99 percent of children's lead teachers.8 In spring. 2007 ...... Fourth Edition (PPVT-4) (Dunn and Dunn 2006) and the Test de .... year-olds demonstrate more advanced skills in ...... The. Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-. K Manual. Charlottesville, VA: University of ..... interviewer/gold standard scores were within.
DISCLAIMER: The work reflected in this publication was performed under Contract Number HHSP23320052905YC awarded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services nor does mention of trade names, commercial practices, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors would like to express their appreciation our Project Officer Maria Woolverton and other federal staff at OPRE and the Office of Head Start. We thank the Mathematica team, including Cassandra Meagher, Annalee Kelly, Barbara Carlson, Anne Bloomenthal, Jennifer McNulty, Susan Sprachman, Brian Takei, Erin Slyne, Barbara Kennen, Kristina Rall, Ama Takyi, Miriam Lowenberg, Rita Zota, Daryl Hall, August Pitt, as well as Francene Barbour, Joan Gutierrez, and Thidian Diallo at the Survey Operations Center and all of the Mathematica field and telephone staff who collected the data. We are also grateful for the contributions of our partners at Juarez and Associates and the Educational Testing Service. Most of all, we offer our gratitude to the staff, families and children of the 60 FACES 2006 programs across the country, who once again opened their doors and shared their time with us.
INTRODUCTION
posits that it is through the provision of high quality, comprehensive educational services (in interaction with their home and classroom contexts) that children make progress towards the goal of physical wellbeing and cognitive and social-emotional school readiness.
Head Start is a national program that aims to promote school readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children through the provision of educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to enrolled children and families. The Head Start program provides grants to local public and private nonprofit and for-profit agencies to provide comprehensive child development services to economically disadvantaged children and families; the Office of Head Start emphasizes a special focus on helping preschoolers develop the reading and mathematics skills they need to be successful in school. The program also seeks to engage parents in their children’s learning and to promote their progress toward their own educational, literacy, and employment goals (Administration for Children and Families [ACF] 2009).
This brief profiles the 3- and 4-year-old Head Start children and families who were newly enrolled in the program in fall 2006 (see Tarullo et al. 2008) and are still attending in spring 2007. The first section of the report provides background on the study methodology and sample. The next offers information on the children’s characteristics, family demographics, and home life, including language background, educational environment of the home, family routines, and socioeconomic risk status. It includes information on parent involvement in Head Start and level of satisfaction with their own and their children’s Head Start experiences. The following section chronicles children’s developmental progress over the Head Start year, considering whether these outcomes vary by age, gender, race/ethnicity, or risk status. Changes in children’s skills and development during the program year reflect a range of influences, including maturation, program and family influences, and other influences in children’s lives. Presented next are the characteristics of their teachers and classrooms, including measures of observed quality. Finally, the last section examines the relationships among child, family, and classroom factors and children’s outcomes.
The Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) was first launched in 1997 as a periodic longitudinal study of program performance. Successive nationally representative samples of Head Start children, their families, classrooms, and programs provide descriptive information on the population served; staff qualifications, credentials, beliefs and opinions; classroom practices and quality measures; and child and family outcomes. FACES includes a battery of direct child assessments across multiple domains. It also comprises interviews with the child’s parents, teachers and program managers, as well as direct observations of classroom quality. (For background information on FACES 2006, see West et al. 2007, Tarullo et al. 2008 and West et al. 2008.)
METHODS The FACES 2006 sample provides information at the national level about Head Start programs, centers, classrooms, and the children and families they serve. A sample of Head Start programs was selected from the 2004-2005 1 Head Start Program Information Report (PIR), and approximately two centers per program and three classrooms per center were selected for participation. Within each classroom, an average of nine newly enrolled 3- and 4-year-old children 2 were randomly selected for the study. Sixty
FACES is a tool for measuring Head Start program performance at the national level. This recurring data collection provides the means to assess how the program is performing currently and over time. Figure 1 offers the conceptual framework for the FACES study. The child is located at the center, surrounded by parents and family, and located within the context of a given Head Start classroom and program. The model
1
Figure 1.
