ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEM: WADI EL-RAYAN, WESTERN DESERT, EGYPT A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Ph.D. (Plant Ecology)
By MOHAMED TALAAT ABDOU AHMED EL-HENNAWY B. Sc. Botany 1994 M. Sc. Botany (Plant Ecology) 2000
Ain Shams University Faculty of Science Botany Department 2010
ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEM: WADI EL-RAYAN, WESTERN DESERT, EGYPT A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Ph.D. (Plant Ecology)
By MOHAMED TALAAT ABDOU AHMED EL-HENNAWY B. Sc. Botany 1994 M. Sc. Botany (Plant Ecology) 2000
Supervisors Prof. Dr. Mahmoud A. Zahran
Prof. Dr. Mohamed A. El-Demerdash
Professor of Plant Ecology,
Professor of Plant Ecology,
Botany Department, Faculty of Science
Botany Department, Faculty of Science
Mansoura University
(Damietta), Mansoura University
Prof. Dr. Hosny A. Mosallam Professor of Plant Ecology, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University
Referees Prof. Dr. Boshra Salem
Head
of
Environmental
Science
Dept.,
University of Alexandria Prof. Dr. Abdel Hamid A. Khedr
Professor of plant Ecology, Faculty of Science-New Damietta, University of Mansoura
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud A. Zahran
Professor of Plant Ecology, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Mansoura
Prof. Dr. Hosny A. Mosallam
Professor of Plant Ecology, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Ain Shams
Approval Sheet Title of Thesis: Ecology And Management Of Wetland Ecosystem: Wadi El-Rayan, Western Desert, Egypt Name: Mohamed Talaat Abdou Ahmed El-Hennawy Degree: Doctor of philosophy Ph.D. in Science, Botany (Plant Ecology)
This thesis has been approved by:
1- Prof. Dr / Boshra Salem
2- Prof. Dr / Abdel Hamid A. Khedr
3- Prof. Dr / Mahmoud A. Zahran
3- Prof. Dr / Hosny A. Mosallam
Declaration
This thesis has not been previously submitted for any degree at this or any other University.
The references in the text will show specifically the extent to which I have availed myself of the work of other authors.
Ó
Mohamed Talaat El-Hennawy
2010
ABSTRACT The present study Characterized one of the most important wetland site located in Wadi ElRayan, in the western desert, one of the Egypt’s twenty seven protected areas. The present study described the main community of Wadi El-Rayan (assessed in twenty sites) dominated by Phragmites australis and figures out the seasonal productivity (assessed in twenty eight stands in 14 sites) represented in phytomass (kg dry weight/m2) of wetland vegetation. Five habitat types were recorded in Wadi El-Rayan area, which are reed swamps, salt marshes, sand formations, gravel and neomulitic desert and aquatic habitats. Xerophytes, halophytes and hydrophytes are forming the main bulk of Wadi El-Rayan vegetation. A total of 56 species belonging to 26 families were recorded. Compositae and Gramineae are the highly represented families, however therophytes and geophytes are the main life forms. Statistical Multivariate Analysis of the waterward vegetation (WW) and landward vegetation (LW) of the wetland areas clarified 5 different levels of productivity for each. The highly productive sites were those located around the Upper Lake, the Connecting Channel and the 4th spring, whereas the low productive sites were those around the Lower Lake and the 1st spring for both of the water and land wards vegetation. Some significant correlations were detected between the first two ordination axes. However, no significant correlations between axes I and II and the different soil variables. Three sites around the Upper Lake and Lower Lake were selected to monitor the effect of fire during the study period. Single effect of fire and the combined effect of both fire and grazing in the same area were realized. The environmental management section of this study listed the main values of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area and their affecting threats according to the latest management effectiveness evaluation. Amendment of WRPA management plan is proposed in terms of 2 main issues: 1) Restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan lakes and 2) Conservation of Wadi El-Ryan wetlands (grazing and firing issues). Both of the 2 main issues has its proposed objectives and strategies & actions. Seven objectives and seven strategies & actions were proposed for the first issue, while three objectives and five strategies & actions were proposed for the second issue. A map was introduced for the potential grazing strips in Wadi El-Rayan wetlands.
ﺑﺴﻢ ﺍﷲ ﺍﻟﺮﲪﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ ﻭﻗﻞ ﺭﺑﻰ ﺯﺩﻧﻰ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ
Table of Contents Title
Page
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………………………………….
i ii
ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii iv
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. SUMMARY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………. REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1.1. DEFINITIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
v 1 4 6 8
1.2. WETLANDS OF EGYPT…………………………………………………………………………………………… 1.2.1. CLASSIFFICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1.2.2. THREATS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… AIM OF THE WORK …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 2 STUDY AREA……………………………………………………………………………………………. 2.1. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE…………………………………………………………………………………… 2.2. SITE DESCRIPTION………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.2.1. LOCATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2.2.2. CLIMATE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2.2.3. GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY…………………………………………………………………….. 2.2.4. SOIL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.2.5. WATER RESOURCES…………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.2.5.1. SURFACE WATER…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.2.5.2. GROUND WATER…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.2.5.3. THE RAYAN LAKES……………………………………………………………………………………………
10 10 13 15 16 16 18 18 18 19 24 24 24 25 26
2.3. WR BEFORE THE FORMATION OF LAKES ………………………………………………………………. 2.4. WR AFTER FORMATION OF THE ARTIFICIAL LAKES…………………………………………………. 2.5. THE WETLANDS OF WADI EL-RAYAN……………………………………………………………………… 2.5.1 SITE DESIGNATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.5.2. CURRENT LAND USE……………………………………………………………………………………………. 2.5.3. HYDROLOGY………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2.5.4. CHEMICAL ISSUES……………………………………………………………………………………………….
27 28 30 32 32 33 33
2.5.5. FLORA………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.5.6. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS FACED………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 3 WADI EL-RAYAN: A PROTECTED AREA………………………………………………………… 3.1. MAIN FEATURES……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3.1.1. LAKES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3.1.2. VALLEY OF THE WHALES WORLD HERITAGE SITE…………………………………………………. 3.1.3. WATERFALLS AT THE MAIN VISITOR AREA……………………………………………………………
34 34 36 37 37 37 38
3.1.4. SPRINGS OASIS……………………………………………………………………………………………………
38
3.1.5. MODAWARA AREA…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3.1.6. BIRDS OF WADI EL-RAYAN………………………………………………………………………………….. 3.2. SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT…………………………………………………………………………………… 3.3. THE PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES………………………………………………….
38 39 39 40
Chapter 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS………………………………………………………………………..
44
4.1. VEGETATION ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.2. WATER ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4.3. SOIL ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
44 45 45
4.4. IMPACT OF FIRE AND GRAZING……………………………………………………………………………… 4.5. DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
46 46
Chapter 5 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………
50
5.1. HABITAT AND VEGETATION TYPES…………………………………………………………………………
50
5.2. PLANT COVER………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
50
5.2.1. CULTIVATED PLANTS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 5.2.2. NATURALIZED TREES……………………………………………………………………………………………
50 50
5.2.3. NATURAL VEGETATION………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.2.3.1. LIFE FORMS & FLORISTIC CATEGORIES……………………………………………………………… 5.2.3.2. GENERAL ECOLOGY OF WETLAND AREA…….……………………………………………………. 5.2.3.3. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS (VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION) ………………………………. 5.3. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS (PRODUCTIVITY) ……………………………………………………………. 5.3.1. CLASSIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.3.2. ORDINATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.3.3. VEGETATION-GROUPS ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS……………………………….. 5.3.4. SEASONAL PRODUCTIVITY OF PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS………………………………………. 5.4. WATER CHARACTERISTICS……………………………………………………………………………………… 5.5. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5.5.1. SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS……………………………………………………………………….. 5.5.2. SOIL CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS………………………………………………………………………. 5.6. COMPARISON TO THE WATER QUALITY OF WADI EL-RAYAN AND QAROUN LAKES….. 5.7. FIRE IMPACTS ON THE PHYTOMASS OF PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS…………………………….. 5.7.1. THE EFFECT OF FIRE ON THE RATE OF PHYTOMASS ACCUMULATION…………………….
55 57 59 60 62 63 69 73 79 80 92 92 95 98 100 100
5.7.2. THE COMBINED EFFECT OF FIRE & GRAZING ON THE RATE OF PHYTOMASS ACCUMULATION…… Chapter 6 DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………………………..
102 103
Chapter 7 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………… 7.1. RESTORATION OF WATER BALANCE OF WADI EL RAYAN LAKES………………………………..
116 121
7.2. CONSERVATION OF WADI El-RAYAN WETLANDS (Grazing and Firing issues)…………….. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………………………
123 126
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
128 138
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ﺍﳌﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻰ.
177
i
TO MY Father & Mother To My Wife To
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Zahran for his unlimited support, enthusiasm, insight, continuous encourage and help throughout all the stages of this study. I thank deeply Prof. Dr. Mohamed El-Demerdash for generosity, considerable time and attention and long insightful conversations, guidance and helpful suggestions. Sincere thanks are to Prof. Dr. Hosny Musallam for supporting this thesis from registration, help during lab analysis, valuable comments up to subscription of the thesis.
This work could have not been achieved without the collaboration of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area (EEAA) staff; Special thanks to Mohamed Sameh for his help during soil and water Sampling, field trips and GIS works. Thanks are also extended to Hossam kamel, Arafa El-Sayed, Wed Abdel Latif , Mohamed Mostafa, Ahmed ElBoraey Ali Ahmed, Kadry Senousi and Khaled Abdel Fattah for providing field facilities and strong support. Special thanks are to Professor Dr. Mohamed Abu Seada in the National Research Center for his technical support during soil analysis.
