energy capacity isheld byEurope at a rate of 72%. Turkey had a share of 1.91% in Europe’s installed capacity in 2011 (Table 3) [32]. The capacity is likely to grow rapidlyand in the near future, approximately 10,000 MW installed wind power is expected [29]. In 2008, 847 GWh of electricity was generated by local wind turbines[33]. Now Turkey has 1799 MW total established wind power by the end of April 2012 with the increasing establishment works in recent years and total established wind energy will reach to 8983 MW after continuing construction works will be completed.

Figure 4. Wind speed map of Turkey for 100 m altitude [24].

94 GW total power is utilized for irrigation systems in Turkey. 2% ofthem are compensated by wind energy for irrigation [34]. Due to variable characteristics of wind energy, water should be stored considering times when there is no wind. Direct wind energy utilization for irrigation systems also has some examples in Turkey. One of these is in Edirne which doesn’t generate electricity but drive a piston pump for irrigation of a 3000 m2 land. Likewise a wind energy system was installed in Mu÷la-Bodrum for drip irrigation by powering the system with electricity [35].

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Table 3. Wind energy contribution of Turkey to EU [30].

Between 2005 and 2015, wind electricity power generation projects are supported with USD 0.073/kWh tariff due to the increase in tariffs. This increase is a result of a regulation in new RE law which promotes production of components inside the country domestically. Bonus payments to wind investors, which are essential to promote locally produced equipment are USD 0.008 /kWh for blades, USD 0.010 /kWh for generator and power electronics, USD 0.006 /kWh for tower and USD 0.013 /kWh for all mechanical parts. Considering aforementioned developments, wind energy present day situation of Turkey is very favorable for both internal and external investors. Wind power is the first renewable energy that Turkey makes intensive investments and conducts studies on; ignoring hydraulic energy considering its conventional nature. Turkey’s first locally developed and produced wind turbine will be in operation next year after a development period of more than for 2.5 years. In the design and development process Sabanci University, TUBITAK, Turkish Aerospace Industries, Istanbul Technical University, and Istanbul Ulasim AS have taken place. This project aims to lay the foundation of a local wind energy industry. Hydro energy

Hydroelectricity providing 20% of the world’s electricity andis one of the todays principal energy sources. Developing countries use hydroelectricity above the world average due to its relatively old technology but proper source is a must.The capacity of large hydroelectric dam can be several timesof a conventional power station. Hydroelectric power stations are highly efficient, reliable and long lasting. These power stations can used for compensating instabilities of other renewable energy resources, because water flow can be controlled most of the time and electricity can be stored as potential energy by storing water [36].Hydropower often supports other essential water services, suchas irrigation, ßood control and drinking water supplies [37]. Irrigation fields,for instance, has been increased up to 2,690,035 hain 2009 and 2,769,018 hain 2010 [11, 38].However, the dams and their large lake forms also have majorenvironmental and social impacts. Valuable alluvial bottomland may be lost up to some degree, there may be changes in ecosystems, local species in the nature may be harmed and similar environmental problems may be occurred because of installation of big hydroelectric power plants though its benefits can’t be ignored.Because of downstream erosion and water levels, shorelines are