Conceptual Framework Community, State, and National Services and Resources Benchmarks/Indicators Public Policy Community & Neighborhood
Community, State, & National Head Start Program
Head Start Program Population Served Primary Curriculum Teacher Salaries Management Climate
Head Start Classroom & Teachers Parent & Family
Head Start Classroom and Teachers Global Quality Teacher Sensitivity Instructional Practice Teacher Experience & Education Teacher Attitudes, Knowledge and Beliefs
Child
Child Characteristics Health Gender Race/Ethnicity Disability Status
Child Growth and Development Physical Health Physical Activity Nutrition Physical Growth Gross and Fine Motor Skills Cognition Language/Communication Social-emotional Approaches to Learning
Child’s School Readiness
Parent and Family Characteristics Physical, Mental, Nutritional Health Personal Resources and Competencies Marital or Partner Relationship Childrearing Behavior and Attitudes Home Environment and Teaching Family Processes/Organization Child Care Arrangements and Resources Primary Language and Ethnicity
programs, 135 centers, 410 classrooms, 365 teachers and 3, 315 children participated in the study in the fall of 2006. Children in the study were administered a battery of direct child assessments, their parents and teachers were interviewed, and interviews were conducted with the directors of the programs and centers in the sample and with education coordinators.
classroom using either a Web-based or a paper 5 instrument. A total of 3,296 children were eligible for the 6 spring 2007 follow up and 88 percent of the 7 eligible children participated. Child assessments were completed for 98 percent of these children and 92 percent of their parents were interviewed. A Head Start teacher completed a set of teacher ratings for 96 percent of the children. An interview was completed with 8 99 percent of children’s lead teachers. In spring 2007, Mathematica staff also completed 9 observations in 335 Head Start classrooms. Data from the direct child assessments are used here to report on children’s cognitive and physical outcomes at the beginning and end of their first year in Head Start. Parent and teacher ratings provide information about children’s social skills, approaches to learning, problem
In spring 2007, data were collected again from the group of children who were completing their 3 first year of the Head Start program. Data were collected over a four-month period in spring 2007 (March – June). Mathematica data collection teams assessed the children at their Head Start centers, interviewed the children’s lead teachers, observed their classrooms, and interviewed children’s parents during week-long 4 site visits. Teachers were asked to complete a set of ratings for each sampled child in their
2
behaviors and academic and non-academic accomplishments during the Head Start year. Assessor ratings are another source of information about children’s social-emotional outcomes. We use parent interview data to describe children’s backgrounds and home environments; teacher interview data to describe children’s first Head Start classroom experiences; and classroom observation data to describe Head Start classroom quality.
that ensured that all basal and ceiling rules were followed. Parent interviews. FACES 2006 used a computer-assisted interview to collect information from Head Start parents in a variety of areas, including the characteristics of households (such as household income, number of adult household members, languages spoken in the home) and household members (including age, race/ethnicity, and relationship to study 11 child). Information was also collected on aspects of the child’s home life, children’s childcare arrangements, and parents’ ratings of their children’s social skills, problem behaviors, and language, literacy, and mathematics accomplishments. New to the spring interview were questions that asked parents about (1) their involvement and satisfaction with Head Start, (2) access to and use of community services and sources of social support, (3) outdoor spaces near their home where their child could play, and (4) household members’ use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs.