iii
Abbreviations BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity
CC
Connecting Chanel
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand
EEAA
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
LL
Lower Lake
LW
Landward Vegetion (facing the desert)
PPM
Part Per Million
SA
Springs Area
TDS
Total dissolved Salts
TN
Total Nitrogen
TP
Total Phosphorus
TSS
Total Suspended Solids
UL
Upper Lake
WRPA
Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area
WW
Waterward Vegetation (facing the water body)
iv
List of Tables TABLE 1a. Cultivated plants in the study area TABLE 1b. Natural weeds growing in the cultivated land of WRPA TABLE 1c. Checklist of the natural flora of Wadi El-Rayan TABLE 1d. Recorded families and their represented species in the study area TABLE 1e. Recorded species life forms and floristic categories in the study area TABLE 1f. TWINSPAN groups for vegetation abundance in the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan TABLE 2. TWINSPAN groups for productivity sites WW TABLE 3. TWINSPAN groups for productivity sites LW TABLE 4. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Autumn TABLE 5. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Winter TABLE 6. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Spring TABLE 7. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Summer TABLE 8. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil physical parameters TABLE 9. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil physical parameters TABLE 10. Partial Correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil chemical parameters TABLE 11. M & SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in autumn TABLE 12. M & SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in winter TABLE 13. M & SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in spring TABLE 14. M & SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in summer TABLE 15. M & SD for the soil chemical characteristics related to the TWINSPAN groups TABLE 16. M & SD for the soil physical characteristics related to the TWINSPAN groups TABLE 17a. Mean and Standard Deviation for the measured water parameters in Wadi ElRayan lakes and springs in the study period TABLE 17b. Reported water parameters for Qaroun Lake TABLE 18. The status of key values in WRPA TABLE 19. Threat Summary for WRPA Values
v
List of Figures FIGURE 1. A simple ecosystem model (After Masundire, 1995) FIGURE 2. Geology and main formations of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area FIGURE 3. Geomorphology of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area FIGURE 4. Wadi El-Rayan Lakes in the years 2000 & 2008 FIGURE 5. Activities in Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area FIGURE 6a. The main study sampling sites for vegetation ecology at Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area FIGURE 6b. The main study sampling sites for productivity of Phragmites australis FIGURE 7. The WW & LW productivity sampling sites FIGURE 8a. The percentage of the represented families in the study area FIGURE 8b. The percentage of the represented species life forms in the study area FIGURE 8c. Recorded species and their abundance values in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan FIGURE 8d. The relationships between the 7 groups generated after application of TWINSPAN, 20 vegetation sites denotes to the study area of Wadi El-Rayan FIGURE 9. Variation in Phragmites australis productivity (kg. dry weight) in (WW) in the study period FIGURE 10. Variation in Phragmites australis productivity (kg. dry weight) in (LW) through the study period FIGURE 11. The relationships among the 5 groups of productivity generated after application of TWINSPAN, 14 sites denote to the study sites in (WW) of Wadi El-Rayan FIGURE 12. The relationships among the 5 groups of productivity generated after application of TWINSPAN, 14 sites denote to the study sites in (LW) of Wadi El-Rayan FIGURE 13. Map of productivity figure of Wadi El-Rayan wetlands FIGURE 14. The 5 TWINSPAN groups and their relationships along the first and second DECORANA axes, 14 sites denote to the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan (WW) FIGURE 15. The 5 TWINSPAN groups and their relationships along the first and second DECORANA axes, 14 sites denote to the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan (LW) FIGURE 16. Mean phytomass values categorized by the different wetland areas in the study period FIGURE 17. Variation of measured TDS, Cl and SO4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 18. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3 and NH4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 19. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 20. Mean values for Cl and SO4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 21. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 22. Mean values for TP, NO3 & NH4 in autumn for the study sites
vi FIGURE 23. Variation of measured TDS, Cl and SO4 in winter for the study sites FIGURE 24. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3 and NH4 in winter for the study sites FIGURE 25. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 26. Mean values for Cl and SO4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 27. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 28. Mean values for TP, NO3 & NH4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 29. Variation of measured TDS, Cl and SO4 in spring for the study sites FIGURE 30. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3 and NH4 in spring for the study sites FIGURE 31. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 32. Mean values for Cl and SO4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 33. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 34. Mean values for TP, NO3 & NH4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 35. Variation of measured TDS, Cl and SO4 in summer for the study sites FIGURE 36. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3 and NH4 in summer for the study sites FIGURE 37. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 38. Mean values for Cl and SO4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 39. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 40. Mean values for TP, NO3 & NH4 in autumn for the study sites FIGURE 41. Variation of measured soil WHC, AW, Ca, OM & CaCO3 for the study sites FIGURE 42. Variation of measured gravel, sand, silt & clay for the study sites FIGURE 43. Mean values of soil W.H.C., available water & CaCO3 for the study sites FIGURE 44. Mean values for soil Ca & organic matter for the study sites FIGURE 45. Mean values for the soil particle analysis for the study sites FIGURE 46. Variation of measured soil TSS and chlorides contents for the study sites FIGURE 47. Variation of measured soil cations for the study sites FIGURE 48. Variation of measured soil anions for the study sites FIGURE 49. Mean values of soil W.H.C., available water & CaCO3 for the study sites FIGURE 50. Mean values for soil Ca & organic matter for the study sites FIGURE 51. Mean values for the soil particle analysis for the study sites FIGURE 52. Variation of phytomass after fire in the Upper Lake area FIGURE 53. Variation of phytomass after fire in the Lower Lake area
vii FIGURE 54. Variation in the absolute values of phytomass in Upper and Lower Lakes after firing FIGURE 55. Variation of phytomass after fire & grazing in the Upper Lake area FIGURE 56. Trend of TDS for the 2 Rayan lakes (After EEAA, 2003) FIGURE 57. Map for potential grazing strips in Wadi El-Rayan wetlands
viii
SUMMARY Wadi El-Rayan is a well developed wetland ecosystem since late Eighties. Its characterizations in terms of ecology and productivity are poorly described, especially under the recent changes in water status of Rayan lakes and human impacts due to the running economic activities. The present study described the main community of Wadi El-Rayan dominated by Phragmites australis and figures out the seasonal productivity represented in phytomass (kg dry weight/m2) of wetland vegetation. Five habitat types were recorded in Wadi ElRayan area, which are reed swamps, salt marshes, sand formations, gravel and neomulitic desert and aquatic habitats. Xerophytes, halophytes and hydrophytes are forming the main bulk of Wadi El-Rayan vegetation. A total of 56 species belonging to 26 families were recorded. Compositae and Gramineae are the highly represented families, however therophytes and geophytes are the main life forms. The main vegetation cover in Wadi El-Rayan area was assessed through twenty stands represents the plant cover around the lakes and the springs area. Twenty eight stands (fourteen sites) were selected to represent the main water bodies in the area (Upper Lake, Lower Lake, Connecting Channel and the Springs area) for measuring productivity in the study period. Fifty six water samples and fourteen soil samples were collected and analyzed during the period of the study. Statistical Multivariate Analysis of the waterward vegetation (WW) and landward vegetation (LW) of the wetland areas (Upper Rayan Lake, Lower Rayan Lake, the Connecting Channel and the Springs Area) in the period of the study clarified 5 different levels of productivity for each. The highly productive sites were those located around the Upper Lake, the Connecting Channel and the 4th spring, whereas the low productive sites were those around the Lower Lake and the 1st spring for both of the water and land wards vegetation. Some significant correlations were detected between the first two ordination axes. A significant correlation was recorded between axis I and water variables during winter,
ix spring and summer seasons of the study period. On the other hand, the only detectable negative significant correlation was between axis II and water ammonia content during summer season. However, no significant correlations between axes I and II and the different soil variables. The temporal variation in the aerial dry weight phytomass of Phragmites australis in the wetlands of Wadi El-Rayan attained its maximum in winter season (measured in December) for all the sites and its minimum in summer (measured in June-July) for most of the study sites. The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest values of water TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and TSS. However, the highest COD, BOD, NO3-, NH4+ and TP values were recorded in the Connecting Channel, Upper Lake and Springs water with various concentrations. On the other hand, the lowest TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and TSS values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake; Connecting Channel and Springs. The soil of Connecting Channel wetland sites showed the highest recorded values for CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles. However, the soil collected from the shores of the Upper lake showed the highest values for Na+, K+, HCO3-, TSS and Cl-. The highest W.H.C., A.W. and organic matter contents; silt & organic matter content; clay particles values were recorded in the soil around the Lower Lake; springs; and Upper Lake respectively. The highest Ca++, Mg++ & P values were recorded in the soil collected from around the Lower Lake. The soil collected from around the springs was containing the highest SO4-- & N values. On the other hand, the lowest W.H.C., A.W., CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles; clay particles; silt particles and organic matter content values were recorded in the soil around the springs; Lower Lake; and Connecting Channel respectively. However, the lowest Na+, K+, Ca++, P, TSS & Cl-; Mg++ & HCO3-; SO4-- & N values were recorded in the soil collected from around the springs; Connecting channel; and Upper lake respectively When comparing the highest recorded values for water variable in Rayan Lakes to those recorded for Qaroun Lake, it was noticed that 1) the TDS, Cl- & SO4-- values in Lake
x Qaroun is higher than those of Wadi El-Rayan Lower Lake by 1.8 – 3.5, 1.6 – 3.6 & 1.9 – 3.2 times respectively. However, the heavy metals Cu and Fe values in Lake Qaroun is higher than those of Wadi El-Rayan Lower Lake by 48.0 and 1.8 times respectively. Values for Zn and Cd are almost the same. Hg and Pb were not detected (or below the detection level) in Wadi El-Rayan Lakes. Three sites around the Upper Lake and Lower Lake were selected to monitor the effect of fire during the study period. Single effect of fire and the combined effect of both fire and grazing in the same area were realized. The rate of phytomass accumulation increased by 209.3% in the period from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% in the period from spring to summer for the Upper Lake, however, in the Lower lake increased by 144.3% in the period from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% in the period from spring to summer, as a single effect of fire. The effect of fire followed by grazing in the same area is represented in the increasing rate of phytomass accumulation by 147.9% in the period from winter to spring, and 56% in the period from spring to summer. The absolute values of the phytomass were highly varied from the Upper and Lower Lakes sites after firing and reached 56.7, 71.8 & 72.1 times more in the Upper Lake than those in the Lower Lake. The environmental management section of this study listed the main values of Wadi ElRayan Protected Area and their affecting threats according to the latest management effectiveness evaluation. Amendment of WRPA management plan is proposed in terms of 2 main issues: 1) Restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan lakes and 2) Conservation of Wadi El-Ryan wetlands (grazing and firing issues). Both of the 2 main issues has its proposed objectives and strategies & actions. Seven objectives and seven strategies & actions were proposed for the first issue, while three objectives and five strategies & actions were proposed for the second issue. A map was introduced for the potential grazing strips in Wadi El-Rayan wetlands.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
4
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION All ecosystems comprise both biotic and abiotic components have inputs, perform processes within themselves and produce outputs. The scenario describing the structure and function of ecosystems is shown in Figure (1). FIGURE 1. A simple ecosystem model (After Masundire, 1995)
ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES (production & consumption)
Inputs Water Nutrients Species Pollutants Silt toxicants
Ecosystem attributes Species composition Biodiversity Aesthetic value Cultural value etc
outputs Water Nutrients Species Ecosystem products (timber, grass, fish, meat, fruits, etc.)
The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. The ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems. The ecosystem approach requires adaptive management to deal with the complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems. The ecosystem approach does not preclude other management and conservation approaches, such as biosphere reserves, protected areas, and single-species conservation programs, as well as other approaches carried out under existing national policy and legislative frameworks, but could, rather, integrate all these approaches and other methodologies to deal with complex situations, (CBD). Protected areas have become an increasingly important tool both in the conservation of biodiversity and in revenue generation through sustainable use. This is the only sure way to guarantee the protection necessary for many species, habitats and ecosystems in the future (Walkey, et al, 1999). The world is now dotted with protected areas, in the form
Chapter 1
Introduction
5
of nature reserves, national parks, and wilderness areas – the names vary but the objectives are broadly the same – to carry at least a proportion of the earth’s biota through into the next century and beyond (Maltby, et al, 1999). Management decisions are not ultimately scientific ones. They too are political, economic, ethical, aesthetic and religious decisions. However, science is clearly involved in delivering effective management once management goals have been defined. Ecological science can also inform managers, politicians, or citizens of the consequences of continuing with some particular course of action, or of changing or stopping it, and hence can help to set management objectives (Lawton, 1999). Wetlands can only be conserved and managed wisely on the basis of their wider significance for human as well as wildlife welfare and maintenance of environmental quality. The most important need is to translate the science base into procedure which can be used by decision makers in order to improve the strategy for wetland resource management. This approach has been adopted at a general level in the United States, but until recently has been absent from other parts of the world and overall has lacked the strength of empirical scientific verification (Maltby, et al, 1999). The same authors reported that an ecosystem-based approach to wetland conservation and management recognizes the importance of the flows of materials and the dynamics of individual species, communities and populations in determining their functioning and character. The present study, deas with environmental problems belonging to vegetation as one of the main components of wetland ecosystem in the Western Desert of Egypt: Wadi ElRayan Protected Area wetlands. Ecosystem approach hopefully been considered while performing this study to introduce and amend the management plan of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area with some management solutions for the addressed scientific and management problems.
