Diversity and habitat preferences of amphibians and

Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 11 (2018) 173e187

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Review Article

Diversity and habitat preferences of amphibians and reptiles in Pakistan: a review Waqas Ali*, Arshad Javid, Ali Hussain, Syed Mohsin Bukhari Department of Wildlife and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 20 August 2017 Received in revised form 25 December 2017 Accepted 9 January 2018 Available online 31 January 2018

Geographical position of Pakistan is unique, and country harbors two out of six zoogeographical regions. The country can be divided into 15 habitat types in three major divisions: the mountainous region, foothills, and Indus plains. Overall, 219 species including 24 amphibians and 195 reptiles have been reported so far. Out of these, nine amphibian and 13 reptilian species are endemic to Pakistan. Despite this richness, there is paucity of knowledge regarding diversity of amphibians and reptiles as very few species have been thoroughly studied and very small area has been explored. This has led to the uncertainties regarding distribution and taxonomy of these taxa in the country. The herpetofauna is not protected by law in the country, and their conservation status is yet to be evaluated. Furthermore, distribution ranges of amphibians and reptiles have been changed and systemized survey work is required to update baseline information in the country. Ó 2018 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing Services by Elsevier. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Indus Valley Naja oxiana Python Saw scale viper

Introduction Herpetiles are cold-blooded animals and distributed worldwide except poles. They are about one-fourth of all known vertebrate species and have economic, esthetic, and cultural values (Zug et al 2001). Diversity and distribution of herpetiles is co-depended with climatic conditions and geographical position of any region. Herpetiles are bioindicators, important component of healthy ecosystem, and play vital role in food pyramid. They maintain the balance of food web as they consume many insects and themselves are source of food for many avian and mammalian species. Moreover, they recycle nutrients between aquatic to terrestrial environments, and removal of these creatures from any ecosystem will lead to disturbances in predatore prey dynamics, invertebrate populations, algae communities, leaf litter decompositions, and nutrient cycling, but their population is depleting day by day because of many anthropogenic activities. Furthermore, change of scientific researches for sake of human

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ92 346 4468103. E-mail address: [email protected] (W. Ali). Peer review under responsibility of National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA).

needs to meet the demands also put pressure on these taxa (Baig et al 2006; Petrov 2004). It is difficult to exactly assess what portion of herpetiles’ populations are experiencing significant decline. That is why baseline studies are necessary to declare conservation status of these taxa in any region. Of 1678 amphibian species, 470 (28%) and 1895 out of 6285 (30%) species of reptiles are globally threatened (IUCN 2009a,b). The rate of their decline is the matter of concern not only for scientific community but also famous in media (Collins and Storfer 2003; Gibbons and Stangel 1999). Herpetiles are considered fearsome creatures and have taken less concern of scientific communities. Many ecosystems support high population of herpetiles as compared to warm-blooded vertebrates as they make efficient use of energy (Pough 1980; Wyman 1998). The assessment of herpetiles’ diversity in any ecosystem is very difficult as climatic factors, cryptic nature, camouflage, hibernation, and activity patterns make their capture difficult (Conant and Collins 1998). As a result, many sampling methods have been developed such as pitfall traps with drift fences, funnel traps, and noose traps to increase capturing rate of these taxa (Enge 2001; Gibbons and Semlitsch 1982). Furthermore, inappropriate applications of drift fence and pitfall traps can be time intensive which results in low capture rates of some species or high mortality of captured animals. Documenting the presence of all species

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2018.01.009 pISSN2287-884X eISSN2287-9544/Ó 2018 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing Services by Elsevier. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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W Ali et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 11 (2018) 173e187

occurring in a given area is difficult and can be particularly time intensive in systems with many rare species (Dodd 1991). Materials and methods The purpose of the literature review was to collect and document all published empirical information about amphibian and reptilian diversity in Pakistan. The data is mostly collected from authentic literature: Minton (1962), Minton and Anderson (1965), Mertens (1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974), Cherlin (1983), Szczerbak (1991), Baig (1988, 1989, 1998, 1999), Dubois and Khan (1979), Akram and Qureshi (1995, 1997), Rastegar-Pouyani (1999) and Khan (1987, 2006, 2010) Results Altogether, 24 amphibian and 195 reptiles species are reported from Pakistan. Of these nine amphibian and 13 reptiles species are endemic to the country. Geographical position of Pakistan Pakistan has an area of 796,096 km2 between 24 and 37 N latitude and between 61 and 78 E longitude (Figure 1). Of six zoogeographical regions, the country falls into Palearctic and Oriental regions (Boulenger 1890; Darlington 1957; Smith 1931, 1935,