Direct child assessments. The spring battery of direct child assessments, like the fall battery, included a set of standardized preschool assessments designed to measure children’s cognitive outcomes (language, literacy, and mathematics) and physical outcomes (height and weight) through an untimed, one-on-one assessment of each child. The actual measures used are described below, where we report on children’s cognitive scores at the end of the Head Start year and changes in scores over children’s first year in the program. Except for a few differences, the procedures used to administer the direct child assessments were the same as those used in the fall. The direct assessment began with a language screening to determine whether children from households where English was not the primary spoken language should be assessed in English, assessed in Spanish, or not assessed 10 at all. However, if a child had been assessed in English in the fall, he or she was assessed in English in the spring. The assessments themselves used the same standard materials that were used in the fall (for example, stimulus and response pages from the PPVT-4 and Woodcock-Johnson measures). Computerassisted personal interviewing (CAPI) was used again when administering the assessments to facilitate the movement from one measure to the next without the assessor’s having to calculate stopping or starting points (that is, basals and ceilings). Assessors read the questions and instructions from a computer screen. The child responded by pointing to the correct answers on the assessment easel or by giving a verbal response. Assessors entered the child’s responses into a laptop computer using software
Teacher interviews and teacher child reports. In spring 2007, FACES 2006 again conducted computer-assisted personal interviews with lead teachers about their educational backgrounds, professional experience, and credentials. Teachers reported on the learning activities that are scheduled in their classrooms. They were asked to estimate the amount of time they spend on both teacher-directed activities and childselected activities in a typical day, as well as frequency of various language and literacy development and mathematics activities. Teachers were asked whether they have a principal curriculum guiding the classroom activities and, if so, whether they received training in how to use it. They were also asked how they assess the children’s level of achievement and progress over the Head Start year. In the spring interview, teachers were asked about the management climate: the policies and procedures in their Head Start program. They were also asked about the strengths and weaknesses of the main curriculum, whether they have a regular mentor, their experiences with their mentor, and their
3
involvement in training or technical assistance during this program year.
training that included lectures and discussion, classroom practice and videotaped certification, practice in early childhood classrooms, and field certification.
As in the fall, using a Teacher Child Report form, teachers were asked to rate each FACES child in their classroom on a set of items that assess the child’s accomplishments, cooperative classroom behavior, behavior problems, and approaches to learning. Teachers also provided reports of children’s health, developmental conditions, and absences during the program year.
Population estimates. The statistics found in this report are estimates of key characteristics of the population of newly entering Head Start children who were still enrolled in the program in spring 2007 and their parents and families, as well as the population of their Head Start 12 teachers and classrooms. The data used to report on child and family characteristics and child outcomes are weighted to represent all children entering Head Start for the first time in 13 fall 2006 who were still enrolled in spring 2007. Teacher data are weighted to represent all teachers serving children who entered Head Start for the first time in fall 2006 and who were still enrolled in their classrooms in spring 2007. Classroom observation data are weighted to represent all classrooms in spring 2007 that were serving children who entered Head Start for the first time in fall 2006.
Interviewer ratings. At the end of the one-onone testing sessions with children in the fall and spring, the assessor completed a set of rating scales evaluating the child’s behavior in the assessment situation, including the child’s approaches to learning and any problem behaviors. Four subscales from the Leiter-R Examiner Rating Scales were used in FACES 2006: (1) attention, (2) organization/impulse control, (3) activity level, and (4) sociability. The 27 items and four subscales make up the cognitive/social scale.
CHILD AND FAMILY DEMOGRAPHICS, PARENTING, AND THE HOME ENVIRONMENT
Classroom observations. In FACES 2006, measures of the classroom environment were obtained from a four-hour observation in the spring. The observation protocols included the Early Childhood Environment Rating ScaleRevised (ECERS-R; Harms, Clifford, and Cryer 1998), the Instructional Support domain from the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al. 2008), and the Arnett Caregiver Interaction Scale (Arnett 1989). Classroom observations also provided information on child-adult ratios and group sizes. Observer ratings are used to produce a set of scores that capture global characteristics of Head Start classrooms as well as indicators of classroom resources and teacher-child interactions. More information on the three measures is found in the section on classroom quality.
Head Start serves a diverse population of lowincome children and their families. Because families play such an important role in a child’s development, Head Start has made the family a cornerstone in its framework. Data from the FACES 2006 Parent Interview offer information on the family and household environment of entering Head Start children and the neighborhoods and communities where they live. This section presents key findings on household demographic characteristics, the home learning environment and parenting practices, family health care and health status, and neighborhood characteristics for the population of children who entered Head Start in fall 2006 and are still enrolled in the program in spring 2007. Changes in parenting practices and children’s activities are described, along with parents’ perceptions of their and their children’s Head Start experiences.
