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ISSN-0116-7413

Cabagan, Isabela

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH VOL. XIX

January-June, 2010

CONTENTS Development of a Source of Materials in Teaching Study and Critical Thinking Skills for ESL Learners………………………………….1 Boyet L. Batang Development and Evaluation of Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office of the Isabela University, Cabagan, Isabela ……………………………………………… 14 Rosalinda B. Guiyab Environmental Attitudes and Behavior of Students in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Region 02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Eileen C. Bernardo Implementasyon ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 sa Mga Programa ng Filipino ng SUCS sa Rehiyon 2 …………………………….. 44 Jaine Z. Tarun Radical and Social Constructivism and the Performance of Students In Mathematics ………………………………………………………...…..62 Ambrose Hans G. Aggabao

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DEVELOPMENT OF A SOURCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHING STUDY AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR ESL LEARNERS BOYET L. BATANG1

ABSTRACT This paper attempted to present a source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills for ESL (English as a second Language) Learners. Specifically, it aimed to determine the critical thinking skills which need to be developed among the ESL Learners and develop a sample source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills. The study made use of the descriptive method of research. The task was divided into three stages following Johnson’s model of materials preparation (Johnson, 1972, Guilot, 2000) which included the design, development, and dissemination stages. Results of the study showed that college students obviously have difficulties in reading the disciplines as reported by English Teachers and the Content Area Teachers, and that the developed prototype materials based on ERICA (Effective Reading in the Content Areas) strategies were promising instruments for attaining reading-to-learn objectives. The material appears suitable, acceptable and effective as viewed and perceived by English teachers and the Content Area teachers. It is recommended that teachers of both language and content subjects are enjoined to use the material so that students will be used to using strategies to develop critical thinking skills. Keywords: critical thinking, content-based language instruction, ERICA (Effective Reading in the Content Areas) Model, reading strategies, source material, prototype material

Introduction Many would claim that a second language is learned most effectively when used as the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner. This claim is the rationale underlying content-based second language instruction and, as such, is the premised of this paper. Many years ago, the impetus has led to the development of the content-based movement, looking carefully at past several decades, during which time language educators and researchers argued for specific purpose

__________________________________ 1

Assistant Professor IV, College of Development Communication and Arts & Sciences, College of Teacher Education, and Technical Assistant to the Executive Officer, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

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language course, developed procedures for need analyses, designed large-scale second language immersion and bilingual education programs, and looked at language teaching in the broader context of language across the curriculum. Moreover, these seemingly diverse trends, with their broad-reaching pedagogical implications, have gained wide acceptance in language teaching and have served to effectively set the stage for the emergence of content-based instruction as an important trend in second language teaching. (Brinton, Ann Snow, & Wesche, 1989).

Critical thinking helps the students confront the academic demands of schooling. It helps them tackle a variety of school requirements, which require them to think and use language. Educators through the years have recognized the importance of critical thinking in a student’s life. It is considered as an integral part of the learning process and which may help students realize their full potential as learners. The awareness of the utility of critical thinking that educators, including language arts teachers acknowledge its importance, and now seek ways in developing this skill. Hence, teachers need to have materials which may facilitate the learning process and the development of this skill (Javier, 2000).

The Research Problem This study aimed to present a source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills for ESL learners of Isabela State University particularly of the DAT-BAT program of the Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture. Specifically, it aimed to: 1. Determine the critical thinking skills which need to be developed among the ESL Learners; and 2. Develop a sample source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills.

Significance of the Study With the use of content-based instruction, it is hoped that it will serve as a model of modification in preparing instructional materials for teacher training, practicing teacher, teacher trainer, or administrators. Furthermore, in response to the growing popularity of content-based language teaching models in the Philippines and abroad particularly US and Canada, this study including the materials to be developed will provide a rationale for content-based instruction and materials preparation and adaptation.

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In addition, this will serve as a course text for English instructors teaching Study and Thinking skills in College as mandated by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). This will provide the readers, teachers and practitioners information on well-grounded criteria for making effective choices when designing and implementing a content-based instruction.

Review of Related Literature and Theoretical Views about language and language learning served as bases of Content-Based Instruction. Firstly, the belief that language is a tool of communication to express one’s attitudes, information feelings, etc. Language is used to narrate an experience, to describe a person, place, thing, or event, to complain about poor service or product, to ask for help, to apologize, to express congratulations and condolences, and other language functions. Since CBI gives emphasis on message or meaning, it is but natural to choose content for a meaningful teaching and language. Based on the 1987 Bilingual education Policy, the natural content for teaching Filipino is Social Studies, Values Education, and other subjects on Filipino Culture as MAPE. On the other hand, English can find content in Science and Technology, not to mention Mathematics (Mendiola, 2002). The other basis of CBI in the belief that Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) is different from Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) as claimed by Cummins, 1979, cited in Mendiola, 2002). The former is termed as ‘basic’ because it is developed through socialization, conversation or personal interaction. The learner’s BICS used greetings, engaging in small talk, expressing emotion and other everyday use of language is inadequate to learn subjects taught in Filipino or English because the academic skills demand a higher level of cognition such as comparison and contrast, inferencing, analysis, synthesis, application and evaluation. For instance, a learner’s high level of conversation skills does not guarantee his readiness to perform academic tasks such as comparing different religions or forms of government, describing, explaining the process of impeachment, analyzing the peso devaluation, synthesizing on the topic from different references, and evaluating the most efficient way of waste management in one’s community.

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Methodology Research Design The descriptive method of research was used in this paper. The task was divided into three stages following Johnson’s model of materials preparation (Johnson, 1972, Guilot, 2000) which included the design, development, and dissemination stages. In the design stage, it included literature and studies that deal with Content-Based College ESL Instruction, Materials Development and Adaptation in Content-Based Instruction, nature and purposes of critical thinking including language and language teaching which were found in books, journals, magazines, and the web. In the attempt of the researcher to determine the needs of the ESL learners of Isabela State University particularly at the Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture (PTIA), a survey of reading materials and type of text was conducted, content area Instructors were also considered and discussed; and even observed classes on how they assess the way student handle critical thinking and skills in the classroom. Content are Instructors were considered primary persons who could identify the learning areas where students needed help most, hence, the preparation of the Table of Specifications. The Development stage on the other hand included print resources of authentic texts or ‘realias’. These were taken from an agribusiness magazine which the students are familiar with which is not intended to teach language. The texts’ original features, structures and organizations were retained; no modifications were as it suggested the real passages be used so that the students will rehearse the steps they will perform in real life (Phillips and Shettelesworth, 1978, Guilot, 2000). The materials were made up of three main sections: the Instructor’s/Teacher’s guide the Reading-to-Learn Strategies in the form of class exercises and the Authentic Print Resources whereby exploited texts were derived. Instruments The instructor’s guide included the unit topics, lesson title and source, learning objectives, skills/strategies focused and the presentation plan with instructor’s activity notes and some comments/remarks. Eight (8) lessons of the study were chosen with focus on agribusiness. The sequential arrangement of the eight (8) lessons was the researcher’s discretion, there was no strict guidelines followed. The learning objectives were focused on the knowledge while the skills outlined were pointed to the four (4) macro skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The four (4) stages of the Effective Reading in the Content Area (ERICA) model, the Preparing for Reading (Stage 1) Thinking through Reading (Stage 2), Extracting and Organizing (Stage 3) and Translating Information through Writing (Stage 4) were observed for each lesson or area of study. The units followed similar patterns beginning with a structured overview and graphic outline and ending with activities like translating through writing. A time allotment for each

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strategy was provided and a strategy for a day. Finally, the dissemination stage included the preparation of the final draft after Content area teachers and English teachers’ opinions and suggestions have been pursued.

Results and Discussions, Presentation of Materials Lesson 1 Topic : Source :

Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production Granberry, Kelley, Chance, McLaurin, & Harrison, Sanders (Agribusiness Digest, pp. 37-39, February, 1999)

Learning Objectives: 1. Define Plasticulture 2. Describe the scheduling injections 3. Differentiate mobile vs. immobile nutrients 4. Discuss fertilizer injection schedules and drip tube maintenance Skills: Listening Reading Speaking Writing

: : : :

Listening to a farmer regarding commercial vegetable production Acquiring relevant information on commercial vegetable production Discussing the relevance of Plasticulture for commercial vegetable production Distinguishing between mobile vs. immobile nutrients

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Lesson Plan Presentation Day

Topic

1

Plasticulture

2

Scheduling Injections

2

Scheduling Injections

2

Scheduling

Instructor’s Activity/Notes Stage 1- Preparing for Reading Exercise 1- Structured Overview To be developed by the teacher and students prior to encountering the text 1. Begin by leading students to page 37 of the text and go over the list of topics discussed in the article 2. Let students pick those words related to the topic 3. Arrange these words in a diagram and draw lines between words to indicate relationships. The resulting diagram is a structured overview in reading terms but is also called concept map, word map or semantic map by other disciplines. 4. The structured overview is best built up with the students rather than simply being presented to them. What they build-up by themselves they think through and internalize. Giving them a complete model takes away this thinking and is less productive. Stage 1–Preparing for Reading Exercise 2 – Graphic Outline 1. The exercise is to be done in class 2. Divide the students into groups. Some boxes have already been filled to help them form the outline easily Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading Exercise 3- Vocabulary: Context Clues pp. 37-39 1. Allow individual reading/independent study Stage 2 – Thinking through Reading

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Comments

In cases where you can feel that students do not have enough background knowledge to work with you in creating a structured overview, remember that the more you do, the less they do. The input should be limited to the amount of help, guidance and instruction need

Injections

3

4

4

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Exercise 4 – Cloze Exercise 1. Students complete this exercise after they have read the entire article of “Scheduling Nutrient Injections” pp. 37-39

Stage 2 – Thinking through Reading Exercise 5 – Three Level Guide 1. To be given after the students have finished reading the section on “mobile vs. immobile nutrients” Drip Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing Maintenance Information Exercise 6 – Diagramming 1. Students make a diagram of the different steps on “Drip Maintenance” Drip Stage 3 in- Extracting and Organizing Maintenance Information Exercise 7 – Outlining 1. Outlining teaches students how to distinguish main ideas and supporting details Plasticulture for Stage 4 – Translating Information commercial Exercise 8 – Translating Information vegetable 1. Before students perform this exercise, production the “Critical Discussion” students should have read the whole article to be able to relate in the discussion. Mobile vs. immobile

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EXERCISES Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading Exercise 1: Structured Overview What is Plasticulture? Is the commercialization of vegetable increase through Plasticulture? With the members of your group decide what key words can you think of that would relate to Plasticulture and commercial vegetable production. Connect these words to form logical ideas about it. Stage 1 – Preparing for the Reading Exercise 2: Graphic Outline Fill in the boxes with relevant information to complete the outline.

Main Heading

Sub-Heading

Sub-Topic

Scheduling of Nutrient

Injections Drip Tube

Maintenance

Critical Discussion on Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production

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Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading Exercise 3: Vocabulary: Context Clues Look for the following words used and explained in the text. Copy the article’s explanation and write your own based on what you have read. The first one is done for as example

Word plasticulture

application transplanted mobile nutrients Immobile nutrients fertilizer injection plant tissue testing drip tube particulate Cropping pest control

Page 37

Article’s explanation Your explanation a process of which frequent fertigation a process to improve of fertilizer to soil surrounding to plant the production of roofs to be effective vegetable

37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38

Stage 2 – Thinking About Reading Exercise 4 Fill in each blank in the following exercise with a word which you think makes the best sense. Work by yourself try to remember why you chose each word.

The frequent ______ of small amounts of _____ to soil surrounding plants tools has been (1) (2) shown to very effective. However, as with a conventional ______ program, the manager (3)

must decide “what”, “how much” and “when”._______ but not excessive amounts should

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(4) be _______ as needed by the crop. The amount of fertilizer scheduled for ___________ (5) (6)

during the growing _______ season should be based on a ________ soil test. _______ (7) (8) (9) of small amounts at timely intervals should ______ the portion of the total recommended (10) amount of ________. (11) Stage 2: Thinking through Reading Exercise 5: Three Level Guide Level 1: Literal Level Put a check mark on statements which the author explicitly mentioned. Be ready to justify answers. __________ 1. A successful managed fertilizer program ensures that nutrient deficiencies do not reduce quality. __________ 2. Nutrients such as phosphorous and certain micronutrients that do not readily leach from the soil. Level 2: Interpretive Level Tick those statements which you think the text implicitly discussed. Be ready to explain your reasons. __________ 1.

Approximately 20 percent of the recommended nitrogen and potassium is applied.

__________ 2. Injection of nitrogen and potassium can be delayed about two weeks.

Level 3: Applied Level

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Mark those statements which you think the authors would agree with. Br ready to explain why> __________ 1. Leachable nutrients such as nitrogen and potassium can be effectively provided by drip fertigation. __________ 2. If no preplant nitrogen and potassium is applied fertigation should begin immediately after transplanting.

Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing Information Exercise 6: Diagramming Make a diagram of the four (4) steps in Drip tube Maintenance. Steps

Description

Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing Information Exercise 7: Outlining Outline the different steps in Drip tube Maintenance. Write down main concepts about each and their corresponding details. I. Particulate Matter Main Idea

1_____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ Supporting Details a. _____________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________ II. ________________ Main Idea 1. _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ Supporting Details a. _____________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________

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III. _______________ Main Idea

1. ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Supporting Details a. _____________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________ IV. _______________ Main Idea 1. _____________________________________________ Supporting Details a. _____________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________

Stage 4 – Translating Information Exercise 8: Translating through Writing You have read the entire article entitled “Plasticulture for commercial vegetable production on pages 37-39. Give a short description on the processes involved. Why do you think these processes are important? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ____________ Conclusions: Based on the assessment made, the college students have difficulties in reading the disciplines as reported by English teachers and content area teachers; that the developed

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materials based on ERICA strategies are promising instruments for attaining reading-to-learn objectives. The materials appear suitable, acceptable, and effective as viewed by English and Content Area teachers.

Recommendations Based on the conclusions made, it is recommended that the English teachers should make use or adapt these materials to suit the learning needs of his/her students. The students may endeavor to think and how to think when they study a text or a situation. Teachers of both language and content subjects are enjoined to use these materials so that the students will be used to using strategies to develop critical thinking skills.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Brinton, D. M., Snow Ann, M., and Wesche, M. B. 1989. Content-Based Second Language Instruction. Newbury House Publishers. Granberry, K. Chance, M, & Harrison, S. 1989. Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production Agribusiness Digest, pp. 37-39. Guilot, C. D. 2000. Development of ERICA (Effective Reading in the Content Areas) Based Prototype Materials. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Philippine Normal University, Manila. Javier, M. M. 2000. Sample Exercises for the Development of Student’s Ability to Read Critically. Unpublished Special Project. Philippine Normal University, Manila. Johnson, F.C. 1972. The Design, Development, and Dissemination of Instructional Materials University of Papua New Guinea. Regional English Language Centre. Singapore. Mendiola, C.M. 2002. Assumptions, Research Bases, and Models of Content-Based Instruction. Paper read during the In-service Training Program on Making Connections through Content-Based Language Instruction in English and Filipino. Philippine Normal University, Manila.

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DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF COMPUTER AIDED TESTING AND INFORMATION (CATI) FOR THE GUIDANCE OFFICE AT ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY, CABAGAN, ISABELA ROSALINDA B. GUIYAB1

ABSTRACT The study Development and Evaluation of Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office at Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela aimed to develop and evaluate a Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office at Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela. The development phase of this study included the design of the CATI, used the Waterfall Model, together with Unified Modeling Language or UML. Specifically, the Use Case Diagram (UCD) to model the interaction between the system and its users. On the other hand, the evaluation phase utilized two methods: technical evaluation with system testing and humanistic evaluation with acceptability of the system. A stratified random sample of ninety two (92) ISUC – CDCAS students and twelve (12) IT experts including the guidance counselor served as respondents of the study. The respondents highly accepted the accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security features of the CATI system. Across all features, the CATI system was consistently adjudged as “highly acceptable”. This information confirmed the need to automate the process used to administer, check and score the university entrance examination as well as keeping the students record. It is recommended that the developed system will be implemented to improve the quality of the present admission system of the university and eventually, managing its students record. Keywords: Computer Aided Testing and Information, System Testing, Acceptability

Introduction

With the current technological advances in the field of information technology, society has to continually adapt the changing demands such advances has brought to it. Communities have become increasingly dependent on computers, systems analysts, programmers, as well as on more reliable and efficient systems. Due to these advancements, productivity demands from employees in any given work setting have dramatically increased to a point that it is intolerable without technological intervention. The Guidance Office of the Isabela State University (ISU) at Cabagan, Isabela is not an exemption.

____________________ 1 Faculty, College of Development Communication and Arts & Sciences, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

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In order for ISU to cope with these demands, it is necessary that it adapts itself to the use of available technologies to aid its operations—more specifically, the application of CATI in the general management of its admission system, and eventually managing its students’ information. Currently, the Office of the Guidance Counselor at Isabela State University is using the paper-based form or the traditional written examination in administering the University Entrance Examination and manually keeping the Students’ Information in the filing cabinet. After the examination, the guidance counselor corrects the examination manually and the result is given to the student which takes up to two (2) weeks after the examination. This kind of set-up is found to be time consuming and inevitably, there are errors in checking the examination. As a consequence, the guidance counselor cannot do other guidance services which may be deemed important to clarify issues and academic concerns about the welfare of the students. With the cited problems above, the researcher developed the Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office at the Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela. This system aimed to automate the process use to create, administer, check and score the University Entrance Examination as well as keeping the Students’ Information. It is geared towards improvement of the traditional written entrance examination and the manual keeping of student’s personal information. It also aimed to evaluate the CATI system as to its congruence to its intended use as well as to its acceptability by its intended or potential users with a survey of the perception with regard to the features of the system based on the software criteria used in System Testing that will further validate the effectiveness of the CATI. The Research Problem Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the features of the Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) in terms of the following software criteria used in System Testing: (a) Accuracy, (b) Efficiency, (c) Reliability and (d) Security; 2. What is the perception of the respondents in the CATI system with respect to the software criteria used in System Testing? And 3. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the IT experts and students on the CATI system with respect to the software criteria used in System Testing?

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Hypothesis of the Study There is no significant difference in the perception of the IT experts and the students on the CATI system with respect to the software criteria used in System Testing. Significance of the Study With the sector-wide embrace of ICT and IT initiatives in the Philippines, this study encourages in part through government directives the use of electronic transactions in educational institutions. Moreover, the study may also help the school administrators to realize the importance of the need to integrate the use of computerized assessment to improve the quality of the admission system in the country. It will help them maximize the use of their resources to cope with the pace of technology by fast tracking the processing of documents through automation. It is noted in literatures that the increased use of computerized assessment in higher education is an international phenomenon. Hence, this study goes with the trend and is apparently conceived at the right time. Hopefully, the Isabela State University will improve the quality of its admission system by considering the recommendations of this study. The guidance counselor or the examination in-charge will also be benefited by facilitating their work thus, providing accurate, efficient, secured and reliable examination results. There will be an easier and faster generation of examination report. Hence, reports will be provided and or submitted on-time. To the students who will take the entrance examination, they will experience an atmosphere of being in touch with the use of technology by taking the examination with the aid of computers. This results to immediate notification of their performance in the examination. This study may also provide system developers with inputs on how to design, develop and evaluate the effectiveness of such software application such that their admission system will be improved. Finally, this study likewise contributes to the body of literature on the effectiveness of the use of computerized assessment in higher education.

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Literature Survey Computerized Assessment “The increased use of computerized assessment in higher education is an international phenomenon.” The United States, for example, have seen a recent rise in the use of computerassisted assessment with further growth predicted in the future (McKenna, 2001). This trend is also apparent in the Philippines with the sector-wide embrace of ICT and IT initiatives that encourage in part through government directives particularly promoting the use of electronic transactions in education. Moreover, the Information Technology and E-Commerce Council (ITECC) has come up with the vision of ePhilippines as an electronically enabled society where the citizens live in an environment that will promote access to technologies…(ITECC Philippines, 2002).

Computer Aided Examination (CAE) According to Ayon-Ayon (2006), CAE had provided a more accurate output than that of the paper-based type of examination and much better in preparing test questions. It facilitates the systematic storage, updating and retrieval of pertinent data of examinees as well as checking and scoring of examinee’s answers to test questions from the computerized software. It is a tool for test administration, replaces the paper-based type of examination and enables speedy checking and scoring of the examinee’s answer data. The design of CAE is so simple that even those who do not have any experience operating the computer can easily take the test. This is further supported by Asuni (2008), stating the general advantages of Computer-Based Assessment (CBA) systems over traditional Pen-and-Paper Testing (PPT) have been demonstrated in several comparative works and includes: increased delivery, administration and scoring efficiency; reduced costs for many elements of the testing lifecycle; improved test security resulting from electronic transmission and encryption; consistency and reliability; faster and more controlled test revision process with shorter response time; faster decision-making as the result of immediate scoring and reporting; unbiased test administration and scoring; fewer response entry and recognition errors; fewer comprehension errors caused by the testing process; improved translation and localization with universal availability of content; new advanced and flexible item types; increased candidate acceptance and satisfaction; evolutionary step toward future testing methodologies. From the foregoing literature, the idea of automating the process used to develop, administer, and score the examination and further determining perception is no longer new and proven to be effective. From the early days of computers in educational environment, the idea of computer to manage exams has been explored (Hansen, et.al. 1978). The study conducted by Cotugna & Vickery (1999) determined how examinees reacted to the computerized exam

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experience. It examined the perception of the respondents in taking the computerized examination for dietitians. The response rate was 61% (n=185) and average time between completing the supervised practice program and taking the exam was 5.7 months. Most (n=125) found the computerized format to be satisfactory even though 54.7% reported having anxiety about taking computerized exams. This study likewise contributed to the body of literature on the effectiveness of the use of computerized assessment in the higher education. Waterfall Model The Waterfall Model was employed in the development of the CATI system. This model was recommended since the nature of the university entrance examination was relatively stable and the needs of the examination in-charge were already identified at an early stage. The model was supported by Constantine that remarked at OOPSLA2005, "I created one of the first 'waterfall' approaches but I did not create analysis paralysis". Apart from these known models are several other models that are used by the software industry depending on the project size, time and budget. The Waterfall Model is a unique model which is followed by most of the companies. In fact certain features of the model attract the top executives to adapt it. Some of the unique features are: (1.) It can be implemented for all size of projects; (2.) It leads to a concrete and clear approach to software development; (3.) In this model testing is inherent in every phase; (4) Documentation is produced at every stage of model which is very helpful for people who are involved. (Parida, 2010)

Methodology The study used a two-phase process method: The development of a system (First Phase), and its consequent evaluation (Second Phase).

A. Development Phase Developmental Model There are various software development approaches defined and designed which are used during development process of software, these approaches are also referred as “Software development Models”. Each process model follows a particular life cycle in order to ensure success in process of software development. This study employed the Modified Waterfall Model (Mavaddat, 2008) derived from the Waterfall Model approach which was the first process introduced and followed widely in software engineering to ensure success of the system to be developed. A number of variants

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of this model exist, with each one quoting slightly different labels for the various stages however, the model may be considered as having six distinct phases, described below.

The different phases of the Modified Waterfall Model is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Taken from http://www.student.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cs430/.../Chapter02-Life-Cycle.ppt Figure 1. The Waterfall Model of the CATI System

The development process is discussed below: 1.

Requirements. This involved gathering of information about the needs of the Guidance Counselor in administering the university entrance examination as well as keeping the student’s personal record and defining, in the clearest possible terms, the problem that the system is expected to solve.

2.

Analysis: Analysis included the flow of the university entrance examination and the manual keeping of student’s personal information with context and constraints, the functions that the system must perform and the performance levels it must adhere to. Techniques used to obtain this understanding included interviews, used cases, and identifying the system features. The results of the analysis were typically captured in a formal requirements’ specification, which served as input to the next step.

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3. Design: The Hierarchical Input Process Output (HIPO) was used to find out the probable functions, features and relationship of these functions and features of the study. This was also used for user interface design, including issues relating to navigation and accessibility in which design was based on the requirements and set-up of the university. 4.

Implementation: The system was implemented using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 as the programming language and the use of Data Report in generating the Student’s Personal Information and the examination results. Databases were created using MSAccess 2003 and sample data was entered to facilitate testing and debugging process. Thereafter, the programming process was initiated with the writing of codes based on the requirements. The standard programming practices of data validation and error trapping were coded into the system. As a final step, compilation of the program was done to create an executable file. Using the package and development wizard of Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0, the executable files of the system was produced. Files were compressed using the package wizard after which an evaluation was done if the system fully satisfies the requirements outlined and to ensure that they are error-free. Prior to the pilot test of the study, the system was presented for trial - run and demonstration to the campus where the audience consisted of the guidance counselor and the IT experts. This included system testing of the integrated system to verify if the system meets the specified requirements in which suggestions (e.g. user’s manual and the video on how to take the examination) were integrated into the system. An evaluation was conducted if the system satisfies the requirements outlined and to ensure that they are error-free. The CATI system was pilot tested to the ISUC – CDCAS students and the IT experts including the campus guidance counselor in which the researcher floated the questionnaire after the live demonstration and used of the CATI system. The system was tested and certified as fit for use by the respondents. This was reflected in the results of the study that evaluated the output of the system as to its congruence to its intended use as well as to its acceptability by its intended or potential users. The system was then prepared for installation and readily available for used in administering the university entrance examination and in keeping student’s personal information. The user’s manual was written for documentation as user’s reference that includes explanation of the system on how to install, how to use, and how to take the examination.

5.

Post-delivery Maintenance: This involved making modifications to the system to improved performance. These modifications arise either due to change requests initiated by the university committee of the examination, or defects uncovered during actual use of the system. Typically, every change made to the system during the maintenance cycle will be recorded before release (called a "maintenance release" and

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exhibiting an updated revision number) is performed to enable the university to gain the benefit of the update. 6.

Retirement. This is the time when there is a total change or revision of the requirements in the university entrance examination and when maintenance is not costeffective.