1943). The climate is continental with extreme variations during winter and summer temperatures. The monsoon season ranges from July to October, and rainfall varies throughout the year with frequent floods and droughts (Khan 1999). Topography of Pakistan Pakistan is arid to semi-arid and forest-poor country as only 3.8% area of the country is covered with forest (Figure 2). Forests are degrading day by day because of water logging, dry conditions, and increasing desert area as a result of deforestation (Khan 2006). The distribution of flora and fauna depends on change in elevation from sea level toward the mountainous ranges and climate from plain areas to the mountains (Figure 3). West part of Indo-Gangetic Plain extends into Pakistan namely the Indus Valley and consists of the northern Punjab and southern Sind Plain (Khan 1996; Khan 1980). Hydrology Countries including Pakistan, India, China, and Nepal in the Indian subcontinent are dependent on the Western Himalayas for freshwater (Pomeranz 2009). The five rivers namely the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej run through the Indus Valley and finally drain into Arabian Sea (Figure 4). Almost entire Indus Valley is affected by floods during monsoon season in Punjab, and the flood water fills most of Ramsar sites in the province.

Figure 1. Map of Pakistan showing its geographical position as India lies to the east, Afghanistan to the west, and Iran to the southwest while China borders the country in the northeast.


175

Figure 2. Map of Pakistan showing forested area of the country.

Climate Climate of Pakistan is continental as compared with other countries of subcontinent as it lies at the western margin of the monsoon region (Ahmad 1951; Khan FK 1996). Hot conditions extend from the Indus plains to Balochistan while increasing elevation of northern mountains makes mild climatic conditions. At higher elevations, temperature remains around the freezing point with snowfall for most part of the year. Winter, summer, monsoon, and postmonsoon season are four major seasons in Pakistan. Winter runs from December through March with temperature mostly below freezing point in the mountainous ranges while it ranges from 10 C in the north to 22 C in the southern plains. Higher temperatures and aridity are recorded during summer season which extends from April through June. Temperature ranges from 41 C to 50 C in plain areas while cold and snowfall continues in mountainous ranges round the year. The vapor-rich winds result in rains during monsoon which runs from July through September. The postmonsoon season is driest period of the year in Pakistan which extends from October through December (Figure 5) with temperature 35 C during October to below 10 C during December (Khan 2002). Diversity of amphibians and reptiles in Pakistan The amphibians and reptiles of Pakistan are represented by 219 species including 24 amphibians and 195 reptiles. Of them nine amphibian and 13 reptilian species are endemic to Pakistan (Iffat

1994; Khan 1976, 2004, 2006, 2008). The herpetiles received less attention of scientific community and hence remained unexplored in most parts of the country. There is extreme scarcity of data on the distribution of various amphibian and reptilian species in the country (Khan 1997, 2000, 2006). The herpetofauna of IndoPakistan has been studied by several researchers but not much information about them is available on regional basis. The only information available is from the studies of Minton (1962), Minton and Anderson (1965), Mertens (1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974), Cherlin (1983), Szczerbak (1991), Baig (1988, 1989, 1998, 1999), Dubois and Khan (1979), Akram and Qureshi (1995, 1997), Rastegar-Pouyani (1999), and Khan (1987, 2006, 2010). More regional studies are certainly important as they help in compiling comprehensive information on herpetiles fauna and their presentation at national level. Approximately, 6500 amphibian species are recorded worldwide (Frost 2008; Frost et al 2006). In Pakistan, arid to semi-arid climatic conditions prevail which make it an amphibian-poor country. However, humid riparian conditions in the Indus Valley, streams in the northern Himalayan submountainous region and water channels in the western Balochistan highland are home to 24 amphibian species that belong to four families such as Bufonidae, Megophryidae, Microhylidae, and Ranidae (Khan 2011). The reptilian fauna of Pakistan is represented by 195 species belonging to 23 families such as Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae, Emydidae, Testudinidae, Trionychidae, Crocodylidae, Gavialidae, Agamidae, Chameleonidae, Eublepharidae, Gekkonidae, Lacertidae, Scincidae,

176


Figure 3. Map of Pakistan showing riverine tracts and wetlands throughout the country.