Chapter 1
Introduction
6
REVIEW Saleh (1998) reported that information in the literature on the wildlife and ecology of the Wadi El-Rayan is scarce and incomplete. Except for a brief mention of a small number of reptilian and mammalian specimens collected by Osborn & Helmy (1980), and Saleh (1988 b, c), the fauna and flora of Wadi El-Rayan and Wadi Muwellih remain virtually unknown. An inventory of the flora and vertebrate fauna of Rayan springs' area, particularly those of the sand dune habitats, describes their local distribution and ecological affinities (Saleh, et al, 1988b). Saleh (1988c) provided a tentative list of phytoand zooplankton, insects and other arthropods, mollusks, fishes, birds and mammals of Wadi El-Rayan lakes and adjoining areas. Saleh (1988b) described the Physical and biotic elements of a sand dune ecosystem in the Wadi El Rayan area of the Egyptian Western Desert. The same author also described the area as a site of extensive aeolian sand deposition and active dune formation. It has a typical hyper arid warm Saharan climate. In the springs' area of Wadi El-Rayan the superficial groundwater table is the main source of water. Vegetation is limited to low-lying inter-dune areas and the bases of larger dunes, and is represented by 13 species of perennial plants. Four types of plant communities were recognized by the same author namely: Alhagi maurorum community; Desmostachya bipinnata community; Calligonum comosum-Nitraria retusa-Tamarix nilotica community and the salt marsh community. Vegetation density, distribution and composition varied with local topographic and edaphic variations. Several studies were conducted describing the diverse habitats in Wadi El-Rayan area. The study of Amin (1998) showed that Wadi El-Rayan comprises 3 main ecosystems; namely, desert, lake and spring ecosystem that were found to be occupied by hydrophytes, reed swamps, halophytes and xerophytes ecological groups. Serag, et al, (2003), reported that the major habitat types occurred in Wadi El Rayan depression are: sabkhas, sand flats, sand dunes, wetlands (man-made lakes), springs, and desert areas. The study showed that Wadi El-Rayan is characterized by four plant communities dominated by: Phragmites australis, Alhagi graecorum, Nitraria retusa and Tamarix nilotica. El-Hennawy (2004) described that the habitats of Wadi El-Rayan can be mainly identified as: aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems which could be represented in: reed swamp, salt marsh, sand formations & sand dunes and
Chapter 1
Introduction
7
gravel and neomulitic desert. He stated that the reed swamps and salt marshes were found together forming the most common wetland ecosystem. While the aquatic habitats represented in Rayan lakes and springs. He introduced the representing vegetation groups for each of those habitats as well. Zahran & Willis (2009), reported that the vegetation in the Wadi El-Rayan depression is confined to areas around springs. Besides the trees of Phoenix dactylifera and Acacia raddiana there are bushes undershrubs and grasses, e.g. Tamarix spp., Nitraria retusa, Zygophyillum album, Desmostachya bipinnata, Alhagi maurorum and Fagonia arabica. Common xerophytes can also be seen in the desert surrounding the depression, e.g. Calligonum comosum, Cornulaca monacantha, Farsetia aegyptia, Heliotropium luteum, Panicum turgidum and Pituranthos tortuosus. Zahran & Willis (2009), reported that the lake’s ecosystem of Wadi El-Rayan depression comprises the two lakes and the shoreline habitats. Zonation of vegetation in this ecosystem is obvious caused by the local topographic changes, depth of water and soil salinity. Three vegetation types are recognized: aquatic, swampy and terrestrial. The aquatic vegetation is dominated by: Myriophyllum spicatum, (cover = 20–30%) and Potamogeton crispus (cover = 50–70%). The associate species are Najas marina, Potamogeton pectinatus and Zannichellia pallustris. The swampy habitat comprises two ecosytems dominated by Phragmites australis and Typha domingensis (20–30% cover). The associate species are many and include: Cyperus laevigatus, Tamarix nilotica, Alhagi graecorum, Calligonum comosum, Desmostachya bipinnata, Zygophyllum album, Z. coccineum, Pluchea dioscordis, Salicornia fruticosa, Cynanchum acutum, Phoenix dactylifera, Imperata cylindrica and Eichhornia crassipes. The spring ecosystem of Wadi El-Rayan depression is of ecological interest. There is a wide variation between the three Rayan springs as regard their water supply and rate of flow. The first (northern spring), has a limited water flow (1.6 L/min) with TSS 3,000 – 4,000 ppm. and moisten small area (50 – 150 m). Two plant communities are recognized dominated by Alhagi graecorum and Cressa cretica. The associate species are: Phragmites australis, Nitraria retusa, Juncus acutus, Sporobolus spicatus, Tamarix nilotica, Zygophyllum album and Phoenix dactyliferea. The middle spring has a water flow of 4.8 L/min. with 3,500 ppm soluble salts.
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Four communities dominated by Tamarix nilotica, Alhagi graecorum, Phragmites australis and Nitraria retusa inhabit the area of this spring. The associate species are: Calligonum comosum, Desmostachya bipinnata, Juncus acutus, Tamarix nilotica and Typha domingensis (Zahran & Willis, 2009). The southern spring is the largest in Wadi El-Rayan with an average water flow of 14.4 L/min. and mean salinity of 2.9 g/L. Three communities dominated by Alhagi graecorum, Phragmites australis and Tamarix nilotica are recognized. Calligonum comosum is the only associate species with A. graecorum and T. nilotica community whereas P. australis is associated with Juncus acutus and Phoenix dactylifera. Following the formation of the lakes, a number of animal forms typical of the mesic habitats of the Nile valley were able to reach the Wadi El-Rayan area. Among these are the jackal, Canis aureus lupaster, and the Egyptian mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon. Some animal species provide intriguing examples of adaptation to arid habitats, such as sand fox, Vulpes rueppelli, and fennec fox, Vulpes zerda. Of the two gazelle species inhabiting the area, Gazella dorcas is listed as an endangered species by IUCN. Gazella leptoceros leptoceros, although not listed as an endangered species, is extremely rare and is virtually on the verge of extension. The small population in Wadi El-Rayan is possibly the only surviving group of this gazelle in the world (Saleh, 1987). 1.1. DEFINITIONS (after Ann., 2005) Definitions of wetlands are numerous and varied. Two definitions are quoted here: a. The U.S. National Academy of Science (NRC, 1995) “A wetland is an ecosystem that depends on constant or recurrent shallow inundation or saturation at or near the surface of the substrate. The minimum essential characteristics of a wetland are recurrent, sustained inundation or saturation at or near the surface and the presence of physical, chemical and biological feature reflective of recurrent, sustained inundation or saturation. Common diagnostic features of wetlands are hydric soils and hydrophytic vegetation. These features will be present except where specific physicochemical, biotic or anthropogenic factors have removed them or prevented their development.” b. The International Definition: RAMSAR Convention
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“Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters”, Article 1. This definition states that wetlands include riverain and marine littorals. The rationale of this broad definition was to include wetlands habitats of waterfowl (birds ecologically dependent on wetlands). Between them the two definitions embrace the basic concepts in the many definitions prevalent in different contexts. The hydrologic conditions are important characteristics, but the water depth limit varies from 2 to 6 meters in different definitions. Table 1 gives a glossary of common terms used for various types of wetland (modified from Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Hydrology is perhaps the important element in the ecology of wetlands. Likely climate changes (global warmth and its consequences) will have varied and far-reaching impacts, in particular impact of sea-level rise, on coastal wetlands (Acreman, 2000). An Egyptian National Strategy for Wetland Conservation including a plan of actions was set up in 2005 as an Egyptian response to the Convention on Biodiversity (1992). In drafting the strategy and its plan of action lessons learned during setting conservation programs in wetland sites in Fayoum (Qaroun and Wadi El-Rayan), in North Sinai (Zaranik) and in northern Delta (Burullus): were taken in considerations from 1992 to 2004. Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on earth. They so fruitful because they offer something for everyone: As hybrid environments—neither land nor water— wetlands provide living space and food to aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial species alike. And because water levels in wetlands fluctuate over time, a great many different species will find conditions to their liking, each at a different time of the day or year. Wetlands have been subject to transformation to dry lands for agriculture schemes; human settlements, etc. (e.g. The area reductions of the Nile Delta lakes during the 20th century). River control schemes have often caused the loss, or area reduction, of wetlands, especially in the inland deltas (e.g. Okavago Delta, Botswana, Africa). Estimates of world wetlands area range between 6.8 and 8.6 million km2 (Mitsch and
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10
Gosselink, 2000). Estimates of loss of wetlands range from 53 to 80% in North America, 33-90% in Australia, and c. 90% in Europe (Mitsch, 1998). The areas of all the four lakes of the Nile Delta were reduced due primarily to land reclamation projects. Wetlands are ecosystems with attributes that include: high bio-productivity (biomass of reed swamps among the highest), sources, sinks and transformers of numerous chemical, biological and genetic materials. Wetlands are valuable habitats for fisheries, wildlife and birds. Conservation associations and bodies worldwide noted and decried the alarming changes in these important habitats. This led to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially Waterfowl Habitat, known as RAMSAR Convention (1971). 1.2. WETLANDS OF EGYPT 1.2.1. CLASSIFICATION (Ann., 2005) In Egypt, it is possible to classify wetlands in a systematic pattern (saltwater and freshwater wetlands, etc..) or in a geographical pattern (Mediterranean, Red Sea coastlands, inland wetlands, etc..). However, according to environmental management and conservation, twelve group generic types in Egypt (each group of a type with some resemblance) as follows: 1. The Bardawil, Manzala, Burullus, Idku and Mariut lakes of the Northern Egypt. These are lakes of different origin and different ecology. They all have access, natural or artificial, to the Mediterranean; even natural outlets (Bughaz) require maintenance. They all are important bird sites due to their habitat and their geographical position along the migration routes. Four of these lakes received agriculture drainage water and sea water. Lake Bardawil does not receive drainage water. The Mallaha of Port Fouad with its extensive salt mudflats may be added to this group. All of these lakes are among the Egyptian fisheries. 2. The Matrouh lagoons, a set of closed lagoons that are close to the Mediterranean and receive their water through the narrow limestone barrier. The barrier of the lagoon near the city of Marsa Matrouh was dug to transform the lagoon into a port.
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These lagoons provide for fisheries and cage farming, some are habitats of interesting biota. 3. a) The Moghra & Wadi El-Natrun lakes. These are shallow depression in the northern
sector of the West Desert. They receive their water from underground
seepage. The Moghra is the eastern lobe of the Qattara Depression. Wadi El-Natrun is on the western outskirts of the Nile Delta. The Moghra is seasonally inhabited by herders, the Natrun region is site for land reclamation project; in history it was seat of native glass industry. b) Groups of ponds and lakes formed in the oases of the Western Desert and in its outskirts. These water bodies resulted as excess water accumulated in lower ground, some resulted from flows of deep wells originally drilled for oil exploration. Examples include many sites in Siwa oases and its peripheries and in the Dakhla and Kharga Oases. 4. The Qarun & Wadi El-Rayan lakes. These are, two of the depressions of the Western Desert. Lake Qarun is the lowest part (bottom at 45m. below sea level) of the larger depression that is now the farmlands of the Governorate of Fayoum. Lake Qarun receives drainage water of the Fayoum. Evaporation makes it hyper-saline. Wadi ElRayan was a dry un-inhabited depression (64 m. below sea level) with a few freshwater springs that formed small patches of reed swamps. In 1970s the Rayyan depression was connected to the agriculture drainage system of the Fayoum Governorate. Two lakes were formed in the area, these are man-made brackish lakes. 5. A number of small lakes scatter in the Delta and its outskirts, mostly formed as drainage water collected in depressions. Two lakes were made famous as fowlshooting sites (winter sport): Abbasa in the eastern outskirts of Delta, and Dahshoor in the western outskirts of the Delta. Abbasa is a body of fresh water, accommodates a fish-farming research and training centre. Dahshoor has dried, its fringes afforested and it retains relicts of reed swamps.
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12
6. Within the Gulf of Suez littoral and coastal belts, there are sites of warm water springs including: -
Ein Sokhna on the western coast of the Gulf of Suez,
-
Hammam Faraon on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez,
-
Mousa Springs in the Southwestern part of Sinai.
Water flows created small ponds and expanses of moist – saline land with growth of reeds, etc.. 7. The main channel of the Nile between Aswan and Cairo embraces numerous islands. Shores of these islands and the riverbanks provide strips of wetland habitat and vegetation including floating reed growth. In Aswan reaches there is a group of granite islands (First Cataract islands) that have relicts of riverine forests. The islands of the rest of the Nile are alluvial and a few of them may be seasonally inundated. 8. Lake Nasser is the Egyptian part of the Aswan High Dam reservoir-lake. This is an extensive freshwater body, one of the larger man-made lakes in the world: 496 km long (292 km in Egypt and 204 km in the Sudan, total area c. 50000 km2). Its position in an area of extreme airdity provides stark contrast between desert and water with interesting ecotone transitions. The western part of Lake Nasser comprises a number of shallow lobes, the eastern part includes the mouth parts of wadis. All are wetland habitats. 9. The depressions of Toshka spillway: a number of freshwater lakes formed in depressions of the western Nubian desert as excess of Lake Nasser water flowed into them. These are temporary freshwater bodies formed in an extremely arid desert. Wetland habitats prevail including reed swamps. These depressions will eventually receive drainage of the Toshka agricultural lands and will become permanent. 10. The Mediterranean coast outside the Delta provides little room for developed littoral salt marshes. The shore-line is either near the limestone cliffs in the stretches west of Alameen (c. longitude 29o E), or near the coastal sand dunes in the rest of the coast. But beaches and near-shore strips team with diverse biota.