Twenty-four observers were trained to rate key characteristics of children’s classrooms using the ECERS-R, CLASS Instructional Support, and Arnett. Observers participated in an 8-day
4
Characteristics of Children
Household composition. Overall, the family structure of children completing a year of Head Start looks the same as the group of children who entered the program in the fall. Most children completing a year of Head Start live 17 with at least one of their parents (96 percent) and 46 percent live with both parents. Thirty-one percent of children live with two married parents. Very few children live apart from their mother (6 percent) but half do not live with their father (52 percent).
In fall 2006, approximately 458,000 children were newly enrolled in Head Start programs across the U.S. About 88 percent of these children were still enrolled in spring 2007 and completing their first year of Head Start. The demographic characteristics of the group of children still enrolled in spring look very much like those of the group of children who entered 14 the program in the fall. About 63 percent of children completing a year of Head Start were 3 years old when they first entered the program in the fall, and the others were 4 years old or older. Boys slightly outnumber girls, a pattern that is more pronounced among 4-year-olds (53 percent versus 47 percent, respectively). Just over a third of children are Hispanic/Latino and another third are African American. Three-year-olds are more likely to be African American than 4-yearolds, while 4-year-olds are more likely to be White or Hispanic/Latino than are 3-year-olds.
Parent education, employment, and income. Sixty-three percent of children’s mothers and 55 percent of their fathers have at least a high school education. Thus, roughly a third of Head Start children’s mothers and 45 percent of their fathers did not complete high school or earn a GED. More than half of the mothers whose children are finishing a year of Head Start are employed (53 percent), with about a third working full-time (35 or more hours per week) and another 21 percent working part-time. A majority of children’s fathers are employed (86 percent) and most work full-time hours (72 percent). More than three quarters of children live in households with at least one employed parent, and 59 percent have at least one parent who works fulltime.
Family Environment Children entering Head Start for the first time in fall 2006 had diverse family lives (Tarullo et al. 2008). While most lived with a parent, a little more than half lived apart from their fathers. Although a majority of their mothers and more than half of their fathers had at least a high school education, many parents had not 15 completed high school. More than half of children’s mothers and a much higher percentage of their fathers were employed with many working full-time. A large majority (89 percent) lived in households where the income was less than or equal to 185 percent of the 16 federal poverty threshold. A little more than a quarter—27 percent—lived in households where English was not the primary language spoken to them. For most of this group of children, Spanish was the home language. Many entering children lived in households with multiple risks (low parent education, single-parent, and income below the federal poverty threshold).The remainder of this section focuses on children who entered Head Start in fall 2006 and are still enrolled in the program in spring 2007.
The median household income for children completing a year of Head Start was $19,191, based on parent report in fall 2006. Slightly less than 9 in 10 children live in households where the income is less than or equal to 185 percent of the federal poverty threshold. About 57 percent live in households where income is less than or equal to 100 percent of the federal poverty threshold. White children are less likely to live in households with incomes at or below the poverty threshold than African American or Hispanic/Latino children. Many Head Start children live in households that receive federal assistance. The most common type of assistance is from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program. In spring 2007, 55 percent of
5
children’s families received WIC compared to about 61 percent in fall 2006. The percentage of children’s families that received food stamps in the spring was also down slightly from the fall (48 percent and 51 percent, respectively). The percentage of children whose families received welfare assistance was relatively stable from fall to spring (21 percent and 19 percent, respectively). In spring 2007, 3-year-olds are more likely to live in households that receive WIC than are 4-year-olds, and the decline in WIC participation is smaller for families of 3year-olds compared to 4-year-olds.