Uromastycidae, Varanidae, Leptotyphlopidae, Typhlopidae, Boidae, Colubridae, Elapidae, Hydrophiidae, Viperidae, and Crotalidae (Khan 1982a, 2004). Seventy two snake species are known to Pakistan; out of these 14 marine and 12 terrestrial snakes are venomous viz., cobra, common krait, and viper species (Khan 1983, 1985b, 1990b). Snake species representing genus Teratolepsis and Eristicophis are endemic to Pakistan. The Chagai Desert has six endemic species of reptiles including five lizards and one snake. Populations of marine turtles and their nests can be seen at southern beaches of Pakistan. The regional and internationally endangered reptilian species include green and olive turtles, mugger, gharial, Indian python, and Indian cobra (Groombridge 1988; Khan 1991). Balouch et al 2016 reported squamate diversity in five different croplands viz., wheat, sorghum, millet, maize, and groundnut in Chakwal district, north Punjab, Pakistan, from February through September, 2013 using area constrained search technique. Total 11 species including six lizards and five snakes were recorded. Diversity index value (H) revealed that the highest squamate diversity was recorded from maize (1.91), followed by wheat (1.54), groundnut (1.51), sorghum (1.34), and millet (1.21). The most common species were Calotes versicolor versicolor, Ophisops jerdonii,

and Eutropis dissimilis. The multivariate generalized model revealed that sightings of species differed significantly [F (5, 40) ¼ 2.89, p < 0.05; Wilk’s K ¼ 0.30, Partial g2 ¼ 0.94] among cropland types and their boundary vegetation. Shaikh et al 2014 conducted a 2year study from 2011 through 2013 in Jamshoro and Larkana districts in the Sindh province and recorded amphibian species namely Bufo stomaticus, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, and Allopa hazarensis. Khan (1986) recorded 13 species of herpetiles including four amphibian and nine reptilian species from district Mianwali, Punjab, Pakistan. Ali et al (2016) conducted a survey from January, 2014 to December, 2014 in all the four tehsils of district Kasur. The study area was divided into four microhabitats viz., cultivated area, uncultivated area, human settlements, and water catchment areas. Three amphibian species belonging to three genera and two families and 15 reptilian species representing 14 genera and 10 families were recorded from the study area. Begum et al (2014) conducted a survey in the province Sindh during 2010 through 2013 and reported seven species of amphibians representing five frog and two toad species namely E. cyanophlyctis, H. tigerinus, Sphaerotheca breviceps, Limnonectes limnocharis, Fejervarya sahyadrensis, B. stomaticus and Bufo


177

Figure 4. Map of Pakistan showing mountainous ranges (brown) and plain areas (green).

melanostictus. Rais et al (2012) conducted a survey in the selected areas of districts Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Chakwal, north Punjab from February, 2010 to January, 2011 using area-constrained searches to report herpetofauna diversity. During the survey, five amphibian species representing four genera and three families while 30 reptilian species representing 25 genera, 13 families and three orders were recorded. Study revealed that district Rawalpindi had higher species richness while district Chakwal had relatively higher species diversity and evenness. Four threatened turtle species namely Chitra indica, Nilssonia gangetica, Aspideretes hurum and Pangshura smithii were recorded. Shaikh et al (2014) surveyed 14 districts of Sindh from January 2010 through December 2012 and reported four amphibian species H. tigerinus, E. cyanophlyctis, A. hazarensis, and B. stomaticus from the study area. Manzoor et al (2013) conducted a survey to assess biodiversity of the Pir Lasura National Park in summer of 2010 and reported 159 species of vascular plants, 16 mammals, 119 birds, 24 reptiles, six amphibians, and 15 butterfly species indicating rich diversity. Bibi et al (2013) carried out survey of Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, Pakistan, from 2009 through 2011 to record the biodiversity and livelihood of the local people of three villages

Bait Qaimwala, Basti Allahwali, and Jannu. Floral diversity was represented by 79 species (plants including 48 trees, eight herbs, nine shrubs, seven grasses, five reeds, and two weeds species) and fauna diversity included 21 fish, three amphibians, nine reptiles, 14 mammals, and 171 birds species. Local community was mostly dependent on wetland for fuel wood (77%), livestock grazing (100%), fishing (90%), trade of the freshwater turtles (10%), and others (9%). The study concluded that with the help of ecotourism the social sector of local communities can be benefited. That is why it is necessary for sustainable use of natural resources in wildlife sanctuary and biodiversity conservation of study area. Angilletta et al (2004) reported that ambient temperature regulates physiological and metabolic functions of herpetiles. Similarly, increase in soil moisture and decrease in soil temperature is directly related to the richness of anuran species. Rais et al (2011) surveyed Chotiari reservoir, Sanghar, and Sindh province from June, 2006 to June, 2009 to assess the species richness of herpetofauna, mammals, and birds through standard direct and indirect methods. A total of 203 species including 32 mammals, 136 birds, 32 reptiles, and three amphibians were recorded. Comparison of the data from previous records indicated that wildlife species