B. Evaluation Phase System Testing To evaluate the system developed, the technical evaluation using the software criteria used for System Testing (IEEE, 2004) is utilized. This evaluation is focused on the accuracy, efficiency, security and the reliability features of the CATI system. The terms were based on the Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing produced by the ‘Glossary Working Party’, an International Software Testing Qualifications Board (ISO 9126). This also involved humanistic evaluation focused on the acceptability of the system with a survey of the perceptions by its intended users and was statistically analyzed using the weighted mean to describe the effectiveness of the CATI system and the t-test to compare the perception of the IT experts and the students on the said system at 0.05 level of significance. The same software criteria were emphasized by AXIA consulting agency that helped enterprises specify and select new software systems – by providing business managers with impartial time-saving tools and advice, to enable them to make the optimum decision. It emphasizes that good business software has a number of essential criteria and it is crucial that these were met when selecting new software, in order for the software to be beneficial in the organization (AXIA Consulting Ltd., 2010). A survey questionnaire was employed which was formulated based from the software criteria used in system testing (IEEE, 2004) in which the parameters to measure such criteria were requirements-driven based from the requirements needed in the admission system of the university. The scale has five (5) point scales which have a corresponding descriptive equivalent as presented below. Scale 5 4 3 2 1

Descriptive Equivalent Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree

The weighted mean rating was used to get the respondents general rating on the CATI.

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To describe the perceived features of the CATI system in terms of accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security, the following arbitrary intervals and descriptions were used. Point Range 4.21 – 5.00 3.41 – 4.20 2.61 – 3.40 1.81 – 2.60 1.00 – 1.80

Descriptive Equivalent Highly Acceptable Acceptable Fair Unacceptable Highly Unacceptable

Respondents There were two groups of respondents in the study. The first group consisted of students from the ISUC – CDCAS who were enrolled during the second semester of the school year 2009-2010 and the second group was IT experts of the ISUC including the campus guidance counselor. The stratified random sampling was used to determine the student-respondents using the Slovin’s Formula wand finally applying proportionate allocation while total enumeration was applied for the second group of respondents. Out of one hundred eighty students (180), a stratified random sample of ninety two (92) students and twelve (12) IT experts including the campus guidance counselor served as respondents of the study. Data Gathering Procedure Prior to the pilot test of the study, the system was presented for trial - run and demonstration to the campus where the audience consisted of the campus guidance counselor and the IT experts. This included system testing of the integrated system to verify if the system meets the specified requirements. Suggestions like the user’s manual and the video on how to take the examination were integrated into the system. An evaluation was conducted if the system satisfies the requirements outlined and to ensure that they are error-free. The CATI system was pilot tested to the ISUC – CDCAS students and the IT experts including the campus guidance counselor. For the student-respondents, the researcher tried to get a representative from the different departments of ISUC – CDCAS (e.g.

22

Natural Sciences, Information and Communications Technology, Development Communication and Social Sciences) with closed coordination to the different department heads. The researcher floated the questionnaire after watching the video on how to take the examination with live or actual demonstration and used of the CATI system. The researcher personally collected the questionnaire to ensure a one hundred percent (100%) retrieval. Data Analysis All the data gathered were collected, organized, tabulated and analyzed using the weighted mean. For in depth analysis of data, the t-test was also employed to determine if there is a significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the students.

Results and Discussions

A. The Development of the CATI System Description of the Existing System Before the student takes the entrance examination, the student first fills-up the Personal Data Form (PDF) for a freshman which is given by the Guidance Counselor. The filled-up form will be submitted to the Guidance Counselor together with the report card containing the average grade of the student. After submitting the necessary information, the Guidance Counselor schedules the examination. The student will just wait or come on his/her scheduled date and time of examination. After taking the examination, the student will be notified to come back two weeks after the examination to get the examination result. Description of the CATI System The use of the developed CATI system will help speed-up the process of generating reports originally prepared by the Guidance Counselor. Before the student takes the examination, the student must have the information on his high school average grade together with the desired course to be taken in the university. This process includes the filling-up of the Personal Data Form which is given by the Guidance Counselor. The filled-up form will be submitted to the Guidance Counselor who will then verify whether all the required information where properly filled-up. The Guidance Counselor will enter into the system all the necessary student information including the student’s examinee number. Before the student takes the entrance examination, he will be oriented on how to take the exam by watching the embedded video on the system. After watching the video, the student is now

23

ready to take the examination. After taking the examination, the student will be immediately notified as to his performance in the examination which will be given by the Guidance Counselor. The system will also generate all the necessary entrance examination reports i.e. the student personal information, entrance examination results, list of students who took the exam per course and college, etc. Client-Server Configuration The CATI system used a Client-Server configuration that allows any connected client to the functions possible from the server interface. The systems administrator can just "watch" what is happening at the Server from their connected computers, or actively "make it happen". The Server computer should be secured in an area like in the office of the Guidance Counselor or to the Executive Officer’s office, and can be administered remotely across the network. The output of this stage is one or more design specifications, which will be used in the next stage of implementation.

Minimum Requirements Windows 7 or Vista Server, Pentium IV, 1.6 Ghz, 1.0GB RAM, 100 GB free Hard disk space, 32bit colored monitor with 1024 x 768 pixels, Direct X 9.0c or higher, 52X-CD-ROM drive. Recommended Requirements Windows 2003 server, Core 2 Duo, 1.6 Ghz, 2.0GB RAM, 240 GB free Hard disk space, 32bit colored monitor with 1280 x 800 pixels, Direct X 9.0c or higher, 52X-CD-ROM drive. B. The Evaluation of the CATI System This part presents the evaluation of the CATI system by getting the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and the IT experts including the guidance counselor. Their perceptions were elicited after watching the video on how to take the examination and with the live or actual demonstration and used of the CATI system. Accuracy of the CATI System The perceived accuracy features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and the ISUC – CDCAS Students are summarized in Table 1.

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Table 2. Perceived Accuracy Features of the CATI System

ACCURACY 1. The system was precise in checking the examination. 2. The system provided correct examination score. 3. The system generated exact test items. 4. The system generated correct student’s personal information. 5. The system was precise with the time of the examination. OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN DESCRIPTION

STUDENTS

IT EXPERTS

WEIGHTED MEAN

4.85

4.92

4.88

4.77

4.92

4.84

4.75

4.92

4.83

4.74

5.00

4.87

4.75 4.77 Highly Acceptable



DESCRIPTIVE EQUIVALENT Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable

As shown in Table 2, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on the accuracy of the CATI system yielded the following results: precise in checking the examination, 4.88 or highly acceptable; provides correct examination score, 4.84 or highly acceptable; generates exact test items, 4.83 or highly acceptable; generates correct student’s personal information, 4.87 or highly acceptable; precise with the time of the examination, 4.88 or highly acceptable. In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the accuracy of the CATI system at 4.77 and the IT experts at 4.95, which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned accuracy features of the CATI system are “highly acceptable”. Efficiency of the CATI System The perceived efficiency features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and the ISUC – CDCAS students are summarized in Table 3 below. Table 3. Perceived Efficiency Features of the CATI System

EFFICIENCY 1. The system provided automatic checking. 2. The system provided automatic scoring. 3. The system provided automatic remarks for English.

STUDENTS

IT EXPERTS

WEIGHTED MEAN

4.82

4.92

4.87

4.79

5.00

4.90

4.60

4.92

4.76

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DESCRIPTIVE EQUIVALENT Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable

4. The system provided composite scores for the four subtests. 5. The system provided update on time. 6. The system provided update on course. 7. The system provided update on test items. 8. The system provided update on student’s information. OVERALL EIGHTED MEAN DESCRIPTION

4.62

4.92

4.77

4.75

4.92

4.83

4.73

4.92

4.82

4.76

5.00

4.88




Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable

As shown in Table 3, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on the efficiency of the CATI system are as follows: provides automatic checking, 4.87 or highly acceptable; provides automatic scoring, 4.90 or highly acceptable; provides automatic remarks for English, 4.76 or highly acceptable; provides composite scores for the four subtests, 4.77 or highly acceptable; provides update on time, 4.83 or highly acceptable; provides update on course, 4.82 or highly acceptable; provides update on test items, 4.88 or highly acceptable; provides update on student’s information, 4.88 or highly acceptable. In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the efficiency of the CATI system at 4.73 and the IT experts at 4.94 which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned efficiency features of the CATI system are “highly acceptable.”

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Reliability of the CATI System The perceived reliability features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and the ISUC – CDCAS students are summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Perceived Reliability Features of the CATI System

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

RELIABILITY The system can be an aid for administering the university examination. The system can be used for keeping student’s personal record. The system runs in a stand-alone environment. The system runs in a network environment. The maximum set-up time of administering the examination must be 120 minutes. The loading time of the CATI system must be less than 10 seconds. OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

DESCRIPTION

STUDENTS

IT EXPERTS

WEIGHTED MEAN

DESCRIPTIVE EQUIVALENT

4.68

4.83

4.76

4.82

4.75

4.78

4.63

4.92

4.77

4.68

4.92

4.80

Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable

4.61

4.83

4.72

Highly Acceptable




Highly Acceptable

As shown in the table, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on the reliability of the CATI system are as follows: can be an aid for administering the university examination, 4.76 or highly acceptable; can be used to keep student’s personal record, 4.78 or highly acceptable; runs in a stand-alone environment, 4.77 or highly acceptable; runs in a network environment, 4.80 or highly acceptable; maximum set-up time of administering the examination must be 12o minutes ,4.72 or highly acceptable; loading time is less than 10 seconds, 4.77 or CATI system is highly acceptable. In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the reliability of the CATI system at 4.69 and the IT experts at 4.85 which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned reliability features of the CATI system are “highly acceptable.”

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Security of the CATI System The perceived security features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and the ISUC – CDCAS Students are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. Perceived Security Features of the CATI System

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

SECURITY The system was rotected with a password. Only the authorized users can access the system. Only the authorized students can take the examination. The system administrator or authorized epresentative manages the CATI system. The examination result cannot be changed. OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

DESCRIPTION

STUDENTS

IT EXPERTS

WEIGHTED MEAN

4.89

4.83

4.86

4.82

4.83

4.82

4.82

4.92

4.87

4.75

4.92

4.83




DESCRIPTIVE EQUIVALENT Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable

As shown in Table 5, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on the security of the CATI system as follows: protected with a password, 4.86 or highly acceptable; allows only authorize users to access the system, 4.82 or highly acceptable; allows only authorize student can take the examination, 4.87 or highly acceptable; allows only administrator or authorize representative manages the CATI system, 4.83 or highly acceptable; the examination result cannot be change, 4.85 or highly acceptable. In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the security of the CATI system as 4.82 and the IT experts as 4.88 which are both described as “highly acceptable.” The combined perception of the two groups of respondents showed that the abovementioned security features of the CATI system are “highly acceptable.” Table 6.

Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Accuracy Features of the CATI System

Respondents Students IT Experts

Weighted Mean Perception 4.77 4.95

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Probability associated with t-value 0.0070s

The data in the table shows that there is a significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the students on the accuracy features of the CATI system as indicated by the probability associated with the computed t-value which is 0.007. This means that the IT experts have a better perception than the students with regard to the efficiency of the CATI system. Table 7.

Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Efficiency Features of the CATI System



Probability associated with t-value 0.0035s

The data in the table shows that there is a significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the Students on the efficiency features of the CATI system as indicated by the probability associated with the t-value which is 0.0035. This means that the IT experts have a better perception than the students with regard to the efficiency of the CATI system. Table 8.

Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Reliability Features of the CATI System



Probability associated with t-value 0.1117ns

As shown in Table 7 there is no significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the students on the reliability features of the CATI system as indicated by the probability associated with the t-value which is 0.1117. This means that the students and IT experts equally perceived the system to be highly acceptable in terms of its reliability. Table 9.

Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Security Features of the CATI System



Probability associated with t-value 0.5185ns

The data in the table shows that there is no significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the students on the security features of the CATI system as indicated by the

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probability associated with the t-value which is 0.5185. Thus, the perceptions of both respondents are equally “highly acceptable.” In general, across all features, the CATI system was consistently adjudge by the respondents as “highly acceptable”. Moreover, even among experts, the CATI system was perceived as highly acceptable. It is noteworthy, while the students and IT experts viewed the system as reliable and secure, experts, who have better skills and qualifications as evaluators, viewed the system much higher than the students. While this is so, the difference may be that experts are able to evaluate better the features of the CATI than lay students. This should be a positive information as even to the level of experts, the system is perceived as highly acceptable.

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Summary Features of the Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) The findings presented were based on the survey conducted among the ISUC-CDCAS students and IT experts including the guidance counselor. The research provided evidence on the following: 1. That the CATI system was accurate to provide the right or agreed results or effects with the needed degree of precision as indicated by the following features: a. The system was precise in checking the examination. b. The system provided correct examination score. c. The system generated exact test items. d. The system generated correct student’s personal information. The system is precise with the time of the examination. 2. That the CATI system is efficient to provide appropriate performance, relative to the amount of resources used under stated conditions as indicated by the following features: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

The system provided automatic checking. The system provided automatic scoring. The system provided automatic remarks for English. The system provided composite scores for the four subtests. The system provided update on time. The system provided update on course. The system provided update on test items.

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The system provided update on student’s information. 3. That the CATI system was reliable to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time, or for a specified number of operations as indicated by the following reliability features: 4. a. The system can be an aid for administering the university examination. b. The system can be used for keeping student’s personal record. c. The system runs in a stand-alone environment. d. The system runs in a network environment. e. The maximum set-up time of administering the examination must be 120 minutes. 5. That the CATI system was secure on its ability to prevent unauthorized access, whether accidental or deliberate, to programs and data as indicated by the following security features: a. b. c. d.

The system was protected with a password. Only authorized users can access the system. Only authorized students can take the examination. The system administrator or authorized representative manages the CATI system. The examination result cannot be changed.

Perception of the Respondents on the CATI System This study revealed that the evaluation done by the respondents are requirements-driven. This was supported by Lovenia (2005) in her study entitled “A Survey of Current Software Testing Practices in Metro Manila”, which revealed that software testing done by the different software development organizations of different sizes and levels are requirements-driven. Moreover, this has been illustrated by the findings that revealed the accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security features of the CATI system. The data gathered was classified according to the respondents to see if there is a significant difference between their perceptions towards the CATI system. It was expected that IT experts who have better skills and qualifications as evaluators, would be more stringent in their evaluation however, they viewed the system much higher than the students. That even on the level of experts, the system was viewed as “highly acceptable”.

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Finally, with the evaluation done in relation to the requirements and validation performed using pilot testing, the respondents’ perceptions revealed in this study that the CATI system was consistently adjudged as highly acceptable across all features. Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn based on the results of the study: 1. The respondents “highly accepted” the accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security features of the CATI system. This information is confirmed the need to automate the process used to administer, check and score the university entrance examination as well as keeping the students record. 2. The implementation of the developed system is more beneficial than maintaining the present system. The developed system possesses the identity of generating information at a favorable speed with accuracy and reliability. It is also secured against unauthorized access hence; the guidance counselor will not only be benefited but also the school administrators and the whole studentry. 3. Adopting the developed system is designed to cater even to non-computer literate. The students were able to cope with the use of the CATI system after watching the video on how to take the exam. 4. The high acceptability of the developed system will motivate the school administrators, guidance counselor and other concerned officials to undertake an action to improve the quality of the admission system of the university and eventually, managing its students record.

Recommendations Premised on the results and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations were drawn. 1. That the developed system will be implemented to minimize the time consumed in the manual manipulation of the voluminous information in the university entrance and eliminates other problem that have been perennially observed which make the existing system left behind in the computer world.

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2. That proper information dissemination be conducted to the school administrators, the guidance counselor and other concerned officials. 3. That the students should watch the CATI video prior to taking the entrance exam. 4. That the CATI system be submitted to the Executive Officer of the Campus for an action to improve the quality of the present admission system of the university and eventually, managing its students record. 5. That the users of the system be trained on how to install and use the system. 6. That the IT experts should be tapped to assist the guidance counselor in the initial implementation of the entrance examination. 7. That the Guidance Office should be equipped with electronic facilities for the implementation of the CATI system. 8. That the Guidance Counselor continually updates the content of the university entrance examination. 9. That the CATI system will serve as a vehicle for extension project of the department of ICT if ever other ISU campuses wish to adopt the said system. 10. That future researchers should look into the validity of the questionnaire by integrating a cross-checking of item questions. 11. That further studies should be conducted to improve or upgrade the CATI system if ever there are changes in the admission system of the university. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Asuni, Nicola (2008). "TCExam :: Computer-Based Assessment". Available from http://www.tcexam.org. Retrieved on 2009-07-15.

2. Axia Consulting Ltd.,(2009). A summary of essential software criteria. Available from http://www.axiaconsulting.co.uk/html/software_criteria.html. 3. Ayon-Ayon, D. (2005). Computer Aided Examination… Philippines, Tuguegarao, Cagayan.

Saint Paul University

4. Breecher, J. (2003). Software Engineering. Chapter 16. Clark University. Modified from the notes of Stephen R. Schach.

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5. Cotugna, N. & Vickery, C. (1999), Perceptions and Evaluation of the Computerized Registration Examination for Dietitians, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, Volume 101, Issue 12, Pages 1453-1455 6. Hansen, W.J., Doring, R., Withlock, L.R. (1978). Why an exam was slower online than on paper. Int. Journal of Man Machine Studies, 10-5, 507-519, Available from http://m0134.fmg.uva.nl/publications/1992/comp.ass.exam.pdf 7. IEEE. 2004. Guide to Software Engineering Book of Knowledge. Book on-line. Available from http://www,swebok.org. Retrieved on 11 August 2009. 8. ITECC Philippines, 2002. Available fromhttp://www.itecc.gov.ph/ephilippines.htm 9. Lovenia, S. F. (2005). A Survey of Current Software Testing Practices in Metro Manila”. Masters Thesis. Ateneo de Manila University. 10. Mavaddat, F. (2008). Software Engineering. CHAPTER 2. SOFTWARE LIFE CYCLE MODELS. CS430 Notes. Page 17. Modified from the notes of Jerry Breecher of Clark University & Stephen R. Schach, Vanderbilt University. Available from http://www.student.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cs430/.../Chapter02-Life-Cycle.ppt 11. McKenna, C (2001). Introducing Computers into the Assessment Process: What is the impact upon Academic Practice? Higher Education Close Up Conference, Lancaster University. Available from http://ahp.cqu.edu.au.index.htm 12. Veenendaal, Erik van. (The Netherlands), Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing, Version 1.3 (dd. May, 31st 2007). Produced by the ‘Glossary Working Party’. International Software Testing Qualifications Board. . Book on-line. Retrieved on Tuesday, August 11, 2009. Available from http://www.istqb.org/downloads/glossarycurrent.pdf ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The researcher would like to thank the following people who have significantly contributed to the accomplishment of this work: To the USL family and other members of the panel – Ms. Florida A. Mallilin, Ms. Tomasa D. Bitanga, Dr. Delailah B. Valencia, Mr. Bernardo E. Juan, Mr. Generimo P. Siddayao, and Ms. Luisa B. Aquino for their unpayable intelligence, quality time, efforts, support and impressive and constructive suggestions in the improvement of this study;

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To the ISU-C family - Ms. Judilyn G. Buraga, Dr. Virginia B. Manguba, Dr. Ambrose Hans G. Aggabao, Mr. Heherson B. Albano, Mr. Paquito Vincent G. Soriano, Mr. Jerome Buban, Ms. Allen M. Paz, Dr. Ma. Theresa R. Aggabao, Dr. Myrna C. Cureg, Mr. Noel Cabauatan, Mr. Jouel B. Taggueg, Mr. Boyet Batang, Ms. Henedina Ponce, Ms. Ruth Aguilar, and Ms. Antonia Bagunu, who were game enough to work with the researcher, for their unpayable support and constructive insights in the improvement of this work.

ROSALINDA B. GUIYAB

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ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR OF STUDENTS IN SELECTED HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN REGION 02 EILEEN C. BERNARDO1

ABSTRACT

This study sought to determine the attitudes and behavior of students in Higher Education Institutions in Region 2 on some environmental issues and concerns. The study showed that majority of the students (91.6%) are concerned about the environment and considered themselves as environmentalists. Majority perceived that the Philippine government is concerned enough about the environment. Likewise, most of the respondents thought that the Filipino public and businesses and industries in the Philippines were in general, worried enough about the current state of the environment. The students were most concerned with the decrease in the quality of drinking water, air pollution, damage to the ozone layer, garbage disposal and pollution of rivers and they were least concerned with global climate change and radioactive contamination. The main activities performed by the respondents and their families to improve the quality of the environment were volunteering for an environmental group, recycling, and cutting down the household’s use of energy. There is a need to continuously recognize the attitudes and behavior of college students on the environment. To enrich environmental education in the Philippines, global environmental issues and concerns, could be integrated in courses at the tertiary level.

Keywords: environmental attitudes and behavior, perceptions, environmental quality, environmental education, environmental problems and issues

Introduction The environment is still continuously suffering from environmental degradation. Toxic gases enter the atmosphere. Toxic wastes threaten surface and ground waters and agricultural lands. Environmental problems such as air, water and soil pollution, the solid waste problem, among others, together with the social, political, and technological changes going on in the country have brought about greater challenges to the academe, government, industries and other stakeholders. The protection and improvement of the environment have, therefore, become imperative educational goals.

1

Professor 6, Department of Environmental Science and Management, College of Forestry and Environmental Management, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela

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The urgency for Environmental Education (EE) has been recognized due to these increasingly pressing environmental problems besetting the Philippines and the world. Exploitation of ecosystems and the direct damage on the environment, through various kinds of pollution, have lowered the capacity of the Earth to support mankind’s increasing population. This has impinged on various social and economic aspects of life but most distressingly on the basic necessities for survival - food, clothing and shelter. The problems are so numerous and complex that no single institution can solve these problems alone. Various sectors of society must be involved. Policy-making bodies must enact a legislation that will ensure the protection of our environment and a program that promotes sustainable development. The role of formal education, in the current state of environmental efforts, however, is the most basic: to produce a citizenry that is environmentally sensitive and ecologically aware so that these environmental problems will be prevented. Thus, while the environmental situation requires concerted efforts by every concerned citizen, educators must focus on developing people whose values, attitudes, knowledge, behavior, and skills reflect their concern for Mother Earth as their home, an ecosystem where harmonious relationships must be preserved, whose healthy ecology must be sustained, if it is to continue nurturing future generations. The Philippine educational system integrates various environmental concepts in the school curriculum at all levels - elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. There is a need for baseline information for teachers in colleges and universities to work with to further integrate environmental education in developing an environmentally literate and responsible citizenry who will ensure the protection and the improvement of the environment. Objectives of the Study This paper aimed to investigate the environmental attitudes and behavior of college students towards some environmental issues and concerns. Specifically, this research aimed to: 1) determine the environmental attitudes of students in selected Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Region 2; 2) describe the perceptions of the college students on the environmental concerns of the public, the government, and the industry sectors; and 3) identify the environmental issues that are of greatest concern to the students and to describe the behaviors they exhibit towards these issues.

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Review of Related Literature Environmental education has a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature. As such, it may mean different things to different people. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) defines environmental education as: 1) establishing sensitivity to environmental problems; 2) raising the level of awareness, appreciation, and concern for nature; and 3) generating commitment for appropriate action (Guzman and Guzman, 2000). The primary goal of environmental education is to have an environmentally literate and responsible citizenry who will ensure the protection and the improvement of the environment, and bring about sustainability, social equity and economic efficiency in the use of the country’s natural resources. Categories of EE objectives include not only awareness and knowledge but also attitudes, skills, and participation (ADB, 1999). Environmental attitudes refer to the totality of an individual’s disposition or feeling towards the environment. Environmental behavior, on the other hand, refers to sound actions and advocacy for the environment. One’s attitude becomes the basis for one’s actions and activities (Ragragio, 2003). Thus, environmental education goes well beyond the acquisition of knowledge and skills, to cover also the development of appropriate values, attitudes, life-styles, and behavior among individuals (Soriano, 1995). A survey of environmental attitudes and behaviors can be the starting point for educational policies and curricular development in relation to environmental education in the tertiary level. Ragragio (2003) conducted a survey on the environmental attitudes and behavior of 558 college students from the University of the Philippines – Manila and De La Salle College of Saint Benilde. The survey showed a relatively moderate concern for some environmental problems. Most were concerned with problems directly affecting them or with which they had a personal experience, such as the quality of drinking water and air pollution. Global problems, such as global warming and acid rain, were not so much of a concern to the students. Most of the students were also doing activities which were household-related. They cut down on use of water and energy, and recycled materials. Ragragio further mentioned that while the respondents were found to be generally aware of environmental problems, most did not seem to make sacrifices to improve the environment. She further expounded that willingness to sacrifice is a behavior that indicates commitment. Methodology The questionnaire used by Ragragio (2003) was utilized in this survey study. Minor modifications were made. The questionnaire consisted of four parts namely: personal background information of the respondents; respondents’ perceptions on whether or not they consider themselves as concerned environmentalists and about their attitudes towards the government, the business and industry sectors, and the public as environmentalists; students’ attitudes towards some environmental issues; and activities the students or their families performed to improve environmental quality.

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The questionnaires were randomly distributed to 486 college students from nine colleges and universities in Region 2 namely: Isabela State University (ISU)-Echague, Cabagan and San Mateo campuses, Nueva Vizcaya State University-Bayombong, Aldersgate College, Quirino State College, Quirino Polytechnic College, University of La Salette, Santiago City, Patria Sable College, Our Lady of the Pillars College and Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao. Some questionnaires were distributed by their teachers during their class period. Results and Discussion Profile of the Respondents Majority of the students (54.1%) that participated in the study are 16 to 18 years old and only 22.6% are 19-21 years old. There are more female respondents (63%) than males. Most of the students have annual family income of less than PhP 50,000 while very few have family income of PhP 250,000 and above (Table 1). Most of the respondents (52.5%) are enrolled in state colleges and universities (SUCs) while 47.5% are studying in private colleges and universities. In the Cagayan Valley, most students in State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) come from low income groups. Table 1. Profile of the respondents Attribute Age

Frequency

Percent

263 110 39 74

54.1 22.6 8.0 15.2

150 306 30

30.8 63.0 6.2

250 136 11 8 81

51.4 28.0 2.3 1.6 16.7

16-18 19-21 22 and above No answer Gender Male Female No answer Annual Family Income Below PhP 50,000 50,000-249,000 250,000-499,000 500,000 and above No answer

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Perceptions of the Students on their Outlook towards the Environment, Philippine Government, the Businesses and Industries, and the Public Most of the students (91.6%) considered themselves as environmentalists. Of these, 77.3% considered themselves as strong and committed environmentalists (Table 2). In this study, an environmentalist is someone who is concerned about the environment. Table 2. Perception of the respondents on being environmentalist Perception

Frequency

Do you consider yourself as an environmentalist? Yes No No opinion/answer Do you consider yourself as a strong and committed environmentalist? Yes No No opinion/answer

Percent

445 20 21

91.6 4.1 4.3

344 54 47

77.3 12.1 10.6

Presidential Decree No. 1152 of 1977 mandates the then Department of Education, Culture and Sports, now the Department of Education, to integrate subjects on Environmental Education (EE) in the school curriculum at all levels. In elementary and high schools, EE aims to orient young citizens develop their perceptions and actions towards environmental protection and conservation. Thus, these college students should be aware of the environmental issues and concerns that were discussed in their high school subjects. The perceptions of the respondents on the level of worry exhibited by the national government, local government, businesses and industries, and the public, were also gathered. Most of the students said that the Philippine government, the business and industry sectors and the Filipino public have the right amount of concern about the environment (Table 3).