percent have two parents who were born outside of the U.S. Cumulative socioeconomic risk. Coming from a low-income family or single-parent household and having parents who did not complete high school are identified as risk factors for poor 19 developmental and educational outcomes. Children with one of these risk factors are more likely to have others, and research has shown that having more than one risk factor can have negative consequences for children’s 20 development and school readiness skills. In FACES 2006, an index was created as a measure of cumulative family risk. The number of risks is based on three characteristics of children’s living circumstances: whether the child resides in a single-parent household, whether the household income is below the federal poverty threshold, and whether the child’s mother has less than a high school diploma. About 17 percent of children completing a year of Head Start had none of the three risks and 12 percent had all three. Most had either one (36 percent) or two (35 percent) of the risks. African American and Hispanic/Latino children were more likely to have two or more risks than White children, a pattern that is also found among the general population of children entering school for the first time (Zill and West 2001).
Home language and immigrant status. About 28 percent of children completing a year of Head Start live in households where English is not the 18 primary language spoken to them. Spanish is by far the most prevalent non-English primary language and is spoken to children in 23 percent of households. Of children who are spoken to in a non-English language, 83 percent have Spanish as the home language. Overall, most Head Start children were born in the U.S. (98 percent), and a majority of their mothers (71 percent) and fathers (70 percent) also were born in the U.S. This is also true among children who live in households where a language other than English is spoken to them most often; 92 percent of those children were born in the U.S. However, for this group of children, a small percentage of their mothers (11 percent) and fathers (9 percent) were born in the United States. Most often, these children’s mothers (67 percent) and fathers (68 percent) were born in Mexico, followed by Central America, South America, Asia, and Africa. Over 70 percent of these mothers and fathers had been in the U.S. for at least 6 years.
Parenting Approaches and Attitudes Child-rearing practices. Parenting practices and parents’ attitudes toward child-rearing can affect their relationships and interactions with their children. Earlier cohorts of FACES found that parenting styles were correlated with child behavior, and that family engagement in activities together (for example, telling stories or playing games) was correlated with child cognitive skills (ACF 2003). In spring 2007, the parents of FACES children were asked a series of questions that were designed to capture information about parenting practices, including parenting style, disciplinary approaches, and 21 routines.
Figure 2 shows the immigrant status of Head Start parents. Twenty-six percent of all children completing a year of Head Start had two parents who were born outside of the U.S. Among the group of children who live in households where a non-English language is spoken to them, 84
6
Figure 2.
Immigrant Status of Head Start Parents Percent of Children Spoken to in Language Other Than English
Percent of All Children
4 12
26
9
66 84 Both Parents Born in U.S.
One Parent Born in U.S.
Both Parents Born Outside U.S.
Source: FACES Fall 2006 Parent Interview
Parents were asked to indicate to what extent each of 13 items from The Child-Rearing Practices Report (Block 1965) describes them. From these, four subscales were created in earlier rounds of FACES:
The Authoritarian scale indicates a stricter, more directive, parenting style. This scale includes items such as ―I do not allow my child to get angry with me‖ and ―I believe that a child should be seen and not heard.‖ Possible scores on each subscale range from 1, indicating the statements included in the scale are ―not at all‖ like the parent, to 5, indicating that the statements describe the parent ―exactly.‖ On average, parents scored higher on the parental warmth scale (4.3) and lower on the authoritarian scale (2.2). Scores on the parental energy (3.9) and authoritative (3.4) scales fell between these extremes. Parents in households with multiple socioeconomic risk factors scored lower on the warmth subscale than did parents with fewer risk factors, and parents in households with no socioeconomic risk factors scored lower on the authoritative subscale. Scores also varied by race/ethnicity with African American children’s parents scoring higher on both the authoritative and authoritarian subscales, compared to other parents, while White children’s parents had higher warmth scores and lower authoritarian scores, on average compared to both African American and Hispanic/Latino parents. Hispanic/Latino children’s parents had lower scores on the
The Parental Warmth scale reflects a warm, supportive parenting style in which the parent encourages curiosity. Items contributing to this scale include ―My child and I have warm intimate moments together‖ and ―I make sure my child knows that I appreciate what (he/she) tries to accomplish.‖ The Parental Energy scale indicates the parent’s energy and consistency in enforcing rules. This scale includes statements such as ―I have little or no difficulty sticking with my rules for my child‖ and ―Once I decide how to deal with a misbehavior of my child, I follow through.‖ The Authoritative scale reflects a less harsh parenting style with greater use of rationales for discipline. Statements in this scale include ―I control my child by warning (him/her) about the bad things that can happen‖ and ―I teach my child that misbehavior or breaking the rules will always be punished.‖
7
energy subscale than did children’s parents in other ethnic groups.