178


Figure 5. Map of Pakistan showing major climatic zones of the country based on temperature.

composition in the study area had changed over the time because of anthropogenic activities, such as land use practices, habitat destruction, over hunting, unregulated fishing, overexploitation of resources, and community-wildlife conflict. The distribution and spatial pattern of herpetofauna is based on their interactions with the local environment and the individual’s physiological requirements (Zug et al 2001). Masroor (2011) surveyed Margalla Hills National Park from 2003 to 2009 and reported that the park exhibited diverse herpetofauna because of its unique geographic position of being situated at the junction of high mountains in the north and the southern plains. Nine amphibian and 32 reptilian species were recorded from the study area. Three species of lizards Laudakia agrorensis, Asymblepharus himalayanus, and Ophisops jerdonii were reported for the first time from this park. Mace et al (2005) documented that the occurrence of some herpetile species is directly related to the presence or absence of specific habitats for vital activities such as nesting, hibernation, estivation, foraging, adult residency, and terrestrial dispersal. Loss of native habitat through anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and habitat degradation are the primary causes of species range declines and population extinctions. Baig et al (2006) conducted a survey from 1998 to 2000 in the Chagai district, Balochistan, Pakistan, to make an assessment of the herpetofauna

and their habitats. Forty-five reptilian and two amphibian species were reported from the study area. The composition of fauna and flora of the area was badly affected by drought and also forced the nomads to leave their desert houses and migrate to the nearby cities and towns. Different microhabitats had been identified in the study area viz., sand dunes, cultivated plains, rocky habitat, and dak area. Gillooly and Dodson (2000) documented that various biotic and abiotic factors influence distributions and embryonic development of amphibians and reptiles. Moreover, the body size of herpetiles is important for life history traits that influence microhabitat type, diet, vulnerability to predators, and reproductive success. Furthermore, size often is linked to the likelihood of speciation and extinction and to the rate of evolution, as well as to current levels of anthropogenically induced extinction risk (Cadle and Greene 1994; Vitt and Vangilder, 1983). Baig et al (2008) investigated herpetofauna of the Cholistan Desert and its ecology from 2001 to 2003 and collected more than 4000 specimens by different collecting methods such as pit-fall traps and hand picking in four different habitats viz., dhars, sand dunes, tobas, agriculture fields, and human settlements. Forty-four species of herpetiles had been identified from the study area. The collected specimens were preserved and are available in Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad.


Habitat types in Pakistan and habitat preferences of amphibian and reptiles Pakistan is divided into three ecological zones namely mountainous ranges, foothills, and Indus plains. The habitat types include coastal areas, lagoons, mangrove, swamps, sandy areas, plain areas, freshwater lakes, wetlands, mountainous ranges, valleys, snow covered mountains, and glaciers (Khan 1999). The details of ecological zones and their associated habitat types are given in Table 1. The details of amphibian and reptiles species with their preferred habitats are mentioned in Tables 2e6. Threats to amphibians and reptiles in Pakistan Regardless of the fact that Pakistan is very rich in biodiversity; there are many severe problems which are continuously threatening its flora and fauna. Loss of biodiversity because of overgrazing, harvesting, deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, invasive species, and chemical pollution contribute to the degradation of biodiversity (Blaustein et al 1994, 2003; Boone and Bridges 2003; Bridges 1997, 1999, 2000; Gibbons et al 2000). Habitat destruction More than 50% of human population is residing in rural areas of Pakistan and is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Most part of the Indus Valley consists of grassland, thorn forest, and riverine forest. Clearing forested areas for agricultural intensification is destroying the amphibians and reptiles in the country. Although thorn forested area still existed in small patches where human interference is near zero viz., airfields and graveyards but continuous deforestation and human impacts on Indus Valley are slowly converting it into dry savannah with scattered wetlands, shrub, and grasslands (Khan et al 2010). Moreover, degradation of habitat has negatively affected amphibians and reptiles but not all anthropogenic activities have been harmful (Khan 1990a). The major anthropogenic hazard in Pakistan is the degradation of freshwater habitat because of blockage and diversion of Indus river