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Table 3. Perceptions of the students on the level of worry of the Philippine government, Philippine businesses and industries and the Filipino public on the Environment Level of Worry Too worried Has the right amount of concern Not worried No opinion

National Government (Percent) 35 42 14 9

Local Government (Percent) 30 40 13 17

Businesses & Industries (Percent) 26 35 29 10

Public (Percent) 37 38 17 8

Environmental Attitudes of Students to Some Environmental Problems and Issues The results of the study showed that majority of the students are concerned about the environment. The ranking of environmental problems and percentage of respondents who are very concerned of these problems are shown in Table 4. The environmental problem which most of the students are very concerned of is the quality of drinking water. This is followed by air pollution, damage to the ozone layer, garbage disposal, and pollution of river. Drinking water, air pollution, and garbage disposal are problems directly felt by the students. In addition, the Cagayan Valley is traversed by the Cagayan River, the longest running river in the Philippines, and the students seem to know that the river is now under threat against pollution. Damage to the ozone layer is a global environmental issue and the students seem concerned about this problem. Few respondents (38.7%) are concerned about radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities because nuclear power is not used in the Philippines.

Table 4. Ranking of environmental problems and percentage of respondents who are very concerned of these problems Environmental problem Drinking water Air pollution Damage to the ozone layer Garbage disposal Pollution of rivers, lakes, reservoir Toxic and hazardous waste Calamities/disasters Rapid population growth Global warming Loss of tropical rain forest

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Frequency 364 300 293 279 275 263 258 240 237 221

Percent 74.9 61.7 60.3 57.4 56.6 54.1 53.1 49.4 48.8 45.5

Natural resources depletion Loss of habitats and wildlife Ocean and beach pollution Global climate change Radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities

11 12 13 14 15

213 203 197 191 188

43.8 41.8 40.5 39.3 38.7

Environmental Behavior and Activities of the Students and their Families The behavior of the students and activities of the students and their families are shown in Table 5. Majority (74.9%) voluntarily recycled materials while 61.3% did volunteer work for an environmental group. Doing volunteer work for an environmental group is a noble act and therefore, the students seem to be willing to commit their time to improve the quality of the environment. Sixty percent (60%) cut their household’s use of energy by limiting the use of household appliances. Energy conservation might be related to the high cost of electricity. Note that most of the students who participated in this study come from low income families. Few students (27.4%) boycotted a company’s product because of its record on the environment. This means that most of the students still buy products of companies that are not concerned of the environment. There are also few students (28.4%) who said they are using a more fuel efficient vehicle. In addition, there are only 31.5% who buy products that are recyclable.

Table 5. Activities performed by the students to improve environmental quality Activities Voluntarily recycled newspapers, glass and other items Did volunteer work for an environmental group Cut household’s use of energy by limiting the use of household appliances Avoided buying or using aerosol sprays Used cloth rather than disposable diapers Cut down on the use of a car by car pooling or taking public transportation Contributed money to an environmental group Cut household’s use of water Specifically avoided buying a product because it was not recyclable Used a more fuel efficient vehicle Boycotted a company’s product because of its record on the environment

42

Rank 1 2 3

Frequency 364 298 293

Percent 74.9 61.3 60.3

4 5 6

289 272 204

59.5 56.0 42.0

7 8 9

185 172 153

38.1 35.4 31.5

10 11

138 133

28.4 27.4

Conclusion The results of the survey showed that majority of the students were concerned about the environment. The environmental problem which most of the students were very concerned of are the quality of drinking water and air pollution, problems they directly felt. Ocean and beach pollution, global climate change and radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities were not so much of a concern to the students. The students also performed activities such as recycling and cutting down on use of energy. Recommendations There is a need to continuously recognize the attitudes and behavior of college students on the environment. To enrich environmental education in the Philippines, a wide range of environmental experiences and global environmental issues and concerns, could be integrated in courses at the tertiary level.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ADB (Asian Development Bank). 1999. Environmental Education Guide. ADB, DECS and EMB- DENR pp. 56-57. Bernardo, E. C. 2003. Environmental conservation: What schools can do. Proc of the 4th International Conference on Environment and Development. J. Van der Ploeg, E. C. Bernardo and A. B. Masipiqueña (Eds). pp 428-443. Cabagan, Isabela, Philippines. Guzman, R. S. and R. Z. Guzman, 2000. Environmental Education for Sustainable Development. Wisdom Advocates Publishers, Quezon City, Metro Manila. Soriano, L. 1995. Save Mother Earth. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City. Ragragio, E. M. 2003. Environmental attitudes and behavior of college students in two Manila Universities: Implications to tertiary level environmental education. Journal Environmental Science and Management, 6(2):16-22.

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IMPLEMENTASYON NG CHED MEMO ORDER NO. 59 S. 1996 SA MGA PROGRAMA NG FILIPINO NG SUCS SA REHIYON 2 JAINE Z. TARUN1

ABSTRACT Ang isinagawang pag-aaral ay tungkol sa ebalwasyon ng implementasyon ng CHED Memorandum Order No. 59 sa programa ng Filipino ng ilang piling State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) sa Rehiyon 2. Kinabibilangan ang mga ito ng Cagayan State University, Isabela State University, Nueva Vizcaya State University at Quirino State College. Layunin ng pag-aaral na mataya at matiyak ang lawak ng implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 o “New General Education Curriculum (NGEC) sa Filipino sa mga piling pampublikong unibersidad at kolehiyo sa Rehiyon 2. Sa teorya nina Kaplan at Baldauf tungkol sa ebalwasyon nakaangkla ang pag-aaral na ito. Lumabas sa pag-aaral ang ganap na pagsasakatuparan ng SUCs sa iniaatas ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 / GEC Filipino sa Rehiyon 2. Ipinatutupad ng mga intitusyong nabanggit ang memorandum ayon sa kani-kanilang interpretasyon. Pangunahing salita: Ebalwasyon, Implementasyon, CHED Memorandum Order No. 59 s. 1996, CHED Memorandum No. 04 s. 1997, Pampublikong Unibersidad at Kolehiyo (SUCs).

Introduksyon Itinatakda ng Artikulo XIV Seksyon 6 ng 1987 Kostitusyon na ang Filipino bilang wikang pambansa ay itinatadhanang opisyal na wika ng edukasyon. Bilang pagtugon, ang Commission on Higher Education o CHED na itinatag noong 1994 sa bisa ng Commission on Higher Education Act ay nagpalabas ng kanyang kauna-unahang kautusan noong 1996. Ito ang CHED MEMORANDUM No. 59 s. 1996 o “New General Education Curriculum” (GEC). Isinasaad ng kurikulum na ito na simula 1997, ang GEC-Filipino rekwayrment ay siyam (9) na yunit katumbas ng tatlong (3) kurso / sabjek para sa Humanities, Social Sciences at Communication o HUSOCOM na mga digri. Bago inimplementa ang memorandum nang sumunod na taon, muling nagpalabas ang

____________________ 1 Assistant Professor and Chair of the BEED Program, College of Teacher Education, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

44

CHED ng kautusan at ito ay ang Commission Memorandum (CM) No. 04 s. 1997, ang “Guidelines to Implementation of CMO No. 59 s. 1996 (GEC). Dito, nakasaad ang anim (6) na yunit ng Filipino rekwayrment katumbas ng dalawang (2) kurso/sabjek para sa mga digring diHUSOCOM.

Sapagkat magsasampung taon na ang implementsyon ng nasabing memorandum noong 2007, nakita ang pangangailangan sa pagsasagawa ng ebalwasyon. Ang ebalwasyon bilang isang proseso ay tunay na pag-alam at pagtiyak sa lawak o ekstent kung saan ang mga tunguhin o layunin ng nabuong estratehiya ay talagang naisasakatuparan. Sapagkat ang pagpaplanong pangwika ay naglalayong makagawa ng mga tiyak at kaibig-ibig na pagbabago sa isang sitwasyon o kalagayang pangwika, sa ganito naisasagawa ang ebalwasyon bilang isang proseso sa pag-alam at pagtiyak ng lalim at lawak ng kung alin sa mga pagbabagong ito ang tunay na nangyayari at nasusunod.

Ang Layunin at Suliranin Nito Pangunahing layunin ng pag-aaral na mataya ang lawak ng implementsyon ng Commission Memorandum Order No. 59 s. 1996 o ang “New General Education Curriculum sa programa ng Filipino ng mga publikong unibersidad at kolehiyo sa Rehiyon 2. Tinugunan sa pag-aaral na ito ang mga sumusunod na tiyak na tanong: 1. Gaano kalawak ang implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 sa mga programa ng Filipino ng SUCs sa Rehiyon 2? 2. Anong mga hakbang ang ginawa ng SUCs sa pagsasakatuparan ng mga probisyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 partikular sa Filipino komponent?

Kahalagahan ng Pag-aaral Ang pangangailangan ng ebalwasyon ay higit na binigyang-diin nina Kaplan at Baldauf (1997). Ayon sa kanila, sa pagpaplanong pangwika ay hindi sapat na makabuo at maipagamit ang isang estratehiya upang mabago ang isang sitwasyon o kalagayang pangwika. Kailangan ang patuloy na pagmomonitor o pagsubaybay sa panahon ng implementasyon nito at pagkatapos ay magsagawa ng ebalwasyon. Kailangan ang pagsasagawa ng ebalwasyon upang makita hindi lamang ang nagaganap na tagumpay at patuloy na pag-unlad ng estratehiya sa panahon ng

45

implementasyon kundi upang matuklasan din ang kahinaan nito. Ang pag-alam sa kahinaan ng estratehiya ay kailangan upang mabigyan agad ng karampatang solusyon at pagbabago.

Metodolohiya Ginamit ang ebalwatib analisis sa pamamaraang kwantiteytib at kwaliteytib sa pag-aaral na ito na ipinakikita ng figyur sa ibaba.

Figyur 1. Dayagram ng Proseso ng Ginawang Ebalwasyon sa CHED GEC-Filipino ng SUCS

46

Ebalwatib Analisis ng Datos

Pagsususri ng Datos sa Pamaraang Kwantiteytib

Sarbey/Kwestityonaryo

frequency

percentage

ranking

Pagsusuri ng Datos sa Pamaraang Kwaliteytib Gamit ang Muti-Method Approach o Triangulation

dokumento

kurikulum

interbyu

Indibidwal/FGD

obserbasyon

mga klase

Lawak ng Implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 GEC Filipino sa Rehiyon 2

Sa pagsusuri ng datos sa pamaraang kwantiteytib, isinagawa ang pamamaraang sarbey sa pamamagitan ng kwestiyonaryo at sa pagsusuri ng datos sa pamaraang kwaliteytib, ginamit ang “multi-method approach” o “triangulation” sa mga sinuring datos mula sa mga dokumento,

47

interbyu at aktwal na obserbasyon ng klase. Nagsilbing kumpirmasyon, balidasyon o patotoo sa isa’t isa ang bawat resulta ng iba’t ibang pamamaraan.

Resulta at Talakayan Tinalakay sa bahaging ito ang lawak ng implementsyon ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 sa programa ng Filipino ng SUCs. Sa tulong ng datos na nakuha sa kwestiyonaryo para sa mga administrador at guro, gayon din sa aktwal na interbyu, mga dokumento at obserbasyon ng mga klase, tinugunan ng pag-aaral ang unang inilahad na suliranin ng pag-aaral: Gaano kalawak ang implementasyon ng mga piling institusyong pantersyari sa CHED GEC Filipino sa Rehiyon 2.

Talahanayan 1.2-A. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga Degree Program ng Cagayan State University – Main Campus. Mga Degree Program

Bachelor in Elementary Education (lahat ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon) Bachelor in Secondary Education (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Arts in Mass Communication (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Arts in Economics Bachelor of Arts in Legal Management Bachelor of Arts in Political Science Bachelor of Science in Psychology Bachelor of Science in Mathematics Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science Bachelor of Science in Biology Bachelor of Science in Business Administration Bachelor of Science in Business

Taon ng Implementasyon

GEC Filipino Komponent/ Kabuuang Rekwayrment Yunit Fil. 11 Fil. 12 Fil. 13 SY 2005-2006 9 √ √ √ SY 2005-2006

√

√

√

9

SY 2005-2006

√

√

√

9

SY 2005-2006 SY 2005-2006

√ √

√ √

√ √

9 9

SY 2005-2006 SY 2005-2006 SY 2005-2006 SY 2005-2006

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ x x

9 9 6 6

SY 2005-2006 SY 2005-2006

√ √

√ √

x x

6 6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

x

6

48

Administration and Accountancy Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship Bachelor of Science in Hospitality Industry Management Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Bachelor of Science in Public Administration Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communication Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology Doctor in Veterinary Medicine

SY 2005-2006

√

√

x

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

x

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

x

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

x

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

SY 2005-2006

√

√

6

Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek: Filipino 11 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino Filipino 12 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag Malinaw na ipinakikita ng Talahanayan 1.2-A ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon at pagsunod ng Cagayan State University (CSU) – Main Campus sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A at CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B sa isinagawang panlahatang rebisyon (general revision) sa mga kurikulum ng lahat ng mga degree program nito na isinakatuparan noong Taong-Panuruan (SY) 2005-2006. Sinunod ng CSU ang siyam (9) na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino sa mga degree program sa Edukasyon at HUSOCOM na nilalaman ng GEC-A. Binubuo ito ng Filipino 11 (Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino), Filipino 12 (Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik) at Filipino 13 (Masining na Pagpapahayag). Sinunod naman ang nilalaman ng GEC-B na anim (6) na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino para sa mga degree program na di-HUSOCOM. Katumbas ito ng dalawang sabjek, ang Filipino 11 at 12. Mapapansing sa rebisyong isinagawa, ganap na sinunod ng CSU ang mga

49

bagong titulo ng mga kurso/sabjek sa Filipino na ibinigay ng CHED Teknikal Komite at ngayon ay nakapaloob sa “Enhanced General Education Courses.” Nakita rin na bukod sa siyam (9) yunit ng Filipino rekwayrment sa mga degree program sa Edukasyon (BEEd at BSEd), ipinakukuha sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 20 (Panitikang Filipino) bilang sabjek sa Literatura samantalang sa Ingles itinuturo ang Philippine Lit.sa mga kursong HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM. Ang mga kurso o sabjek rekwayrment ay nakukuha ng mga estudyante sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon para sa anim (6) yunit at aabot sa unang semestre ng ikalawang taon para sa 9 na yunit. Batay sa impormasyong nakuha mula sa isinagawang interbyu sa mga administrador at guro, isinabay sa rebisyon ang sinkronisasyon ng mga kurso/sabjek na ito sa lahat ng mga degree program ng iba’t ibang kampus ng CSU upang maiwasan ang anumang suliraning kakaharapin ng mga estudyante sa interkampus na paglilipat o maging sa pagpapalit mismo ng kurso o degree. Ayon pa sa kanila, ang hakbang na kanilang ginawa ay lalong magiging kapaki pakinabang kung susunod din ang iba pang mga institusyon sa mga sabjek na iniaatas ng CHED. Nasa Talahanayan 1.2-B ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon ng CHED GEC sa programa ng Filipino sa lahat ng degree program ng Isabela State University (ISU)- Main Campus.

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Talahanayan 1.2-B. Isabela

Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga degree Program ng State University – Main Campus.

Mga Degree Progam

Bachelor in Elementary Education (lahat ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon) Bachelor in Secondary Education (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Arts in Development Communication (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Arts Psychology Bachelor of Arts in English Bachelor of Arts in Sociology Bachelor of Arts in Political Science Bachelor of Arts in Legal Management Bachelor of Art major in Peace & Security Bachelor of Science in Nursing Bachelor of Science in Public Administration Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering Bachelor of Science in Food Engineering Bachelor of Science in Animal Husbandry Bachelor of Science in Accountancy


GEC Filipino Komponent/ Kabuuang Rekwayrment Yunit Filipino Filipino Filipino 11 12 13 15 16 17 SY 2006-2007 x x x √ √ √ 9

√ √ √

9

√ √ √

x

x

x

9

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2006-2007 SY 2006-2007

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

x x x x x x x x

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

SY 2004-2005

√

x

√

x

x

x

6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √

x x

√ √

x x

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2004-2005

√

x

√

x

x

x

6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √ √

x x x

√ √ √

x x x

x x x

x x x

6 6 6

SY 2006-2007

x

SY 2004-2005

51

x

x

Mga Degree Progam

Bachelor of Science in Agri-Business Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Bachelor of Science in Food Technology Bachelor of Science in Hotel & Restaurant Management Bachelor of Science in Architecture Bachelor of Science in Industrial Technology Bachelor of Science in Home Technology Bachelor of Science in Land Fisheries Bachelor of Science in Forestry Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Bachelor of Science in Biology (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in Chemistry Bachelor of Science in Criminology DAT-BAT (Bachelor in Agricultural Technology) Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education Doctor of Veterinary Medicine


GEC Filipino Komponent/ Kabuuan Rekwayrment g Filipin Filipin Filipin Yunit o o o 11 12 13 15 16 17 SY 2004-2005 √ x √ x x x 6 SY 2004-2005 √ x √ x x x 6 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √

x x

√ √

x x

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √

x x

√ √

x x

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √ √ √ √

x x x x x

√ √ √ √ √

x x x x x

x x x x x

x x x x x

6 6 6 6 6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √ √

x x x

√ √ √

x x x

x x x

x x x

6 6 6

SY 2004-2005 SY 2004-2005

√ √

x x

√ √

x x

x x

x x

6 6

Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek: Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon Filipino 13 – Filipino sa Tanging Gamit Filipino 15 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino Filipino 16 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik Filipino 17 – Panitikang Filipino

52

Sa mga datos na inilalahad ng Talahanayan 1.2-B, tatlo (3) sa mga degree program ng Isabela State University – Main Campus ang isinunod sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A na may 9 na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino, dalawang (2) degree program sa Edukasyon at isa (1) sa HUSOCOM (Bachelor of Arts in Development Communication). Ang iba pang degree program sa HUSOCOM at lahat ng degree program sa Di-HUSOCOM ay isinunod sa nilalaman ng CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B na may 6 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino. Mapapansing hindi parepareho ang taon ng implementasyon ng mga degree program sapagkat walang panlahatang rebisyon na isinagawa ang ISU. Sinunod ang “Enhanced General Education Courses” sa karerebisa pa lamang na mga kurikulum ng BEEd at BSEd na isinakatuparan noong SY 2006-2007 sa dalawang kurso/sabjek: (1) Filipino 15 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino at (2) Filipino 16 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik. Pinanatili naman ang Panitikang Filipino na binago lamang ang deskriptib na bilang at ginawang Filipino 17 (dating Filipino 13) alinsunod sa bagong deskriptib na bilang ng dalawang bagong kurso/sabjek na dati ring Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12∗ – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon. Maliban sa 9 na yunit sa Filipino, ipinakukuha rin sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 20 – Pagpapahalagang Pampanitikan sa kursong BEEd. Bukod pa rito, ipinakukuha pa rin ang Philippine Literature bilang sabjek sa Ingles. Samakatuwid, walang hiwalay na mga sabjek sa literature sapagkat ang Philippine Literature (Panitikan ng Pilipinas) at World Literature (Panitikan sa Mundo) na dapat sana ay mga sabjek sa literature alinsunod sa isinasaad ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 / GEC ay ipinakukuha bilang mga sabjek sa Ingles sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon. Ang Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon, Filipino sa Tanging Gamit at Panitikang Filipino (Pilipino pa noon) ay mga kurso/sabjek na nasa MECS Order No. 26 s. 1983 “Policies and Standards for Teacher Education” na hanggang ngayon ay di pa napapalitan ng ISU sa kabila ng mga pagbabagong isinagawa Sa ginawang rebisyon sa degree na Bachelor of Arts in Development Communication, ang bumubuo ng 9 na yunit na Filipino ay ang Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan (nanatili), Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon (dating Panitikang Filipino ang Filipino 12 para sa mga kursong HUSOCOM at ang Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon ay dating Filipino 11 para sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon) at Filipino 13 – Filipino sa Tanging Gamit (dating Filipino 14 para sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon). Ang 6 na yunit na rekwaryment sa Filipino sa lahat ng digri program ng di-HUSOCOM at sa iba pang degree program sa HUSOCOM ay binubuo ng Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon. Ang sinkronisasyon ng mga sabjek ay ginawa sa mga degree program na inoofer ng bawat kolehiyo (per College) sa lahat ng kampus ng ISU.

53

Sa mga degree program na may 6 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino, nakukuha ito ng mga estudyante sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon at hanggang unang semestre ng ikalawang taon sa mga degree program na may 9 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino. Malinaw sa mga inilahad na datos na ginamit na saligan ng ISU –Main Campus ang isinasaad ng CM No. 04 s. 1997 o ang patnubay sa implementasyon ng GEC na “HEI’s are in the best position to evaluate the importance and relevance of specific subjects to the courses of study of their own students and therefore have the academic freedom and flexibility to formulate and implement their own curricula, provided that the minimum standards set by CHED are met.” Nasa Talahanayan 1.2-C. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga degree program ng Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU) Mga Degree Program


Bachelor in Elementary Education (lahat ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon) Bachelor in Secondary Education (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education Bachelor of Science in Home Technology (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering Bachelor of Science in Computer Science Bachelor of Science in Mathematics Bachelor of Science in Animal Science Bachelor of Science in Agricluture (lahat ng Medyor Bachelor of Science in Agri-Business Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Extension Education Bachelor of Science in Forestry Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science Bachelor of Science in Hotel & Restaurant

SY 2000-2001

GEC Filipino Komponent/ Kabuua ng Rekwayrment Fil. 11 Fil. 12 Fil. 13 Yunit x 9 √ √

SY 2000-2001

√

x

√

9

SY 2000-2001

√

x

√

9

SY 2000-2001

√

x

x

6

SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001

√ √

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001

√ √ √ √

x x x x

x x x x

6 6 6 6

SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001

√ √

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2000-2001

√

x

x

6

SY 2000-2001 SY 2000-2001

√ √

x x

x x

6 6

SY 2000-2001

√

x

x

6

54

Management Bachelor of Science in Hospitality SY 2000-2001 Management Bachelor of Science in Veterinary Science SY 2000-2001

√

√

x

6

√

√

x

6

Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek: Filipino 1 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan Filipino 2 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina Filipino 3 – Retorika at Pagsasalingwika Batay sa Talahanayan 1.2-C, lumalabas na sinimulang ipatupad ng Nueva Vizcaya State University ang 9 na yunit at 6 yunit ng Filipino na nakasaad sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A at CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B sa mga degree program nito noong SY 2000-2001. Sinunod ang GEC-A sa mga digri program na pang-edukasyon na may 9 na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino. Para sa mga degree program na di-HUSOCOM, sinunod ang GEC-B na may 6 na yunit na rekayrment sa Filipino. Ang 6 na yunit na Filipino ay nahahati sa Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina. Pareho o “synchronized” ang dalawang sabjek na ito sa lahat ng degree program ng dalawang kampus ng NVSU at gayon din sa Filipino 13 – Retorika at Pagsasalingwika para sa mga degree program sa edukasyon na may 9 na yunit ng Filipino. Kinukuha rin ang mga kurso/sabjek na ito sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon para sa 6 na yunit at karagdagang isa pang semestre (una) para sa 9 na yunit. Batay sa impormasyong nakuha, nakaiskedyul ngayong taon ang malawakang rebisyon sa mga kurikulum ng mga degree program ng NVSU. Makikita rin ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa lahat ng degree program ng Quirino State University (QSC) sa Talahanayan 1.2-D.

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Talahanayan 1.2-D. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga Degree Program ng Quirino State College. Mga Degree Program


Bachelor in Elementary SY 2005-2006 Education (lahat ng Ispesyalisasyon Bachelor in Secondary SY 2005-2006 Education (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in AgroSY 2005-2006 Forestry Bachelor of Science in Criminology Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Bachelor of Science in Home Technology (lahat ng Medyor) Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Technology Bachelor of Science in Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Bachelor of Science in Restaurant and Hotel Management Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dieteties

GEC Filipino Komponent/ Kabuua Rekwayrment ng Yunit Fil. 11 Fil. 12 A B A B C D E Fil. 13 x √ √ x x x x 9 √ x

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Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek: Filipino 11: Filipino 12:

A – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan B – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino A – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik B – Pagbasa at Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina C – Komposisyon at Pagbasa D – Poklorikong Filipino E – Gamiting Filipino, Komposisyon at Pagbasa

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Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag Ang Talahanayan 1.2-D ay nagpapakita na sinusunod ng Quirino State College ang CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A sa mga degree program sa Edukasyon na nagrerekwayr ng 9 na yunit sa Filipino. May 6 na yunit na Filipino naman ang mga degree program sa di-HUSOCOM na isinunod sa CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B. Sinunod ang nakapaloob na mga bagong kurso/sabjek sa “Enhanced General Education Courses” sa mga kurikulum ng mga degree program sa Edukasyon na sinimulang ipatupad noong SY 2005-2006: (1) Filipino 11 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino, Filipino 12 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik at Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag. Bukod dito, ipinakukuha rin sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 21 – Panitikan ng Pilipinas bilang sabjek sa Literatura na kapalit ng Philippine Literature na itinuturo sa Ingles. Sa mga degree program na may 6 na yunit na Filipino, binubuo ito ng Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 na may iba’t ibang deskriptib na titulo: Pagbasa at Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina sa degree program na BS Criminology; Komposisyon at Pagbasa sa mga degree na BSIT, BSHT, BSAT, BSFAR, BSRHM, at BSND; Poklorikong Filipino sa degree na BS in Agro-Forestry; at Gamiting Filipino, Komposisyon at Pagbasa sa degree na BS in Agriculture. Nangyayari ang ganitong pagkakaiba-iba dahil sa kanya-kanyang pagsasagawa ng rebisyon ng mga kurikular na programa ang bawat kolehiyo ng institusyon. Sa Ingles pa rin itinuturo ang Philippine Literature saKinukuha rin ng mga estudyante ang mga sabjek na ito sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon para sa 6 na yunit at karagdagang unang semestre ng ikalawang taon para sa 9 na yunit. Walang nakitang dokumentong magpapatunay kung kailan sinimulang ipatupad ang karamihan sa degree program ng Quirino State College maliban lamang sa impormasyong nakuha na ang mga ito ay “Old Curriculum.” Ayon sa nainterbyung ilang administrador, guro at ang registrar, nagsagawa na sila ng panlahatang rebisyon ng mga degree program maliban sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon na karerebisa pa lamang, at isinumite na sa Board of Regents para sa aprubal ng mga ito. mga kursong nabanggit.