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changed and also water temperatures and chemicals are altered [12]. Hydroelectric power station life is limited with sediment accumulation in dams in respect of efficiency and effectiveness and this period changes up to 30 years.Relatively huge areas are required for hydroelectric plants to store sufficient water. To produce 1 billion kWh/yr electricity, approximately 75,000 ha area with 14 trillion liters of water is required [12, 39]. Turkey’s gross theoretical viable hydroelectric potential is 433 billion kWh and the technically viable potential is 216 billion kWh. When economy is in consideration, this value decreases to 127 billion kWh. Turkey has a hydroelectric potential that is 1% of the World and 16% of that of Europe [7].12,631 MW generating an average of 45,325 GWh/year is harnessed with 135 hydroelectric power plants in Turkey. This value corresponds to 36% of the economically viable hydroelectric potential in Turkey.41 hydroelectric power plants are currently under construction. By the operations of hydroelectric power stations being constructed, 8% of economical potential will be joined to electricity supply.To be able to make maximum use of the remaining 71,411 GWh/year of economically viable potential, 502 more hydroelectric power plants will be constructed in upcoming years. When this objective will be achieved, 36,260 MW will be in use with 678 operating hydroelectric power stations [7].One of the most astonishing projects in the world is being conducted for this aim; South-eastern Anatolia Project (GAP) that covers one-tenth (74,000 km2) of Turkey’s total land area, one of the largest hydro developments ever undertaken [12]. GAP will have an installed capacity of 7,476 MW when it will be completed. This capacity corresponds to 22% (27.3TWh) of total economic hydroelectric potential of Turkey. More than 30 billion USD will be spent for the completion of this project [32].The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) originally planned bythe State Hydraulic Works is a combination of 12 major projectsprimarily for irrigation and hydroelectric generation. The projectincludes the construction of 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric powerplants on the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers and their tributaries. Itis planned that upon completion, over 1.8 million ha of land will beirrigated and 27 billion kWh hydroelectric energy will be generated annually [37]. Installed hydroelectric power capacity improvement of Turkey is given in Fig. 5. Consequentlyhydropower is an important energy source for Turkey. Its renewable, clean, domestic nature makes it favorable. Especially it is relatively cheap, domestic and sufficient for a considerable part of energy need of Turkey. With careful maintenance, it can be kept sustainable. For the environmental problems caused bylarge dams, small hydroelectric power stations (SHEP) less than 10 MW can be proposed, especially for rural electricity demand[41].Between 33 and 46% of Turkey’s electricenergy need can be met byhydroelectricity by 2020.As it can be seen, this potential is favorable for reducing foreign energy dependency in near future. Until 2008, Turkish private sector implemented 1064 hydroelectric power projects which correspond to 6.5 GW power. Governmental incentives played a major role in this rapid increase. Small hydroelectric power stations are the majority in these projects [41].

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Government

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Private Sector

16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Figure 5. Installed hydroelectric power capacity improvement of Turkey [40].

Biomass, biogas and biofuels

Bioenergy represents about two-thirds of renewable energyproduction in Turkey. This is due to agriculture and live stock which are major sectors in Turkey and its residues act as natural source for bioenergy. Another important part of bioenergy in Turkey is forest products. The total forest potential ofTurkey is around 935 million m3, with an annual growth of about28 million m3 [42]. After these two main parts, studies are going on for energy farming. As a sample, suitable Þeld for sugar beet growth, which is important for bioethanol production, is about 4.5 million decare equal to2–2.5 million tons of bioethanol [43].The primary raw materials from energy farming for bioethanol production in Turkey aresugar beet and residues, potato, molasses, wheat straw, corn and corncobs, lignocellulosic biomaterials [44]. Presently seven facilities have the capability to produce bioethanol, however bioethanol production continues only in CumraSeker, which belongs to KonyaSekersugar factory [45]. CumraSeker’s bioethanol production capacity is enough to supply bioethanol to Turkey as an additive to gasoline since the legal rate is only 5% volumetric.Petrol OÞsi (PO) is the only fuel oil company that uses thebioethanol in Turkey. Although, the legal rate is 5%, PO uses therate just 2% because of the private consumption tax [46].With a regulation about using mixture of ethanol and fuel oil inthe private consumption tax, the needed ethanol amount would be157,000 m3/year. [47].In Turkey, amount of rapes planting is 54,000 decare(0.8%) in 6.6 million decare oily seed planting and 12,600 tones(0.45%) in 2.8 million tones oily seed production [48]. Wet biomassmaterials can be converted effectively into usable energy with anaerobic bacteria.Bacteria break down volatile solids in the manure and convert them into methanegas (65%) and carbon dioxide (35%). Obtained gas can be used similarly to natural gas and LPG. Produced biogas amount and process rate are dependent to chamber temperature, bacteria numbers and types, used raw material and retention time [49]. Manure processedfor biogas has also little odor and retains its fertilizer value. In Turkey, the biogasenergy potential of animal wastes ranges from 1271 to 9856 GWh, depending ondifferential conditions of biogas plant types

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[50].It iss estimated that the total t biomass energy potential p is approximaately 16–32 Mtoe and anim mal wastes are a 2.3 Mtoee. Biogas prroduction amounts a onnly from annimal wastees is estimatedd about 2.2 2–3.9 billioon m3 [51].T There areappplications arreas about biogas b produuction systemsinn Turkey:TÜ ÜBITAK (T The ScientiÞ Þc & Techhnological Research R Coouncil ofTuurkey) has a bioogas project in Kayseri. Live stock and their manures are a usedto produce biogas [52].A biogas b system is establisshed by the Enertek Ennergy Produuction Inc.w with a capaciity of 4.25 MW W installed dpower in Çi÷li/ øzmir.F Fortuna Enerrgy Investm ment Ind. Trade.Co. T L is Ltd. also instaalled a biogas system inn Germencikk/Aydõn whiich uses corrnsilage and cattle manuure to produce 1063 MWp power [53]. Another syystem with cattle c manurre is installeed in Kõrúehhir by Ranteko with a capaacity 250 kW W [54]. Livee stock residuue potential map of Turrkey in Fig.66 can give a deeeper insightt of biomass production.