water through dams and barrages. Changes in habitat quality are considered more severe than habitat loss that ultimately affects the flora and fauna of the area (Ahmad 1997). Degradation of forest ecosystems In Pakistan, forests are not evenly distributed as they cover only 4.224 million hectares of total surveyed area of 87.98 million hectors (Figure 2). Increase in population demands more residential and industrial areas resulting in clearing of tropical thorn forests in the Indus Valley (Anwar et al 2005). Critically threatened ecosystems due to habitat loss and degradation in Pakistan are shown in Table 7 (GOP 1999). Agriculture intensification Increase in human population of Pakistan has raised the demand for agricultural products and has severely affected herpetofauna diversity and their survival. Several factors including fast moving tilling of soil with machinery are causing injuries and killing of many herpetiles inhabiting in crevices and holes in and around the fields. Similarly, extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides to increase agricultural productions has severely affected the populations of amphibians and reptiles inhabiting agricultural fields (Khan and Law 2005). Insect populations which are the food source for amphibians and reptiles are affected by the use of chemicals sprayed to prevent crops from pests leading the herpetile species to extinctions (Khan 1990a). Urbanization Urbanization negatively affects these taxa as deforestation for agriculture, industries, and housing leads to habitat loss for many species throughout the Indus Valley. During summer season many frogs, toads, and turtles are killed by speedy traffic (Khan 1990a). Use of amphibians and reptiles for research purposes Amphibian species including H. tigerinus and E. cyanophlyctis are used for scientific research and demonstration purposes in schools,

Table 1. The details of ecological, sub ecological zones, and habitat types in Pakistan. Ecological zones

Habitat types

Mountain region

The dry and cold alpine deserts Himalayan dry coniferous forest

Foothills

Indus Plains

179

Himalayan moist temperate forests Himalayan moist alpine zone Balochistan hill ranges and lower slopes Balochistan higher ranges Dry subtropical, deciduous scrub forests Dry temperate scrub forest Subtropical pine forests Tropical dry mixed deciduous forests Riverine tracts Seasonal inundation zones, jheels and swamps Tropical thorn forests Sand dune deserts

The littoral and intertidal zone, off shore islands

Microhabitat/subzones Dry temperate evergreen oak deodar forests Dry zone blue pine and spruce forests Dry zone chilgoza and holly oak Higher Himalayan dry coniferous forests

Tropical dry deciduous forests Sindh Kohistan and southern Balochistan

The Thal Desert The Cholistan Desert The Thar Desert The Sibi Desert Astola Island Mainland Sea

180


Table 2. Diversity and habitat preferences of amphibians in Pakistan.

Taxa I Family Bufonidae Bufo himalayanus Bufo latastii Bufo melanostictus hazarensis Bufo olivaceous Bufo pseudoraddei Bufo pseudoraddei baturae Bufo baturae Bufosiacheninsis Bufo stomaticus Bufo surdus Bufo viridis Bufo viridis zugmayri Family Megophryidae Scutiger nyingchiensis Family Microhylidae Microhyla ornate Uperodon systoma Family Ranidae Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis microspinulata Euphluctis cyanophlyctis seistanica Fejervarya limnocharis Fejervarya syhadrensis Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Paa barmoachensis Paa hazarensis Paa sternosignata Paa vicina Spherotheca breviceps

Habitat types II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI

i ii i

XII

XIII

XIV

iv

i,ii

ii

XV

ii

iii,iv

ii

i i i,ii i

i,ii ii

i,ii i,ii i,ii

i,ii

ii

i

ii

I: The dry and cold alpine deserts, II: Himalayan dry coniferous forest; i: Dry temperate evergreen oak deodar forests, ii: Dry zone blue pine and spruce forests, iii: Dry zone Chilgoza and Holly-oak, iv: Higher Himalayan dry coniferous forests, III: Himalayan moist temperate forests, IV: Himalayan moist alpine zone, V: Balochistan hill ranges and lower slopes, VI: Balochistan higher ranges, VII: Dry sub-tropical, deciduous scrub forests, i: Tropical dry deciduous forests, ii: Sindh Kohistan and southern Balochistan, VIII: Dry temperate scrub Forest, IX: Sub-tropical Pine forests, X: Tropical dry mixed deciduous forests, XI: Riverine tracts, XII: Seasonal inundation zones, Jheels and Swamps, XIII: Tropical thorn forests, XIV: Sand dune deserts, i: The Thal desert, ii: The Cholistan desert, iii: The Thar desert, iv: The Sibi desert, XV: The Littoral and inter-tidal zone, off shore islands, i: Astola Island, ii: Main land, iii: Sea.


181

Table 3. Diversity and habitat preferences of Testudines in Pakistan.

