the origins and spread of domestic animals in ...

THE ORIGINS AND SPREAD OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN SOUTHWEST ASIA AND EUROPE EDITED BY

SUE COLLEDGE, JAMES CONOLLY, KEITH DOBNEY, KATIE MANNING AND STEPHEN SHENNAN

WALNUT CREEK, CALIFORNIA

Publications of the Institute of Archaeology, University College London Series Editor: Ruth Whitehouse Director of the Institute: Stephen Shennan Founding Series Editor: Peter J. Ucko The Institute of Archaeology of University College London is one of the oldest, largest and most prestigious archaeology research facilities in the world. Its extensive publications programme includes the best theory, research, pedagogy and reference materials in archaeology and cognate disciplines, through publishing exemplary work of scholars worldwide. Through its publications, the Institute brings together key areas of theoretical and substantive knowledge, improves archaeological practice and brings archaeological findings to the general public, researchers and practitioners. It also publishes staff research projects, site and survey reports, and conference proceedings. The publications programme, formerly developed in-house or in conjunction with UCL Press, is now produced in partnership with Left Coast Press, Inc. The Institute can be accessed online at http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology. Recent Titles Sue Colledge, James Conolly, Keith Dobney, Katie Manning, Stephen Shennan (eds.), The Origins and Spread of Domestic Animals in Southwest Asia and Europe Julia Shaw, Buddhist Landscapes of Central India Ralph Haeussler, Becoming Roman? Ethan E. Cochrane and Andrew Gardner, Evolutionary and Interpretive Archaeologies Andrew Bevan and David Wengrow (eds.), Cultures of Commodity Branding Peter Jordan (ed.), Landscape and Culture in Northern Eurasia Peter Jordan and Marek Zvelebil (eds.), Ceramics Before Farming Marcos Martinón-Torres and Thilo Rehren (eds.), Archaeology, History, and Science Miriam Davis, Dame Kathleen Kenyon Elizabeth Pye (ed.), The Power of Touch Russell McDougall and Iain Davidson (eds.), The Roth Family, Anthropology, and Colonial Administration Eleni Asouti and Dorian Q. Fuller, Trees and Woodlands of South India Tony Waldron, Paleoepidemiology Janet Picton, Stephen Quirke, and Paul C. Roberts (eds.), Living Images Timothy Clack and Marcus Brittain (eds.), Archaeology and the Media Sue Colledge and James Conolly (eds.), The Origins and Spread of Domestic Plants in Southwest Asia and Europe Gustavo Politis, Nukak Sue Hamilton, Ruth Whitehouse, and Katherine I. Wright (eds.), Archaeology and Women Critical Cultural Heritage Series, Beverley Butler (ed.) Charlotte Joy, The Politics of Heritage Management in Mali Layla Renshaw, Exhuming Loss Katharina Schramm, African Homecoming Mingming Wang, Empire and Local Worlds Dean Sully (ed.), Decolonizing Conservation Ferdinand de Jong and Michael Rowlands (eds.), Reclaiming Heritage Information on older titles in this series can be obtained from the Left Coast Press, Inc. website http://www.LCoastPress.com

LEFT COAST PRESS, INC. 1630 North Main Street, #400 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 http://www.LCoastPress.com Copyright ã 2013 by Left Coast Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISBN 978-1-61132-186-9 hardback ISBN 978-1-61132-443-3 consumer eBook ISBN 978-1-61132-188-3 institutional eBook Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: The origins and spread of domestic animals in southwest Asia and Europe / edited by Sue Colledge [and four others]. pages cm. — (Publications of the Institute of Archaeology, University College, London ; volume 59) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61132-322-1 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61132-324-5 (institutional ebook) — ISBN 978-1-61132-717-5 (consumer ebook) 1. Domestic animals—Europe—History. 2. Domestic animals—Middle East—History. 3. Livestock— Europe—History. 4. Livestock—Middle East—History. 5. Domestic animals—Origin. I. Colledge, Sue, editor of compilation. SF55.E84O75 2013 636.0094—dc23 2013003887 Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992.

CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...................................................................................................................................7 FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................................................13 Stephen Shennan ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................................16 1. THE ORIGINS AND SPREAD OF STOCK-KEEPING .......................................................................................................17 Keith Dobney, Sue Colledge, James Conolly, Katie Manning, Joris Peters and Stephen Shennan

2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL, MORPHOLOGICAL AND GENETIC APPROACHES TO PIG DOMESTICATION ..................27 Linus Girdland-Flink and Greger Larson 3. INFERRING PROCESSES OF NEOLITHIC GENE-CULTURE CO-EvOLUTION USING GENETIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA: THE CASE OF LACTASE PERSISTENCE AND DAIRyING .....................................................................................37 Pascale Gerbault, Ruth Bollongino, Joachim Burger and Mark G. Thomas 4. DIvERSE STRATEGIES: EvALUATING THE APPEARANCE AND SPREAD OF DOMESTIC CAPRINES IN THE SOUTHERN LEvANT ..................................................................................................................................................49 Louise Martin and Yvonne Edwards 5. THE LONG AND WINDING ROAD: UNGULATE ExPLOITATION AND DOMESTICATION IN EARLy NEOLITHIC ANATOLIA (10000-7000 CAL BC)..........................................................................................................................83 Joris Peters, Hijlke Buitenhuis, Gisela Grupe, Klaus Schmidt and Nadja Pöllath 6. DOMESTICATION PROCESS AND DOMESTIC UNGULATES: NEW OBSERvATIONS FROM CyPRUS..............................115 Jean-Denis Vigne 7. EARLy STOCK-KEEPING IN GREECE .......................................................................................................................129 Paul Halstead and Valasia Isaakidou 8. EARLy FARMING ADAPTATIONS OF THE NORTHEAST ADRIATIC KARST................................................................145 Clive Bonsall, Dimitrij Mlekuž, László Bartosiewicz and Catriona Pickard 9. EARLy DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN ITALy, ISTRIA, THE TyRRHENIAN ISLANDS AND SOUTHERN FRANCE...................161 Peter Rowley-Conwy, Lionel Gourichon, Daniel Helmer and Jean-Denis Vigne 10. DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA .................................................................................195 Maria Saña 11. ORIGIN OF STOCK-KEEPING AND SPREAD OF ANIMAL ExPLOITATION STRATEGIES IN THE EARLy AND MIDDLE NEOLITHIC OF THE NORTH EUROPEAN PLAIN .....................................................................................221 Arkadiusz Marciniak 12. ANIMAL ExPLOITATION IN THE EARLy NEOLITHIC OF THE BALKANS AND CENTRAL EUROPE ...........................237 Katie Manning, Barbara Stopp, Sue Colledge, Sean Downey, James Conolly, Keith Dobney and Stephen Shennan

13. ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM LATE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC SITES IN SWITZERLAND (CA. 6000-3500 CAL BC) .....................................................................................................................................253 Jörg Schibler 14. EARLy NEOLITHIC PASTORAL TRADITIONS AND CULTURAL GROUPS IN NORTHERN FRANCE ..............................271 Rose-Marie Arbogast and Christian Jeunesse 15. NORTH OF THE FRONTIER: EARLy DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN NORTHERN EUROPE...................................................283 Peter Rowley-Conwy 16. ON THE NORTHWESTERN FRINGES: EARLIER NEOLITHIC SUBSISTENCE IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND AS SEEN THROUGH FAUNAL REMAINS AND STABLE ISOTOPES ..............................................................................................313 Rick Schulting ABOUT THE AUTHORS ................................................................................................................................................339 INDEx..........................................................................................................................................................................341

CHAPTER 13:

ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM LATE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC SITES IN SWITZERLAND (CA. 6000-3500 CAL BC) JÖRG SCHIBLER