Figu ure 6. Livestockk residues channging from reggions of Turkeyy per year [24].

It is a well know wn fact thataa shiftfrom petroleum p too alternative liquid fuelss such as ethhanol, methanoll, and vegetaableoil will be necessaryy as the supply of fossill fuels diminnishes. Burnned in internal combustion c m annd sulfur diooxide engines, theese liquid fuuelsrelease leess carbon monoxide than gasooline and diesel fuels [555]. Methanool can be prroduced from m a gasiÞer--pyrolysis reeactor using bioomass as a feedstock f [566]. The yieldd from 1 tonn of dry woood is about 370l 3 of methhanol [57]. Forr a plant wiith economiies of scale to operate efÞciently, morethan 1.5 1 million ha h of sustainabble forest wo ould be requuired to suppply it [58]. Biomass is geenerally not available inn such enormouus quantities,, even from extensive forests,at f accceptable pricces. Processed vegetablee oils from sunnßower, soy ybean, rape,, andother oil plants can c be usedd as fuel inn diesel enggines. Unfortunnately, produ ucing vegetaable oils for use in dieseel engines is costly in teerms of bothh time and energgy. Biomasss distributionn according to t sources annd their poteential is givenn in Figure 7. 7

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55 Energy Potential (Mtoe)

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Annual Potential (Mt) 40 30 20

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5.4

6 3

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5 1.3

0 Annual CorpsPerennial Corps Animal Wastes Forest Residues Agricultural Residues Wood Industry

Other

Figure 7. Biomass distribution according to sources and their potential in Turkey[16].

Solar energy

As a well known fact, all energy sources originated from solar power. However it is easier to use transformed energy than using solar energy directly. Solar power density changes between 1-100 W/m2 in earth surface. Considering earth surface, this power can easily fulfill all energy need of modern world and there will be numerous times of energy still remaining. But solar energy is in radiation form and it can be told as this is the hardest form of energy to transform to electricity. Studies are focused on transforming radiation to heat and then to electricity or directly to electricity. Efficiencies of both ways are below 20%. Another difficulty about solar energy is initial establishment cost of converting equipment of solar power to electricity. A huge amount of investment should be done to obtain a considerable amount of energy. Despite these difficulties solar energy is a must for the future and there is time to split total cost into years. For solar energy there are photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar energy systems and solar thermal systems. Release of toxic chemicals, decreasing soil quality due to sodium chloride and contaminating salts can be listed as potential harms of solar thermal systems [12, 59]. Photovoltaic panels may be a danger for environment because of cadmium sulfide and gallium arsenide which are used during manufacture of these components. Due to these toxic matters, photovoltaic panel disposal is a serious concern.Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems make use of solar radiation in respect of its heating effect. As a difference from photovoltaic systems, heat is a needed and desired energy form in CSPs. Sun rays are collected by means of lenses or reflected by means of mirrors and concentrated to a heat storage or tank which contains process fluid.Parabolic troughs, dish collectors, Fresnel lenses, multiple flat reflectors are common in these systems. Heat is converted into electricity via a Stirling engine or conventional steam turbine. Parallel to world, solar energy presents important potentials to provide a significant portion offuture energy needs of Turkey. Turkey has an average annual sunshine duration of2640 h and

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an average solar intensity of 3.6 kWh/m2day. Use of solar energy is expectedto increase sevenfold from its 1999 value of 0.11 Mtoe by 2020 [32]. Turkey has a total installedcapacity of about 5 MW for photovoltaic cells mostly in communication stations,fire observation stations, sea lighthouses, and highway lighting. Turkish solar energy potential map is given in Fig. 8. For optimal inclination, yearly global solar irradiation of Turkey and EU countries is given in Figure 9.

Figure 8. Total solar radiation map of Turkey [24].

Figure 9. Comparison ofyearly global solar irradiation of Turkey and EU countries for optimal inclination [62].