Taxa I


Family Cheloniidae Caretta caretta Chelonia mydas Eretmochelys imbricate Lepidochelys olivacea Family Dermochelyidae Dermochelys coriacea Family Emydidae Geoclemys hamiltonii Hardball thurjii Kachuga smithii Kachuga tecta Family Testudinidae Agrionemys horsfieldii Geochelone elegans Family Trionychidae Aspideretes gangeticus Aspideretes hurum Chitra indica Lissemys punctata andersoni

XII

XIII

XIV

XV iii iii iii iii iii

iv iii

ii

iii iii

i,ii


Table 4. Diversity of crocodiles and gharials with their preferred habitats in Pakistan.

Taxa I


Family Crocodylidae Crocodylus palustris Family Gavialidae Gavialis gangeticus

XII

XIII

XIV

XV

ii ii

iii

I: The dry and cold alpine deserts, II: Himalayan dry coniferous forest; i: Dry temperate evergreen oak deodar forests, ii: Dry zone blue pine and spruce forests, iii: Dry zone Chilgoza and Holly-oak, iv: Higher Himalayan dry coniferous forests, III: Himalayan moist temperate forests, IV: Himalayan moist alpine zone, V: Balochistan hill ranges and lower slopes, VI: Balochistan higher ranges, VII: Dry sub-tropical, deciduous scrub forests, i: Tropical dry deciduous forests, ii: Sindh Kohistan and southern Balochistan, VIII: Dry temperate scrub Forest, IX: Sub-tropical Pine forests, X: Tropical dry mixed deciduous forests, XI: Riverine tracts, XII: Seasonal inundation zones, Jheels and Swamps, XIII: Tropical thorn forests, XIV: Sand dune deserts, i: The Thal desert, ii: The Cholistan desert, iii: The Thar desert, iv: The Sibi desert, XV: The Littoral and intertidal zone, off shore islands, i: Astola Island, ii: Main land, iii: Sea .

colleges, and universities throughout Pakistan which has resulted in population decline in Punjab and Sindh provinces (Khan 2006). Hunting and illegal trade Many animal species including reptiles are facing problems due to sport hunting for meat, body parts, and illegal trade (Abdulali 1985). The tradition of hunting in Pakistan is very old and increased with modern weapons and mobility. At present, 37 mammalian, 25 avian, and 10 reptilian species are threatened in Pakistan. Over hunting is leading marsh crocodile and freshwater turtles to extinctions. Out of eight freshwater turtle species in the

country, three species namely Geoclemys hamiltonii, Hardella thurjii, and Aspideretes gangeticus are vulnerable, whereas Chitra indica is endangered and Kachuga smithii is near threatened (IUCN 1996). The numbers of gharial are decreasing at an alarming rate and are now only found between the Sukkur and Guddu barrages. In addition, monitor species are heavily hunted for their skins (Khan 1998). Killing Herpetiles are considered as fearsome creatures in Pakistan. Local people are unaware about their ecological role and

182


Table 5. Diversity and habitat preferences of lizards in Pakistan.

Taxa I Family Agamidae Brachysaura minor Calotes versicolor Calotes versicolor farooqi Japalura kumaonensis Laudakia agrorensis Laudakia badakhshana Laudakia caucasia Laudakia fusca Laudakia himalayana Laudakia melanura Laudakia lirata Laudakia microlepis Laudakia nupta Laudakia nuristanica Laudakia pakistanica Laudakia pakistanica auffenbergi Laudakia pakistanica khani Laudakia tuberculata Phrynocephalus clarkorum Phrynocephalus euptilopus Phrynocephalus luteoguttatus Phrynocephalus maculatus Phrynocephalus ornatus Phrynocephalus scutellatus Trapelus agilis Trapelus agilis pakistanensis Trapelus megalonyx Trapelus rubrigularis Trapelus ruderata Family Chamaeleonidae Chalmaleo zeylanicus Family Eublepharidae Eublepharis macularius Family Gekkonidae Agamura persica Altigekko boehmei Altigekko baturensis Altigekko stoliczkai Bunopus tuberculatus Crossobamon lumsdeni Crossobamon maynardi Crossobamon orientalis Cyrtopodion agamuroidae Cyrtopodion kachhense kachhense Cyrtopodion kachhense ingoldbyi Cyrtopodion kohsulaimanai Cyrtopodion montiumsalsorum Cyrtopodion potoharensis Cyrtopodion scabrum Cyrtopodion watsoni Hemidactylus brooki Hemidactylus flaviviridis