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11. The Red Sea: (a) The main body and the gulf of Suez has extensive littoral salt marsh formations all along the coast. Here the typical zonation of coastal littoral with distinct vegetation formations is recognized. (b) The Red Sea proper and the Gulf of Aqaba coastal lands have extensive patches of mangroves (estimated total area c.400ha). Avicennia marina prevails all over, Rhizophora mucronata is confined to the area south of Shalatin. The mangrove is an elaborate ecosystem with rich biota and provides haven for fish spawning and a diversity of birds. (c) The Red Sea coral reefs form long stretches parallel to the shoreline. These reefs comprise diversities of coral species with associated biota, and have important functions in the ecology (physical and biological) of littoral and sublittoral zones. (d) The Red Sea islands within the Egyptian exclusive economic zone comprise two types: coral formation and volcanic islands. The littoral and sublittoral zones of these islands represent habitat types comparable to those of the Red Sea coast but often less disturbed. 12. The Suez Canal system includes a small lake near the city of Ismailia (Lake Temsah) and a larger lake further south (Bitter Lake). The whole system connects the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, and provides a causeway for migration of biota; several Red Sea species were recorded in the eastern Mediterranean including Lake Bardawil of northern Sinai. 1.2.2. THREATS (after Ann., 2005) Threats that menace the Egyptian wetlands, especially the lakes of northern delta, include conversion to other land uses (land reclamation, urban development, etc). Lakes Manzala and Burullus, though have lost considerable areas, retain bodies that keep their basic ecological features. Lake Mariut has lost its attributes and became decimated into small basins heavily loaded with pollutants. Lake Idku is also menanced by conversion and pollution. Other threats include impacts of land uses in the outskirts of these lakes,
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Introduction
14
and discharges of industrial and domestic effluents that may flow directly to the lakes or via agricultural drains. The pristine balance between marine water in the northern sectors and the brackishfresh water in the southern sectors provided habitat diversity with associated diversity of biota including fish species. Land reclamation discharges to the lakes excessive agriculture drainage and the brackish - fresh water prevails; habitat diversity is thus reduced. Flows of agricultural, domestic and industrial effluents cause changes in the chemistry (and hence limnology) of the Lakes; this is pronounced because the catchment area of each lake is extensive. These threats reduce the wetland functions and services that they provide. Wetlands are also exposed to impacts of natural processes of sedimentation and silting. In the deserts oases wetlands are prone to sand encroachments, and so is Lake Nasser. An added threat to all the northern Delta lakes is the coastal erosion that became active during the 20th century and that erodes the now-thin sand barriers that separate the lakes, especially Lakes Manzala and Burullus, from the sea. Further erosion would transfer the lakes into sea bays. Likely climate change (global warmth) and consequent sea-level rise would inundate the lakes and their outskirts.
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AIMS OF THE WORK The few available references about the study area clearly indicated that there is no clear idea about the productivity of the wetland vegetation of Wadi El-Rayan. Also, the effects of human interference through the use of the elements of that natural resource are not directly studied. Characterization of the wetland ecosystem of Wadi El-Rayan is urgently needed
for implementation of suitable management actions to effectively conserve the fragile components of the ecosystem, especially in the light of the current problems namely: 1. increased water demands for irrigation of newly reclaimed areas and aquaculture activities, 2. water abuse of Wadi El-Rayan lakes that is currently resulting in a serious water imbalance of the lakes affecting the surrounding systems particularly the adjacent wetlands, 3. non-reasonable continuous man-made vegetation firing processes in the wetlands of Wadi El-Rayan, that seriously disturb the inhabiting wild life, and 4. considering Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area as a spot of continuous economic development and as an important ecotourism site. The aims of the present study are summarized as follows: 1. Shedding more lights by studying the ecology of Wadi El-Rayan wetland area and its vegetation structure. 2. Studying the impacts of firing on the productivity of wetland vegetation. 3. Assessing the wetland productivity measured by the phytomass of the wetland dominant species Phragmites australis. 4. Use of GIS to locate the important productivity sites, for the ease manipulation in case of emergency, management and the decision making procedure. 5. Installing better management procedures for the wetland ecosystem of Wadi ElRayan regarding the human impacts
Chapter 2
Study Area
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Study Area
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Chapter 2
STUDY AREA Fayoum is a well known area of Egypt for its rich ancient history. It is an area where Egyptians often spend their vacation and which is constantly growing more popular among Europeans. Fayoum was a lush paradise during prehistoric times. Fayoum is a governorate south west of Cairo, with 2.4 million inhabitants in an area of 1,827 km². (2003 estimate). The oasis of Fayoum is irrigated by the Yusuf Canal, first constructed 3500 years ago, bringing in water from the Nile. Fayoum also has its own springs, but these contribute only a small part of the total water used in the oasis. The main Lake Qaroun has a surface area of about 234 km² and is 45 meters below sea level. It had freshwater in ancient times, but it has now saltwater. Surplus water has since 1973 been pumped from Qaroun to the Wadi El-Rayan, where two large lakes formed. (Fayoum Website FW2). Fayoum is a city with a quiet reputation yet much to offer particularly at the winter time of year. From October till April, Fayoum enjoys a warm climate (22-28 °C), also offering the opportunity to escape the noise and crowd for a weekend. 2.1. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE Originally named Crocodilopolis, then Arsinoe, Madinet El-Fayoum was the main place of worship of the crocodile god, Sobek, of Fayoum represented by a man with the head of a crocodile. It has also been called the Venice of Egypt due to the many canals that run through it from Bahr Youssef. Of interest are the huge wooden waterwheels. (Fayoum Governorate Website FGW) The waters of the Bahr Youssef are distributed throughout the oasis from Madinet El-Fayoum, the capital of the Fayoum. Approximately 200 of the great waterwheels are located throughout the oasis. The Seven Waterwheels, a Fayoum landmark, are surrounded by mangos, palms and willows. A great stone obelisk was erected in honor of Senwosret I in Abgig during the 12Th Dynasty. The governorate has three main characteristic landscapes: the rural center, the surrounding desert and the lake shores of Wadi El-Rayan and Lake Qaroun.
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Lake Qaroun, which is one of the large lakes of Egypt (226 km2), is a remnant of a much bigger one, ‘‘the historic Lake Moreis’’, and was originally a fresh water lake. It is a closed basin used as a general reservoir for agricultural wastewater drainage of Fayoum Province. Most of this discharge is brought to the lake via the so called Batts and Wadi Drains (Mansour & Sidky, 2003). About 70,000 years ago the Nile flood first broke through the low mountains which surround the large Fayoum depression and formed Lake Qaroun and the surrounding marshes. This is believed to be one, if not the first, site of agriculture in the world, as plants which grew around the lake were collected, land was fenced in, and dry and guarded storage areas were built. Even today, Fayoum is still famous for fruit and vegetables and its chicken. The 12th Dynasty Pharaoh Amenemhet I first drained part of the marshes to develop the area for agriculture and also dug a large canal from the Nile controlled by a regulator at Lahun to the north west of Beni Swef. The result of this and further developments by Amenemhet III (1842-1797 BC), who built a pyramid at Hawara, was lake Moreis (Great Lake), twice the present size and teeming with fish, and an agricultural area to the south renowned for its rich and varied crops. The Romans, who called the area Crocodilopolis (because of the crocodiles) changed Fayoum's previous system of crop rotation and forced the area to supply grain exclusively to the Roman market. Muslims believe that Prophet Joseph developed the area during his captivity in Egypt through the canalization of Bahr Youssef river and by building the world's first dam. The water level in Lake Qaroun had been falling for about 2,000 years, as it received less and less water until the construction of the Aswan High Dam led to greater stability in the level of the Nile. By the Middle Ages, the lake had become too salty to sustain freshwater fish and new species were introduced. The shrunken lake now lies 45 meters below sea level since 70,000 years ago. It now appears that water table is rising again as houses and fields at the lakeside have been flooded in recent years. The beach resorts around Lake Qaroun still attract the more affluent visitors to the region. The number of visitors is increasing and while half are Egyptians, about a third
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are Europeans. The season runs all year round, but from January to April it is considered too cold to swim. The regional government is now studying new tourist desert sites to the north and west of Lake Qaroun; Qaroun and Wadi El-Rayan Protected areas and World Heritage Site of Wadi El-Hitan have been developed. Known as "Little Egypt", Fayoum is home to Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, Coptic and Islamic monuments at numerous historic sites. PHARAONIC ERA Remnants indicate this era are represented in Pyramid of Hawara & Temple of Narmuthis COPTIC ERA Fayoum comprises five major monasteries: Deir El-Malak Ghobrial (Monastery of the Archangel Gabriel), Saint Anthony (251-356 AD), Deir Al-Adhra (Monastery of the Virgin), Deir Hammam, and finally Deir Anba Samwail (Monastery of St Samuel), which is about 30 km south of the Fayoum depression and can only be reached by four wheel drive vehicle. GREEk & ROMAN ERA This era represented in Ruins of Karanis, Karanis Museum, Dimai, Madinet Madi, Tebtunis and Temple of Dionysias ISLAMIC ERA
Mosque of Qaybey ( Kwawand Asla-Bey )
2.2. SITE DESCRIPTION 2.2.1. LOCATION Wadi El-Rayan occupies a depression in the northern part of the western desert of Egypt. It is located between longitude 29°00' 00" & 29°24' 11" E and latitude 30°00' 00" & 30° 34' 00" N. Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area located 210 km right angle south to the Mediterranean coast at co-ordinates of 30°00' N & 30°18' E. The total area is 1759 km2. 2.2.2. CLIMATE The climate is typically Saharan, hot and dry with scanty winter rain and bright sunshine throughout the year. The area is hyper-arid with mild winters and hot summers (Zahran, 1989). Metrological data from the nearest station to the area in Fayoum, expressed monthly means of 50 years of record. The mean winter and summer temperature were 28.5 and
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13.7 °C respectively & absolute maximum and minimum temperatures were 48.4 and –1.2 °C recorded in June and January respectively. Mean amplitude of diurnal temperature fluctuations are 14.2 °C in winter and 17 °C in summer. Precipitations rate averages 10.1 mm annually, the highest rainfall occurs in December (40% of annual rainfall) and the lowest (0%) in August. Potential evapo-transpiration rate is extremely high in all months of the year, resulting in a mean annual aridity index of 0.004. Relative humidity averages 51%, ranging from 39% in May to 64% in December. For most of the year, the light winds are mainly from north, varying northwest or northeast. Variable wind direction may occur in the winter month of January and February (Saleh, 1988 and El-Bayomi, 2006). 2.2.3. GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY The geology of the area has since been the subject of intensive studies first described in modern scientific terms by Beadnell, (1905); Bagnold, (1941); Fox, (1951); and Said, (1962). Those authors reported that the depression of Wadi El-Rayan, which like other depressions in the Egyptian Western Desert, has been excavated by wind action. The mean elevation of the depression is 43 m below the sea level and its deepest point is 64 m below sea level. The depression is separated from the neighboring Fayoum depression (to the north) by a topographic saddle about 15 km in width. It is bound on its southern and southeastern side, by the vertical scarp of Minqar El-Rayan which rises up to 184 m above sea level. This scarp, which is a part of Wadi El-Rayan formation, is made of the highly fossiliferous, hard limestone of middle Eocene, with shale and marl intercalations (Said, 1962). The depression floor rises gradually forming undulating, dissected pediplains that are mostly covered by deflated sand. Several monad nocks and numerous knobs and patches of hard limestone are seen on the surface of the Pedi plains particularly near the scarp. A number of mesas and buttes are also found around the depression; most prominent of these are AlModawara and El-Mashgiga northwest and southeast of the depression, respectively. The eastern flank of the scarp of Minqar El-Rayan is carved, just southwest and southeast of Wadi El-Rayan depression, into the two small and shallow hollows of the springs area and Wadi Muwellih. The Wadi El-Rayan depression, as well as the springs’ area and Wadi Muwellih, are among the important sites for the deposition of eolian sand in the Egyptian Western Desert. Extensive dune fields, mostly of Seif (longitudinal) dunes, run the length of