INTRODUCTION AND PRECONDITIONS This study integrates zooarchaeological data from all Late Mesolithic and earlier Neolithic sites in Switzerland that are dated between 6000 and 3500 BC. All the late Neolithic sites which belong to the phases ‘Spätneolithikum’ (3500-2750 BC) and ‘Endneolithikum’ (2750-2000 BC), as defined by Lüning (1996), are excluded. For information about the dating and naming of Neolithic cultures, refer to the chronological table in Jacomet 2007 (figure 13.1). It was necessary to exclude the data on fish and small bird bones because systematic soil sampling and wet sieving was not carried out at all the excavations; these results and interpretations, therefore, are based on only hand-selected bone material. Red deer antler remains were also excluded because most had been worked and were therefore derived from highly fragmented artefacts. In addition, there were many shed antlers which did not originate from hunted animals but were used as the raw material for artefact manufacture. For statistical reasons, datasets with fewer than 100 identifiable animal bones are also excluded from this study. In Switzerland, it is necessary to distinguish between the two different preservation conditions

found on dryland sites and wetland sites. In the wetland sites, a great deal of organic material is preserved, especially non-charred plant material (e.g., fruits, seeds or wood); and on dryland sites, it is only the charred plant material that survives. Animal bones, however, are preserved in both site types as long as the pH of the sediments is not too low. The bones of very small animals such as fish, amphibians or small birds have a higher chance of survival in wetland conditions—but systematic sieving is an important precondition for ensuring that any quantification is representative of these animal resources. Because of these differences in preservation conditions, it is difficult to compare the relative importance of small animals at the two site types. Previous studies have also shown that taphonomic differences determine whether or not the remains of an animal species (or even of entire sites) survive in the archaeological record. Both preservation conditions and taphonomy, therefore, have to be considered before any assessment is made about the relative economic importance of the different species (Schibler and Jacomet 2005). The first excavation of a lake dwelling site in Switzerland took place in 1854 in Meilen on Lake Zurich and was conducted by Ferdinand Keller (Menotti 2004). This coincided with the dawn of

The Origins and Spread of Domestic Animals in Southwest Asia and Europe, edited by Sue Colledge et al., 253–270. © 2013 Left Coast Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Figure 13.1 (facing page). Chronology table for the Neolithic cultural groups from Switzerland and adjacent areas (after Jacomet 2007, fig. 1).

CHAPTER 13: ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM LATE MESOLITHIC & NEOLITHIC IN SWITZERLAND

Figure 13.1 (continued).

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zooarchaeological and archaebotanical research in Switzerland. Ludwig Rütimeyer (1825-1895), head of the Natural History Museum and professor at the University in Basel, studied the animal bones (Schibler 2004a); and during the same period, Oswald Heer (1809-1883) was analysing the plant material of the lake dwelling sites at Zurich University (Jacomet 2004). Both the excellent preservation state of the organic material and the long tradition of analysing animal bones and plant material are directly responsible for the extremely rich archaeobiological dataset for the Swiss Neolithic lake dwelling sites.

MATERIALS AND SITES The zooarchaeological data for Late Mesolithic sites in Switzerland are very poor. Only four sites provide a sufficient number of bone fragments (e.g., number of identified specimens—NISP—values greater than 100): Birsmatten-Basisgrotte Horizon I: n = 356; Birsmatten-Basisgrotte Horizon II: n = 521; Abri Liesbergmühle VI: n = 649; and Schötz 7: n = 2371 (where n = NISP). Three of the sites are rock-shelters in the Basel region; and the largest sample is from Schötz 7, a wetland site in the Alpine foreland (figure 13.2).