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Greenhouse heating, drying, lighting, irrigation can be specified as alternative usages of solar energy in agriculture. Some example applications can be stated here as;water drilling project of Agricultural Engineers Association Konya Branch Office in which only electricity from solar energy is used [60]. Drip irrigation is proposed for more efficient and economic system output.Similarly an 600 W irrigation system is powered by solar energy in Ataturk OrmanCiftligi/Ankara and approximately 10,000 m3 water is pumped to the farms [61].In Renewable Energy Park of General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey andDevelopment Administration, a 756 W pump is used for irrigation and300 decare land is irrigated by means of solar energy in Adana. Concluding Remarks and Recommendations In this manuscript, recent renewable energy situation in Turkey was taken into consideration by analyzing economical and energy indicators of the country. Specific legislations to domestic renewable energy sector were stated. Up to date developments in renewable energy branches such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass and geothermal energies specific to Turkey were explained with characteristic examples. Being one of the fast growingmarkets in the world, Turkish energy sector is opposing a foreign dependency problem in respect of energy sources. Turkey is concentrated to renewable energy because of its domestic nature. In addition to the common reasons with the globe, this fact stimulates the government considering that Turkey is still in the classification of developing countries. Hydraulic and biomass energies dominate Turkish renewable energy. However main biomass production is sourced from forestry, so this situation is tried to be changed by proceeding to advance biomass systems such as biogas, biofuels and such. An initial work in regulatory side of renewable energies has been done by Turkey. Electricity production from renewable energies at a rate of at least 30% in 2023 is intended in the strategic plan of the country as a near future plan. Governmental incentives are continuously improved for this aim. Especially feed in tariffs are taken into consideration. There are some specific legislations for regulating these incentives and also discussed here. Governmental incentives increase to a maximum limit according to domestic manufacturing ratio of renewable energy systems.Feed-in tariffs in futurenew RE laws should target providing improvement of immature renewable energies other than conventional large hydroelectric power stations, because large hydroelectric power stations are being widely used and competitive to fossil fuels. Solar and geothermal energy can be also used for purposes other than electricity generation such as agriculture and resident heating. Geothermal energy will take a huge part in near future of Turkey. Heating with geothermal widely accepted among local consumers due to its relatively low costs. Cooling applications however yet to be improved. There should be more work for a specific legislation for geothermal energy. Domestic industry must be educated and encouraged for producing and implanting system components. Care should be paid to power stations because generally these stations are located in wild life regions. Agriculture, greenhouses and food processing industries are promising industries where geothermal energy can be efficiently used. Turkey has three long coasts along north, west and south sides of the land and these coasts are highly favorable for electricity generation with wind energy. With its 1.9% contribution to EU total wind energy and future potential, Turkey is a key country for EU to achieve its wind energy target. Turkey should also investigate wind energy potential of its continental shelf and think to place wind power stations in seas covering the country. West coast of Turkey is already

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comprises a considerable amount of wind energy. Small scale wind turbines can be introduced to ranches and farms in center parts of the country for both electricity generation and direct irrigation purposes. Hydropower is an important energy source for Turkey. It is widely being used already. Turkey’s economically viable hydroelectric potential is 127 billion kWh. This means 16% of that of Europe.12,631 MW generating an average of 45,325 GWh/year is harnessed with 135 hydroelectric power plants in Turkey.502 more hydroelectric power plants will be constructed in upcoming years. When this objective will be achieved, 36,260 MW will be in use with 678 operating hydroelectric power stations.For the environmental problems associated with large dams, small hydroelectric power stations (SHEP) less than 10 MW can be proposed, especially for rural electricity demand.Turkey’s hydropower potential can meet 33-46% of its electricenergy demand in 2020 (571 TWh). Turkey’s biomass usage mostly relies on conventional methods. In the last decade, studies going on to shift this usage to modern techniques such as biogas and biofuels. Supported with agriculture and live stock and proper governmental incentives, this objective is seemed to be achievable in near future. Biogas is more favorable for agriculture and live stock. Small electricity generators can be coupled with biogas burners or engines. This configuration provides more stable electricity than other renewable energy sources and proper for agriculture and live stock. Urban garbage is another possible biogas source and should be considered seriously. Southeastern Anatolia and Mediterranean regions are favorable places for solar energy. Utilization of solar energy should be encouraged in these regions. These regions are nearly in same latitude with southern parts of Spain. Turkey is already using solar power widely for water heating. Hence people already familiar to solar power. This advantage should be used to encourage solar PV and CSP systems. PV systems can be suitable for small and medium size manufacturers, agricultural enterprises. CSP systems can be established in center parts of Anatolia because of its relatively flat surface and good solar radiation.In general, domestic industry should be directed towards manufacturing and installing system elements of renewable energy systems. In this way, transition to renewable energy resources will be more rapidly and less capital requiring. Acknowledgment The authors would like to acknowledge Coordinatorship of Selcuk University’s Scientific Research Project Office for their support with project number 12701426. References 1.

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