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Wadi El-Rayan depression and into Wadi Muwellih and springs' area. The dunes vary in length from a few hundred meters to thirty kilometers and may reach the height of thirty meters. These dunes are closely packed in the area south of the Wadi El-Rayan depression forming huge sand formations that are practically impassable. To the west and south, the dunes gradually separate creating inter-dune valleys that vary in width from less than 100 meters to more than 2 kilometers, with the widest inter-dune valleys found in the springs' area. Scattered throughout the inter-dune valleys, are numerous phytogenic sand mounds up to 30 meters in diameter and 6 meters in height. The springs drive their water from the Nubian sandstone strata (Ball, 1927). The larger springs from permanent pools and relatively extensive affluent channels that are generally choked by a dense growth of marsh vegetation in the inter-dune valleys where the ground water table is close to the surface, sabkhas are found, particularly in Wadi Muwellih where it covers extensive areas. The geology and geomorphology of Wadi El Rayan have been extensively investigated starting from the end of the XIX century: (Schweinfurth, 1886; Blankchenhorn, 1901; Beadnell, 1905; Bagnold, 1935). Wadi El Rayan formation is essentially made of Middle Eocene, Pliocene, Early and Late Pleistocene and Halocene times. Beadnell (1905), showed that the middle Eocene rocks, clays, marls and limestone with Nummulites gezahensis, a foraminifer species, formed the oldest beds found in the area. The land exposure from late Eocene to late Oligocene (40 to 30 million years ago) allowed the ancient “Lybian river” to begin eroding the thick Eocene sediments and laid down some of Egypt’s most valuable fossil deposits of early mammals, primates, reptile and fish species. Schweinfurth (1886) discovered the first fossil vertebrate (whale remains of the most common species Zeuglodon isis) in Fayoum depression. The following studies and explorations showed that in WRPA, especially in the areas of Wadi El Hitan and Garet Gehannam, four Eocene formation are present, all of them marine. A paleontological and paleoenvironmental report that summarize the existing data about the area of Wadi El Rayan has been finalized by the PAMU of WRPA with the consultancy of paleontologists and geologists (El Bedewy, et al, 1998). (Figures 2 & 3). Zahran & Willis (2009), reported that sand formations in Egypt’s deserts occupy about 165,000 km2, i.e. 16% of its total area distributed as follow: 135,000 km2 in the Great Sand
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Sea of the Western Desert, 10,000 km2 in both Qattara Depression and Siwa Oasis, 9000 km2 in the Northern Mediterranean Coast, 4500 km2 in the middle and South Oases of the Western Desert, 3000 km2 in Wadi El-Natrun and Western section of the Nile Delta, 500 km2 in the eastern section of the Nile Delta and 3000 km2 in El-Fayoum and Wadi El-Rayan Depressions (Draz, 1993). Generally, the rate of sand dune movement differs in the Mediterranean coastal and inland deserts of Egypt. In the Mediterranean coastal desert, sand movement ranges between 1–13 m/year whereas in the inland desert it ranges between 20 and 100 m/year. This is mainly due to the extreme climatic aridity and higher wind velocity (mean = 28 m/s) in the inland deserts than in the Mediterranean coastal one (mean wind velocity = 16–21 m/s Antar, (2007) reported that the geology of Wadi El-Rayan can be described as follows: 1) Qasr El-Sagha Formation: littoral marine to continental limestone sequence with Oyster beds, intercalated with silt and clay stone in the lower part with Nummulites and intercalated with Birket Qarun Formation; 2) Birket Qarun Formation: It is represented by the lower part of Qasr El-Sagha Formation, the sandy shell fragments fossils, this Formation is prevailing in the northern part of the study area, in addition the presence of these fossils that contain residue of vertebrates is an indicator that, this Formation is of shallow coastal origin with the presence of coal, the thickness of the Formation attains about 50 m; 3) Garet Gehannam Formation: It consists of Nummulitic limestone and considered the oldest layer in Wadi El-Rayan depression in addition to the presence of clay, shale, gypsum and marl intercalated with limestone, the thickness of this Formation is about 50 m; 4) Wadi El-Rayan Formation: It is located in far south the depression. Regarding the different landform types of Wadi El Rayan depression, Abd El-Aal (1984) indicated that they have different origin: alluvial, alluvial-colluvial and desert deposits. Wadi El Rayan depression represents an important site for the Eolian sand deposition in the Western Desert. Extensive dune fields run the length of WRPA oriented NNW to SSE and, probably, they are formed within the Holocene period as a result of disintegration and transportation of friable stones. The dunes vary in length from a few hundred meters to thirty km and may reach the height of 30 m.
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FIGURE 2. Geology of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area
22
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Study Area
FIGURE 3. Geomorphology of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area
23
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2.2.4. SOIL According to Saleh (1998) the soils of Fayoum Governorate varies in its texture. He classified its soils into three textural classes as follows: a) The flood plain is sandy clay loam to clayey sandy to loamy soils. b) Soils of alluvial wind-borne deposits are stratified in the texture from sandy to loamy sands. c) Desert deposits with sandy gravels texture. It was mentioned that CaCO3 predominates in the soils of Fayoum. Its percentage is generally high particularly near the border of the depression. The CaCO3 concretions vary in their diameter from that of sand to clay particle sizes. However, it is found that most of the CaCO3 in that area intermixes with other soil mineral and falls within the colloidal clay fraction. The soils of Wadi El-Rayan have been classified into Typic Torriorthents, Typic Torripsamments and Typic Salorthids, besides a number of sub-land types (Hawela & El-Khattib, 1990). 2.2.5. WATER RESOURCES 2.2.5.1. SURFACE WATER The surface water of Fayoum belongs to two different systems: (i) the network of irrigation canals and drains, and (ii) the lakes receiving the drainage output. The geological history of Fayoum reveals that Fayoum’s hydrology was dominated by annual flood waters of the Nile from the dawn of human occupation (10,000 – 8,000 years ago) until the middle kingdom of Pharaonic period (1800 B.C.). The flood water reached the Fayoum basin via the natural channel of Bahr Youssef, and via various drainage lines incised into the alluvial fan (the present Al-Wadi and al-Batts drains occupy the deepest incised valleys). The history of Fayoum’s present irrigation system began in 1869 with the digging of the Ibrahimiyah canal leaving the Nile at Assiut barrage, this canal brings water along the western Nile valley up to the ancient Bahr Youssef at Dairut. Bahr Youssef, in turn, brings water to Lahun, some 380 km from its original intake at the Nile. Around the turn of the century, a gravity fed system of canals was designed to continuously distribute water in proportion to the land area which each canal served.
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Since all drainage water within the basin was directed to Lake Qaroun, restrictions on water intake had to be imposed in an attempt to maintain stable water levels. The construction of the diversion canal and tunnel from Al-Wadi drain into Wadi El-Rayan in 1973 relaxed these restrictions and allowed further manipulation of Fayoum’s hydrology: it creating a possibility of increased water intake at Lahun. 2.2.5.2. GROUND WATER The Hydrogeological studies considered the main items in the evaluation of the different groundwater aquifers, which depends on several studies such as geological, geophysical, and hydrological studies. The geological and geophysical studies revealed that, the concerned area affected by different tectonic movements during Oligocene age which resulted in the appearance of the basaltic rocks in the area of Gebel Oatrani to the northern part of the study area. Wadi El Rayan area is subjected to different geological structures e.g. faults, folds and fractures which play an important role in the existence and nature of the groundwater. A research team from the Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI) carried out field survey to Wadi El-Rayan area to measure the discharge of the natural springs, assess the water quality, and geophysical measurements (WRRI, 2007). Spring Water Three natural springs are found in the springs' area of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area. These springs are said to derive their water from the remotely changed Nubian sandstone strata (Ball, 1927). The water output of the three springs was reported by Zahran (1970) to be 1.6, 4.8 and 14.4 L/min for the northern, western and southern springs respectively. The springs' area of Wadi El-Rayan basin are reputed to originate from the Nubian sandstone aquifer, but since they yield brackish water (TDS 2620 – 4700 ppm), at low flow rates (1.6, 4.8 and 14.4 L/min), they do not represent a substantial resource (Saleh, 1998). Water from the southern spring, the largest of the three springs, form a series of small permanent pools, which show considerable seasonal variation in size; while the other two springs do not form any pools and their water runs in small streams and is
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quickly absorbed into the soil. Water from these springs is extensively used for drinking by wild animals inhabiting the area. Aquifer nature The lithologic sequence of the springs’ area can be divided from the apparent electrical resistivity into five unites consists of limestone, shale and sand with thickness ranges from 400 to 500 m due to the presence of the shale layer may causes the artesian condition phenomena therefore the aquifer nature is considered as a confined aquifer (WRRI, 2007). Hydrogological characteristics of the aquifer The latest measurements (WRRI, 2007) reveal that, the first spring has the lowest discharge where it attains less than one cubic meter/hr. However the Monks’ spring which so called El Ruhban spring is the most promising one where it attains about 12 m3/hr. Artesian rates from the hydrogeological point of view A hydrological study performed in 2007 has lead to results that, the Monks’ spring is located along fault plane (normal fault) with trend north east – south west. This fault extends to more than 500 m and cuts all rock units and dose not appear to the surface except at following spring. The higher discharge of that spring which equals to about 12 m3/hr is attributed to thick lithologic column which increase the hydraulic pressure. However, the lowest discharge of the first spring which equals about 1 m3/hr is attributed to the intensity of the faults and the connection of the fractures system. The variation in water salinity depends on the path and length of the fracture and the type of the rock which is manly calcic especially the salt deposits (lacustrine deposits). The recharge of this aquifer is considered too small due to the scarce of annual rain (5 mm/year), which falls on outcrops of the aquifer that prove the gradual increase in water salinity (WRRI, 2007). 2.2.5.3. THE RAYAN LAKES These artificial lakes lie to the west of the cultivated lands taking nearly a northeastsouthwest trend. The lakes were formed in a previous depression (Wadi El-Rayan depression) covering an area of 710 km2, and a depth of 55 m below sea level. The rock
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exposures in the depression are composed of the Eocene fractured limestone. About one third of the drain water from the cultivated land of Fayoum Governorate is discharged by El-Wadi drain along an uncovered canal having a length of 9 km and also a tunnel having a length of 8.5 km and a diameter of 3 meters in Gisr El Hadid area, which separates Wadi El-Rayan depression from Fayoum depression. The establishment of the artificial lakes was completed in the year 1973. The Upper Lake (UL) possesses an area of 52 km2 in Wadi El Masakheet and its salinity reaches about 1500 ppm and its deepest part is 25 m. The surface water level is -8.7 m relative to sea level. The Lower Lake (LL) has an area of about 56 km2 and its water salinity is about 9800 ppm (EEAA, 2003) and its deepest part is 18 m, and its surface water level is -32 m relative to sea level. Worth mentioning, Rayan natural springs' area lies south and southeast of the Lower Lake and its area is about 150 km2. The area is characterized by movable sand dune belts. The filling of the upper depression of Wadi El-Masakheet commenced in 1973 and formed the Upper Rayan Lake. The depression was filled to its maximum capacity (about -10 m) in 1978, spilling over, via another canal, into the lower depression of Wadi ElRayan thereby forming the Lower Rayan Lake and water falls. The water level in that lake is close to the -20 m contour line. When filled to their maximum levels, the total surface area of the lakes will be about 190 km2. After reaching that level, the rate of filling will be reduced to equal the rate of water loss by evaporation. Hydrological aspects of the project were reviewed by (Zahran, 1970). The physical and chemical properties of the lake water, its seasonal variations and inorganic pollution in the lakes have been studied and investigated by Saleh, et al, (1988a,c). 2.3. WR PRIOR TO THE LAKES FORMATION As Reported by Saleh (1998), the Rayan depression is irregular shaped basin lying to the south west of the Fayoum depression. It reaches a depth of 42 meters below the sealevel and has no connection with the Nile Valley. Researchers found shells at low level sufficient to suppose that the Rayan depression was flooded by the Mousterian Lake. Beadnell (1905) and other investigators found no trace of lake-beds, in the Rayan, nor along the north-eastern side of the Rayan
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depression. Accordingly, it is to be concluded that Rayan depression if flooded in the Mousterian times this should had for short period. 2.4. WR AFTER THE FORMATION OF THE ARTIFICIAL LAKES Wadi El-Rayan and its neighboring Wadi Muwellih are located in the Western Desert of Egypt, one of the most arid regions of the World. The extensive dune fields of the water springs area are of considerable scientific interest as they provide an example of the widely represented, yet little known, sand dune habitats of the hyper-arid Saharan interior (Saleh, et al, 1988). The area supports rich and varied desert wild life (Osborn & Helmy, 1980; Saleh, 1987; Saleh, et al, 1988) and unique geological and geomorphological features (Said, 1962). In addition, the area harbors the world’s only known surviving population of the endangered slender-horned gazelle Gazella leptoceros leptoceros (Saleh, 1987 and Saleh, et al, 1988). The area is also inhabited by the declining dorcas gazelle, Gazella dorcas and the little known desert species such as the fennec fox, Vulpes Fennecus zerda, the sand fox Vulpes rueppelli, the sooty falcon Falco concolor and the very rare bat Eptesicus innesi (Saleh, et al, 1988). The two, newly formed Rayan Lakes have created a variety of new habitats and added more value to the beauty and serenity of the area, however, the adverse consequences of their creation on the ecology of the area has to be investigated (Saleh, 1987 and Saleh, et al, 1988a). Since the beginning of their formation in 1973, the lakes have been attracting increasingly larger populations of birds particularly water fowl. The two lakes are currently among the more important wetland areas, and are likely to assume an international importance for migrating water fowl in the future. Lakes size temporal change In terms of lake perimeter and area, the Rayan lakes were filled up until stable levels in the early 2000. After that date the water discharge into the lakes started to decrease resulting in decreased perimeter of the lakes from 39.98 to 39.17 kilometer for the Upper Lake and 66.96 to 46.86 kilometer from 2000 to 2008 respectively. This has been calculated using Arc GIS Ver. 9.2 Catalogue and Google earth maps 2008. Comparing the total area of both Upper and Lower Rayan lakes between 2000 & 2008 indicated a clear loss of 9.8% & 12.5% in the Upper and Lower lakes respectively (Figure 4).