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Figure 13.2. Geographical distribution of Mesolithic and Neolithic sites (up to 3500 BC) in Switzerland; listed according to dryland and wet land sites. Mesolithic rock-shelter sites (triangles): I: Liesbergmühle VI (Stampfli in Hofmann-Wyss 1980); II: Brismatten-Basisgrotte H1 and H2 (two settlement layers; Schmid 1964). Mesolithic wetland site (diamond): III: Schötz 7 (Stampfli 1979). Neolithic dryland sites (squares): IV: Mumpf-Chapf (Braschler and Schibler 2009); V: Schellenberg-Borscht FL (two settlement layers; Hartmann-Frick 1964); VI: Eschen-Lutzengüetle FL (two settlement layers; Hartmann-Frick 1959); VII: Sevelen- Pfäfersbühl (Ebersbach 2005); VIII: Raron-Heidnischbühl (Chaix 1976); IX: St. Léonard Sur le Grand Pré (Chaix 1976); X: Sion (six sites): Sion-Planta (Chaix et al. 1987), Sion-Soux le Scex (two settlement layers; Chaix and Sidi Maamar 1993), Sion-Tourbion (Chaix pers. comm.), Sion-Avenue Ritz (Chenal-Velarde 2002), Sion-Petit Chasseur II (Chaix 1976), Sion-St. Guérin (Chaix 1976); XI: Collombey-Barmaz I and II (two settlement layers, Chaix 1976). Neolithic wetland sites dated between 4300 and 3500 BC (circles): 1: Yverdon-Garage-Martin (2 settlement layers); 2: Yvonand III; 3: Muntelier-Fischergässli; 4: Auvernier-Port (three settlement layers); 5: Port-Stüdeli (two settlement layers); 6: TwannBahnhof (nine settlement layers); 7: Burgäschisee-S and SW; 8: Egolzwil 3, 4 and 5; 9: Zug-Vorstadt; 10: Zurich (four sites: Kleiner Hafner, Mozartstrasse, Seefeld, AKAD/Pressehaus with eight, seven, five and two settlement layers); 11: FeldmeilenVorderfeld (five settlement layers); 12: Meilen-Rohrenhab (three settlement layers); 13: Gachnang-Niederwil; 14: Steckborn-Schanz (two settlement layers) and Steckborn-Turgi; 15: Hornstaad-Hörnle; 16: Sipplingen-Osthafen. For Neolithic wetland sites, see references in Schibler 2006.


Figure 13.3. Frequency histogram showing number of identified animal bones in Swiss Neolithic dryland sites.

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Within the period between 5000 and 3500 BC, there are zooarchaeological data from 17 settlement phases in 13 different sites that are preserved in dryland conditions. With the exception of one site, which is situated near Basel (figure 13.2: IV MumpfChapf), all of these sites are found in the alpine region and are situated in the large river valleys of the Rhine and the Rhône (figure 13.2). The excavation of these sites mostly took place during the 1950s and 1960s, and at none were sediments sieved. Fewer than 500 identifiable bones were recovered from most of these sites (figure 13.3). The last and most numerous group of zooarchaeological data come from Neolithic lake dwellings and comprise 60 settlement phases from 16 different sites dated between 4300 BC and 3500 BC. These settlements can be grouped into a western part, situated on lakes Neuchâtel, Bienne and Murten, and an eastern part, situated at—or on—lakes Zurich, Zug and Constance. The settlement phases are mostly dated by dendrochronology to exact calendar years. The majority of these sites produced several hundred identifiable animal bones (figure 13.4) preserved in an excellent condition by waterlogging.

Figure 13.4. Frequency histogram showing number of identified animal bones in Swiss Neolithic lake dwelling sites.

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RESULTS There are no bones from domestic species in any of the Late Mesolithic sites. Astonishingly, no dog bones were found at these sites, even though by the late Palaeolithic in central Europe (e.g., at the Swiss sites of Champreyvères [Morel and Müller 1997]; and Kesslerloch [Napierala and Uerpmann 2012]), dog could be present. This absence could be due either to the lack of detailed osteological analysis or to a lack of continuity between the late Palaeolithic and Late Mesolithic. In all Mesolithic sites, red deer are present in the highest proportions, varying between 38% and 93% of all identifiable bone fragments. A clear difference can be seen between the rock-shelter sites from the Basel region and the single wetland open-air site in the Alpine foreland. Red deer bones are far more numerous in the wetland site (93% of NISP), whereas bones from wild boar and carnivores are more frequent in the rocky region near Basel (wild boar: 20-39%; carnivores: 6-13%). 0