For most other home learning activities, the percentages of children who had engaged in the activity with a family member increased between fall 2006 and spring 2007. As shown in Figure 3, the largest increases were in the percentages who were told a story, talked about TV programs with family members, were taught songs, or played games, sports, or exercised. The only activities whose prevalence did not increase significantly were the three reported by the highest percentages of parents in both fall and spring: playing with toys or games indoors (98 percent), taking child along on errands (96 percent), and talking about what happened in Head Start (96 percent) (not shown).
Discipline. FACES also asked about specific disciplinary practices and routines in the home. The percentage of children whose parents had spanked them in the week prior to the interview decreased significantly, from 37 percent to 32 percent between fall 2006 and spring 2007. Almost twice as many parents (68 percent in spring 2007) had used "time out," but the percentage using that discipline approach did not change significantly between fall and spring. Household routines. Parents’ interactions with their children at home, including the rules and routines that parents establish for their children, set the stage for socialization at school. Studies have found time spent eating meals together as a family to be associated with fewer behavior problems (Hofferth and Sandberg 2001) and that dinner table conversation supports literacy development (Beals and Snow 2006). The percentage of Head Start children whose families eat dinner together every day decreased significantly, from 55 percent to 46 percent between fall and spring. The percentage of children with a regular bedtime (85 percent in spring 2007) did not change between fall and spring.
The percentages of children who had engaged in activities with their family members outside the home also increased between the fall and spring for most types of activities. As shown in Figure 4, the largest increases were in the percentages of children who talked about family history or ethnic heritage; went to a movie, library, or community event; visited a museum; or attended a play or concert with family members. Physical activity and nutrition. Parental encouragement of physical activity and good nutritional choices at home can contribute to children’s developing healthy habits and help combat childhood obesity. FACES measured physical activity through questions about frequency of outdoor play. The percentage of children who spend more than two hours playing outside on a typical weekday increased significantly, from 28 percent in the fall to 38 percent in the spring. This change was accompanied by a decrease in the percentage spending no time playing outside (from 20 percent to 9 percent) between fall and spring. Of course, it is possible that these changes may reflect seasonal variation in the weather between the fall and spring surveys. The increase in the percentage of children spending more than two hours playing outside was particularly notable for 4-year-olds (27 percent in the fall to 40 percent in the spring), while the decrease in the percentage spending no time
Home learning activities. Head Start children participate in a variety of learning activities with their families, both in and outside of the home. One common activity is being read to by a parent or family member. The percentage of children who are read to three or more times a week (about three-quarters of Head Start children overall) did not change significantly between fall and spring. This level of reading did increase for some subgroups however. The percentage of Hispanic/Latino children read to three or more times a week increased significantly, from 65 percent in the fall to 71 percent in the spring, and the percentage of children who live in primarily non-English households who are read to three or more times a week rose from 61 to 70 percent.
8
Figure 3.
Family Members’ Activities with Child in Past Week 2.7 **
Percentage of Parents
100
80
4.9 ***
5.7 ***
9.5 ***
6.7 *** 3.8 *
60 94.0 40
86.6
80.8
73.5
64.6
73.0
20
0 Told a story
Taught letters, Taught songs Worked on arts Played a game, Talked about words, or or music and crafts sport, or TV programs or numbers exercised videos together Fall 2006
Increase in Spring 2007
Source: FACES Fall 2006 and Spring 2007 Parent Interview Note: All fall-spring differences shown are statistically significant * = p< .05, ** = p