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Talahanayan 2. Mga Hakbang/Gawain na Isinagawa ng mga Institusyon Upang Ganap na Maipatupad ang CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996.

Mga Respondente ADMINISTRATOR Publiko (SUCs) Pribadong Sektaryan Pribadong Di-Sektaryan Kabuuan (Total) Publiko (SUCs) Pribadong Sektaryan Pribadong Di-Sektaryan Kabuuan (Total) Pangkalahatang Kabuuan (Grand Total) Ranggo (Rank)

A Blg.

%

16 8 12 36

44.44 22.22 33.33 100.00

39 20 30 89 125

43.33 22.22 33.33 98.89 99.21 1

Kateorya g mga Hakbang/Gawain B C D Blg. % Blg. % Blg. % 10 7 11 28

27.78 19.44 30.56 77.78 GURO 24 26.67 17 18.89 24 26.67 65 72.22 93 73.81 2

E Blg.

%

8 2 5 15

22.22 5.56 13.89 41.67

8 0 8 16

22.22 0.00 22.22 44.44

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16.67 0.00 11.11 27.78

9 5 9 23 38

10.00 5.56 10.00 25.56 30.16

11 7 14 32 48

12.22 7.78 15.56 35.56 38.10

13 1 4 18 28

14.44 1.11 4.44 20.00 22.22

3

4

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Hakbang/Gawain na pinapakahulugan ng mga letra: A – Curricular revision B – Komperensiya/miting ng mga administrador at mga fakulti C – Konsultasyon sa. mga estudyante, magulang, alumni at iba pa. D – Pagpapalabas ng mga memorandum kaugnay nito. E – Paggawa ng resolusyon ng Board of Regents/Board of Trustees

Batay sa ipinakikitang datos ng talahanayan, nangunguna sa mga ginawa ng mga institusyong kasangkot ang A - Curricular revision (125 o 99.21%), pangalawa ang B – Komperensiya/miting ng mga administrador at guro (93 o 73.81%), pangatlo ang D Pagpapalabas ng mga memorandum kaugnay nito (48 o 38.10%), pang-apat ang C Konsultasyon sa mga estudyante, magulang, alumni at iba pa (38 o 30.16%) at panlima ang E Paggawa ng resolusyon ng Board of Regents/Board of Trustees (28 o 22.22%). Nangangahulugang Curricular revision ang pangunahing isinagawa sa pagpapatupad ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 na pinatunayan na ng mga datos na nakuha at nailahad mula sa mga dokumento. Pinagtibay din ito ng impormasyong nalikom sa interbyu sa mga piling administrador at guro na nagpahiwatig na curricular revision ang pangunahing hakbang na palagiang isinasagawa sa pagsunod sa anumang atas ng CHED ukol sa kurikulum

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Konklusyon at Rekomendasyon Inilalahad sa bahaging ito ang konklusyon at rekomendasyon ng pag-aaral batay sa mga kinalabasan o resulta. Konklusyon Ang CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996/GEC Filipino ay ganap na ipinatutupad sa ilang piling publikong institusyong pantersyari o SUCs sa Rehiyon 2 batay sa kani-kanilang interpretasyon. May kaunting pagkakaiba ang pagbibigay ng yunit sa Filipino ng mga institusyon na publiko (SUCs). Sa Cagayan State University (CSU), may 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga kursong edukasyon at sa lahat ng mga kursong HUSOCOM at 6 yunit sa lahat ng kursong diHUSOCOM. Ang Isabela state University (ISU) ay nagbigay ng 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga kursong edukasyon at sa isang kurso lamang sa HUSOCOM, ang AB Development Communication samantalang ang iba pa na tulad ng AB Philosophy, English, Sociology, Political Science, Legal Management at AB major in Peace and Security kabilang ang lahat ng mga kursong di-HUSOCOM ay binigyan ng 6 yunit ng Filipino. Nagbigay din ng parehong 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga kursong edukasyon at 6 yunit sa mga di-HUSOCOM ang Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU) at Quirino State College (QSC). Halos magkakatulad sa paraan ng pagsunod sa CHED Memo Order No.59 s. 1996-GEC Filipino ang mga piling institusyong pantersyari sa Rehiyon 2. Sinunod ang CMO No. 59 s. 1996 o ang tinatawag na GEC-A sa 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga degree program na nasa pagkakaalam nila ay nasa kategorya ng larangang HUSOCOM at 6 yunit para sa mga di-HUSOCOM, na itinatakda ng CMO No. 04 s. 1997 o ang tinatawag na GEC-B. Sa puntong ito, nakikita na may kakulangan sa ibinigay na patnubay (guideline) ang CHED kung ano ang mga ispesipik na kurso ang nasa larangan ng HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM. Kung naisagawa sana ito, masasabing nasusunod nang wasto ang nasabing atas. Bagamat binibigyang-laya ang mga chartered university sa pagpapatupad o hindi ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996, malinaw na sumusunod pa rin sa kautusan ang mga ito. Kinakitaan lamang ang mga institusyon ng di-ganap na pagsunod sa mga kurso/sabjek na itinatakda ng CHED. Tanging ang CSU lamang ang sumunod sa lahat ng kanilang degree program sa mga bagong kurso/sabjek na nasa “Enhanced General Education Courses”. Ang kopya ay nakalakip sa ipinalabas na CHED Memo Order No. 30 s. 2004, “Revised Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum”.

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Tila nagkaroon ng maling interpretasyon ang ibang institusyon sa pagkakalakip ng nasabing kopya ng E-GEC sa nabanggit na atas. Napansing sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon lamang sinunod ng QSC ang tatlong bagong kurso/sabjek, dalawa rito ang sinunod naman ng ISU (ngayon tatlo na mula Filipino 17 – Panitukang Filipino, pinalitan na ng Masining na Pagpapahayag sa kasalukuyan). Ang mga datihang kurso/sabjek ay sinunod pa rin sa iba pang mga degree program para sa mga kursong HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM. Sinunod ng NVSU ang tatlong (3) dating kurso/sabjek sa lahat ng kanilang mga kurikular program. Maliban sa deskripto na titulo ng tatlong dating kurso, may iba’t ibang titulo pa ang ginagamit ng ISU at QSC. Napansin din na bukod sa Panitikang Filipino na sabjek sa Filipino, ipinakukuha rin ang Philippine Literature bilang sabjek sa Ingles at/o Literatura sa mga kursong edukasyon ng ISU. Ang nasabing implementasyon ay masasabing resulta ng pagbibigay-laya ng CHED sa mga HEI’s na magtakda ng mga kurso/sabjek para sa kani-kanilang mga kurikular program. Dahil dito, hindi na nagsasagawa ng monitoring o pagsubaybay ang CHED kung sinusunod/disinusunod ang mga itinakda nitong mga kurso / sabjek. Kung mahigpit / sapilitang ipinasusunod lang sana ng CHED ang “Enhanced General Education Courses” sa mga kolehiyo at unibersidad, mabibigyan ng solusyon ang mga anumang suliraning kakaharapin ng mga estudyante hindi lamang sa pagpapalit ng kurso / digri o sa interkampus na paglilipat kundi maging sa paglilipat sa ibang institusyon.

Rekomendasyon Inirerekomenda ng pag-aaral ang mga sumusunod: 1. Magsagawa ng katulad na pag-aaral sa CHED GEC Filipino ng mga pribadong institusyong pantersyari. 2. Magsagawa ang CHED ng mahigpit na pagsubaybay sa lahat ng publikong institusyong pantersyari o SUCs sa implementasyon ng memorandum.

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BIBLIOGRAPY Mga Libro Almario, Virgilio S. 1997. Tradisyon at Wikang Filipino. Lunsod Quezon: UP -Sentro ng Wikang Filipino. Atienza, Monico M. 1992. Kilusang Pambansa Demokratiko sa Wika. Lunsod Quezon: UP-Sentro ng Wikang Filipino. Bautista, Ma. Lourdes S. 1996. Readings in Philippine Sociolinguistics. Manila: Press.

DLSU

Bennagen, Ponciano L. 1991. “Ang Filipino Bilang Instrumento ng Paglaya at PagNasa Tungo sa Ibayong Pagyabong ng Wikang Filipino: Mga Teorya at Praktika. Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas.

unlad,” Manila:

Bernabe, Emma J. F. 1987. Language Policy Formulation Programming, Implementation and Evaluation in Philippine Education (1565-1974). Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. Constantino. Ernesto A. 1991. “Theories for Development and Enrichment of Language.” Nasa Tungo sa Ibayong Pagyabong ng Wikang Filipino: Mga Teorya at Praktika. Manila: Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas. Constantino, Pamela C. 1991. Pagpaplanong Pangwika Tungo sa Modernisasyon: Karanasan ng Malaysia, Indonesia at Pilipinas. Lunsod Quezon: UP-Sentro ng Wikang Filipino. __________________. 2005. Filipino at Pagpaplanong Pangwika. Lunsod Quezon: UPSentro ng Wikang Filipino. Cooper, Robert L. 1986. Language Planning and Social Change. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cruz, Isagani R. 1985. “Language of Instruction in the Humanities.” Nasa New Directions in Indigenous Psychology: Sikolohiyang Filipino Isyu, Pananaw at Kaalaman. Manila: National Book Store.

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RADICAL AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN MATHEMATICS AMBROSE HANS G. AGGABAO1

ABSTRACT This study compared the effectiveness of three teaching approaches on achievement as well as retention of learning of students. It focused on comparing new teaching approaches that were designed based on constructivist learning philosophies (social and radical constructivism) to current tradition of teaching. Social constructivism used the interactive small-group learning while Radical constructivism used the individualized self-engagement approach. Both were supported with instructional materials and instructional protocol consistent with constructivist philosophies. The study followed the Equivalent-Groups-Pretest-Posttest Experimental Design. The experiment was conducted using 92 freshmen math students of the Teachers College in 2005 now College of Teacher Education. Results of the study showed significant differences among mean gain scores on both achievement and retention measures. Radical constructivist approach showed significant advantage over the other two approaches, while the social constructivist approach showed better gain scores than the current, traditional teaching approach. Keywords: Radical constructivism, social constructivism, performance of students in Mathematics

Introduction Relevant to the Philippine Commission on Educational Reform’s (PCER) five recommended reforms in science and mathematics education (SME), this paper presents a study that feeds into the improvement of teacher training, curriculum, as well as the development of instructional materials and instructional procedures consistent with constructivist philosophies that has pushed reform efforts in science and math education among first world countries. Constructivist learning theory was considered pivotal and one of the most intriguing reform efforts in science education during the last two decades (Yager, 1996).

____________________ 1 Associate Professor II, College of Teacher Education and Executive Officer, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

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It is built on the notion that learners are not passive subjects to whom information may be transferred, but are actively engaged in knowledge construction. It is a theory of knowing (Ritchie, Tobin and Hook, 1997) that emphasizes knowledge as actively constructed by learners through their own lenses of experiences (Yager, 1996; English and Halford, 1995; Steffe & Kieren, 1994). Its philosophical stance argues that truth of knowledge claims is seen on the basis of viability which refers to the coherence and consistency between learner’s prior and existing experience and the new constructed knowledge (Jones, 1995). The foregoing theories may be best understood by a situation where an abstract graph was presented to groups of learners from whom three major interpretations were observed – while sharing similarities these were very different from each other in terms of contexts and positions where stark and substantial differences were observed among them. This revealed that indeed, learning content or knowledge is not very neat as may have been believed traditionally. Rather, it suggests a scenario where three elements may be used to evaluate the quality of learning that happens in a teaching and learning situation as follows: the content to be learned; the teacher’s construction of the content as it is taught; and the learner’s interpretation of the content as it is shared to them. This meant that learning episode should offer opportunities for the teacher-student learning community to hone their ideas and knowledge structures against each member of the community (Ritchie et. al, 1997) the goal of which is to enlarge as much what they share in common while admitting their differences. While constructivist epistemologies agree on the basic tenets of constructivism, two competing forms have pervaded the literature along this line – social constructivism and radical constructivism. Heylighen (1995) observed that there are two acceptability evaluation in constructivist literature. These are coherence and consensus. Coherence refers to the agreement between and among the various cognitive structures or thoughts within an individual, while consensus is the agreement of the various cognitive structures or thoughts between and among individuals. The latter belong to the social constructivist view while the former to the radical constructivist view. Social constructivism appears to claim that learning happens best in learning groups suggesting a teaching model where group work must extensively be utilized. On the other hand, radical constructivism insists that while there is no question that learning is enriched in group situations, learning itself must finally come to agreement with individual’s existing knowledge structures. As such, it is believed that learning can occur in an equally enriched level or even better, when individual learners are provided varying learning situations or opportunities for themselves to test their knowledge structures not only through groups, but more importantly through individual reflections and self-assessments.

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The Research Problem From the foregoing situations the following research questions were sought and answered: Do the following teaching approaches have differential effects on the achievement and retention of students in mathematics? a) Radical Constructivist Teaching Approach b) Social Constructivist Teaching Approach c) Traditional Approach Significance of the Study Results of this study offer information about constructivist teaching approaches effectiveness in teaching mathematics at the classroom levels and thus provide a vital guide for teachers, administrators, as well as instructional system builders. These groups will be guided accordingly as to design, methods, and arrangement of contents of learning materials consistent with the demands of constructivist classroom arrangements that enhances active learning engagement that eventually promote deeper learning and understanding of mathematics knowledge, values, and skills. Results of this study will also be very useful among researchers in the mathematics education field as it offers the promise of widening their appreciation of the implication of constructivist models from a purely cognitive orientation to a combination of both cognitive and affective factors especially as it relates to building arrangement for learning among communities of learners.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Related Literature Constructivism is a set of interrelated doctrines and philosophies about learning. The concept may be traced from the works of a number of philosophers whose ideas have been recognized with strong associations with the current constructivist orientations. Vico for instance claimed, “human beings can know only what they themselves made”; and Kant wrote, “Human reason can grasp only what she herself has produced according to her own design”. Piaget also wrote, “Children develop their own understanding of their environment from their own experiences and from manipulating their environments as they adapt to it” (Steffe and Kieren,

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1994). Summing up, constructivism is the notion that learners construct their own knowledge out of their own experiences. From these classical ideas, constructivism emerged and was seen as a pivotal reform initiative in science and mathematics education in the west and has been described as the most appropriate learning theory (Yager, 1996). Constructivism suggests that knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or any means of communication by learners, but is actively constructed by them (Heylighen, 1997; English and Halford, 1995; Shoenfeld, 1992; and Cobb, Yackel, and Wood, 1992). Rather than passive absorbers of information, learners are viewed as actively engaged in meaning-making, activating prior knowledge to bear or fit with new situations, and if warranted, adopting such knowledge structures (Steffe and Gale, 1995). According to this theory it is not possible to pass on knowledge from one person to another person, hence the roles teachers play in instruction is one of a facilitator, an architect who constantly provides students with learning situations from where they can derive or abstract knowledge from (Jones, 1996). Literature shows that debates within constructivism as reflected lively exchanges of ideas within the field and contained in thousands of articles and papers during the fourth quarter of the 20th century hang on four philosophical principles that have been termed as the tenets of constructivism (Doolittle, 1999). These philosophical principles are: a) Knowledge is not passively accumulated, but is a result of the active cognizing by the individual from experience; b) The process of cognition is adaptive that serves the individual’s search for viability; c) Knowledge is not a mirror of external reality; and d) Knowledge resides in rich social, cultural, and language-based contexts. Various types of constructivism emerged along the continuum whose classification is dependent on the extent to which it satisfies the four philosophies that may be placed in a continuum that emphasizes individual subjective knowledge construction on the one end to the more objective socially shared knowledge construction at the other end. Between these extreme ends lie two generally competing philosophies—radical and social constructivism. These are the two most common perspectives in science and mathematics education (Jones, 1996; Mathews, 2000). Their differences are basically rooted to their differing criteria in selecting the so called right construction.

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Radical constructivism Radical constructivism proposes that knowledge results from personal experiences of the learner within his environment. Heylighen (1997) attach the so-called viability criteria of coherence and to radical constructivism. Coherence in this context refer to the agreement among thought patterns within individual as new experiences and their prior knowledge are brought to bear upon each other. Radical constructivist maintain that the individual is the primary actor in the process of meaning making and thus to the learning process. They must get themselves personally involved and actively engaged in the learning tasks. In other words, radical constructivism views knowledge that is constructed as personal and uniquely determined by each individual. It contends that while the individual shares and participates to negotiate and admit information from others as part of the learning environment, what is ultimately constructed and internalized is not something that is necessarily culturally negotiated (i.e., consensus among community of learners). There cannot be a single reality for all (i.e. discovery of an ontological reality) that appears to be constant across people and cognizing agents (von Glasersfeld, 1991). An interpretation of the foregoing suggests a learning arrangement where individual learners is in constant interaction with learning environments – books, information, co-learners, and actively seeking answers to seemingly inconsistent structures until viability is attained. This entails a more individualistic setting in a learning environment. Social Constructivism Social constructivism views knowledge as a cultural product. It proposes that knowledge is best borne from social interaction. Viability of knowledge claims are judged based on the extent to which consensus is achieved from the various conceptions and experiences of members in a culture (Heylighen, 1997). Proponents of social constructivism argue that knowledge is constructed not only from personal experiences, but from social interaction with others (Jones, 1996). They argue that knowledge is interwoven with culture and society (Ernest, 1992) and emphasizes social construction of reality. Ernest (1996) puts that social constructivism argues that apart from the radical’s premise of subjective knowledge, personal theories that result from the “organization of the overall thoughts of the learner must be compatible with and limited by the physical and social world of the learner.” Social constructivists’ views strongly support instructional arrangement anchored on social interactions and meaning negotiations that can be best achieved through small group approaches. This line of thought is perfectly exemplified by Yager (1991), a leading social constructivist, when he claimed that “constructivist teachers of science promote group learning where two or more learners discuss approaches to a given problem.”

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Constructivist teaching approaches as illustrated by the foregoing literature seem to suggest a restructuring of the typical classroom instruction involving whole class discussions, pre-determined sets of actions that emphasize mechanical compliance to teachers’ prescriptions. It suggests a shift to a more learner-centered instruction that has strong implications, not only on the cognitive, but also on the motivational and affective factors underlying learner’s dispositions in classroom situations Simon (1995) describes a teaching cycle as consisting of hypothetical trajectories in the sense that it only contains anticipated learning activity that is changed as teachers interact and learn more about the learners. Sacro (1996) on the other hand, in appreciation of Simon (1995) and Steffe and D’Ambrosio (1995), implemented a constructivist teaching model and examined the effects of constructivist teaching approaches to the problem solving strategies and performance of students in statistics. Her findings support the superiority of this constructivist teaching approach over traditional teaching. Similar advantage was observed by Bentillo (1996) and Santos (2005). These studies suggest that constructivism is not only advantageous in cognitive learning, but also, in the areas of affective learning. The foregoing literature presents an ample basis for the efficiency of constructivist teaching approaches over traditional ones in both areas of achievement and motivation. However, studies along these lines appear to reflect a generic constructivist orientation. There seems to be no available research comparing constructivist teaching models that adhere to the classification in the constructivist continuum earlier mentioned. Many have seemed to have worked on constructivism in bits and pieces, but if philosophy has to bear on our teaching practice, it is imperative that the implication of the epistemological bases of the various forms of constructivism be put to test. Conceptual Framework The literature strongly supports the relationships among the variables under study as is illustrated in the diagram below (Figure 1). It suggests that teaching approaches will have to bear on achievement and retention measures of learning. By achievement is meant the inclusion of conceptual understanding, problem solving skills, and procedural knowledge development. Retention on the other hand is meant the retention of learning as indicated by students’ gain scores between the immediate posttest and the delayed posttest. Achievement on the other hand reflected the gain scores between pretesting and immediate post test.

This framework reflects the gist of the literature so far discussed above and offers the expectation of reflecting significant differences based on the literature available for this study.

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Achievement

Teaching Approaches 1. Radical Constructivist 2. Social Constructivist 3. Traditional

Retention

Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework

Research Hypotheses From the foregoing literature and conceptual framework, the following hypotheses were tested: 1. Students exposed to constructivist teaching approaches have higher achievement mean gain scores than those exposed to traditional teaching. 2. Students exposed to the radical constructivist teaching approach have higher achievement mean gain scores than those exposed to the social constructivist teaching approach. 3. Students exposed to constructivist teaching approach have higher retention mean gain scores than those exposed to the traditional teaching approach. 4. Students exposed to the radical constructivist teaching approach have higher retention mean gain scores than those exposed to the social constructivist approach.

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Methodology Research Design The study employed the Three Parallel Group Pre and Post Test Experimental Design. In particular, three groups were used in the study – one served as the control group (Traditional Group) while the other two were used as treatment groups (Radical and Social Constructivist). This design is illustrated below (Figure 2) where R means random selection and assignment of subjects, G stands for group, Oi1 (i=1,2,3) are the pretest results; Xi (i=1,2,3) are the three teaching approaches; Oi2 (i=1,2,3) represents achievement measures; and Oi3 (i=1,2;3) are the three delayed observations (retention scores). R

G1

O11

X1

O12

O13

R

G2

O21

X2

O22

O23

R

G3

O31

X3

O32

O33

Figure 2. Experimental Design Sample Ninety-two freshmen students enrolled in basic mathematics course at ISU Cabagan were used in the study. They were randomly selected and assigned into three groups. The treatments were then randomly assigned to the three groups. Equivalence of groups were sought on the following measures: math prior knowledge using the pre-test, reading comprehension scores, previous math grade, and their college entrance examination grades. Analysis of variance revealed no significant differences among groups at 95% confidence. Originally, there were 96 students selected, but before the experiment began, four subjects have already dropped out. Fortunately, the drop outs were evenly distributed that made a 31-31-30 groupings of the 92 students left. Instruments Two parallel versions of the Math Achievement Test (MAT) were constructed by the researcher following generally acceptable procedure of test construction. Only items with acceptable indices (difficulty, discrimination, and effective distracters) were accepted. Equivalence of the two versions was made by employing the same test items with the other one having a different item arrangement. One version was used for the pre-test and the other for the

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immediate and delayed posttests. This test contained 40-item multiple choice test with a KR-20 reliability coefficient of 0.87. Six modules were prepared by the researcher covering six topics in basic mathematics. Each of the six modules was developed and pre-tested using similar groups of students the previous semester. Data Collection Procedure Before the start of the experiment, the groups were pre-tested using the First Version of the MAT. The training of students in the treatment groups about constructivist learning processes were made to built students confidence in a changed classroom environment. One for the radical (Individualized instruction) and another group for the social constructivist learning processes (small group instruction). The treatments were then formally begun covering topics and instructions in the six modules. Immediately after completing the six modules, the immediate posttest was administered. After 30 days, the students were made to take the test again that coincided and served as their final examination during the semester. The result of this test served as the delayed posttest measures necessary to provide information about their retention of learning Data Analysis Procedure 1. One-way Analysis of Variance was used to compare the pretest scores in order to establish equivalence of the four experimental groups. The same method was used to determine equivalence of groups using their reading comprehension, previous math grade, and mathematics score in their entrance examination. The analysis showed no significant differences in their pretest scores which did not warrant additional statistical treatment to correct initial differences. 2. Similarly, the one-way analysis of variance procedure was used to determine the differential effects of teaching approach on achievement and retention of students. 3. The Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was used to compare differences between means.