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Due to the small sample size, it is unclear whether these differences are caused by variations in environments, hunting strategies or preservation conditions—or by a combination of all these factors. For the Neolithic dryland sites, three regional groups of sites can be distinguished: in the Rhône Valley; in the upper Rhine Valley; and in the Basel region of the Rhine Valley. In terms of hunted animals, it is clear that red deer are present in the highest proportions in most Neolithic dryland sites (figure 13.5), although it appears generally that hunting is not equally important at all the dryland sites. It is obvious that on sites in the Rhône Valley, for example, hunting was less important than on sites in the other two regions, where proportions of wild animal bones are much higher (a majority >10%; figure 13.5). To explain these variations, it is necessary to consider differences in the climatic conditions (e.g., the Rhône Valley being more favourable) and also in the cultural influences between the western (e.g., Mediterraneaninfluenced) and the eastern (e.g., Danubian-influ20

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X Sion-Sous les Scex (3700-3450 BC) XI Collombey-Barmaz I (3700-3450 BC) XI Collombey-Barmaz II (3700-3450 BC) X Sion-St. Guérin (3700-3450 BC) IX St. Léonard-Sur le Grand Pré (3700-3450 BC) VIII Raron-Heidnischbühl (3700-3450 BC) V Schellenberg-Borscht (3800-3700 BC) VI Eschen-Lutzengüetle (3800-3700 BC) X Sion-Petit Chasseur II (3900-3700 BC) VI Eschen-Lutzengüetle (4000 BC) IV Mumpf-Chapf (4100-3900 BC) X Sion-Avenue Avenue Ritz (4200-4000 BC) A VII Sevelen-Pfeffersbühl (4300-4000 BC) V Schellenberg-Borscht (4500 BC)

Figure 13.5. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP) of wild animal species (Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, Sus scrofa, other species) identified in Swiss Neolithic dryland sites.

X Sion-Tourbion Tourbion (4900-5000 BC) T X Sion-Sous les Scex (5000 BC) X Sion-Planta (5000 BC) Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa

Capreolus capreolus Other taxa


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Valley and thus, by implication, are less important than in the Rhône Valley, with the single exception of Collombey-Barmaz II (figure 13.6). To summarise, on the basis of zooarchaeological data from Neolithic dryland sites in Switzerland, it is possible to distinguish two regions: the Rhône Valley and the Rhine Valley. In the Rhône Valley, animal exploitation is mainly based on domestic small ruminants (i.e., mostly sheep), whereas in the Rhine Valley, cattle, domestic pig (figure 13.7) and also hunting (figure 13.5) are more important. Possible reasons for these differences could include cultural influences, the topographic and climatic features of the two regions—or a combination of these factors. The archaeological data clearly show that, culturally, the Rhône Valley is mainly influenced by the Mediterranean region, where sheep and goats are the most important domestic animals. Conversely, in the eastern and northern parts of Switzerland (e.g., including the Rhine Valley), the Danubian influence is stronger. However, the environmental differences

enced) parts of Switzerland, both of which could be responsible for a disparity in hunting patterns. With reference to the domestic animals, relative frequencies of bone fragments seem to suggest that cattle are more important in the sites in the Rhine Valley (figure 13.6). It is also apparent that, based on total meat weight on all the sites in the Rhine Valley, cattle would have provided the greatest nutritional value. Only two sites in the Rhône Valley have comparable proportions of cattle bones (Sion-St. Guérin and Collombey-Barmaz II; figure 13.6). Clear differences can be identified between the two regions in terms of the relative proportions of sheep and goat bones. In the Rhône Valley sites, sheep and goats have higher frequencies than in the sites of the Rhine Valley (figure 13.6). The same pattern is typical not only for the Neolithic period but also for the Bronze Age and the Iron Age periods in the Rhône Valley (Schibler and Studer 1998; Schibler et al. 1999). In contrast, domestic pigs are present in higher frequencies in the sites of the Rhine

Sus domesticus

Ovis aries / Capra hircus

Bos taurus X Sion-Sous les Scex (3700-3450 BC) XI Collombey-Barmaz I (3700-3450 BC) XI Collombey-Barmaz II (3700-3450 BC) X Sion-St. Guérin (3700-3450 BC) IX St. Léonard-Sur le Grand Pré (3700-3450 BC) VIII Raron-Heidnischbühl (3700-3450 BC) V Schellenberg-Borscht (3800-3700 BC) VI Eschen-Lutzengüetle (3800-3700 BC) X Sion-Petit Chasseur II (3900-3700 BC) VI Eschen-Lutzengüetle (4000 BC) IV Mumpf-Chapf (4100-3900 BC) X Sion- Avenue Ritz (4200-4000 BC) VII Sevelen-Pfeffersbühl (4300-4000 BC) V Schellenberg-Borscht (4500 BC) X Sion-Tourbion (4900-5000 BC) X Sion-Sous les Scex (5000 BC) X Sion-Planta (5000 BC) 0.0