Habitat types II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI ii i,ii

XII

XIII

XIV

XV

i,ii,iii,iv

i i i

i i,ii

iii iv

i

Ii I,ii I,ii Ii I ii

ii ii Ii ii ii Iv Iii I,ii,iii,iv Iii I,iv iii Ii ii

ii i,ii

i,ii,iii

i,ii

iv

ii

iv iv iii,iv i,ii

ii ii ii i i i i i,ii i,ii i,ii i,ii

ii

ii

iii

i,ii,iii i

ii ii


183

Table 5 (continued)

Hemidactylus frenatus Hemidactylus leschenaultii Hemidactylus persicus Hemidactylus triedrus Hemidactylus turcicus Indogekko fortmunroi Indogekko indusoani Indogekko rhodocaudus Indogekko rohtasfortai Mediodactylus walli Ptyodactylus homolepis Rhinogecko femoralis Rhinogecko misonnei Siwaligekko battalensis Siwaligekko dattalnensis Siwaligekko mintoni Teratolepis fasciata Teratoscincus microlepis Teratoscincus scincus keyserlingi Tropiocolotes depressus Tropiocolotes persicus persicus Tropiocolotes persicus euphorbiacola Family lacertidae Acanthodactylus blanfordii Acanthodactylus cantoris Acanthodactylus. micropholis Eremias acutirostris Eremias aporosceles Eremias fasciata Eremias velox Mesalina brevirostris Mesalina guttulata Ophisops elegans Ophisops jerdonii Family Scincidae Ablepharis grayanus Ablepharis pannonicus Chalcides ocellatus Eurylepis taeniolatus Lygosoma punctata Mabuya dissimilis Mabuya macularia Novoeumeces blythianus Novoeumeces indothalensis Novoeumeces schneiderii zarudnyi Ophiomorus blanfordi Ophiomorus brevipes Ophiomorus raithmai Ophiomorus tridactylus Scincella himalayana Scincella ladacensis Family Uromastycidae Uromastyx asmussi Uromastyx hardwickii

ii ii i,ii ii ii i

iv

ii ii ii ii ii

iii i ii iv iv

ii iv iv iv iv iii,iv

i,ii ii

i i i,ii i,ii

iv i i,ii,iii,iv i,ii iv i iv iv iv iv iv i i,ii,iii,iv i,ii

i,ii i,ii i,ii ii i,ii i i ii i

ii ii i

i,ii

i,ii i,ii

iv i iii,iv iv iv i,ii,iv

i i,ii i,ii i

i

i

184


Table 5 (continued)

Family Varanidae Varanus flavescens Varanus bengalensis Varanus griseus caspius Varanus griseus koniecznyi

ii i,ii i,ii

i,ii

i


Table 6. Diversity of snakes and their preferred habitats in Pakistan.

Taxa Family Leptotyphlopidae Leptotyphlops blanfordii Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus Family Typhlopidae Ramphotyphlops braminus Typhlops diardii Typhlops ductuliformes Typhlops madgemintonai Typhlops madgemintonai shermanai Typhlops ahsanai Family Boidae Eryx conicus Eryx johnii Eryx tataricus Python molurus Family Colubridae Amphiesma platyceps Amphiesma sieboldii Amphiesma stolatum Argyrogena fasciolata Boiga trigonata Boiga Melanocephala Coluber karelini Coluber karelini mintonorum Eirenis persica Enhydris pakistanica Hemorrhois ravergieri Lycodon aulicus aulicus Lycodon striatus striatus Lycodon striatus bicolor Lycodon travancoricus Lytorhynchus maynardi Lytorhynchus paradoxus Lytorhynchus ridgewayi Natrix tessellate Oligodon arnensis Oligodon taeniolatus Platyceps rhodorachus Platyceps rhodorachus ladacensis Platyceps rhodorachus kashmirensis Platyceps ventromaculatus ventromaculatus Platyceps ventromaculatus bengalensis

Habitat types I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI

XII

XIII

XIV

i,ii i

XV ii

i,ii

ii

i,ii

ii i,ii

i,ii,iii iii ii

i,ii ii i,ii iv iii,iv iv

ii

ii ii

i

i,ii i,ii

ii ii

iv

ii

iii i i,ii i,ii

i,ii

I,ii,iii,iv

ii


185

Table 6 (continued)