Results and Discussion Results of the study showed the following:

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Teaching Approach and Achievement Mean achievement of students by teaching approach are shown in Table 1. Radical constructivist teaching approach showed the highest mean achievement scores of 11.32 followed by the social constructivist group at 9.58. The lowest mean was that of the traditional group. Analysis of variance procedures revealed significant differences among means at above 99 percent level of confidence. The Duncan Multiple Range Test revealed that the radical constructivist group performed better than the social and traditional groups while the social constructivist group performed better than the traditional group. Teaching Approach and Achievement Mean retention scores of students by teaching approach are shown in Table 2. The means show the differences in means of the radical group at 19.00 from those of the other groups – the social and the traditional groups with means of 14.71 and 12.70, respectively. DMRT showed that the radical group performed much better than the two other groups. Similarly, the social constructivist group scored better than the traditional group. The foregoing results of the study confirm the hypothesis that constructivist teaching approach is more effective than the traditional approach. This is consistent with literature: Sacro (1995) and Bentillo (1996), although implementing a generic constructivist teaching approach, have shown that constructivist teaching approach is more effective than traditional approaches. On the other hand, there has not been any study, which compared the efficiencies of the two constructivist teaching approach as compared in this study. The result of this study then provides initial confirmation to the advantage of radical constructivist teaching approach which may be explained by the following conditions. Strong individual responsibility and accountability of students over their own learning results in the radical constructivist setting which may have triggered or induced sustained effort among students to get themselves engaged and exert personal effort to doing and understanding learning materials. On the other hand students under social constructivist approach may have experienced less intense demand for personal for responsibility over their own learning. Added to this is the possibility of passive participation among some members of the small groups used in this setting. This passive behavior has always been observed in small group work when not enough individual accountability over their own learning is effected in them. This observation generally happens even in small group work. Moreover, in the same study, Aggabao (2006) have shown that students in radical constructivist settings exhibited significantly stronger and positive interest and value belief about mathematics and have provided strong challenge on their mathematics self-efficacy which may have motivated students under this setting to expend greater and more focused effort in learning

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the materials. Also, the results showed initial evidence that while interaction in the context of constructivist literature is important to the learning process, social interaction may not be the only key to better performance. Rather, unlike the social constructivist focus on social interaction, interaction with a variety of materials and situations including but not limited to mentors, modules, instruments, probe questions, and peers contribute collectively and positively to the learning experiences of the students. Conclusions Based on the foregoing discussions of results the following conclusions were made: 1. Teaching approaches have differential effects on achievement of students in mathematics. Specifically, constructivist teaching approaches have superior effect on achievement than traditional teaching approach. Moreover, the radical constructivist teaching approach showed better effects on achievement than social constructivist approach. 2. Teaching approaches have differential effects on learning retention of students in mathematics. Specifically, social constructivist teaching approaches have superior effects on retention than those of the traditional group. Moreover, the radical constructivist group has superior effect on retention than that of the social constructivist group. Recommendations Given the differential effects of constructivist teaching approaches on achievement and retention, it is worthy to replicate this study and expand its concern to include exploration on the factors that made radical constructivist classroom more effective than its social constructivist counterpart. Literature supports that classroom teaching approaches impact on motivational beliefs of students and thus, studies that will explore the effect of social constructivist approaches on motivational beliefs as a possible explanation may now be considered. On the other hand, given the multiple dimensions of achievement and hence retention of each achievement dimension, it is recommended to explore and compare the efficiency of constructivist approaches on these dimensions. Specifically, these dimensions are conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and problem solving.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bentillo, E. N. (1996). Microcomputer based laboratory, constructivist teaching, and students understanding of force and motion. Unpublished Dissertation, University of the Philippines College of Education. Diliman, Quezon City. Cobb, P., Yackel, E., & Wood, T. (1995). A constructivist alternative to the representational view of the mind in mathematics education. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 23, 2-33. Edcom Report. (1991). Report of the Congressional Committee on Education. Manila: National Printing Office, p. 12. English, L. & Halford, G. (1995). Mathematics Education Models and Processes. USA: Lawrence Earlbaum. Ernest, P. (1992). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics: Radical constructivism rehabilitated? Available at: http://www.ex.ac.uk/ Glasersfeld von, E. (1991). Radical constructivism in mathematics education [Online]. Available at: http://www.ex.ac.uk/ Heylighen, F. (1995). Epistemological constructivism. [Online]. Available at:http://pespmcl.vub.ac.be.construct.htm. http://www.edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999. Jones, G. (1996). The constructivist leader. In Rhoton, J. & Bower, P. (Eds), Issues in Science Education (pp. 140-141). USA: National Science Teachers Association. Mathews, M. R. (2000). Constructivism in science and mathematics education. [Online]. Available at: http://www.csi.unian.it/educa. PCER. (2000). Presidential Commission for Educational Reform. Philippine Congress. Ritchie S., Tobin, K. & Hook, K. S. (1997). Teaching referents and the warrants to test the viability of student’s mental models. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 223238. Sacro, C. P. (1996). Constructivist teaching: Effects on students problem solving strategies and performance in statistics. Unpublished dissertation, University of the Philippines College of Education. Diliman, Quezon City. Santos, M. G. M. (2005). Achievement motivation and task performance in collaborative-open, reflective-evaluation learning. Unpublished dissertation, University of the Philippines College of Education. Diliman, Quezon City.

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THE TEACHER ON THE INTERNET: SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS, USAGE, AND ATTITUDES Audrey B. Simon1 ABSTRACT This study examined the relationship between and among teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet with their personal characteristics such as age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy level, and trainings attended. A descriptive method of research was used in finding answers to the problems of this study while random sampling method was applied to select the 124 teacher participants from nine campuses of the Isabela State University. This study used a four-part questionnaire and a five-point Likert-type scale in gathering and in interpreting the data. The first part was used to collect the teachers’ personal characteristics. The second part measured the teachers’ Internet self-efficacy. The third part gathered data on the Internet usage of the teachers, and the fourth part measured their attitude towards the Internet. Negatively stated attitude questions were scored in reverse order. Teacher participants were given one week to complete the questionnaire before the researcher personally retrieved them. The responses were tallied and presented using frequency distribution, weighted mean and percentage distribution. The Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to determine the significant relationships and correlations between and among the variables. It has been found that: 1) the older the age and the longer a teacher had been in the teaching profession, the less comfortable he or she was in using the Internet; 2) a high computer literacy level and in-service trainings influenced the teachers’ frequency of Internet use, high self-efficacy, and positive attitude towards the Internet; 3) teachers frequency of Internet use increased their self-efficacy and attitude, while a highly positive attitude motivated teachers to frequently use the Internet and increased their self-efficacy; and 4) the more problems the teachers encountered the lesser their usage, the lower their self-efficacy, and the more negative their attitudes were. Keywords: Internet self-efficacy beliefs, internet use, internet attitude

Introduction The Internet is an extensive network of interlinked yet independent computer networks through high-speed connections. This technology which originated during the Cold War and in the American military connects computers across the world into one gigantic global communications system that allows people to share and exchange data. . __________________________ 1 Instructor II, College of Teacher Education, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela

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During the late 1960s, the United States Defense Department started its task in the area of computer networking and related technologies through the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) whose goal was to develop a communications system that could function during and after a nuclear war. In 1969, an experimental system known as ARPAnet was designed to link a number of military sites together to form a research network. It was also used to connect computers at several American universities. From then internetwork was the major concept of ARPA during the late 1970s until the early 1980s which was later shortened to the term Internet (King, 2002). This technology has gone from being a highly specialized communications network used mostly for military and academic applications to a massive electronic bazaar. It has made a difference in our society today and with its related resources like e-mail, instant messaging we depend on it for communications, instruction, entertainment and many other things. It has reshaped the way we learn and do things. In education, the Internet has radically redefined the way teachers and students obtain information. One study (Strickland, 2003) stated that Internet is a valuable resource for educators where teachers can collaborate with other professionals, access information of lessons, and allow students to conduct research and other related activities. If properly utilized, the Internet can also augment the shortages in textbooks, make teachers competent and improve teaching and learning process. It may also be used to replace the traditional classroom lecture. An instructor may place course notes on Web pages or create a video recording of a live lecture for viewing on the Internet. However, although the Internet is believed to be a useful tool in teaching and learning, there is still much to do in order to maximize its potentials in the educational setting. To attain that goal, teachers who are transferring the knowledge and skills to students should be given attention to address their fears, increase their confidence, and improve their use of the Internet particularly in classroom instruction by providing them technical support and training.

Statement of the Problem This study was to determine the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet, and proposed an Internet training program for teachers as its end product.

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Significance of the Study Understanding the relationships between and among variables will help administrators and curriculum designers develop more effective methods to implement classroom Internet integration so that investments in technology and training will be successful in meeting the demand of the digital age and global community.

Review of Related Literature Internet The Internet is a “network of networks” of computers linked through high speed connections. It has different resources which include, but is not limited to, the World Wide Web, e-mail, interactive on-line chats, and on-line bulletin boards (Watson, 2006). With its capabilities, it has become a great source of any kind of information such as news, job opportunities, music, movies, games, and research materials in any fields. According to King (2002), the Internet is also an effective means for communication through chatting and e-mail and a good storage for information a user would want to retrieve in the future. Internet Self-efficacy One may have access to the Internet, but low self-efficacy may hinder the ability of an individual to utilize its full potential, including locating online information for instruction. Concepcion (2003) stated that self-efficacy in teaching with computers or Internet is a form of teacher efficacy defined as teacher’s expectations that he or she will be able to bring about student learning. Another study (Tella, Tella, Aveni, & Omoba, 2007) further stressed that those with high self-efficacy make better use of electronic information and have better academic performance. Moreover, other studies revealed that factors like age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy, trainings, attitude and use influence one’s computer and Internet self-efficacy. Internet Use The narratives on the experiences of teachers with technological advancements show the competitiveness of present-day teachers in using modern instructional media such as the Internet in teaching. The e-mail, word processing, and on-line information were commonly used by teachers and students for their scholarly work but much less frequently for teaching and learning. Hernes, Hestmann, & Haaland (2000) established that younger teachers embrace the Internet to a larger extent than older teachers. Newer teachers are more likely to use computers or the Internet in the classroom. A research study indicated that experienced teachers are more

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reluctant than new teachers in using computers in their classrooms. To successfully implement the use of Internet to classroom instruction, it is important for the teachers to have knowledge, skills and access to the Internet. Attitude towards the Internet Researchers have indicated that successful implementation of computers into the classroom is highly dependent upon the positive attitudes of teachers as well as other educators. They suggested that if teachers were confident in their use of computers, they would show positive attitudes toward computers (Pina & Harris, 1993). In Luan et al. (2005) study, it was shown that the more positive attitudes the teachers had, the longer they stayed on-line. Likewise, Hong et al. (2003) stressed that those teachers with longer exposure and more opportunities to use the Internet, have more positive attitudes toward learning to use the technology. Moreover, Hernes et al. (2000) in their study found that younger teachers have a positive attitude towards the use of the Internet in their own teaching.

Internet training for Teachers Strickland (2003) attributed the lack of computer use by teachers to the lack of quality training. The President’s Commission on Web-based Learning (Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide [MPCPFG], 2006) also stressed that many teachers avoid technology because they lack the skills, knowledge, and strategies that will help them integrate the technology into the curriculum. Some teachers may just simply not use the technology. In the same study, this kind of teachers’ behavior is attributed to inadequate teacher training which is believed to be the greatest barrier to integrating technology into school’s curriculum. The findings of The U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (Digangii et al., 2002) ascertained that a specific training on integrating technology into curriculum is one of the most important factors in the successful implementation of educational technology in the schools. This denotes that an extensive training in modern technologies like the Internet is a prerequisite for effective classroom integration of the said technology. Trainings like hands-on workshops, mentoring, and peer coaching were believed to be effective for technology application and usage. Peer coaching programs help teachers successfully integrate technology into the classrooms by which they work together to enrich the curriculum and pedagogy within subjects and to make connections between subjects. In this approach, coaches can attend one another’s classes without any tension and stress because the process is based on mutual support (Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide, 2006).

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Conceptual Framework of the Study The concepts and findings of related literature and studies on self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet and personal characteristics guided the formulation of the conceptual framework of this study. The conceptual framework simply shows the relationship between teachers’ personal characteristics and their self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet. It also shows the relationship between and among the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet. The results were used as bases in designing the proposed Internet training program for teachers. In the conceptual framework, the independent variables are the teachers’ personal characteristics which include teachers’ age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy level, and trainings, while the dependent variables are the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet.

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The conceptual framework of the study

Trainings

Age Teachers’ Personal Characteristics

Computer Literacy Level

Number of Years in Teaching

Objectives

Proposed Internet Training Program for Teachers

Strategies

Resources

Content

Evaluation

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Methodology This study made use of the descriptive method of research in finding the relationships between and among variables such as teachers’ age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy level, trainings, Internet self-efficacy beliefs, usage and attitudes. The participants were 124 in-service teachers of the Isabela State University who were selected through random sampling method. A four-part questionnaire with some items adopted from previous studies was used to gather the needed data. To achieve accurate, valid and reliable results, the participants were given one week to complete the four-part questionnaire before the researcher personally collected and retrieved it. To analyze the data effectively, only completed surveys were included. A completed survey was one that had responses for all the items in the questionnaire. For better interpretation of the results, the value interpretation scale in Table 1 was used.

Table 1. Value Interpretation Scale

Scale 4.50 – 5.00 3.50 – 4.49 2.50 – 3.49 1.50 – 2.49 1.00 – 1.49

Self-efficacy Beliefs Very high selfefficacy High self-efficacy Moderate selfefficacy Low self-efficacy Very low selfefficacy

Interpretation Usage Attitude Very frequently Very highly positive used attitude Frequently used Highly positive attitude Seldom used

Moderate attitude

Very seldom used

Highly negative attitude

Never used

Very highly negative attitude

After the sets of questionnaire were retrieved, the researcher coded the responses. The responses were then tallied using frequency distribution through the aid of Microsoft Excel while weighted mean and percentage distribution were used to present the participants’ responses in parts 1 to 4 of the questionnaire. The Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to determine the significant relationships and correlations between and among the variables.

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Results of the Study Teachers’ Use of the Internet Although teachers indicated that education, research and communication are the main purpose of their Internet use, this study found that their usage of the Internet services is generally very seldom and that they only spent an average time of 1-2 hours whenever they accessed the Internet regardless if their use was daily, 3-4 times a week, twice a week, or once a week. Majority of the teacher participants accessed and used the Internet at school and at the Internet cafes outside the school with a combined percentage of 87.57. Lack of time due to hectic schedules and other work assignments, slow access speed in getting online and display of web pages, unavailability or weak Internet connection at home location, and high Internet rental fee are the top four problems the teacher participants encountered which they believed have hindered their use of the Internet. Despite the problems they have encountered the teachers still believed that the Internet has influenced their academic efficiency and among these are fast and quick lesson preparation, better access to a broad range of instructional resources, and improved teaching effectiveness and performance. Teachers’ Internet Self-efficacy and Attitude The teacher participants have a moderate self-efficacy on both the general and classroom Internet self-efficacy with a mean of 3.16 and 3.13 respectively. They also have a highly positive attitude on both their affection and perceived usefulness of the Internet with a mean of 1.88 and 1.66 respectively while their attitude in their perceived control of the Internet is moderate with a mean of 2.55. Relationship Between Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage and Attitude Towards the Internet, and Personal Characteristics As far as the relationship between the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage and attitude towards the Internet, and personal characteristics, the findings showed that teachers’ age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy level, and trainings influence the teachers’ frequency of use, confidence, and attitude towards the Internet.

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Table 6. Relationships Between Teachers’ Personal Characteristics, Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Usage and Attitude towards the Internet Personal Characteristics

Self-efficacy on the Internet (r)

Attitude towards the Internet (r)

-.54 -.55 .74

Use of the Internet (r) -.48 -.43 .62

Age Years in teaching Computer literacy level Training

.26

.24

.41

-.44 -.46 .73

This shows that younger and newer teachers have higher self-efficacy level, better Internet use, and more positive attitude towards the Internet. It is also indicated that as their computer literacy level and training increases, the better their self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet. The findings revealed that the relationships are all statistically significant. Relationships Between and Among Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage, and Attitude Towards the Internet In terms of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet, the result revealed that all the relationships are statistically significant. This indicates that as their confidence increases, their attitudes become more positive that makes them use the Internet more frequently and confidently. Likewise, as there is an increase in teachers’ use of the Internet, their self-efficacy and attitude becomes better.

Table 7. Relationship Between Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Usage and Attitude towards the Internet Variable Use Self-efficacy on the Internet

Attitude (r) .65 .81

Self-efficacy on the Internet (r) .67 -

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Relationships Among Personal Characteristics The relationships between age and training, and the number of years in teaching and training established that the older the age of the teachers, and the longer they are in the teaching profession, the lesser their attendance to Internet trainings. This may be due to the fact that older teachers were only starting to use and experience the Internet since personal computers have only been available for approximately 30 years, the Internet less than half that time. The results also confirmed that the older the age of the teachers and the higher their number of years in teaching, the lower their computer literacy level while the more attendance to trainings, the higher their computer literacy level becomes. Table 8. Relationships Among Personal Characteristics Personal Characteristics

Age (r)

Years in Teaching (r)

Age Years in teaching Computer literacy level

-

.90 -

Computer Literacy Level (r) -.54 -.55 -

Relationships Between Teachers Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage, Encountered, and Average Time Spent When Using the Internet

Training (r) -.19 -.18 .34

Attitudes,

Problems

The low coefficients in the correlations between self-efficacy beliefs, usage, attitudes, problems, and average time spent when using the Internet revealed that problems like lack of time, slow access speed, high rental rate, non-existence of computer center designed for teachers use only, and weak Internet connection affect the time the teachers spend whenever they use the Internet. These factors also influence their frequency of use on the different Internet services, their self-efficacy, and their attitude towards the Internet.

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Table 9. Relationships Between Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage, Attitude, Problems encountered, and Average time spent Variables

Self-efficacy Beliefs (r)

Usage (r)

Attitude (r)

Problems encountered Average time spent when using the Internet

-.14

-.09

-.1

Average time spent when using the Internet (r) -.12

.46

.39

.45

-

Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study: The older the age and the longer a teacher has been in the teaching profession, the less comfortable he or she is in using the Internet. Older teachers who have already developed their styles and strategies may not readily accept changes and explore new approaches as compared to younger and newer teachers who are still starting to develop their own methods and beliefs about instruction. The younger teachers who display greater comfort with technology outweighs advantages of greater teaching experience the older teachers may have acquired. A high computer literacy level contributes to the frequency of Internet use, high selfefficacy, and positive attitude towards the Internet. Those who are very good computer users are more confident and comfortable to use the Internet as frequently as they want. While the Internet in-service trainings improve teachers’ level of self-efficacy, their usage and attitudes on the Internet. Knowledge and skills in the use of computers are essential in gaining confidence, usage and better attitude towards the Internet. The more problems the teachers encounter the lower their self-efficacy, the lesser their usage, and the more negative their attitudes are. The more time the teachers spend in accessing the Internet and the more frequent they use it, the more that they explore the different Internet services, the higher their self-efficacy becomes, and the more positive attitude that they will have.

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Recommendations Based from the results and findings of this study, the following recommendations are drawn: For Practice There should be more in-service trainings with follow-up that focus on the Internet integration to instruction. Training must be continual and peer coaching program should be practiced for any degree of proficiency to be maintained. Teachers with prior trainings should be separated from those without trainings. Better technology facilities and services should be provided inside the school specifically a computer center designed for teachers only to enhance their self-efficacy, their use, and attitude towards the Internet for better transfer of learning to students and more classroom technology integration. Administrators and Internet service providers must also work in partnership to address the problems that hinder the teachers’ use of the Internet and affect the level of their self-efficacy and attitude. For Research Since teachers have their own specialization, future research should examine the differences in Internet use, self-efficacy, and attitude towards the Internet in the different academic disciplines to determine if different groups of teachers need different kinds of training. The same study can also be done with the students as participants for the enhancement of the technology curriculum. After the implementation of the proposed Internet training program for teachers, it is likewise important to have a study on the impact of the training to teachers’ classroom integration of the technology.

PROPOSED INTERNET TRAINING PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS Based on the preferences of the teacher participants alongside findings from this study and related literatures, an Internet training program for teachers as output of this study is proposed.

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Rationale The training program design is an intensive training with lecture-discussion, hands-on workshops, and peer coaching since these kinds of training are believed to be effective for technology application and usage. The design follows the following elements in Kemp et al. model of instructional design: objective, content, strategies, resources and evaluation. The objective element explains what competencies the training will provide the participants for this proposed training program. The contents or topics to be covered are stated under the content element while the evaluation element provides the participants a guide on what are expected of them after the training. The approaches and resources needed for the participants to gain knowledge and skills are reflected under the strategies and resources elements, respectively. The timetable or schedule element is added to determine the number of hours each of the contents requires.

Objectives of the Training Program This proposed training program aims that teachers gain the following benefits the Internet could give to education: (1) easy and rapid communication, 2) access to expert resources and information not locally available, (3) access to up-to-date information, (4) easy sharing of information and work products, (5) support for cooperative group work specifically for students, and (6) support for learning information and visual literacy skills (Roblyer, 2004).

Contents of the Training Program The following are the seven major topics of the proposed Internet training program for teachers: 1. creating e-mail accounts and using the e-mail features, exchanging and posting messages 2. on-line discussions using chat room, instant messaging, and Internet telephony 3. finding relevant information using search engines 4. navigating and evaluating webpages and sites 5. downloading freeware/shareware from the Internet 6. creating and editing lesson materials using Webquest 7. peer coaching in technology utilization

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Approaches and Strategies PowerPoint presentations, video introduction or demonstrations, print materials, and hands-on exercises will be provided for the participants to get the information and skills they need. Considering the findings in this study that younger teachers have better Internet usage, self-efficacy, and attitude towards the Internet than the older teachers, the proposed training program will also use the peer coaching concept in the delivery of the training program. The objective of the peer coaching is to provide timely, effective staff development to teachers (Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide [MPCPFG], 2006).

Resources The following resources are required when this proposed Internet training program for teachers will be conducted in the future: Materials and Equipment ♦ computer laboratory equipped with at least 20 functional computers that are connected to the Internet ♦ WIFI connection ♦ LCD projector ♦ Compact disks and other external storage for participants’ output ♦ print materials as participants’ handouts Resource Persons/Trainers The resource persons and trainers will be selected from the pool of Information Technology, Computer Science, and Educational Technology teachers of the Isabela State University and experts from other agencies and universities to provide broader knowledge and skills to the participants of the training. To benefit from the results of this study, younger teachers/participants may also serve as coaches to the older teachers during the implementation of the training program. Evaluation The participants will be evaluated based on their output from all the activities required for every topic and their final presentation with Internet integration to classroom instruction. The

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participants will also be given evaluation forms to evaluate the training program for improvement and better implementation for the next group of participants.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Concepcion, M. R. B. (2003). Computer use and self-efficacy of teachers: bases for designing a computer training program. (Unpublished thesis) Digangii, S., Jannasch, A., Kiley, K. M. , Stafford M. E., & Diken, I. H. (2002). The Erutido Project: Evaluation of an Internet training program for classroom teachers. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education – TOJDE July 2002. Vol. 3(3). http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde>?articles/Eruditiotxt.htm. Retrieved: 8/15/06. Hernes, F., Hestmann, M. & Haaland, E. (2000). Knowledge and competence in ICTt among teachers in Norway. http://www.ifip.or.at/con2000/iceut09-04.pdf. Retrieved: 8/15/06 Hong, K. S., Ridzuan, A. A., & Kuek, M. K. (2003). Students’ attitudes toward the use of the Internet for learning: A study at a university in Malaysia. Educational Technology & Society, 6 (2), 45-49. King, David (2002). Corporation.

A quick and practical guide to the Internet.

Worldlink Marketing

Luan, W. S., Fung, N. S., Nawawi, M., Hong, T. S. (2005). Experienced and inexperienced internet users among pre-service teachers: their use and attitudes toward the internet. Educational Technology and Society, 8 (1), 90-103. Retrieved: Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide, v2.2b. Puget Sound Center for Teaching, Learning and Technology (2006) Pina, A. A. & Harris, B. R. (1993). Increasing teachers’ confidence in using computer for education. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Arizona Educational Research Organization. (Tucson, Arizona, November, 1993). ERIC Database: ED365648. Roblyer, M. D. (2004). Integrating educational technology into teaching. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Strickland, J. S. (2003, Winter). An Investigation of the Effects of Using LISTSERV Discussion Group After Traditional Workshops to Sustain Staff Development: Training K-12

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Teachers to Use Internet Resources. The Journal of Interactive Online Learning. Vol. 1, (3). http://www.ncolr.org. Retrieved: 12/5/06 Tella, A., Tella, A., Aveni, C. O., & Omoba, R. O. (2007). Self-efficacy and Use of Electronic Information as Predictors of Academic Performance. Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship. vol. 8 no. 2. http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.org. Retrieved: 12/23/06

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COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT GROWTH ENHANCERS ON BROILERS DELMAR T. MACAPIA , LAZARINE T. MAMAUAG & OLIVEROS M. VALIENTE1

ABSTRACT The study aimed to determine the efficacy of different growth enhancers in broiler. A total of ninety six (96) day old straight run cobb broiler chicks were used in the study. Complete Randomized Block Design was employed with four treatments replicated three (3) times. The treatments were as follows: TO-Plain water, T1-Atovi, T2-Aloe Vera, T3-Sorghum Syrup. Result of the study revealed no significant differences on the final weight of broilers with T3 obtaining the highest mean final weight of 1.93kgs. followed by T1, T2 and TO with mean final weights of 1.89 kgs.,1.65 kgs., and 1.58 kgs respectively. Data analysis in feed consumption, growth rate and feed conversion ratio showed no significant differences among treatment means. Keywords : Growth Enhancer, Feed Conversion Ratio, Broiler, Feed Consumption

Introduction Poultry production is considered one of the most common and very promising agricultural enterprises especially for low income farm families. It offers several advantages to the raisers. It is an efficient feed converter into poultry meat in only 35 days, giving a quick return of investment (ROI) that would allow 5-6 production cycles in a year. Boiler production is a big industry. It represents 85 percent of poultry meat that Filipinos consume. Unfortunately, the demand for poultry and poultry by products continue to rise as human population increases, resulting in the greater demand for high quality ingredients to be used in mixed feeds. High quality feeds usually means importation of major ingredients such as fish meal and soybean meal. It is therefore desirable to source alternative ways to enhance and hasten animal’s growth during these times of unstable prices of feeds. The utilization of growth enhancers can best be desired as nutrition based therapy and this has a positive effect on the feed efficiency, weight gain, livability, high immune system and other intestinal diseases. In view hereof, the study was conducted to attest its efficiency on the growth performance of test animals. ______________ 1

Student, Instructor II & Associate Professor IV, Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture-Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

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Objectives of the Study 1. To compare the efficiency of the different growth enhancers in broilers. 2. To evaluate the cost and return analysis of using the different growth enhancers. Review of related Literature and Studies Diet containing probiotics significantly increased average daily gain during the first week of experimental feeding than the diet without probiotics. This is according to Yeo and Kim (1991). Chung (2003) stated that vitamins must be present in sufficient quantities in the diet to ensure efficient utilization of carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, and water for health and maintenance and production function such as growth development and reproduction. B-Meg Poultry Raising Guide (1975) cited that in the presence of stressful condition like the movement of the birds, the presence of infection, sudden change of weather and feeding practices, vaccination, deworming and debeaking birds need to be supplemented with vitamins. Vitamins are most commonly function as coenzymes and regulators of metabolism as stated by Pakisan (2202). Anonymous (1995) stated that vitamins are needed to maintain a large number of metabolic processes in the body and if any of the vitamins are in short supply the growth and health of the body is seriously affected. Premium Laboratories Handout (2004) reported that PAV stress check vitamins and electrolytes aids in prevention or correction of vitamins and electrolytes deficiencies in domestic animals. Fronda (1972) said that using additives not only make the production of broilers economical but also help in the control of diseases that the broiler producers have to fight against. Gill (2001) stated that researchers and practicing nutritionist recognize the importance of diet to influence meat quality especially as it involves vitamins and mineral status of the animal. Savena (1991) said that poultry feeds that are commercially formulated may have 10-12 ingredients, two to three sources of minerals, and 10-15 sources of micro-nutrients, vitamins and trace minerals, while the nutritional aspects of feed formulation are becoming fully regulated, there are several so-called nutritional factors which are having effect on the poultry industry.