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Figure 13.6. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP for domestic species) of domestic animal species (Bos taurus, Ovis aries/Capra hircus, Sus domesticus) identified in Swiss Neolithic dryland sites (grey shading: Rhône Valley sites; black shading: Rhine Valley sites).

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Figure 13.7. Box plots of relative frequencies (percentages of total NISP for domestic species) of Bos taurus, Ovis aries/Capra hircus and Sus domesticus from Neolithic dryland sites in the Rhine Valley (n = 3136 in six sites) and Rhône Valley (n = 7100 in 11 sites).

between the two regions could also explain the variation in animal exploitation strategies. In the Rhône Valley, there are extremely dry conditions, whereas in the Rhine Valley, higher annual rainfall is more typical. Because the observed differences in exploitation patterns remained unchanged until the Roman period, we believe both cultural and topographic/climatic factors had a strong influence on animal ex-

ploitation. Together they would favour small ruminants in the Rhône Valley and cattle and pig in the Rhine Valley. It is not easy, however, to define which factor exerts more influence in any one period. The zooarchaeological data for 60 Neolithic lake-dwelling settlement layers are taken from 16 different sites dated between 4300 and 3500 BC (figure 13.2). It should be noted that any consideration of the results from a further 65 settlements dated between 3400 and 2400 BC is beyond the remit of this overview, the aim of which is to describe Late Mesolithic and earlier Neolithic data in the different regions. The frequencies of bone fragments from wild animal species fluctuate considerably, and most noticeably, for the sites in the region of the eastern lakes (figure 13.8). There appears to be no correlation between these fluctuations and cultural phases or periods. During all cultural periods, there are some phases when hunting is very important and others when it is less significant (as indicated by high and low frequencies of bones). We therefore conclude that game consumption is not culturally determined (see Schibler 2004b, 2006, fig. 2). Instead, it is possible to correlate the importance of hunting with short climatic fluctuations (Schibler et al. 1997a, 1997b; Schibler and Jacomet 2010). Obviously, brief periods of climatic deterioration or other catastrophic events can cause crop failures, which consequently can force people to exploit more intensively wild resources like game. During such phases of intense economically-based hunting, which favour large animal species that provide a greater amount of meat (especially red deer), the prey diversity is noticeably reduced to large-sized animals (Schibler and Jacomet 2010). Therefore, not only does the proportion of hunted animals increase, but also species diversity is greatly reduced to mainly larger mammal species, such as red deer, roe deer or wild boar, the intention being to maximise meat yields (Schibler and Jacomet 2010). With reference to the different domestic animal species, it is clear from percentages based on the fragment numbers (NISP; figure 13.9a, b) as well as on the density values (e.g., number of bone fragments per m2: figure 13.10) that after 4000 BC, cattle become the predominant domestic species exploited on Neolithic lake dwellings on the eastern and western lakes. Before 4000 BC, it appears that only a few


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Figure 13.8. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP) of wild animals in the eastern and western lake areas of Switzerland. The most important species are red deer, roe deer and wild boar; for more details, see Schibler and Chaix 1995. The percentages are based on the number of all identifiable bone fragments (NISP).

cattle were kept and slaughtered. This is probably due to the densely forested landscape—a consequence of the weak human impact that small human populations had on the environment during the fifth millennium BC. In heavily forested environments, it might be expected that the capacity for cattle husbandry would be lower because of the shortage of year-round fodder. In addition, during the winter pe-

riod, considerable effort would have had to be devoted to producing sufficient leaf fodder—and thus keeping cattle in these areas would have been much more labour-intensive than in a more open landscape (Ebersbach 2002; Schibler et al. 1997a). The lake dwelling sites of the fifth millennium are under cultural influences from the Mediterranean area (Stöckli 1995), where husbandry is dominated by