Platyceps ventromaculatus indusai Psammophis condanarus Psammophis leithii Psammophis lineolatus Psammophis schokari Ptyas mucosus Spalerosophis arenarius Spalerosophis diadema Spalerosophis schirazianus Sibynophis Sagittarius Telescopus rhinopoma Xenochrophis cerasogaster Xenochrophis piscator Xenochrophis sanctijohannis Family Elapidae Bungarus caeruleus Bungarus sindanus sindanus Bungarus sindanus razai Naja naja Naja oxiana Family Hydrophiidae Astrotia stokesii Enhydrina schistosa Hydrophis caerulescens Hydrophis cyanocinctus Hydrophis fasciatus Hydrophis lapemoides Hydrophis mamillaris Hydrophis ornatus Hydrophis spiralis Lepemis curtus Microcephalophis cantoris Microcephalophis gracilis Pelamis platurus Praescutata viperina Family Viperidae Daboia russelii Echis carinatus astole Echis carinatus multisquamatus Echis carinatus pyramidum Echis carinatus sochureki Eristicophis macmahonii Pseudocerastes persicus Pseudocerastes bicornis Macrovipera lebetina Family Crotalidae Gloydius himalayanus

ii i,ii

i,ii

i,ii i,ii i,ii i,ii

i,ii,iii

i

iv

i,ii

iii,iv

i,ii ii i i,ii i,ii

i,ii,iv

ii ii ii ii

ii

ii i,ii i

iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii i,ii i i ii ii iv

i


186


Table 7. Critically threatened ecosystems due to habitat loss and degradation in Pakistan. Ecosystem

Importance

Threats

Indus delta and coastal wetlands

Habitat of birds, marine fauna including marine turtles species, Globally important route of migratory birds and habitat for endemic Blind Indus dolphin Endemic amphibian and reptilian fauna Habitat of unique flora and fauna Habitat of many threatened species Habitat of many animals Habitat of endemic flora and fauna Rich in flora Hot spot for bird’s species. Center of endemic species

Less freshwater flow and exploitation of mangroves for wood. Agricultural intensification and chemical pollution.

Indus River and associated wetlands Chagai Desert Forest of Balochistan Chilghoza forest Subtropical forests of Baluchistan Riverine tracts of Baluchistan Tropical deciduous forests in Himalayan foothills Moist and dry temperate Himalayan forests Himalayan plateaus

importance. Snakes are mostly hated and killed as compared to frogs, toads, and lizards because of fear (Agras et al 1969). Conclusion and recommendations Amphibians and reptiles are important members of food chains and play pivotal role in maintenance of ecosystem dynamics. However, in Pakistan the literacy rate is appealingly low, and many myths, misconceptions, and superstitions are common leading these creatures toward extinction. In addition, as the amphibians and reptiles are not accepted by the society, the scientific community hardly pays attention toward the population census or conservation of these environment friendly beings. These creatures are declining at an unprecedented rate from the ill effects of invasive species, deforestation, erosion, desertification, and pollution. Pakistan is ranked amongst top 10 most populous nations of the world, and majority of the countrymen are linked with agriculture. Agricultural practices and the equipment used for tilling of soil cause injuries and killings of many amphibian and reptilian species inhabiting burrows and fields. Use of pesticides and fertilizers has severely affected these taxa as chemicals directly affect insect populations which are food source for them. Lack of awareness and illegal hunting also threatened turtle species in Pakistan. Awareness campaigns about the ecological role of amphibians and reptiles, involvement of local communities, scientists, government organizations, effective law enforcement, and habitat restorations can be effective in reinstating the herpetiles populations in the country. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there is no conflicts of interest. References Abdulali H. 1985. On the export of frog legs from India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 2:347e375. Agras S, Sylvester D, Oliveau D. 1969. The epidemiology of common fears and phobias. Comprehensive Psychiatry 10:151e156. Ahmad KS. 1951. Climate regions of West Pakistan. Pakistan Geographical Review 6: 1e35. Ahmad MF. 1997. Ungulates of Pakistan. In: Mufti SA, Woods CA, Hassan SA, editors. Biodiversity of Pakistan. Islamabad and Gainesville, US: Pakistan Museum of Natural History and Florida Museum of Natural History. pp. 531e536. Akram MS, Qureshi JI. 1995. Snakes of Faisalabad, Punjab. The Snakes 27 (1):25e29. Akram MS, Qureshi JI. 1997. Snakes of Sargodha, Punjab. Zoological Survey of Pakistan 13:31e43. Ali W, Javid A, Hussain SM, et al. 2016. The amphibians and reptiles collected from different habitat types in disrict Kasur, Punjab. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 48 (4):1201e1204. Angilletta MJ, Steury TD, Sears MW. 2004. Temperature, growth, and body size in ectotherms: fitting pieces of a life-history puzzle. Integrative and Comparative Biology 44:498e509.

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