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Chickens are particularly susceptible to vitamin deficiencies, the reason for this are (1) the chicken derives little or no benefit from microbial synthesis of vitamins in the gastrointestinal tract, rather than synthesizing vitamins that may be used by the host, the intestinal microorganism in the chicken compete with the host for dietary; (2) chicken have high requirements for the vitamins which are the spark plugs of the vital metabolic reactions in the animal body. (3) high density concentration of modern poultry farming places many stresses upon the chicken which may increase its vitamin requirements. (T.W. Perry, et al.,2000). In the study of Buban et. Al (2001) cited by Galang (2004) that the inclusion of growth enhancers showed no significant increase in feed intake. The same result was also obtained by Luis (2001). Bejar and Copa (2007) stated in their study that aloe vera utilized as growth enhancers is safe for animal intake. It further revealed that final weight and gain in weight of broilers (5-10 ml) was enhanced compared to plain water. Copa (2007) stated that no significant results were found in Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) of broiler although numerically those given extracts showed slightly better FCR than those given plain water. On the other hand, Jin et. al. (1998) expounded that broilers fed with probiotics/growth enhancers up to 42 days had significant improvement in body weight, feed and gain ratios than those broilers fed without probiotics/growth enhancers. This coincides with results obtained by Bernardo (1995) who compared the effects of giving probiotics alone and in combination with antibiotics. The probiotics tested group had higher mean body gain than the control group. The growth rate pattern/curve obtained by Bernardo was similar to the findings of Reyes (2004) where in the growth rate was observed to be higher during the first two weeks and diminishes as chicken grows older.

Methodology A total of ninety –six (96) day old straight run Cobb broiler chicks were used in the study and were distributed to three cages with a dimension of 2.5m x 1.10m. Each cage was further subdivided into four (4) cages for the different treatments with eight (8) birds per cage. One week prior to the arrival of the chicks the cages were cleaned thoroughly and disinfected with Biocid. The cages were provided with electric bulb as heaters up to four weeks

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of age and until their feathers were fully developed. Likewise, feeding trough and plastic waterers were provided for each cage.

Research Design The study was conducted using Complete Randomized Design with the following treatments: TO – plain water, T1 – Atovi 20 ml – per 4 liters of water, T2 – Alovera 20 ml – per 4 liters of water, and T3 – Sorghum syrup 20 ml – per 4 liters of water. Care and Management On the first week of feeding, chick booster feeds as spread on old sheets of newspaper. For the rest of the feeding period, feeds were placed on the feeding trough. Starter mash was given the second week up to the fourth week of the feeding period. Feeding was done three (3x) a day at 6:00 am, 11: a.m. and 4:00 o’clock in the afternoon. Growth enhancers were mixed at the rate of 20 ml per 4 liters of water and was made available at all times in each cage. All other management practices such as hygiene and sanitation was followed strictly.

Results and Discussion Weekly Gain in Weight of birds in grams is shown in Table I. Treatment I (Atovi) gave the highest mean of 303.54 grams. This was followed by Treatment 3 (Sorghum Syrup) and Treatment 3 (Alovera) with a mean of 282.43 grams and 269.79 grams, respectively. Treatment 0 (Control) gave the lowest mean of 252.08 grams. This coincides with the findings of Chung (2003) which stated that vitamins must be present in sufficient quantities in the diet to ensure efficient utilization of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and water for health and maintenance of birds. Statistical analysis of variance indicated no significant differences among treatment means.

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Table 1. Weekly gain in Weight per bird in (grams) Treatment

Mean ns 252.08a 303.54a 269.79 a 282.43a

TO T1 (Atovi) T2 (Alovera) T3 (Sorghum Syrup) ns – Not significant.

The feed consumption of birds in kilograms is presented in Table 2. The highest feed consumption among treatments was obtained by Treatment T3 (Sorghum Syrup) with 4.70 kilograms, followed by Treatment TI (Atovi) 4.39 kilograms and Treatment TO (Control) with 4.12 kilograms respectively. Treatment T2 (Aloe Vera) registered the lowest feed consumption of 4.06 kilograms. This coincides with the finding of Galang who reported that inclusion of growth enhancers to broiler diets has no significant effect on feed intake. The same result was reported by Luis (2001) in his study. Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among treatments means. Table 2. Feed Consumption per bird in kilograms. Treatment Meanns TO (Control) 4.12 a T1 (Atovi) 4.39 a T2 (Aloevera) 4.06 a T3 (Sorghum Syrup) 4.70 a ns – Not significant The feed conversion ratio of birds in kilograms is presented in Table 3. The highest feed conversion ratio was obtained by Treatment TO (Control) with a mean of 2.65 kilogram followed by Treatment TI (Atovi) 2.70 kilogram, Treatment T2 (Aloevera) 2.74 kilogram respectively. Treatment T3 (Sorghum Syrup) obtained the least mean feed conversion ratio of 2.84 kilograms. The differences on feed conversion ration conforms with findings of Colapo (2007) stated no significant results were found in feed conversion ration (FCR) of broiler although, numerically, those given extracts showed slightly better FCR than those given plain water.

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Table 3. Feed Conversion ratio per bird in (kg) Meanns 2.65 a 2.70 a 2.74 a 2.84 a

Treatment TO (Control) T1 (Atovi) T2 (Aloevera) T3 (Sorghum Syrup) ns – Not significant

The water consumption of bird in liter is presented in Table 4. The highest water intake among treatments is Treatment T1 (Atovi) with 1.96 liters, followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe Vera) with 1.80 liters and Treatment T0 (Control) with 1.77 liters, respectively. Treatment T3 (Sorghum Syrup) have the lowest water intake of 1.67 liters. Statistical analysis indicated no significant differences among treatment means. Table 4. Water consumption per bird in (liter) Meanns 1.77 a 1.96 a 1.80 a 1.67 a

Treatment TO (Control) T1 (Atovi) T2 (Aloevera) T3 (Sorghum Syrup) ns – Not significant

As presented in Table 5 the final body weight of broilers showed that Treatment T3 (Sorghum syrup) obtained the highest mean body weight of 1.93 kgs., followed by Treatment T1 (Atovi) with a mean body weight of 1.89 kilograms and Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with a mean body weight of 1.65 kilograms respectively. Treatment T3 (Control) gave the lowest mean body weight of 1.58 kilograms. Results on final body weight coincide with the findings of Yeo and Kim that diets containing probiotics/growth enhancers significantly increased the weight of broilers without probiotics. Table 5. Final body weight per bird in (kg) Treatment TO (Control) T1 (Atovi) T2 (Aloevera) T3 (Sorghum Syrup) ns – Not significant

Meanns 1.58 a 1.89 a 1.65 a 1.93 a

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As shown in Table 6, the return above feed cost revealed that Treatment T1 (Atovi) obtained the highest return on investment with an ROI of 35.33. The second highest ROI was obtained by Treatment T3 (Sorghum syrup) followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with an ROI of 31.12 and 25.37 respectively. The lowest ROI was obtained by Treatment TO (Control) with 18.97. Furthermore, the return on investment (ROI) revealed that the use of growth enhancers are more economical compared to commercial feeds. Table 6. Return above feed cost of the experimental birds Treatment

T0 (Control) T1 (Atovi) T2 (Aloevera) T3 (Sorghum syrup)

Computed Production Cost 2718.48 2854.56 2688.24 3010.80

Total weight of the birds

Cost per kg. Liveweight

Gross income

Net Income

ROI

38.05 45.45 39.65 46.45

85 85 85 85

3234.25 3863.25 3370.25 3948.00

515.77 1008.69 82.01 37.20

18.97 35.33 25.37 31.12

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation The study was conducted from July to September 2007 at the PTIA laboratory farm, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela to test the efficiency of different growth enhancers on broiler. The study made use of ninety six (96) straight run day old Cobb broiler chicks. The birds were distributed to four (4) treatments replicated three times with eight (8) birds per treatment following the Complete Randomized Design. The treatments used were as follows: T0 (Plain water), T1 (Atovi) 20 ml per liters of water, T2 (Aloe vera) 20 ml per 4 liters of water and T3 (Sorghum syrup) 20 ml per liter of water. The birds were fed with their corresponding diets for six (6) weeks. The data gathered were analyzed for weekly rate of growth, feed consumption and feed conversion ratio. The study showed no significant differences on weekly rate of growth, feed consumption, water consumption and feed conversion ratio. Conclusion The following conclusions were drawn from the results of the study. Utilization of growth enhancers reduced the cost incurred thus enabling the raisers to increase the profitability

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of the enterprise. The cost of return above feed cost revealed that Treatment T1 (Atovi) obtained the highest return on investment with an ROI of 35.33 the second highest ROI was obtained by Treatment T# (Sorghum syrup) followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with an ROI of 31.12 and 25.37 respectively. The lowest ROI was obtained by Treatment T0 (Control) with 18.97. Furthermore, the Return On Investment (ROI) revealed that the use of growth enhancers are economical compared to commercial feeds. Recommendations Further study should be conducted using growth enhancers with higher concentration to determine its efficacy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Atheton, D. and S, Robin. 1987. A Europpean perspective, Biotechnology on The feed Industry, All Technical Publications. Bernardo. 1995. Medicinal Plants of the World. Computer index with more than 8,500 entries, 3 volumes. Bejar, F. R. and Copa, R. P. 2007. Aloe Vera in the Diet of Borilers. Philippine Agriculture. Bejar, F. R. And Copa, R. P. 2008. Aloe Vera the New Chicken Growth Enhancer. Philippine Agriculture. Buban, et. al. 2001. Probiotics to Broiler Diets. Chung, T. K. Poultry International 1987. pp 17. Fronda 1972. Utilization of Feed Additives in Broiler Production. Poultry Science and Production. Third Edition. Pp 20-22.

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Gill. 2001. Meat Evaluation of Broilers Using Probiotics. BSA Second Semester 2001. Pampanga Agricultural College. Pakisan. 2002. All about Livestock and Poultry. 2001 – 2002 Pakisan. Com. Premium Laboratories Inc. 2004. PAV stress check vitamin and electrolytes in domestic animals. Perry. T. W. , et al. 2000. Commercial Chicken Production Manual 4th Edition. Pp. 34-36. Savena, A. P. 1991. Poultry Science and Production. Third Edition pp. 49-52. Reyes, S. 2004. Poultry Science. Third Edition pp. 49-52. Yeo and Kim. 1997. Performance Enhancer in Broiler Diets. Poultry Production. Third Edition pp. 60-63.

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Science and

MOUNT PINATUBO LAHAR AS PHYSICAL BARRIER TO PREVENT TUNNELING AND SOIL PENETRATION OF PHILIPPINE MILK TERMITE (COPTOTERMES VASTATOR LIGHT) HEHERSON B. ONG1 ABSTRACT Philippine subterranean termite Coptotermes vastator Light, was tested for its ability to penetrate lahar barrier consisting of uniform or mixed particles ranging in size from 0.71 - 2.36 mm in diameter. Laboratory bioassay showed that lahar particle in the range of 1.0 – 2.36 mm, 1.18 – 2.36 mm and 2.0 – 2.36 mm in diameter prevented penetration of C. vastator. Mixed sized particles with equal proportion of each effective size range were also effective in preventing penetration of the termite. Keywords: physical barrier, lahar, subterranean termite, Coptotermes vastator

Introduction The catastrophic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 deposited a huge volume of ash and volcanic debris around the surrounding slope of the volcano. Estimates by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOLCS) put the volume of ejected volcanic materials to about 5–8 billion cubic meters (Newhall and Punongbayan 1996). Over time, heavy monsoon rains flushed these materials downslope burying residential, commercial and productive agricultural lands in surrounding provinces of Pampanga, Zambales, and Tarlac. In response to this calamity, government and private organizations have tried ways to utilize volcanic materials and minimize the negative impact of the eruption. Lahar is currently being studied and developed for various applications in agriculture, ceramics, foundry works, textile industry, soil and pavement engineering, civil and construction works (Lejano,1995). One potential use of lahar is in termite control, specifically as physical barrier against the entry of destructive subterranean termites into homes and timber structure. The technique could offer a potential alternative for chemical pesticides and provide a source of livelihood for the lahar- affected communities while helping restore the land to its productive condition. ____________________ 1 Instructor II and Chair, M.S. Forestry Program, College of Forestry and Environmental Management, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.

Objectives of the Study

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In general, the study sought to determine the possibility of using lahar particles as physical barrier to prevent tunneling and soil penetration of Philippine Mil Termite. Specifically, it aimed to: 1. determine the range of particle size of volcanic debris (lahar) that would prevent tunneling or penetration of Coptotermes vastator Light. 2. examine the relationship between termite body measurements or morphology and ability of C. vastator, to penetrate lahar barriers of various sizes.

Significance of the Study The current method of subterranean termite control relies mainly on the use of persistent chemical “termiticide” which is sprayed or injected into the soil to create a toxic chemical barrier. However, this technique usually leaves too much chemical residue in the soil that caused serious environmental problem. On the other hand, the use of a physical barrier is relatively safe, uniform and would never require reapplication as chemical barriers often do. It also has the potential to reduce health hazards associated with persistent pesticides and would help to reduce the load of toxic chemicals in the environment. Unfortunately, no studies on the use of physical barrier to prevent entry and infestation of subterranean termites into homes and timber structure has been done in the Philippines. Lahar is a potential material as physical barrier to prevent tunneling and penetration of subterranean termites. If proven effective, it will potentially reduce the use of pesticides in the urban environment and provide source of income for the affected communities. Commercial opportunities also exist for excavating contractors and pest control operators to install barriers for preventive termite control. Subsequently, the utilization of lahar for termite control may help in the restoration of the profile of river beds to reduce flooding, provide better quality of water, and eventually benefiting farmers in bringing back the lahar-covered soils to its former productive condition. Review of Literature Subterranean Termites Biology and Behaviour Subterranean termites are the most common and economically important wooddestroying organisms found throughout the Philippines. They are social insects that live in highly organized colony structures consisting of workers, soldiers, and reproductives or alates (winged termites). As their name suggests, subterranean termites build their nests in the soil.

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They infest woody debris in soil and invade wood structures through direct soil contact (Zabel and Morrell 1992). Subterranean termites live similarly to ants - in colonies in the ground. The workers are wingless, not sexually mature and apart from the family Hodotermitidae, are blind (Fig. 1). Their tunneling and food collection makes most of them pests (Pearce 1997).

The role of soldiers is to defend the colony from predators (Fig. 1). They possess a larger head that is longer and wider than that of the workers so as to contain more muscle or an enlarged frontal gland. (Pearce 1997).

The alates or the reproductives breed the colony. The colony is normally led by a queen who has a life span of approximately 15 years and is capable of producing up to 2,000 eggs a day. The workers and soldiers may live 3-5 years with caste proportions of approximately 360 workers: 40 soldiers (Grace et al. 1996). A colony is surrounded by an extensive foraging system consisting of tunnels underneath the ground, with a mature colony containing millions of termites (ARS 2002).

Fig. 1. C. vastator worker termites and soldier termite with visible mandible used for colony defense

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Coptotermes vastator Light

Among the subterranean termites, C. vastator is considered the most destructive, persistent and widely distributed species in the Philippines (Acda 2004). It is locally called as “milk termite” as soldiers of this species produce a milky secretion when disturbed giving the species its name. C. vastator is indigenous to the country and is responsible for more than 90% of the annual loss from termite damage to wooden structures in Metro Manila and other urban areas of the country (Acda 2003). Despite advances in insect control technology, this species still remains very prevalent and a serious problem among property owners. Estimates of the monetary value due to destruction to human property and agricultural or forestry crops in the Philippines is about 8-10 million dollars annually (Yudin 2002). Methodology Lahar Extraction Volcanic debris (lahar) was obtained from Sto. Tomas and Bucao rivers in the province of Pampanga. It was sifted through a series of sieves (corresponding to Tyler screen sieve no.10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 and 25) to obtain groups of uniform particle sizes from 0.71 to 2.36 mm in diameter. These were used to test the ability of the termites to tunnel and excavate through layer of lahar barrier. Termites Termites from active colonies of Coptotermes vastator Light, were extracted by gently tapping infested logs or secondary nest material into plastic trays containing moist paper towels. The plastic containers were covered to protect the termites from dehydration. Termites were immediately transported to the laboratory and were placed in an incubator set at 30o C and at least 80% relative humidity.

Morphological Measurements Microscopic measurements were made to determine any relationship between particle size, body measurements and distance penetrated by each termite species. Foraging workers of C. vastator were collected from three field colonies and were used for body measurements. Mean body weight of worker termites for each colony and species was determined by weighing ten groups of twenty termites each. Ten workers were selected at random from each colony/species combination and placed in 85% ethanol. These specimens were measured under a

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stereomicroscope (40x) to obtain means of body weight, abdomen width, head length, head width, mandible length, and body length with mandible. Regression analyses were used to estimate the relationship between particle size and distance penetrated by each termite species. Laboratory Penetration Bioassay Laboratory penetration bioassay was performed to determine the range of particle size that will prevent tunneling of C. vastator. Penetration bioassay was evaluated in glass tube devices similar to those described by Su and Schefrahn (1991) and the laboratory set up of termites following the method of French and Trajstman (2003) (Fig. 2). Three hundred worker termites plus 30 soldiers were then placed inside the plastic bowl. At the top end of the glass tube a piece of Whatman paper #1 was set in agar and sealed with a double layer of aluminum foil caps. If the termites were able to penetrate the 5-cm lahar barrier and feed on the paper, the barrier was considered breached and ineffective. Experimental units were held in an incubator maintained at 30o C and at least 80% relative humidity. Observations were made daily for one week and vertical distances of tunnels were recorded. The test was replicated five times for each particle size in three different colonies. Particle size was the factor for evaluation and the maximum vertical distance penetrated was subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Differences of distance among particle sizes were analyzed for each colony by a completely randomized (CRD) design. The differences among colonies were evaluated by means of Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Significant differences between particle size barrier were separated by Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test at α = 0.05 level of significance.

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Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the tube set up to evaluate termite penetration

Results and Discussion Evaluation of Uniform Lahar Particle Size Workers of C. vastator penetrated the barrier with uniform particle size range of 0.71 mm – 0.85 mm and 0.85 mm – 1.00 mm (Table 1). However, lahar barrier of 1.00 mm – 2.36 mm significantly reduced penetration by C. vastator in the lahar barrier. The ability of C. vastator workers to penetrate lahar barriers of various particle sizes differed from colony to colony. Results showed that termites collected from C.H.E., U.P. Los Banos, Laguna (UPLB) are more aggressive and bigger in size than the other two colonies. Termites penetrated the agar at the base of the glass tube few minutes after set-up but slowly decreased tunneling activity after 3-5 days as compared with other two colonies collected from AMTEC and old Agronomy, UPLB, respectively. This variation in colony behaviour within species is consistent with the findings of Su and Scheffrahn (1992) on their study of the penetration of sized-particle barriers by field populations of the Formosan subterranean termite (C. formosanus Shiraki), a close relative to C. vastator. However, effective particle size for C. vastator is smaller as compared with the effective particles (1.7 mm – 2.80 mm) used for C. formosanus reported by Su et al. (1991). This result could be explained by the smaller body size and mandible length of C. vastator than its Formosan relative.

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Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for distance penetration of C. vastator showed that particle size had significant effect on the ability of worker termites to penetrate the lahar barrier (Table 2). In addition, results suggest that there are no significant differences in distance penetration among the three colonies of C. vastator in seven days laboratory bioassay (Table 5). Comparison of treatment means indicated that five particle size treatments with no breaching observed, (size range 1.00–1.18 mm to 2.00–2.36 mm) are not significantly different from each other (Table 3). This implies that any of these five particle size treatments could be used as an effective barrier to control tunneling activity of C. vastator. Regression Model for Barrier Penetration

DistancePenetrated(mm)

The relationship between the size of particles and distance penetration of the termites through lahar barriers was determined by means of regression modeling. Regression equation was used to predict the penetration of a termite given the particle diameter of lahar. The predictive regression lines or patterns of variation of the different termite penetrations are graphically presented in Figures 3. The value of distance penetration (mm) is determined by substituting the values of the particle sizes (mm) in the predictive regression equations. Nonlinear relationships were observed between particle size and the corresponding penetration of the termites.

Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3. Relationship between particle size (mm) and distance penetration (mm) through lahar barriers by C. vastator. Regression model was log (distance penetration) = 1.37 – 1.35 lo g(particle size); R2 = 73.3%.

Evaluation of Mixed Lahar Particles Lahar barriers of mixed particle sizes obtained from particles that were not breached in the laboratory bioassay were equally effective in preventing penetrations by C. vastator. Mixed particles A (50% each of particles passing through Tyler sieve no. 10 and no.12) as well mixed B ( 20% each of five particle size range passing through sieve no. 10 to no. 18) were successful in

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preventing penetration of C. coptotermes (Table 4).. Statistical analysis suggests that both mixed particles were not significantly different when used as barrier to control termite penetration (Table 5). Variation in colony penetration was not evident as revealed by the analysis of variance (Table 6). Table 1. Distance penetrated (mm) by Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of various sieve fractions of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure.* TYLER SPECIES COLONY SCREEN PARTICLE SIZE MEAN (MM) SIEVE AMTEC CHE AGRO NO. No. 8-10 2.00 - 2.36 3.40 ± 1.34b 15.4 ± 7.64bc 2.20 ± 0.45d 7.00 ± 3.14c No. 10-12 1.70 - 2.00 2.40 ± 0.55b 7.40 ± 4.22c 3.80 ± 2.39cd 4.53 ± 2.38c No. 12-14 1.40 - 1.70 3.80 ± 1.30b 6.80 ± 3.42c 4.40 ± 1.82cd 5.00 ± 2.18c No. 14-16 1.18 - 1.40 13.0 ± 5.66b 8.60 ± 1.67c 8.60 ± 2.88cd 10.1 ± 3.40c No. 16-18 1.00 - 1.18 10.6 ± 10.5b 9.40 ± 4.34c 14.2 ± 4.97c 11.4 ± 6.59c No. 18-20 0.85 - 1.00 41.6 ± 18.8a 25.4 ± 21.0ab 27.0 ± 21.3b 31.3 ± 20.4b No. 20-25 0.71 - 0.85 42.2 ± 17.4a 34.2 ± 16.7a 50.0 ± 0.00a 42.1 ± 11.4a * Each value is the mean ± standard error of five (5) replicates from each colony. Means with the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level (LSD).

Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three colonies of Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of various sieve fractions of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure. Source of Value Variation Particle Size Error Total

DF 6 14 20

SS

MS

3923.6114 434.0362 4358.1181

653.9352 31.0362

F 21.07

P Value 0.0001

Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three colonies of Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of various sieve fractions of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure. Source of Value Variation Particle Size Colony Error Total

DF 6 2 12 20

SS

MS

3923.6114 7.2038 427.3028 4358.1180

653.9352 3.6019 35.6068

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F 18.36 0.10

P Value 0.0001 0.9046

Table 4. Distance penetrated (mm) by Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized particle barrier of volcanic debris (lahar) after seven days.* BARRIER TYPE

PARTICLE SIZE (MM)

COLONY CHE

AMTEC

AGRO

SPECIES MEAN

Mixed A (50 % Mesh # 10 1.77 - 2.36 3.40 ± 0.89a 1.00 ± .00b 2.20 ± 0.45a 2.20 ± 0.78a & 50% Mesh # 12) Mixed B (20 % each of 1.00 – 2.36 11.0 ± 8.19a 3.60 ± 2.07a 2.20 ± 1.10a 5.60 ± 3.84a Mesh # 10 to 18 ) * Each value is the mean ± standard error of five (5) replicates from each colony. Means with the same letter are not significantly different at .05 level (LSD).

Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three colonies of Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized particle barrier of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days. Source of Value Variation Particle Size Error Total

DF

SS

1 4 5

17.34 47.60 64.94

MS 17.34 31.036211.90

F 1.46

P Value 0.2939

Table 6. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three colonies of Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized particle barrier of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days. Source of Value Variation Particle Size Colony Error Total

DF

SS

MS

F

1 2 2 5

17.34 32.68 14.92 64.94

17.34 16.34 7.46

2.32 2.19

P Value 0.2669 0.3134

Morphological Measurements of Subterranean Termites The mechanisn of how physical barriers are able to prevent entry of termites is that the particles are too large and heavy for the termite to move with its mandibles. It must be too hard to be chewed into smaller pieces and the spaces between the particles are too small for termites to pass through (French and Trajstman 2003).

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Measurement of body and head lengths, head and abdomen widths as well as body weight and mandible length of the worker termites were determined (Table 7). The termites were effectively controlled by particle size range beginning from Tyler screen sieve no. 18 (1.00-1.18 mm). These results were similar to that of French and Trajstman (2003) who reported that width of the head is the single most important measurement in a termite’s ability to penetrate the various grade sizes of barrier screenings. Table 7. Morphological measurements of subterranean worker termites from three colonies of Coptotermes vastator Light. C O L O N Y AMTEC CHE AGRO Mean

MEAN ± SE Body weight,

Mandible length

Head length with mandible

Head width

Abdomen width

(MG)

(MM)

(MM)

(MM)

(MM)

1.85 ± 0.24 b 1.95 ± 0.16b 3.20 ± 0.26a 2.33 ± 0.75

0.37 ± 0.03b 0.38 ± 0.04b 0.42 ± 0.03a 0.39 ± 0.03

1.29 ± 0.11a 1.29 ± 0.06a 1.30 ± 0.06a 1.29 ± 0.01

1.11 ± 0.06a 1.16 ± 0.05a 1.15 ± 0.02a 1.14 ± 0.02

1.55 ± 0.10 1.58 ± 0.13 1.42 ± 0.10 1.52 ± 0.08

Body length with mandible (MM) 4.64 ± 0.25b 4.99 ± 0.29a 4.40 ± 0.24b 4.68 ± 0.30

* Each value is the mean ± SE of ten (10) replicates. Means with the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level (LSD).