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Figure 13.9. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP for domestic species) of cattle (Bos taurus) from Neolithic wetland sites in the western and eastern lake areas of Switzerland.

sheep and goat and not by cattle (see previous sections). After 4000 BC, both the percentages and the density values of cattle bone fragments are higher, demonstrating that more cattle were kept during this more recent period of the Swiss Neolithic. A comparison of the mean values of the percentages of cattle bones shows that there are higher proportions of cattle in the eastern sites (figure

13.11). As discussed above, the disparity could be due either to variations in topography or to different cultural influences. For sheep and goats, higher proportions of bone fragments are found only in sites dated before 4000 BC (figure 13.12). During the fourth millennium BC, there are higher percentages in the western sites, indicating that in this region sheep and goats are more important. This argument

CHAPTER 13: ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM LATE MESOLITHIC & NEOLITHIC IN SWITZERLAND 3500BC 3500 BC

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Figure 13.10. Densities of cattle (Bos taurus) bone fragments in the lake dwellings sites in the Zürich region. Density is calculated as number of bone fragments per square metre for each settlement phase; Schibler and Jacomet 2010, 174-175.

Figure 13.11. Box plots of relative frequencies (percentages of total NISP for domestic species) of Bos taurus, Ovis aries/Capra hircus and Sus domesticus from Neolithic wetland sites in the western (n = 30118 in 23 sites) and eastern (n = 18386 in 37 sites) lake regions of Switzerland.

is also supported by the mean values of the percentages of sheep and goat bones for the two regions (figure 13.11). The reasons for these differences could again be due to topographic (e.g., the Jura mountains) and/or cultural influences. In the earliest lake dwelling sites, four of the five sites dated before 4000 BC provide 33% or more do-

mestic pig bones (figure 13.13). Only a few pig bones are present at the beginning of the fourth millennium (see figure 13.13: eastern lake area). Thereafter, during the first 500 years of the fourth millennium, the frequencies of pig bones slowly and steadily increase in the eastern part of the Swiss Alpine foreland. This development culminates in

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Figure 13.12. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP for domestic species) of sheep and goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus) from the Neolithic wetland sites in the eastern and western lake areas of Switzerland.


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Figure 13.13. Relative frequencies (percentage of total NISP for domestic species) of pig (Sus domesticus) from the Neoithic wetland sites in the eastern and western lake areas of Switzerland.

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the predominance of domestic pig from 3400 BC onwards, in the Horgen culture. The keeping of so many domestic pigs, a practice introduced to the western part of the Swiss plateau only with the Horgen culture, seems to be a concept originating in the Pfyn culture (Schibler 2006, fig. 7). Overall, the mean value for the percentages of the pig bones is slightly higher for the sites at the eastern lakes (figure 13.11). This could be due to topographic differences, because sites at the eastern lakes have a flatter catchment area than the western sites and are, therefore, more favourable for pig keeping.

SYNTHESIS In order to summarise and synthesise these zooarchaeological data and results from Switzerland, it is necessary to take into account the fact that no substantial conclusions can be made about the Mesolithic period due to a lack of data. The aim of future zooarchaeological analyses should, therefore, be to verify or refute apparent differences in the importance of hunted animal species between rockshelter sites in the Basel area and the open-air site in the Alpine foreland. Environmental and cultural factors should then be investigated as possible explanations for the recognised differences. Furthermore, a larger dataset is needed to confirm, and explain, the lack of evidence of dog bones at Swiss Mesolithic sites. In terms of the Neolithic zooarchaeological data from the Alpine foreland, it is necessary to consider several principal points, all of which could also have some significance for the interpretation of faunal datasets from other regions outside Switzerland: 1. Two different taphonomic groups of sites with zooarchaeological data have been distinguished: dryland sites and wetland sites. As detailed studies have shown, the relative frequencies of wild animal bones in dryland and wetland sites may not be directly comparable because of taphonomic differences between the two types of sites (Schibler and Jacomet 2005). 2. On the basis of the comparisons of archaeological and zooarchaeological data from precisely dated (e.g., by the use of dendrochronology) lake dwelling sites, it appears that the importance of hunting is not culturally determined. In