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FIGURE 4. Wadi El-Rayan Lakes in the years 2000 & 2008
2000
2008
29
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2.5. THE WETLANDS OF WADI EL-RAYAN The lakes-wetland complex is a spatially and temporally dynamic system in which the water quality of lakes depends on both weather conditions and polluting parameters (Sayed & Abdel Satar, 2009). Wadi El-Rayan lakes receive the agricultural wastewater drainage from El-Wadi Drain and vary in their physical and chemical characters (Ali, et al 2007). So, internal nutrient loading is therefore important to consider when determining the trophic condition of a water body (Liikanen, et al 2002). Excess nutrient supplies from increased sedimentation due to changes in land use, atmospheric deposition, agricultural fertilizer runoff and other anthropogenic sources, can have adverse effects on wetland ecosystems (Morse, et al 2007). Well developed reed beds have been formed around Wadi El-Rayan Lakes since the late seventies. The common reed Phragmites australis is the key species in this wetland system. It often forms monotypic stands, as other species are excluded by persistent shading and extensive utilization of space by common reed (Gucker, 2008). Dominant vegetation within a wetland or riparian site is often determined by water levels and flood tolerances, and so it often fluctuates with water table changes (Tolstead, 1942). The common reed “Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Stud.” is a cosmopolitan species. Although the common reed invades water ways, pastures and arable fields causing many problems, but it has many uses. It is used as shelter, wind break, thatch, forage, and refuge for animals, raw fuel, fertilizer, for making crafts, mats, baskets and raw material for paper industry (Holm, et al, 1977 and Zahran & Willis, 2003). Boulos (1983) reported the use of its rhizome in the folk medicine. It plays also an important environmental role in the phyto-remediation of the polluted water (Schierup, et al 1990). Common reed reproduces sexually from seed and vegetatively from stolons and rhizomes. Local spread of common reed is predominantly through vegetative growth and regeneration, while establishment of new populations occurs through dispersal of seeds, rhizomes, and sod fragments. (Gucker, 2008).
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several studies report some common reed seedling emergence from soil seed banks. Some studies and researchers indicate that common reed seed banks are small and/or short-lived (Herrick & Wolf 2005; Drawe, 1994). Once established, common reed regeneration and spread are primarily through rhizome and sometimes stolon growth. A substantial amount of common reed establishment also occurs vegetatively through colony breakage and dispersal of rhizome fragments (Stallard, 1929; Ailstock, et al 2001) High levels of salinity (≥18,000 ppm), anoxic conditions, exposure, and small rhizome size can reduce the chances of successful establishment from common reed rhizome fragments (Bart & Hartman 2002). The Upper Rayan Lake shows more and well developed P. australis community due to the reasonable salinity level of the lake (around 1500 ppm), however, in the Lower Lake the salinity reaches 12000 ppm in some areas and up to 15000 in the extreme areas, which arrest the establishment and extent of the plant. Authors reported that throughout its range, common reed is most common on wet, muddy, or flooded areas around ponds, marshes, lakes, springs, irrigation ditches, and other waterways. Common reed tolerates brackish and saline conditions (Barkworth, et al 2003; Cronquist, et al 1977; Duncan & Duncan, 1987; Hitchcock & Cronquist, 1973; Pojar & MacKinnon, 1994; Roland & Smith, 1969). In a review, authors report that common reed
grows best in areas with slow or stagnant water and silty substrates (Holm, et al 1977). Common reed tolerates frequent, prolonged flooding as well as seasonal drying (Hansen, et al, 1988; Johnston, 1987). The common reed is a geophyte/helophyte according to Raunkiaer Life Form system (Raunkiaer, 1934). After channeling out the excess agricultural wastewater to Wadi El-Rayan depression, the water-transferred seeds in addition to the possible seed bank have enhanced the growth and reproduction of the common reed both sexually from seed and vegetatively from stolons and rhizomes. The rhizome layer of the common reeds in Wadi El-Rayan may
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reaches 3 meters thickness in some places such as those at the end of the connecting canal and before the waterfalls area. This layer acts as a stock for plant regeneration. Warm temperatures, high light conditions, and low to moderate salinity levels on moist but not flooded sites are most conducive to successful common reed seed germination. These conditions were existed prior to Rayan lakes formation, which enable the common reed to develop as water arrives. Today, the same conditions are still there especially in the Upper Lake and reflected on the greater area and density around it rather than around the Lower Lake. Common reed germination may be decreased at salinity levels greater than 5,000 ppm (Briea, 2006). This is very clear in the Lower Rayan Lake, when the water level decreased after 1999 and the shoreline of the lake greatly retarded, the soil has dried up and the existed vegetation has died (except the woody species such as Tamarix). The reed stolons run towards the new shoreline for long distances trying to reach the moist, but the visible growth rate and vitality and vigor are so weak due to the high salinity of the lake in these areas which reaches more than 12000 ppm. It is easy to notice the stolons and new seedlings of Phragmites trying to establish themselves in these areas. Another study showed similar results, with 4% of seeds germinating in a salt-free environment, 36% at 2,000 ppm salinity, and 32% at 5,000 ppm salinity (Galinato & Van der Valk, 1986). 2.5.1. SITE DESIGNATIONS Since 1973, the site has been designated as a reservoir for the excess agricultural wastewater of Fayoum Governorate and of development interest for reclamation of new agricultural areas in addition to potential fish resources. The area has designated a protected area by 1989 due to its important natural resources and biodiversity elements in the springs area and those attracted by the newly formed wetland areas around the lakes. 2.5.2. CURRENT LAND USE · Habitat/nature conservation · Recreational/sport fishing
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· Tourism · Development purposes (traditional fishing, aquacultures, irrigation of newly agriculture reclaimed areas) 2.5.3. HYDROLOGY The water of the lakes is provided by a 9 km tunnel structure getting the water from the main Al-Wadi drain. The tunnel was receiving around 8 m3/sec in 1999 reduced to around 4.5 m3/sec in 2008. (results provided by the monitoring program of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area). The water surface in the Upper depression is relatively higher (-15) than that of the Lower depression (-35), so the water is continuously moving and forming the only waterfalls in Egypt at the end of connecting channel and before falling down into the Lower Lake. Estimates of mean annual rainfall are less than 10 mm, meaning that the obtained volume of water by the rainfall can be easily ignored. 2.5.4. CHEMICAL ISSUES One of the primary functions of wetlands is the removal of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which may have originated from a variety of sources (fertilizers, pesticides, slurries etc.). Phosphorus is mainly removed by: · the uptake by vegetation · being absorbed by, and settling in anaerobic sediments Nitrogen is mainly removed by: · some uptake by plants · bacterial metabolism at the water/sediment interface; · Nitrification. Ammonia is oxidised to nitrite, and then nitrite to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. Plants can then absorb the resultant nitrate. Occurs mainly in aerated, neutral to slightly alkaline soils. · Denitrification. The breakdown of nitrates by bacteria within the soil, resulting in the release of free nitrogen to the atmosphere. This process takes place under anaerobic condition such as those found in waterlogged soil, and reduces soil fertility.
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Wetlands can remove significant amounts of toxic residues from waste products (i.e. heavy metals, pesticides and herbicides) via ion exchange and absorption in the organic and clay sediments, and also some uptake by plants (common reed). Many parts of the lakes are suffering eutrophication that the total phosphorus content easily exceeds 0.1 ppm and may reaches 0.47 for the Upper Lake, 2.3 in the connecting channel, and 1.36 ppm in the Lower Lake as measured in the study period. 2.5.5. FLORA The shorelines of the 2 Rayan lakes and their connecting channel provide aquatic habitats for a diverse variety of plants, and are also important in providing marginal/bankside habitat. Nationally and internationally important species are existed. The Levels support floating and submerged aquatic plants that represent the pioneer stages, such as; · pondweeds (Potamogeton pectinatus) · water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) · Najas minor These are followed by emergent plants such as: · common reed (Phragmites australis) and Typha domingensis Finally, the salt marsh and woody vegetation comes lining the outer edges of the wetland, such as: · Juncus rigidus · Tamarix nilotica comes at the outer line facing the desert Other desert and halophytic species may develop after that especially in the area of the Upper Lake such as Zygophyllum coccinum and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum. The appendices part at the end of this study provided the lists of biota in the area of Wadi El-Rayan. 2.5.6. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS FACED The nature of the received water by the lakes is agricultural drainage means that lots of nutrients been installed due to crops fertilization behavior. Pesticides residues are the most influencing.
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The presence of 2 authorized aquacultures (intensive and extensive) wasting their effluents into the connecting channel and the Lower Lake. The Nutrient loading and subsequent Eutrophication (the process by which a body of water becomes rich in dissolved nutrients, thereby encouraging the growth of oxygendepleting plant life and resulting in harm to other biota) is contributing to the considerable problems within the wetland system. Cattle and buffalo grazing is one of the sorts of human interference with the wetlands of Wadi El-Rayan. The locals are firing the grazing sites from time to time for new sprouts. The uncontrolled fires and grazing activities affect the natural system and amenities obtained from these wetlands. Grazing may be beneficial to the natural system but should be controlled in terms of seasonality, frequency, and localities. Uncontrolled burning causes retrogression of coastal marshes as does uncontrolled grazing (Allan, 1950). Fire is as important an agent as climate and soil in determining the persistence of vegetation types in many parts of the Southeast. The effects of fire are reviewed for longleaf-slash pine, coastal plain and bottomland hardwoods, coastal plain swamp, and other upland forests as well as natural or artificial un-forested areas. Cypress swamps sometimes are little affected by fire. At other times, they change to shrubs (Garren, 1943). Prescribed burning is very effective in conditioning upland wildlife and marsh habitat on many southeastern National Wildlife Refuges. It removes dense vegetation (e.g., cattail, cordgrass, and giant southern-wild rice) and accumulated litter. This makes valuable seedbearing food plants, such as barnyardgrass and foxtail, more available to waterfowl. Burning also provides succulent sprout growth for browsing waterfowl. (Givens, 1962). Wastewater disposal and fire were associated with an increase in dominance of other herbaceous species. Although shrubs and other normal understory species remained common, fire increased both the dominance of herbaceous species and overall productivity by opening the canopy. The combined effects of wastewater and fire are greater than the effect of either perturbation alone, (Ewel, 1984).