Summary and Conclusion The study was conducted to provide information on possibility of using lahar particles as physical barrier to prevent tunneling and soil penetration of the economically important subterranean termite in the Philippines. Seven particle sizes ranging from 0.71 mm to 2.36 mm ( Tyler screen sieve no. 10 to no. 25) were tested in the laboratory using three different colonies of C. vastator. Two mixed particles with effective size range based from laboratory results were also selected for evaluation against C. vastator. Results of the study showed that a suitable lahar barrier for C. vastator would be the particle size range of 1.00 mm to 2.36mm, both uniform and mixed. Recommendations With the promising results obtained in the laboratory and field bioassays, actual testing for the use of effective lahar particles is suggested. As this study is considered pioneering in the Philippines and the results are still preliminary, pilot scale evaluation of lahar barrier to prevent entry and tunneling of active colonies of subterranean termite C. vastator into homes and timber structures could be done in a small model house.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Acda, M.N. 2003. Philippine Termite Handbook. International Tropical Timber Organization, College, Laguna. 125 pp. Acda, M.N. 2004. Economically important termites (Isoptera) of the Philippines and their control. Sociobiology 43: 159-168. Agricultural Research Service (ARS). 2002. Agricultural Research Service Formosan Subterranean Termite Program Information. University of Hawaii Termite Project. French, J.R., B. Amhed and A. Trajstman. 2003. Laboratory and field evaluation of granite aggregate as a physical barrier against subterranean termites of the genus Coptotermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 42:129-149. Grace, J.K., J.R.. Yates and C.H.M. Tome. 1996. Termite-resistant construction: use of stainless steel mesh to exclude Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 28: 365-372. Lejano, B.A. 1995. Lahar for Modular Housing Component. Technological University of the Philippines (TUP). Manila. Pearce, M.J. 1997 Termites: biology and pest management. CAB International.UK Su, N.Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 1992. Penetration of sized-particle barriers by field populations of subterranean termites. J. Econ. Entomology. 6: 2275-2278. Su, N.Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn and P. Ban. 1991. Uniform size particle barriers: a physical exclusion device against subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomology.8: 220-225. Yudin, L. 2002. Termites of Mariana Islands and Philippines: Damage and Control. Sociobiology 40 (1):71-74. Zabel, R.A. and J.J.Morrell. 1992. Wood microbiology: Decay and Its Prevention. Academic Press, Inc. pp 30-31.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Dr. Menandro N. Acda, professor of the Department of Forest Products and Paper Science (FPPS), CFNR, U.P. Los Baños, for the technical guidance and support given during the conduct of the study.

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PLANT DIVERSITY AND STATUS OF THE ISU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY MA. VISITACION D. GUINGAB1

ABTRACT A study was conducted to generate knowledge on the flora resources of the Isabela State University Wildlife Sanctuary. The study revealed a total of 165 plant taxa from the floristic survey area. Of this, 68 or 41.21% were indigenous while 97 or 58.79 % were introduced species to the wildlife sanctuary. Of the 97 introduced species, 20 are native to the Philippines and 77 are exotic. Eleven (11) species were identified as endemic, that is, they are only found in the Philippine archipelago. An assessment of the status of the different plant species was carried out to establish a foundation for their protection, conservation and monitoring. Assessment of the status of each species revealed ten (10) threatened species both locally and nationally. Among these three (3) are critically endangered or facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal); Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine archipelago. Hopea cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province. On the other hand, two (2) are endangered species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros philippinensis (kamagong) and Podocarpus costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or facing a high risk of extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus indicus (narra), Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus ulmifolia (tibig). Keywords: flora, endemic, indigenous, endangered, threatened species

Introduction The Isabela State University at Garita Campus is endowed with a rich assemblage of endemic, indigenous and exotic species. The lack of knowledge about the woody plants, however, is a constraint. This is due to the fact that not a single flora of significance has been completed. This publication documents plant species that occur within the boundaries of the ISUWS. It is an update to the previous publication “Enumeration, Identification and Phenology of Tree Species at the ISUWS” in 1995. For the last 15 years, several species

____________________ 1 Faculty, College of Forestry & Environmental Science, Isabela State University, cabagan Campus.

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have been discovered and added to the list, which, include all woody species. The list will be useful to biologists and anyone looking for a common or scientific name for a plant that occurs in the area. It hopes to serve as a foundation for future work and an answer to the urgent need by Taxonomy and Dendrology students of what is known of the woody flora of the campus. No plant species is complete, the discovery of additional native species is very likely and new exotic plant species could invade and become established. Objectives of the Study This study was conducted to generate knowledge on the flora resources of the ISUWS. Specifically it aims to: a) determine the floristic diversity and conservation status of plant taxa; b) determine the plant taxa being threatened by utilization and habitat loss; and c) formulate recommendation and strategies to increase awareness on plant diversity and conservation

Methodology This is a continuous study of the previous floristic survey conducted in 1994. A complete inventory of the whole area of the ISU Campus was made so as not to miss a single plant species with the exception of herbs and grasses. Newly introduced landscape ornamental woody plants were included in the survey. Documentation of plant taxa with photos was taken for the production of a pictorial guide to identification of species in the future. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results and Discussion Vegetation or community type The vegetation in ISUWS is classified as savannah grassland- grassland vegetation with scattered woody plants. Different types of vegetation surround the floristic survey area. East of the area is a transitional area or ecotone between the grassland and the Sierra Madre Mountains dominated by Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum with scattered trees of Antidesma, Macarangas, Neonauclea and several Ficus species. The North and South of the survey area is a mosaic of agricultural land planted with corn and rice, hills and grassland vegetation.

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Nomenclature There were several field guides and floras available from which to select the most appropriate scientific name for plant species that occur in the region. These include Rojo (1999), Balgooy (1997, 1998, 2001), Keβler (2000), Flora Malesiana & PROSEA Publications. For each plant species in the survey area, a widely accepted scientific name was placed first in the checklist. Alternative names for some plant family as well as common synonyms for each species were listed in brackets after the name. Distribution A total of 165 plant taxa were reported from the floristic survey area. Of this, 68 were native or indigenous species and 97 were recently introduced species both native (20) and exotic (79). Among the 68 native species, 49 are classified as trees and 19 are shrubs. The natives occur naturally among the fragmented woody patches in the grassland areas and along the gallery forest including 7 exotics that have become naturalized. Distribution of the flora indicates that 41.46% of native species and 58.54 % of exotic plant taxa occur throughout the survey area. Details on the number and distribution of species are shown on Table 1& Table 2. Native Plant Species in the Survey Area The most common native species include Alstonia scholaris, Antidesma ghaesembilla, Antidesma pentandrum, Canarium asperum, Canthium monstrosum, Diospyros philosanthera, Ficus benjamina, Ficus balete, Ficus nota, Ficus pseudopalma, Ficus septica, Ficus ulmifolia, Guioa koelreuteria, Harpulia arborea, Leukosyke capitellata, Litsea glutinosa , Macaranga tanarius, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, Mallotus philippensis, Morinda bracteata, Neonauclea bartlingii, Premna odorata, Semecarpus cuneiformis, Semecarpus longifolius, Semecarpus philippinensis, Clerodendrun minahasse, Lantana camara, Leea guineensis and Mussaenda philippica.

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Table 1. Common native tree species and conservation status 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

Scientific Name Afzelia rhomboidea (Blanco)Vidal Albizzia procera (Roxb) Benth. Albizzia saponaria (Lour.) Blume ex Miq Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. Artocarpus ovatus Blanco Broussonetia luzonica (Blanco) Bur. Canarium asperum Benth. Canthium monstrosum (A.Rich) Merr. Diospyros philosanthera Blanco Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (A.Juss) Miq Ficus benjamina L. Ficus balete Merr. Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem Ficus nota (Blanco ) Merr. Ficus pseudopalma Blanco Ficus septica Burm f. Ficus ulmifolia Lam. Ficus variegata Blume Flacourtia indica (Burm f.) Merr. Garcinia venulosa (Blanco) Choisy Guioa koelreuteria (Blanco) Merr. Harpulia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. Leukosyke capitellata (Poir) Wedd. Lepisanthes sp. Litsea glutinosa (Lour) C.B. Rob. Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell-Arg. Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. Ex Blume) Reich. & Zoll. Mallotus molissimus (Geisel.) Airy Shaw Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell-Arg. Miliusa vidalii J. Sincl. Morinda bracteata Roxb. Neonauclea bartlingii (D.C.) Merr. Ochrosia littoralis Merr. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Polyscias nodosa (Blume.) Seem. Premna odorata Blanco Premna sp. Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Sapindus saponaria L. Semecarpus cuneiformis Blanco Semecarpus longifolius Blume. Semecarpus philippinensis Engl. Sterculia foetidia Linn. Streblus asper Lour. Vitex parviflora Juss. Voacanga globosa (Blanco) Merr. Wrightia pubescens R. Br.

Family Name Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Apocynaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Moraceae Burseraceae Rubiaceae Ebenaceae Meliaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Flacourtiaceae Guttiferae Sapindaceae Sapindaceae Urticaceae Sapindaceae Lauraceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae

Common Name Tindalo Akleng parang Salingkogi Dita Bignai Binayuyu Anubing Himbabao Pagsahingin Tadiang-anuang Bolong-eta Agaru Salisi Balite Indian rubber tree Tibig Niog-niogan Hauili Is-is Tangisang-bayawak Bitonggol Gatasan Alahan Uas/puas Alagasi

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Annonaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Apocynaceae Bignoniaceae Araliaceae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae(Papilionaceae) Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Sterculiaceae Moraceae Verbenaceae Apocynaceae Apocynaceae

Hinlaumo Banato Takulau Nino Lisak Pakoidan Pinka-pinkahan Malapapaya Alagaw

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Sablot Binunga Alim

Narra Kusibeng Ligas Manalu Kamiring Kalumpang Kalios Molave Bayag- usa Lanete

Status VU EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EC EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EC EIS EIS EC/EIS EIS EC/VU EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EC/EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EC/EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS VU/EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS VU/EIS EIS EIS

Table 2. Common native treelet/shrub species and conservation status Scientific Name

Family Name

Common Name

Status

1. 2.

Antidesma pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. Ardisia pyramidalis (Carv.) Pers.

Euphorbiaceae Myrsinaceae

Bignai-pugo Aunasin

EIS EIS

3.

Blumea balsamifera (Linn.) D.C.

(Primulaceae) Compositae

Sambong

EIS

4. 5. 6.

Callicarpa candicans (Burm.) Hacht. Capsicum frutescens L. Clerodendrun minahasse Tesym. & Binn.

Tigaw Siling labuyo Bagauak

EIS EIS EIS

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Citrus hystrix D.C. Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir. Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz. Grewia eriocarpa Juss. Lantana camara L. Leea guineensis G. Don. Melastoma malabathricum L. Mussaenda philippica A. Rich. Phyllantus reticulatus Poir. Psychotria luconiensis (Cham. & Schlecht.) F. Vill. Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alston Triphasia trifolia (Burm. f) P. Wils. Uvaria rufa Blm.

Kolobot Pandakaki Taklang-anak Bariuan Caronitas Mali-mali Malatungau Kahoi-dalaga Tinta-tintahan Katagpo Tampoi Limonsito Susong-kalabaw

EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS EC EIS EIS EIS EIS EIS

Verbenaceae Solanaceae Verbenaceae (Labiatae) Rutaceae Apocynaceae Guttiferae Tiliaceae Verbenaceae Leeaceae Melastomaceae Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae Rubiaceae Myrtaceae Rutaceae Annonaceae

Of the total 68 plant taxa native to the area, 11 (or 16.18%) were endemic to the Philippine archipelago. It is worthy to note that 6 (54.54%) grow naturally in the area such as Mussaenda philippica (Rubiaceae), Neonauclea bartlingii (Rubiaceae) and four (4) species of Moraceae including Artocarpus ovatus and three of the genus Ficus: F. balite, F. pseudopalma and F. ulmifolia. Five (5) endemic species were recently introduced in the area including Podocarpus costalis, Garcinia binucao and three Dipterocarps: Shorea astylosa, Shorea contorta and Hopea cagayanensis

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Table 3. List of endemic species and conservation status Taxa 1. Artocarpus ovatus Blanco* 2. Ficus balete Merr.* 3. Ficus pseudopalma Blanco* 4. Ficus ulmifolia Lam.* 5. Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy** 6. Hopea cagayanensis (Foxw.) V. Sloot** 7. Mussaenda philippica A. Rich.* 8. Neonauclea bartlingii (D.C.) Merr.* 9. Podocarpus costalis Presl.** 10. Shorea astylosa Foxw.** 11. Shorea contorta Vidal** * Naturally existing in the survey area

Common name Status Anubing Economically important species Balete Economically important species Niog-niogan Economically important species Is-is Vulnerable Binukau Economically important species Narek Critically endangered Kahoi -dalaga Economically important species Lisak Economically important species Igem-dagat Endangered Yakal Critically endangered White lauan Critically endangered **Recently introduced in the area

Introduced Species in the Survey Area The inventory also identified ninety-seven (97) taxa as introduced species. Most of these occur within the academic core especially along roadsides and besides the infrastructures/buildings. Seven (7) exotics are locally common in the savanna-grassland areas and have become naturalized. It is believed that these species were introduced to the Philippines for the past century and these are Psidium guajava, Senna alata, Samanea saman, Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, and Trema orientalis. All species are economically important for furniture making (raintree), firewood (kakauate, datiles, anabiong), light construction materials (ipil-ipil), edible fruit (guava, datiles), forage (ipil-ipil) and medicinal purposes (akapulko). Table 4. Exotic plant species but naturally growing and naturalized in ISUWS Scientific Name 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp Psidium guajava L. Muntingia calabura L. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. (Syn: Cassia alata L.) Trema orientalis (L.) Blume

Family Name

Common Name

Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Myrtaceae Tiliaceae (Muntingiaceae) Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae)

Ipil-ipl Kakauate Guava Datiles Raintree Akapulko

Ulmaceae (Celtidacae)

Anabiong

Distribution Tropical America Tropical America Tropical America Neotropics Tropical South America Pantropical: Guianas, Venezuela, Borneo Burma, China, Indochina, Thailand, Borneo Malesia to Australia

Ninety (90) were recently introduced to the area beginning in the 80’s and these consist of both native or indigenous and exotic plant taxa. Twenty (20) species are indigenous to the

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Philippines and seventy-seven (70) are exotics classified as follows: trees (57), shrubs (21) and palms (12). The species were planted as reforestation species and as ornamentals while others are cultivated as agricultural crops. Still others were planted for research and instructional purposes. Table 5. Plant species recently introduced to the area and origin of the taxa Scientific Name 1.

Acacia auriculiformis A Cunn. Ex Benth.

2.

Acacia mangium Willd.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Anacardium occidentale L. Annona muricata L. Annona squamosa L. Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Averrhoa bilimbi L. Averrhoa carambola L. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Bauhinia purpurea L.

12. 13. 14.

Bischofia javanica Blume Bixa orellana L. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.*

15.

Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq) Willd.

16.

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.*

17. 18.

Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook f. & Thoms. Carica papaya L.

19. 20.

Caryota rumphiana Mart.** Cassia fistula L.

21.

Cassia javanica spp. nodosa (Roxb.) K.& S.S. Larsen Cassia occidentalis L.*

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& C. Foster Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaernt. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Robinson* Chrysophyllum cainito L. Citrofortunella microcarpa Wijnands* Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

Cocus nucifera L.** Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Blume* Coffea arabica L.* Corypha elata Roxb.** Cycas revoluta Thunb. * Cynometra ramiflora L.

35. 36.

Cyrtostachys renda Bl.** Delonix regia (Hook) Raf.

Family Name

Common Name

Origin

Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Annonaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Oxalidaceae Oxalidaceae Meliaceae Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Euphorbiaceae Bixaceae Nyctaginaceae

Japanese acacia

New Guinea

Mangium

Tuai Achuete Bougainvillea

New Guinea, Australia, Indonesia Tropical America Tropical America Tropical America Malaysia India, Malaysia Tropical America Tropical America India India, Burma, Vietnam, Malaya Malaysia Malesia Brazil

Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Fabaceae

Divi-divi

Tropical America

Pigeon pea

Annonaceae

Ilang-ilang

India, South East Asia Malaysia

Caricaceae

Papaya

Arecaceae Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Casuarinaceae Bombacaceae Compositae (Asteraceae) Sapotaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae

Fishtail palm/takipan Golden shower

Tropical America, Aruba Philippines Tropical Asia

Pink shower

Java, Indonesia

Balatong-aso

Tropical Asia

Agoho American kapok Hagonoy

Malaysia Tropical Asia Florida, Argentina

Caimito Calamansi Lukban/suha

Tropical America Tropical Asia Malesia

Coconut San Francisco Kape Buri Oliva Balitbitan

Malesia Malaya Tropical America Celebes, Malaysia Japan, China Philippines

Red palm Fire tree

Malaysia Madagascar

Arecaceae Euphorbiaceae Rubiaceae Arecaceae Cycadaceae Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Arecaceae Fabaceae

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Kasoy Guayabano Atis Bignai Nangka Kamias Balimbing Neem Fringon pula

37. Diospyros philippinensis Rolfe. 38. D Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker-Gawl.* 39. Duranta repens L.* 40. Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb. 41. Eucalyptus deglupta Blume. 42. Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy 43. Gmelina arborea Roxb. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

Heterospathe elata Scheff** Hevea brasiliensis Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. * Hopea cagayanensis (Foxw.) V. Sloot Instia bijuga (Colebr) O. Kuntze

49. 50. 51.

Ixora cv.* Jatropha curcas L.* Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht.) Benth

52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

59. 60. 61.

Licuala grandis H. Wendl.** Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mert.** Mangifera indica L. Manihot esculenta Crantz.* Mascarena ravaughianii L.H. Bailey** Mascarena verschaffeltii (Wendl.) L.H. Bailey ** Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sanvalle * Moringa oleifera Lamk. Morus alba L. Parkia timoriana (D.C.) Merr.

62.

(Caesalpiniaceae) Ebenaceae Agavaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Myrtaceae Guttiferae (Clusiaceae) Verbenaceae

Kamagong Fortune plant Pigeon berry Earpod

Philippines Tropical Asia Tropical America Tropical Asia

Bagras Binucau Yemane

Celebes, New Guinea Philippines Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka Sumatra, Amboina

Arecaceae Euphorbiaceae Malvaceae Dipterocarpaceae Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Arecaceae Arecaceae Anacardiaceae Euphorbiaceae Arecaceae Arecaceae

Sagisi Rubber tree Gumamela Narek Ipil

Balatbat-bllog Anahaw Manga Kamoteng-kahoy Bottle palm Spindle palm

Bengal, China Tropical America Central America, Mexico, Honduras Bismarck Island Malaya India Tropical America Mauritius Island Mascarenes

Fabaceae (Mimosaceae) Moringaceae Moraceae Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)

Makahiang-lalake

Tropical America

Malunggay Mulberry Kupang

Malaysia Tropical Asia Malaysia

Persia americana Mill.

Lauraceae

Avocado

63. 64. 65. 66.

Phoenix dactylifera L. Phoenix roebelinii O’Brien ** Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels. Phyllanthus myrtifolius Moon*

Arecaceae Arecaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae

Date palm Pigmy date palm Iba Ceylon bush

Tropical America Tropical Asia India, Vietnam Tropical Asia Ceylon

67.

Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon

Pinaceae

Benguet pine

Philippines

68.

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Podocarpus costalis Presl.

Fabaceae

Kamachile

Podocarpaceae

Igem-dagat

Tropical America Philippines

Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. 71. P Polyscias balfouriana (Hort. Sander) L.H. Bailey* 72. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierr.

Annonaceae

Indian lanutan

India

Araliaceae

Platito

New Caledonia

Fabaceae

Bani

73.

Arecaceae

McArthur’s palm

Philippines, India, South East Asia New Guinea

58.

69. 70.

Ptychosperma macarthurii H.

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Dwarf santan Tubang bakod Diversifolia

China Philippines: Cagayan Mascarenes

74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86.

Wendl. ex Moore** Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Senna spectabilis(DC) Irwin & Barneby Shorea astylosa Foxw. Shorea contorta Vidal Swietenia macrophylla King Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Syzygium samarengense (Blume) Merr. & Perry Tamarindus indica L. Tectona grandis L. f Terminalia catappa L. Terminalia microcarpa Decne. Theobroma cacao L.*

89.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.* Tripalis cumingiana Fisch. & Mey. Veitchia merillii (Becc.) Moore.** Vitex negundo L.*

90.

Zamia pumila L.*

87. 88.

Meliaceae

Santol

India

Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Meliaceae

Anchoan dilaw

Tropical America Philippines Philippines Central America

Yakal White lauan Lrg leaf mahogany Duhat Macopa

Malaysia Philippines

Sampalok Teak Talisai Kalumpit Cacao

India, Asia India East Indies Philippines South America

Polygonaceae

Yellow bell, oleander Palosanto

South America, Peru South America

Arecaceae

Manila palm

Philippines

Verbenaceae

Lagundi

Zamiaceae

Jamaica sago tree

Tropical East Africa Jamaica, Mexico, Colombia

Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Fabaceae Verbenaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Sterculiaceae (Byttneriaceae) Apocynaceae

* Shrub **Palm

Assessment of Conservation Status of Floral Species An assessment of the status of the different plant species was carried out to establish a foundation for their protection, conservation and monitoring. The conservation status of each species listed was assessed according to the definition of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Rojo (1999), Merill (1926) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR): a. Critically Endangered (CR) – the taxon is considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild b. Endangered (EN) – the taxon is considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild c. Vulnerable (VU) - the taxon is considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild

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d. Near Threatened (NT) – the taxon is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. e. Least concern (LC) – the taxon is widespread and abundant f. Data deficient (DD) – the taxon’s distribution and/or population status are unknown or inadequately documented; thus, assessment of extinction risk isnot possible. DD is not a category of threat. g. Endemic (EC) – the taxon is confined to a certain geographical region or its parts thus; it is unique and found nowhere else in the world. h. Rare (R) – the taxon is not under immediate threat of extinction but occurring in such small numbers or in such localized or specialized habitats that it could quickly disappear if the environment worsens; needs watching i. Depleted (D) – although sufficiently abundant for survival, the taxon has been nearly depleted and in decline as a result of natural causes or human activities j. Economically Important Species (EIS) – based on known uses, taxon that command high economic value are prone to extinction because they tend to be over-exploited Assessment of the status of each species revealed ten (10) threatened species both locally and nationally (Tables 6 & 7); three (3) are critically endangered that is, they are facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal); Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine archipelago. Hopea cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province. Two are endangered species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros philippinensis (kamagong) and Podocarpus costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or facing a high risk of extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus indicus (narra), Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus ulmifolia (tibig). All five species are locally threatened. Table 6. Numbers of threatened species in ISUWS Taxonomic groups

Woody & non-woody plants 1. Native/Indigenous Species 2. Introduced Species a. Native b. Exotic Total

Number of species assessed 164 68 20 76

Number of species considered threatened CR 0

EN 0

VU 4

Sub-total 4

3 0 3

2 0 2

1 0 5

6 0 10

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Number of species threatened as % of species assessed 5.88 % 30 % 0%

Table 7. List of threatened species in ISUWS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Plant Taxa Afzelia rhomboidea Diospyros discolor Ficus ulmifolia Hopea cagayanensis Instia bijuga Podocarpus costalis Pterocarpus indicus Shorea astylosa Shorea contorta Vitex parviflora

Status Vulnerable Endangered Vulnerable Critically endangered Vulnerable Endangered Vulnerable Critically endangered Critically endangered Vulnerable

Local Use Lumber Lumber, fruit Lumber Lumber Lumber Ornamental Lumber Lumber Lumber Lumber

Conclusion Based from the results of the study, a total of 165 plant taxa were recorded from the floristic survey area. Of this, 68 or 41.21% were indigenous or native species to the sancturay while 97 or 58.79 % were introduced species. Of the 97 introduced ones, 20 are native to the Philippines and 77 are exotic. Eleven (11) species were identified as endemic, that is, they are only found in the Philippine archipelago. The assessment of the status of the different plant species revealed ten (10) threatened species both locally and nationally. Among these three (3) are critically endangered or facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal); Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine archipelago. Hopea cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province. On the other hand, two (2) are endangered species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros philippinensis (kamagong) and Podocarpus costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or facing a high risk of extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus indicus (narra), Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus ulmifolia (tibig).

Recommendations This floristic inventory is far from complete. The discovery of additional native species is very likely and new exotic plant species could invade and become established. It is recommended that a further exploration of the area should be made to support preliminary results and to expand knowledge of plant diversity and conservation. Also a continuous monitoring should be made especially for plant species being threatened by utilization.