Neolithic settlements of central Europe, especially those from the alpine region, intensive hunting and intensive utilisation of wild resources were obviously a buffer against the economic and nutritional deficiencies thought to have been caused by climatic deterioration, catastrophic settlement fires or crop pests (Schibler and Jacomet 2010). Additional support for the correlation between an increased occurrence of hunting and alpine climatic conditions is provided by the fact that during the Linearbandkeramik culture (LBK), most sites with higher frequencies of wild animal bones are situated nearer the alpine region (Schibler 2001). 3. During the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, changes in the environment (mostly caused by human activity—for example, the opening of the landscape, the introduction of new crops, or improved agricultural techniques) could mitigate the effects of the above-mentioned natural event, thereby reducing the need to rely on wild resources. 4. In order to compare the relative importance of domestic animal species on dryland and wetland sites, it is necessary to exclude any wild animal bones. This is because the large fluctuations of wild animal bones strongly—and unequally—influence the percentages of the domestic animal species present. The degree to which wild animal bones are represented is dependent on depositional conditions (e.g., type of site) and is thus likely to fluctuate greatly. Therefore, the basis for calculating the relative frequencies of cattle, sheep/goat and pig is the NISP of all domestic species. In addition, the large disparity in the relative frequencies (i.e., relative importance) of wild animal species between dryland and wetland sites is due to the differential effects of taphonomy on these two groups of sites (Schibler and Jacomet 2005). Provided that all these preconditions between dryland and wetland sites are applied, the relative importance of the domestic animal species cattle, sheep, goat and pig can be established. 5. For small and large ruminants (e.g., sheep, goat, and cattle), in dryland as well as in wetland sites, clear differences in relative proportions can be recognised between western and eastern Swiss

CHAPTER 13: ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM LATE MESOLITHIC & NEOLITHIC IN SWITZERLAND Neolithic sites. On this basis, it can be concluded that cattle are more important in the eastern sites (also in the Rhine Valley) and sheep/goat (mostly sheep) are more important in the western sites (also in the Rhône Valley; figures 13.7 and 13.11). There are two possible explanations for this disparity: the different cultural influences (western Mediterranean versus eastern Danubian) or the different topography. The western sites are mostly situated in the foothills of the steep Jura range; and the eastern sites are mostly situated in the flatter area of Lake Zurich and Lake Constance. Both explanations could equally well account for the trends (e.g., small ruminants in the western sites and cattle in the eastern sites)—and thus distinguishing between the effects of the two factors becomes impossible. However, given that there are higher proportions of sheep and goat (figure 13.12) in the earliest Neolithic lake dwelling sites of the fifth millennium in both regions, we can eliminate topographic differences as an explanation. It can be assumed, on this basis, that cultural influences are responsible for the greater importance of small ruminants during this phase. 6. According to the percentages based on fragment numbers during the fifth millennium BC, the proportion of domestic pig in both regions is high. This could be due to the greater significance of domestic animals used primarily for meat production. During the early fourth millennium BC, pig bones are present in low frequencies. Pig only becomes more important in the eastern part of Switzerland (mainly Lake Zurich) from the 38th century onwards (figure 13.13). This development culminates in the much greater importance of pigs in the Horgen culture from 3400 BC onwards. This change in emphasis only takes place in the eastern part of Switzerland (figure 13.13) and is transferred to the western lakes by the Horgen culture (Schibler 2006). 7. The very low density values of the bone fragments in the lake dwelling sites of the fifth millennium indicate that all domestic animal species (cattle, pig, sheep and goat) were only kept in small herds (e.g. cattle; figure 13.10). In-

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creased human impact, which changed and opened up the natural environment, made it possible for the Neolithic farmers of the fourth and, particularly, the third millennium BC to keep larger herds of domestic animals, especially cattle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks to Sandra Pichler, Benjamin Jennings and Sue Colledge for correcting my English. We are also grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments.

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