Chapter 3 Wadi El-Rayan: A Protected Area
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Chapter 3
WADI EL-RAYAN: A PROTECTED AREA WRPA has been declared by the prime-ministerial decree No. 943 in 1989 according to the law No. 102/1983 of the protected areas in Egypt. It is administered by the Nature Conservation Sector (NCS) of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area (WRPA) is one of Egypt’s 27 protected areas. Natural features and landscapes, biodiversity and the World Heritage Site in Wadi El-Hitan have drawn national and international attention to its value. It is located in the Fayoum Governorate on the Western Desert of Egypt about 120 Km from Cairo. The WRPA is a popular recreation area due its close proximity to Cairo. It is visited by over 150,000 visitors/year (Galindo, et al, 2007). WRPA is a large natural desert area, lakes and oasis located in the Western Desert of Egypt, in the Fayoum Governorate. The protected area was established in 1989 and enlarged in 1992 to include the rich whale fossils of Wadi El-Hitan. In 2005, the fossil site, known as Valley of the Whales, was designated by UNESCO as The first World Heritage Site of natural category in Egypt. Today, the protected area is 1,759 km2 in size (Galindo, et al, 2007). WRPA natural landscapes are a popular attraction for national and international visitors. A growing number of visitors are attracted to the only waterfalls in Egypt, sand beaches, natural beauty, camping, bird watching, and the internationally important World Heritage Site (Galindo, et al, 2007). Wadi El-Rayan desert area has a special historical significance as a major crossroad that was used for many centuries by travelers between the Nile Valley and the oases of the Western Desert. Remains of human settlements from Egyptian and Roman-Greek eras are found in the area (Fakhry, 1957).
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3.1. MAIN FEATURES 3.1.1. LAKES Currently, about 4.8 m3/sec of drainage-water reaches the lakes of Wadi El Rayan through the tunnel linking the Upper Lake and El Wadi Main Drain and flows from the Upper Lake to the Lower via a shallow, swampy canal and a small waterfall.
The
extremely
high
rate
of
evaporation coupled with very low precipitation, both characteristic to arid areas, and the fact that the lakes are being formed from agricultural drainage wastewater could lead to increased concentration of pollutants and a rapid increase in salinity of the lakes. The presence of these water bodies in this hyper-arid area has a tremendous ecological impact. Because water-level in the Upper Lake has been stable for a considerable length of time, a very dense growth of Phragmites and Tamarix species has developed along the shores of this lake. In contrast, the Lower Lake has scant cover along its shores due to the slow steady change of the water level. The relatively high water salinity adopts the same trend in the Lower Lake (which has no outflow) as a result of evaporation. The current salt concentration in the Lower Lake is about 9.8 g/l, as average. It is expected that it is only a matter of time to be as saline as Lake Qaroun. Salinity is expected to remain stable in the Upper Lake, since it is constantly flushed. 3.1.2. VALLEY OF THE WHALES WORLD HERITAGE SITE In 2005, Wadi El-Hitan (Valley of the Whales), was designated by UNESCO as the first Egyptian Natural World Heritage Site, in WRPA, for its contents of the 40 million year-old whale skeletons, which is recording the story of whales evolution (from land to ocean based animals). According to IUCN, Valley of the Whales is the most significant site in the world to demonstrate the evolution of whales.
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3.1.3. WATERFALLS AT THE MAIN VISITOR AREA The waterfalls, located at the main visitor area, is one of the most popular attraction sites of WRPA, and it is the only permanent waterfall of its kind in Egypt. In this area, cafeterias, boat trips, fishing, are available. Over 150,000 visitors come to this area annually; about 98% of them are Egyptians and locals. 3.1.4. SPRINGS OASIS To the west of the lakes of Wadi El Rayan is a further, shallower, sandy depression that supports four brackish springs supporting the highest diversity of desert plant and wild animal life in the protected area. A limestone escarpment surrounds the depression on all sides except the east, where it is closed off by a series of high longitudinal sand dunes. The vegetation is dominated by shrubs of Alhagi graecorum, Nitraria retusa, Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum and Tamarix nilotica. Several rare and globally threatened animals inhabit the area, including Dorcas Gazelle, Rüppell's Sand Fox and Fennec Fox. These springs represent the last remains of Wadi El-Rayan depression's natural habitat and is considered as excellent and uncommon example of an uninhabited Saharan oasis. This area in historic times was the main gateway for Western Desert trade routes into Fayoum. Settlements and artifacts from ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman times are found in the area. 3.1.5. MODAWARA AREA This magnificent spot overlooks
the beautiful
landscape below where deep blue water meets the golden yellow sand. This view is framed with rounded sand
dunes
and
limestone
escarpments.
The
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mountain is about 18 kilometers from the main gate of WRPA. This site is important from eco-tourism point of view. 3.1.6. BIRDS OF WADI EL-RAYAN Wadi El-Rayan has 174 species known to occur there. Birds are the most visible wildlife in the protected area and can be seen in the lakes, desert and farmlands. Bird watching is possible throughout the year, but the greatest numbers and diversity of birds occur in winter when the lakes are teeming with migrant water birds (EEAA, 2003). Due to Wadi El-Rayan importance for wintering water birds, it has been designated by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA). 3.2. SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT The local communities of WRPA are represented in outside and inside communities. The inside ones are those settled within the spots of economic activities which mainly represented in 4575 feddans of reclamation areas including about 12240 individuals living and working mainly with agriculture and very low scale local markets selling vegetables, fruits and groceries. About 129 individuals work in an area of about 1300 feddans of intensive and extensive aquacultures (fish farms). The PA also includes some of 1724 local fishermen using 182 traditional fish boats in both of the Upper and Lower Rayan lakes, all in addition to 253 fishermen without boats. 11 individuals in the main beach area work in cafeterias, about 50 individuals work in salt extraction, and about 30 monks in a Coptic monastery located in the core zone of the PA. The outside communities are represented in the inhabitants of the villages surrounding the protected area such as Yousuf El-Seddik, El-Rayan, Tounis, El-Nasla, Hanna Habib. The inhabitants of these villages might be among the visitors to the PA, or doing some activities such as fishing, and some other services for the activities inside the PA. The natural areas like the Rayan waterfalls and beaches attract about 150,000 visitors/year who enjoy swimming and relaxing in the quiet and beautiful outdoors. The
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visitors spend money for food, fuel, accommodation, souvenirs, and often hire guides, all of which provide jobs for local residents. Now, with the opening of Wadi El- Hitan as a World Heritage Site, many more visitors are expected from all over the world. To increase the economic benefits, WRPA staff have created a new program called Eco-products for Local Benefit, which involves production of new products that local villagers can make and sell. These eco-products can be crafts and organic agricultural products like tea, olives, and fresh baking. A key management challenge of WRPA relates to the variety of activities belonging to different agencies and authorities. The protected area contains 90 intensive (cement) fish ponds, 30 extensive fish ponds (both aquacultures producing around 1,240 tons of fish annually generating around LE 12,400,000 annually). The local fishermen using the traditional fish boats were yielding an annual total of about 400 tons of fish from WR Lakes and cage culture operations. An operating oil field, small scale salt mining, tourism cafeterias, private tour boat owners, two land reclamation villages (about 4575 feddans), a Coptic Monastery and 2 cellular phone stations (Paying LE 7,000 annually for each) are the economic activities that currently taking place in WRPA. See appendix (11) for some details about economic activities (Figure 5). 3.3. THE PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES The protected area programs were listed in accordance with the objectives of the WRPA management plan 2002-2006. There were 3 main objectives: 1) natural resource management, 2) Human and economic activities management and 3) public awareness and environmental education. The programs were sorted under each of these objectives as follows: a) Planning and management, b) Monitoring, c) Wadi El-Hitan development, d) Eco-tourism and e) public awareness and environmental education. Planning and Management. The key areas of activity have been the following: (i) updating of the WRPA management plan, (ii) the implementation of a management effectiveness and evaluation system identifying threats and tracking the main trends in biodiversity resources and their utilization and the effectiveness of management, (iii)
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implementation of the patrolling and law enforcement system, (iv) managing the park human and financial resource (administrative activities). Monitoring. The main mission of WRPA is the conservation of the biodiversity. Monitoring status and trends in biodiversity resources is increasingly recognized as an essential tool for planning and implementation of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development (WCMC, 1996 and Prescott-Allen). A comprehensive monitoring system was established in the first phase of the Italian project support WRPA (1998-2001) as a crucial tool supporting the planning and the management of the protected area. The current monitoring programs includes: Vegetation: to monitor the changes in plant communities and identify the different vegetation patterns of the area. Large mammals: to track and estimate the abundance of existed large animals such as dorcas gazelle, fennec and sand foxes, wild cat, jackals. Birds: to estimate the individual bird count and identifying the new species in addition to ringing activities to investigate some migration patterns. Fish: to estimate the annual fish production from the fish farms and lakes and to identify the existed fish communities. Water quality: to assess the water quality of the Rayan lakes and springs and tracking the salinity increase in the lower lake and its effect on the surrounding biodiversity. Paleontology: to excavate new fossil sites and maintain the current exposed sites presented to visitors. Visitor estimates: to identify numbers, categories and classification of the visitors to WRPA. Wadi El-Hitan development. This program is part of the Egyptian Italian project support to WRPA. The project supported the nomination of the valley of the whales as a World Heritage Site, then promoting the site as the eco-tourism destination of Fayoum on the national/international scales. Visitor facilities have been recently established, while
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Wadi El-Rayan: A Protected Area
42
other infrastructures are urgently needed for better management of the site such as rangers outpost. Eco-tourism. This program aims at promoting WRPA as an eco-tourism site. It works to improve the existing eco-tourism facilities inside WRPA and to initiate new services to support the promotion strategy of the protect area. Facilities were newly established such as new signposting system of natural materials, new bird watching site, new camping site. The program is currently coordinating with the Fayoum Tourism Authority Eco-tourism project for promoting Fayoum as eco-tourism. Public awareness and environmental education. It is an important component for WRPA considering the recreational potential of the WRPA, that improves the overall “experience” of visitors is a cost-effective way to stimulate public support to the park resources protection . In this respect, the stakeholders of the local community represent an important target of the public awareness activities in WRPA. The main activities of this program includes improving and promoting the park visitor center, public campaigns and lectures for school children, stakeholders, and other targets and educational long term plan.
Chapter 3
Wadi El-Rayan: A Protected Area
FIGURE 5. Activities in Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area
43
Chapter 4 MATERIALS & METHODS
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
44
Chapter 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS The practical part of this study (field study and laboratory analyses) were conducted during the period from September 2005 to June 2007. Field sampling was carried out between September (autumn) 2005 and June (summer) 2006 for productivity and up to June (summer) 2007 for measuring productivity after occasional firing. Twenty stands were selected to assess the vegetation ecology in Wadi El-Rayan area in the main vegetated areas. Twenty eight stands (Fourteen sites) were selected to measure the ecology and productivity of Phragmites australis (Figures 6 & 7) along the main study areas (Upper Lake, Lower Lake, Connecting Canal and the Springs’ area), and visited four times during the study period in the wetland area of Wadi El-Rayan protected area. Nomenclature of species was according to Tackholm (1974) and Boulos (1995, 1999,2000, 2002, 2005). The life forms were recorded according to Raunkiaer (1934). Species identification and floristic categories were according to Zohary (1973); Tackholm (1974), Feinbrun-Dothan (1978, 1986) and Boulos (1995, 1999,2000).
4.1. VEGETATION ANALYSIS General Ecology The vegetation of Wadi El-Rayan protected area is clearly represented in the wetland areas around the two Rayan Lakes and around the springs area. Twenty stands (Figure 6a) were randomly selected to assess their vegetation (seven sites in the springs area and thirteen sites around the upper and lower lakes). Stratified random sampling design was implemented to distinguish the lake vegetation (wetlands) from the desert vegetation (springs area). The relative cover (Domain Scale) method (van der Maarel, 1979) was used to express the abundance of vegetation in the selected sites, which was estimated once during 2006. The area of each stand was determined as 100 m2. Only green flourished parts of the plant were considered, but the dry parts were completely ignored.