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There is a need to increase awareness level of students, researchers and communities nearby on critical flora resources and plant diversity of the Wildlife Sanctuary through production and distribution of IEC materials, like flyers, leaflet and the like preferably written in local dialects. Billboards to warn gatherers against hunting are displayed around the campus but there is a need to revise the billboard to include warning against illegal cutting of plant species as well. A pictorial guide to the identification of the floral species is envisioned in the near future. This should be published to facilitate identification by students and researchers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Balgooy, M.M.J. 1997-2001. Malesian Seed Plants. Vols. 1-3. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, The Netherlands. Brown, W.H. 1960. Useful Plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Technical Bulletin 10. Bureau of Printing. Manila, Philippines. Keβler, P.J.A. 2000. Secondary Forest Trees of Kalimantan Indonesia. Tropenbos-Kalimantan Project. The Netherlands. Madulid, D.A. 2000. A Pictorial Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants. Bookmark, Inc. Makati City, Philippines. PROSEA Foundation. 1989-1993. Plant Resources of South East Asia. Wageningen Agricultural University. The Netherlands. Rojo, J.P. 1999. Revised Lexicon of Philippine Trees. FPRDI-DOST. College, Laguna. Philippines

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TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION AND DETECTION OF TRYPTAMINE AND AMATOXIN OF EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE MUSHROOMS AND OTHER SPECIES OF PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA FOUND IN CABAGAN, ISABELA (A PRELIMINARY STUDY) JANE G. CABAUATAN AND YOLANDA M. BUMARLONG1

ABSTRACT A preliminary study was conducted to present the taxonomy as well as toxins which are most deadly associated with edible and non-edible mushrooms and other species of Phylum Basidiomycota. Standard procedure was utilized in the detection of specific toxins: tryptamine and amtoxin- the Meixner Test. In terms of taxonomic classification, standard format was used based on Botanical Nomenclature. Thirty (30) fungal organisms were identified with a total of nineteen (19) species of mushroom and eleven (11) other species of fungal organisms were collected, identified and tested for toxins. All species collected belong to Kingdom fungi. Phylum Basidiomycota and Division Eumycota. Seventeen (17) belong to Class Hymenomycota and thirteen (13) from Class Gasteromycota. All these identified fungal organisms belong to seven (70 different orders, namely: Order Polyporales(13), Order Aphyllophorales (3), Order Auricurales (1), Order Polyporales(8), Order Lycoperdales (1), Order Schlerodermatales and one (1) from Order tremellales. Nineteen (19) of the species under this phylum grow during rainy/wet season, and the rest of the identified fungi grow or survive all throughout the year specifically on areas where decomposition process is high. There were eight (8) species of edible and three (3) species of non-edible mushrooms were detected to have no toxin of either tryptamine or amatoxin. These are the following: Edible-Collybia reineckeana, Schizophyllum commune, Volvariella volvaceae, Lentinus sajor-caju, Auricularia polytricha,, Chanterellus cibarius, Pleurotus ulmarius and Agaricus campestris, while Non-edibleGanoderma lucidum, Ganoderma applanatum and Ganoderma tsugae.. Nineteen (19) other species were detected to be positive in both tryptamine and amatoxin. Tryptamine were detected on species of Lepiota cepaestipes, Fomes spp., Chanterellus spp., Meripillus gigantus., Psylocibe mexicana, Paneolus spp., Lenzites betulina, Armillaria spp., Tremella spp. and Phellinus spp. while amatoxins were revealed by the following fungal organisms: Amanita muscaria,, Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Polysporus brumalis, Scleroderma spp., Lycoperdon ericetorum and Fomes spp. As simple as the methodology used, mushroom can immediately be identified in terms of the presence of toxic substances but not much with its edibility. Since not all mushroom and other species of these phylum which look good are edible. Therefore, it is recommended that similar study could be conducted using more sophisticated tools for screening and testing of toxins for more reliable information and to prove the claim. And a follow up study should also be done to review or test the best substrate composition of identified edible mushrooms for spawning and food production. Keywords: Taxonomy, basidiomycota, amatoxin and tryptamine ____________________ 1 Corresponding author and Faculty, Department of Natural Sciences, CDCAS, ISUC., respectively.

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Introduction Rationale Fungi are a huge group of 50,000 species. they include mushrooms, toadstools, mould, mildew and yeast. Fungi are not plants, because they have no chlorophyll to make their food. So scientists put them in a group of kingdom of their own. Fungi are made of countless cotton-like threads called hyphae which absorb chemicals they feed on. Just like any fungal organisms, mushrooms occur almost everywhere, on forest floors, in cultivated and abandoned fields, secondary forests and even lawns. They grow in the soil, on dead wood and on other decaying plant parts, just like other elements of nature; these fungal organisms play a very important role, in fact one of the most important component of ecosystem associated with decomposition process. Although found at the bottom of the organization, these organisms are important indicators for the state of equilibrium in the ecosystem. On the context of increasing population growth, food production would never catch up and is indeed becoming a stark to reality. But recent advances of modern food technology could also extend a great deal of producing certain kind of food that could be sourced from mushrooms and related species. In fact, we should be grateful for being in the tropics and blessed with an abundance of edible fungal organisms specifically mushrooms. One good example how fungal organisms become relatively of great economic importance are Cheeses like camembert, Roquefort, stilton and Danish blue get their distinctive flavors from chemicals made by moulds added to them to help them ripen. The blue streaks in some cheeses are actually molds (Farndon 2001) Fungi like mushrooms known to as “karulu” among ybanags, ‘kabuteng parang” or “ kabuti” among tagalogs, “uung” among ilocanos and “tohong” among visayans can be cultivated everywhere. Mushrooms are fleshy fungi with central stalk beneath an umbrella shaped pileus. The presence of a cap at the base of the stem, a ring around the stem and spots on the cap are said to identify poisonous mushrooms. On the other hand, according to Hernandez 1980 as cited by Lorenzana and Saquing (2001) some delicious species have caps or rings, or spots or even a combination of these signs together on the fruiting body. Statement of the Problem Food shortage is felt within the country nowadays; it is believed that other sources of food may come from certain microorganisms of which are very healthful and useful to mankind. The introduction of the several species of edible mushrooms to the people can become their immediate source of food, medicine and even income or livelihood subsistence. The center to

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which this research was conducted purposely to introduce and help not only the people of Cabagan but other municipalities in the province, to know that fungal organisms such as mushroom is a good source of food and good substitute for fish, meat and meat products, poultry and poultry products, and dairy and dairy products. Good species of mushroom can be propagated through spawning for food production just within the premises of their backyard.

Significance and Purpose of Research Mushrooms are one of the most important sources of nutritious food and of great economic importance. They are very easy to prepare and go well with most dishes. Usually, they may be bought fresh, dried or canned from supermarkets and grocery stores. Research done on mushroom showed that the vitamin and other nutrients that they have are retained during cooking. Drying, freezing and canning can do no damage either. However, fresh mushrooms are noticeably tastier than preserved ones (Sci.time, 1993). Additional information also says that mushrooms are the first known to report of anti-tumor agent in higher fungi, which where made in 1962 by Ringler and Lucas who obtained an oncostatic principle named calvacin from extracts of a sporophores of Collybia radicata, Boletus edulis, Calvatia gigantean and Calvatia spp. as cited by Lorenzana and Saquing (2001). With the vast existence of different kind of fungi, mushrooms in particular, in Cabagan Isabela, the study was established to find out the possibility of utilizing these organisms for human consumption aside from being one of the most important component of our ecosystem since they are good indicators of pollution,which was supported by Muller (1979) that the balancing of our ecosystem are revealed by these forms of organisms by continuously undertaking the process of decomposition by simply consuming dead and decaying plant and animal debris. With this as a premise the research was conducted purposely to identify, classify and detect the presence of toxins of the different species of mushrooms and other species of Phylum Basidiomycota found in Cabagan, Isabela and to recommend the possibility of propagating edible species of mushrooms as source of food and income which could start from the ISU- Research Department and established linkage with LGU for its wide range of implementation.

Methodology Mushrooms were collected on its vegetative stage and sorted accordingly. The location and substrate on which mushrooms grew were recorded. Detection of toxins on the first part was done immediately after collection, while sample were still fresh. The rest of the samples were air dried and reserved for identification and classification and detection of toxin for dried samples. Spore printing were also applied to trace the structure of gills. Taxonomic key to classification

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were used to identify and classify the collected fungal samples. Counter checking of botanical names were counterchecked by expert. Meixner Test was standard method utilized in Testing the presence of toxins specific for Tryptamine and amatoxins. Prresence of toxins for tryptamine indicates a color change of red to blue, while amatoxin indicates a color change of light blue to heavy blue or sometime black, depending on the amount of amatoxin present in the sample. The rest of the tested sample were reserved for another set of testing, the same method was applied but with the use of dried sample. This is to countercheck whether air drying could reduce or totally discard toxins. Result was analyzed and presented in terms of actual color appearance of the sample, size, substrate and toxin. Taxonomic classifications were presented according to kingdom down to species.

Results and Discussion Primarily mushrooms are one of the major sources of highly nutritious food in the Philippines of which it can be easily prepared and go with most dishes. As mentioned by Hernandez (1980) that when the ground is soaked with water, that miniature organism already formed in the soil becomes quickly enlarge because of the swelling of the cells, a huge mushroom pops out. The structure that one recognizes as a mushroom or toadstool is the basidiocarp popularly used to designate edible forms and toadstool is used to designate non-edible ones, but mycologists do not recognize such distinction and use only the term mushroom. According to Murray et al (1990), poisonous mushrooms contain deadly substances called amatoxin and tryptamine and other compound but are less deadly than the first two. As a result of the research, thirty fungal organisms were collected, identified and detected for toxin, nineteen (19) were identified under the mushroom category and eleven (11) other species are non-mushroom category all of which are under Phylum Basidiomycota. Eight (8) species of mushroom were found to be edible and the rest were non-edible, yet some of these non-edible might have special other compounds that could become possible source of medicine and drugs like the species of Ganoderma which is well known be a source of medicine for hypertension mixed in coffee, since it was mentioned on other literatures that some species of mushrooms can cause hallucinogenic effect and used as treatment for various illnesses. The eight (8) edible and three (3) non-edible mushrooms showed a negative (-) test result for both tryptamine and amatoxin which are as follows: edible-Auricularia polytricha, Collybia reinekeana, Volvariella volvaceae, Lentinus sajor-caju, Chanterellus cibarius, Schizophyllum commune, Pluerotus ulmarius, Agaricus campestris and non-edible- Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae. Seven (7) from these eleven (11) mushrooms

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belong to Order Agaricales, one (1) from Order Auriculariales and three (3) Polyporales.

from Order

On the other hand, the rest of the collected specimen showed a positive result on the presence of tryptamine toxin such as Lepiota cepaestipes, Fomes spp., Ganoderma spp., Chanterellus spp., Meripillis spp., Psylocibe mexicana, Paneolus spp., Lenzites betulina, Armillaria spp., Tremella spp., Trametes spp., and Phellinus spp. while the rest of the specimen like Amanita muscaria, Amanita phalloides, Polysporus brumalis, Amanita virosa, Scleroderma spp., Lycoperdon ericetorum and Fomes spp. showed positive result in both tryptamine and amatoxin. Classification of mushroom was made according to the standard procedure in taxonomic identification. Mushrooms were generally classified under Phylum Basidiomycota, Division Eumycota, Subdivision Basidiomycotina, and Class Hymenomycetes. Mushrooms under this class were separated into different orders: Order Agaricales, Order Polyporales, Order Sclerodermatales, Order Aphyllophorales, Order Lycoperdales, Order Auriculariales and Order Tremellales. Mushrooms or toadstools are noted widely in edibility. A relatively few species are delicious, many are edible but tough or of an unremarkable flavor, some are inedible and produce varying degree of illness, some commonly known toadstool are violently deadly poisonous. Even expert mushroom gatherers can have trouble in distinguishing between edible and poisonous species closely resembling them. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms were presented in table 1 and Figure 1 for sample pictures of actual specimens. Kingdom: Fungi Phylum: Basidiomycota Division: Eumycota Sub-division: Basidiomycotina Class: Hemenomycetes (open gills) Gasteromycetes (closed basidiocarp until maturity/ puffballs) Class Homobasidiomycetes (for both) Order: Agaricales( arrange gills) Polyporales (network gills) Sclerodermatales Aphyllophorales Lycoperdales Auriculariales Tremellales

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Family: Agaricaceae Chanterellaceae Lepiotaceae Genus: Agaricus Amanita Ganoderma Polyporus Chanterella Species: campestris cibarius cepaestipes Above is a portion of the taxonomic key used in the identification of mushrooms and other related species. The thirty (30) identified species belong to the following: seventeen (17) belong to Class Hymenomycota and thirteen (13) belong to Class Gasteromycota. The specimens are from seven (7) different orders: Order Agaricales with sixteen (16) species, three (3) from Order Aphyllophorales, one (1) from order Auriculariales, eight (8) from Order Polyporales, one (1) from Order Lycoperdales, one (1) from Order Sclerodermatales and one (1) from Order Tremellales. The identified species belong to twenty three (23) genera and thirty (30) species. Among these thirty (30) species, in terms of distribution Agaricus campestris (edible) is widely distributed, followed by Auricularia polytrica (edible), Schizophyllum commune (edible), Psylocibe mexicana (inedible), Meripillis gigantus (inedible), Polyporus brumalis (inedible), Ganoderma spp. (inedible), Amanita phalloides, Amanita muscaria (inedible and highly poisonous) and Lycoperdon ericetorum (inedible). The rest of the identified species do not frequently occur in nature since they have prescribe period of growth and require special form of substrate, they usually occur or grow during rainy seasons only, usually with continuous high humidity and moist environment, mushrooms such as Lentinus sajor-caju., Collybia reineckeana, Pleuroteus sajor-caju, Chanterellus spp., Volvariella volvacea, Lepiota cepaestipes and Paneolus spp. Based on the test of toxins, the research revealed a positive and negative result both in large and tracer amount which are associated with the identified non-edible species and edible species. A change in blue color after twenty minutes of with the reaction of hydrochloric acid indicated the presence of amatoxin, a toxic cyclopeptides present in a certain species of mushroom (Haard, et al 1980), alpha-amanitin and bete-amanitin are the principal amatoxins which immediately kills animal cells when inhaled or ingested, while a change in red color after twenty minutes of adding the same solvent to the sample indicated the presence of tryptamine

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may either be in large or trace amount. Majority of the species under Order Gasteromycetes were found to be poisonous and few species from Order Hymenomycetes. The result on toxicity was supported by Alexopoulus et. al. (1996) that major types of mushrooms and other varieties of this phylum contains poisons/toxins with great physical effects and time elapsing from consumption to appearance of symptoms which could be detected on the following: A. Toxin causing cellular destruction, liver and kidney damage and death, on set of symptoms following ingestion over 6 hours usually 10 hours (deadly cyclopeptide, amanitin) poisoning these involved the genera of Amanita and Galerina. B. toxin principally affecting the autonomic nervous system, on set of symptoms 20 minutes to 2 hours, Coprine (antabuse-like) poisoning which involved the genus Coprinus, muscarine sweating poisoning, genera involve: Clitocybe and Inocybe. C. Toxin principally affecting the central nervous system, on set of symptoms for 20 minutes to 2 hours, Ibotenic acid- muscimol (delirium) poisoning. The genus involved is Amanita spp.: Psylocibin-psilocin (hallucinogenic poisoning) genera involved are Psylocibe and Paneolus and D. Toxins principally causing gastrointestinal irritation, on set symptoms 30 minutes to 3 hours; gastrointestinal irritants which may involve many genera of Phylum Basidiomycota. With this supporting statement it is always safe to say that not all mushroom that looks good are edible and not all mushroom that has unlikely features are poisonous. The best recommendation for this is proper introduction, training and better application procedures and methodology on basic features and detection of toxins, a simplified as guide for mushroom gatherers and mushroom lovers.

Summary The benchmark survey on the species of mushrooms and other species of Phylum Basidiomycota in Cabagan, Isabela revealed the richness of the area in terms of the existence of several fungal organisms. Unfortunately, only very few were identified to be edible while several species were identified to contain the deadliest compound amatoxin and tryptamine and definitely non edible, but has the possibility of having some pharmacological capability. The eight (8) identified edible mushrooms such as the Agaricus campestris, Schizophyllum commune, Volvariella volvaceae, Auricularia polytricha, Lentinus sajor-caju, Ppleutrotus ulmarius, Collybia reineckeana and Chanterellus cubarius revealed to have no content even in trace for any of the toxins mentioned and are highly recommended for food consumption, but proper harvesting should also be taken into considerations since some of these species may have similarities with other poisonous mushrooms.

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Conclusion Based on the output of the research, it is conclusive to mention that our ecosystem is still on its state of equilibrium, the presence of several species of mushroom and related species is an indicator that our ecosystem is not yet polluted, mushroom indicates strong decomposition process an aspect of an ecosystem which play a very important role in balancing our nature. Aside from this, mushroom and other related species are significantly important to serve our economic needs, but the consumption of it should be carefully done. It is still safer especially for mushroom collectors/gatherers to check and refer to a more reliable instrument in testing the presence of other toxins aside from tryptamine and amatoxin which can be easily detected just within the kitchen premises. The test utilized in this research are suitable only for the two deadliest compounds associated with mushroom basidiocarps which this test might not be able to detect for other toxins present in the fungal organism. A closer attention on continuous hunting and identification of other mushroom and related species which were not included in the research should be done, which could become a good source not only of food but medicine.

Recommendation Similar studies are recommended using more advance and sophisticated tools in screening and testing the presence of other toxins aside from tryptamine and amatoxin and should be done with actual amount to have more reliable results. Collection sites should be in a wider area to come up with more number of fungal organisms for identification. Proper handling of mushrooms and related species should always be done in a very careful manner to avoid poisoning. Mushroom gatherers should take precautionary measures in collecting mushrooms since some species even through inhalation of spores may cause immediate death. Mushroom gatherers should not take chances on gathering species of mushroom unknown to them. A follow up study should be done to review or test the best substrate composition of medium for propagation of identified edible mushroom as source of food and income. Pharmaceutical and nutriceutical efficacy for edible mushrooms are highly recommended. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexopoulus, C.J. 1996. Introductionn to Mycology. (Latest edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Brooks, G., Butel, J. and S. Morse. 2000. Jawetz, Melnick and Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. 20th Edition. International Edition. Mc Graw –Hill Book Company.

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Campbell, N.A. 1997. Biology-Concepts and Connections. (2nd Edition). Benjamin/ cummings Publishing company.. Farndon J. 2001. 1000 Things you should know about plants. Grolier. Dunbury, Connecticut. Flegg. F.B. 1985. The Biology and Technology of Cultivated Mushrooms. Muller W.H. 1979. Botany. A Functional Approach. (Fifth Edition). Mac Milan Publishing Co. Inc. Muray, P. Drew, W., Koibayashi, G and J. Thompson. 1990. Medical Microbiology. Wolfe Medical Publications Limited. Lorenzana, R. & C. Saquing. 2001. Special Problem. Strategies in Teaching Biology. Graduate School. ISU. Pelczar, J, Chan, E.C.S. and N.R. Krieg. 1980. Microbiology. (Fifth Edition). McGraw Hill Book Co. Haard, R and K. Haard. 1980. Poisonous and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms Hernandez, D.F. 1980. Plants of the Philippines. Science Education Center, UP Press.

Figure 1. Sample pictures of actual specimens collected

Paneolus spp.

Auricularia polytricha

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Lentinus sajor-caju

Lenzites betulina

Trametes spp.

Psilocybe mexicana

Schizophyllum commune

Phellinus spp.

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Table 1.

List of edible and non-edible mushrooms and related species of Phylum Basidiomycota and presence of tryptamine and test.

Fungi

Color/Appearance

Size in cm.

1. Agaricus campestris

4-20 cm. cap, 2-3 cm. stalk upon maturity

2. Amanita muscaria

Milky white puffballs at younger stage, upon maturity white to creamy cap with finely arranged gills which changed in color from white to light peach upon maturity, slender stalk, finely curved edges Brown cap with spots, rolled edges

3.Amanita virosa (destroying angel)

Silky cream to white cap, scaly, long slender stalk

4. Amanita phalloides (death cap)

White to creamy scaly cap, with slightly brown to dark dots on top of the cap with rings, finely arranged gills which becomes violet at maturity, short, tender stalk White to creamy basidiocarp with tough, long stalk and change its color at maturity Silky to luminous caramel brown which resembles the ear of a rat, soft and tender basidiocarp Similar to poisonous jack o’ lantern white to creamy soft cap, funnel shaped with tapered edges, short stalk, finely arranged gills Funnel shaped, smooth, free gills and tapered edges basidiocarp (black to brownish)

5-12 cm.

White with brown tinge to cap. It has a long tapering stem Tough stem with tapered and pointed black brown cap, leathery

8.5 cm

5. Armillaria spp. 6. Auricularia polytricha (Judae) 7. Chanterellus cibarius 8. Chanterellus spp. 9. Collybia reineckeana 10. Fomes spp.

Collection site/ substrate Grassy area/abandoned fields

T

A

-

-

Woody area (log, coconut trunk), dung

+

+

+

+

Soil, animal manure, grassy area

+

+

5-10cm.

Soil, grassy area

+

-

Non-edible

10-20cm.

Woody area (log, rotting trunks of trees) Trunk of trees

-

-

Edible

-

-

Edible

Woody and grassy area (rotten logs or soil) Grassy area, soil

+

-

Non-edible

-

-

Edible

Woody area (log, or any trunk of rotting trees) Rotten log

+

-

Non-edible

+

-

Non-edible

4 cm.

8-15 cm. 10-20cm

9-20 cm.

Edible/nonEdible edible

Non-edible (deadly poisonous) Nonedible(deadly poisonous) Non-edible (deadly poisonous)

11. Fomes spp.

Leathery brown to black basidiocarp

10-120 cm

12.Ganoderma applanatum

Red to maroon cap, slightly tapered edges, brown to black stalk, white to creamy unarranged gills Shiny red basidiocarp with red to maroon tapered edges, short and hard stalk

6-25 cm.

Trunk and rotten logs

-

-

Non-edible (medicinal)

6-50cm.

-

-

Non-edible (medicinal)

-

-

13. Ganoderma tsugae 14. Ganoderma lucidum

Shiny leathery basidiocarp

10-20 cm.

Woody area ( dead and live trunks, logs) Rotten logs, trees

15. Lentinus sajor caju

Bell shaped and flower liked cap white with brown patches Network, free gills, white to creamy in color with slightly tapered edges White long stalk, flat cap with wrinkled edges White at young stage, brownish to black at maturity and disperses masses of spores as it matures Grows like rosette in clusters

10cm.

Woody areas

-

-

Non-edible (medicinal) Edible

6-15 cm.

Trunk of trees and barks Grassy area (soil) Soil, grassy areas

+

-

Non-edible

+ -

+

Non-edible Non-edible

Bark and trunk of trees, logs Woody area (logs)

+

-

Non-edible

+

-

Non-edible

Woody area (dead and like trunk of trees)

-

-

Edible

16. Lenzites betulina 17. Lepiota cepaestipes 18.Lycoperdon ericetorum (puffballs) 19. Meripillus gigantus 20. Paneolus spp. 21. Pleurotus ulmarius (oyster)

Tough with white dots on brownish cap and has lateral stem White to creamy, silky straight fine gills, tapered edges

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20 cm 5- 30 cm 10-20 cm. 7.5 cm. 6-15 cm.

22. Psylocibe mexicana

Small golden to shiny brown, smooth scaly, long, thin stalk

2-3 cm cap, 1.5 in stalk

Soil, grassy area

+

+

23. Phellinus spp.

Hard, leathery basidiocarp, golden light brown to reddish brown in color White to cream hard cap, with short stalk, gills arranged in network

5-20 cm

Rotten logs, trees, bark Bark, trunk and rotten logs

+

-

Non-edible (hallucinogenic effect) Non-edible

-

+

Non-edible

25.Schizophyllum commune 26. Schizophyllum spp.

White fan-shaped cap, resembles a split leaf

3.0 cm

Woody areas, bark

-

-

Edible

Silky white and fine gills, short and stout stem

6-10 cm.

Soil, grassy areas

-

+

Non-edible

27. Scleroderma spp.

Resembles the ball of tennis, white at young stage, black at maturity Yellow basidiocarp, fan shaped and slightly tapered edges Papery to leathery basidiocarp

5-12 cm.

Grassy areas

+

-

Non-edible

2-5 cm.

Rotten logs, bark of trees Rotten logs, trunks

+

-

Non-edible

-

+

Non-edible

Brownish and silky cap, hairs present on the stem and on the cap found at its base

4-8 cm.

Hay, banana stalk, shrubby grassy areas

-

-

edible

24. Polyporus brumalis

28.Tremella mescenteria 20. Trametes spp. 30.

volvaceae

Volvariella

Legend: presence of Tryptamine, A-presences of Amatoxin

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10-20 cm

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH Isabela State University Cabagan, Isabela ADMINISTRATION OFFICIALS University President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Romeo R. Quilang University Vice President for Research, Development, Extension & Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Edmundo C. Gumpal Executive Officer, ISU, Cabagan Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Ambrose Hans G. Aggabao Campus Director of Research & Development. . . . . . . . . . Dr. Marino R. Romero

EDITORIAL STAFF Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Marino R. Romero Associate Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Boyet L. Batang Dr. Laureana M. Lingan Publication Assistants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ms. Milagros T. Bucag Ms. Leticia S. Tabangin Ms. Benita B. Paguirigan Ms. Benita B. Zipagan The Journal of Research is published semi-annually by the Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela. Business communications for this publication should be addressed to: THE EDITOR ISU Journal of Research Isabela State University Cabagan, Isabela 3328 No article in the journal may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing from the Editor. Entered as second class at the Post Office at Cabagan, Isabela Republic of the Philippines Department of Transportation and Communications BUREAU OF POSTS Manila

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SWORN STATEMENT (Republic Act 2580)

The undersigned, Marino R. Romero, Editor of the Journal of Research published semi-annually in English at the Department of Research and Development, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela, after having been duly sworn to in accordance with law, hereby submits the following statement of ownership, management, circulation, etc. which is required by R.A. 2580. Editor

: Dr. Marino R. Romero

ISU, Cabagan, Isabela

Associate Editor

: Dr. Boyet L. Batang Dr. Laureana M. Lingan


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: Isabela State University

Cabagan, Isabela

Printer

: Isabela State University

Cabagan, Isabela

Office of Publication

: Department of Research & Development


MARINO R. ROMERO, Ph. D. Editor SUBSCRIBED AND SWORN to before me this 30th day of July, 2010 at Cabagan, Isabela, the affiant exhibiting his Residence Certificate No. issued at Cabagan, Isabela on , 2010.

ATTY. CHRISTOPHER A. MAMAUAG Municipal Mayor Cabagan, Isabela

134

The Teacher on the Internet: Self-Efficacy, Beliefs, Usage, and Attitudes ……………………………………………………………………74 Audrey B. Simon

Comparative Efficacy of Different Growth Enhancers on Broilers………. 90 Delmar T. Macapia, Lazarine T. Mamauag & Oliveros M. Valiente Mount Pinatubo Lahar as Physical Barrier to Prevent Tunneling and Soil Penetration of Philippine Milk Termite (Coptotermes vastator Light)......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 Heherson B. Ong Plant Diversity and Status of the ISU Wildlife Sanctuary. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..110 Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab Taxonomic Identification and Detection of Tryptamine and Amatoxin of Edible and Non-Edible Mushrooms and Other Species of Phylum Basiodiomycota Found in Cabagan, Isabela (A Preliminary Study) ...........122 Jane G. Cabauatan and Yolanda M. Bumarlong

Published by: The Isabela State University Garita, Cabagan, Isabela 3328