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
45
Productivity (Phytomass kg dry wt/m2) Fourteen study sites were sampled using twenty eight stands (10 m2 each) for the study period (Figure 6b). For each site, two stands were selected, one from the waterward (WW) of wetland vegetation and the other from the landward (LW) that facing the desert (Figure 7). In each stand, an average of two-randomly selected clip quadrates (0.25m2) was used for phytomass assessment (Sarvis, 1923 and Weaver & Clements 1957). For phytomass estimation, the above ground vegetative parts were clipped, cleaned, sorted out and weighed. Fresh samples were dried at 100 - 110 oC for constant weight. The productivity figures presented in this study are based on moisture-free basis. A total of one hundred and twelve stand phytomass readings were obtained during the 4 seasons of the study period.
4.2. WATER ANALYSIS Fifty six water samples were collected from the fourteen sites during the study period. The collected samples were transferred immediately after collection to the central laboratory of the EEAA in Cairo. Samples were analyzed for nine water parameters (units are ppm or mg/l): Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) (Gravimetric), Chemical Oxygen Demands (COD) (Potassium dichromate visual titrimetric method), Biochemical Oxygen Demands (BOD5) (Electrometric), Total Suspended Solids (TSS) (Gravimetric using GFC filter paper and vacuum filtration method), Total Phosphorus (TP) (4500 P-C method), Nitrates (NO3) (4500 NP screening method), Ammonia (NH4) (Electrometric), Chlorides (Cl-) content and sulfates content (SO4--) (P – 4110 IM titrimetric method). All the water analyses were performed according to APHA (1998).
4.3. SOIL ANALYSIS Fourteen soil samples were collected from the selected study sites once for the study time. Surface samples (0-25 cm) were collected, air-dried, and purified from plant debris. Samples were installed in the National Research Center (N.R.C.) for Physical and chemical analysis. The soil physical and chemical properties: a) soil water holding capacity (WHC), b) soil available water (AW), c) organic matter content (OM), d) calcium
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
46
content (Ca++) and e) soil particle analysis have been determined according to Piper (1950) & soil soluble ions: a) total soluble salts (TSS), b) chloride content (Cl-), c) sodium (Na+), d) potassium (K+), e) calcium (Ca++), f) magnesium (Mg++), g) bicarbonates (HCO3-), h) sulfates (SO4--), i) nitrogen (N) and j) phosphorus (P) have determined according to Black, et al, (1965).
4.4. IMPACT OF FIRE AND GRAZING Three sites for accidental fires were selected, and their GPS coordinates were recorded immediately after fire in each location. Two sites were located around the Upper Lake and one site located at the south of the Lower Lake. One of those sites was permitted to cattle grazing after fire around the Upper Lake. The fire sites were visited by three months intervals after the firing time. In each site, an average of two-randomly selected clip quadrate (1.00 m2) was used for phytomass assessment (Sarvis, 1923 and Weaver & Clements, 1957). The above ground vegetative parts were clipped, cleaned and sorted out. Fresh samples were dried at 100-110 oC for constant weight. The productivity figures presented in this study are based on dry weight basis.
4.5. DATA ANALYSIS Microsoft Windows Excel spreadsheet was used to present the vegetation data through pie & line charts and histograms. Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), as a classification technique, and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DECORANA), as an ordination technique, were applied to the target stands and productivity of Phragmites australis measures (Hill, 1979a, b; Hill and Gauch 1980 and Gauch et al 1981). The DCA identifies the factors controlling the distribution of the stand sets between the two ordination axes. Both of TWINSPAN and DECORANA analyses were conducted using the Windows based PC Ord Version 4.00 through IBM-compatible PC. Arch GIS Ver. 9.2 was used to create the necessary output maps for this study. SPSS 12.00 for windows was used to calculate the correlation between the 2 ordination axes and their environmental variables (water and soil) (Anon., 1993).
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
47
FIGURE 6a. The main study sampling sites for vegetation ecology at Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area
Ÿ
Ÿ
Vegetation sampling stations
Ÿ Ÿ ŸŸŸ ŸŸ
ŸŸ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ ŸŸ
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
FIGURE 6b. The main study sampling sites for productivity of Phragmites australis
48
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
49
FIGURE 7. The LF & LH productivity sampling sites for ecology and productivity of Phragmites australis
WW-LW
WW: Waterward vegetation LW: Landward vegetation
Chapter 5
Results
Chapter 5
Results
50
Chapter 5
RESULTS This part of the study included a diverse group of results. The first group presented the habitat types and plant cover of the study area; the species and their represented families were presented. The next set of data offered the multivariate analysis which classified the vegetation data into similar levels (classification) and then related them into the surrounding environmental variables (ordination) of water and soil of the area. The next group of data presented the relationships between the vegetation levels (outputs of multivariate analysis) and their environmental characteristics. The present study also provided the water and soil characteristics measured for the study area. The water quality of the study site and that of Qaroun Lake were also presented as simple comparative data set. The last set of data presented the impact of fire and grazing on the productivity of the wetland ecosystem in Wadi El-Rayan.
5.1. HABITAT AND VEGETATION TYPES Field observations distinguished the presence of five habitats in Wadi El-Rayan area, which are reed swamps, salt marshes, sand formations, gravel neomulitic desert and aquatic habitats.
5.2. PLANT COVER 5.2.1. CULTIVATED PLANTS The total cultivated area is about 4000 feddans and the major crop is olive (Olea europaea) belonging to the family Oleaceae. The list of crops cultivated in the study area and their associated weeds were presented in tables (1a and 1b). 5.2.2. NATURALIZED TREES Phoenix dactylifera trees were introduced into the springs' area oasis by the ancient Bedouin travelers for shadow and dates. Casuarina stricta and Eucalyptus rostrata transplanted in and around the land reclamation corridor as windbreaks.
Chapter 5
Results
51
TABLE 1a. Cultivated plants in the study area Latin Name
Family
اﻹﺳﻢ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻰ
Cereals Zea mayz
Gramineae
ذرة ﺷﺎﻣﻰ
Vegetables Allium cepa
Liliaceae
ﺑﺼﻞ
Allium sativum
Liliaceae
ﺛﻮم
Citrullus vulgaris
Cucurbitaceae
ﺑﻄﯿﺦ
Cucurbita pepo
Cucurbitaceae
ﻛﻮﺳﺔ
Cruciferae
ﺟﺮﺟﯿﺮ
Solanum lycopersicum
Solanaceae
طﻤﺎطﻢ
Solanum menlongena
Solanaceae
ﺑﺎذﻧﺠﺎن
Oleaceae
زﯾﺘﻮن
Sesamum indicum
Pedaliaceae
ﺳﻤﺴﻢ
Ricinus communis
Euphorbiaceae
ﺧﺮوع
Malvaceae
ﻛﺮﻛﺪﯾﮫ
Solanaceae
ﺑﻄﺎطﺲ
Psidium guajava
Moraceae
ﺟﻮاﻓﮫ
Musa nana
Musaceae
ﻣﻮز
Ficus carica
Moraceae
ﺗﯿﻦ
Opuntia ficus-indica
Moraceae
ﺗﯿﻦ ﺷﻮﻛﻰ
Eruca sativa Fruits used as vegetables
Oil Crops Olea europaea
Beverages Hibiscus sabadriffa Tubers Solanum tuberosum Fruits
The cultivated plants included cereals, vegetables, fruits used as vegetables, oil crops, beverages, tubers and fruits. Plants of medicinal importance and wind breakers are also cultivated.
Chapter 5
Results
TABLE 1b. Natural weeds growing in the cultivated land of WRPA Latin Name Aster squamatus Bassia indica Cakile maritima supsp. aegyptiaca Chenopodium ambrosoides
Family Compositae Chenopodiaceae Cruciferae Chenopodiaceae
Cichorium endivia subsp. pumilum
Compositae
Conyza bonariensis
Compositae
Cynanchum acutum
Asclepiadaceae
Cynodon dactylon
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Cyperus laevigatus
Cyperaceae
Echinochloa crusgalli
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Hyoscymus muticus
Solanaceae
Imperata cylinderica
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Malva parviflora
Malvaceae
Pluchea dioscoridis
Compositae
Polypogon monspliensis
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Rumex dentatus
Polygonaceae
Salonum nigrum
Solanaceae
Senecio glaucus subsp. coronopifolius
Compositae
Sesbania sesban
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
Sonchus oleraceous
Compositae
Spergularia diandra
Caryophyllaceae
Stipagrostis lanata
Graminae (Poaceae)
Sylibum marianum
Compositae
52
Chapter 5
Results
53
TABLE 1c. Checklist of the natural flora of Wadi El-Rayan No
Latin Name
Family
Preferred habitat within WR area
1
Acacia raddiana
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
Desert habitats (FA)
2
Adiantum capillus-veneris
Adiantaceae
Shadow slops in the spry zone (WFA)
3
Alhagi graecorum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
Dry soils with ground water supply (WFA, SA)
4
Arthrocnemum macrostachyum
Chenopodiaceae
Salty places (AUL&ALL)
5
Aster squamatus
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
6
Bassia indica
Chenopodiaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
7
Cakile maritime Subsp. aegyptiaca
Cruciferae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
8
Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum
Polygonaceae
Sandy dry places (SA)
9
Ceratophyllum demersum
Ceratophyllaceae
Submerged species (UL)
10
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Chenopodiaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
11
Cichorium endivia subsp. pumilum
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
12
Conyza bonariensis
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
13
Cornulaca monocantha
Chenopodiaceae
Desert dry habitat (FA and SA)
14
Cressa cretica
Convolvulaceae
Sandy and salty places (SA)
15
Cynanchum acutum
Asclepiadaceae
Near the wet areas (WFA & UL)
16
Cynodon dactylon
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Arround the wetty places (WFA & SA)
17
Cyperus laevigatus
Cyperaceae
Salty places (AUL & ALL and SA)
18
Desmostachya bipinnata
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Sandy inland desert near the springs (SA)
19
Echinochloa crusgalli
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
20
Haloxylon salicornicum
Chenopodiaceae
Sandy dry places (SA)
21
Hyocyamus muticus
Solanaceae
Sandy moist places
22
Imperata cylindrica
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Sandy habitats (SA & AUL & ALL)
23
Juncus acutus
Juncaceae
Salt marshes (SA & AUL & ALL)
24
Juncus rigidus
Juncaceae
Salt marshes (SA & AUL & ALL)
25
Launaea nudicaulis
Compositae
Related to cult. lands, at the old Agricult places (AUL)
26
Malva parviflora
Malvaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
27
Melilotus indicus
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
Near the wetty places (WFA)
28
Myriophyllum spicatum
Haloragidaceae
Submerged species (LL)
29
Najas minor
Najadaceae
Submerged species (UL and LL)
30
Nitraria retusa
Nitrariaceae
Sandy and salty places (SA)
Chapter 5
Results
54
31
Phoenix dactylifera
Palmae
Salty places (WFA, AUL & SA)
32
Phragmites australis
Graminae (Poaceae)
Marshy habitats (AUL & ALL and SA)
33
Pluchea dioscoridis
Compositae
Canal bank vegetation (AUL, ALL&WFA)
34
Polypogon monospliensis
Graminae (Poaceae)
Related to cult. lands, near the tunnel (NT)
35
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogetonaceae
Submerged species (LL)
36
Ranunculus sceleratus
Ranunculaceae
Related to cult. lands (WFA and NT)
37
Rumex dentatus
Polygonaceae
Related to cult. lands (WFA and NT)
38
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
39
Salsola imbricata subsp. gaetula
Chenopodiaceae
Desert habitat behind SA & FA
40
Scirpus maritimus
Cyperaceae
Around the water falls (WFA)
41
Senecio glaucus subsp. coronopifolius
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
42
Sesbania sesban
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
43
Sonchus maritimus
Compositae
Around the lakes and near the water
44
Sonchus oleraceus
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
45
Spergularia diandra
Caryophyllaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
46
Spergularia marina
Caryophyllaceae
Near the water falls (WFA)
47
Sporopolus spicatus
Graminae (Poaceae)
Sandy and salty habitats (SA)
48
Stipagrostis ciliata
Graminae (Poaceae)
Sandy habitats (SA)
49
Stipagrostis lanata
Graminae (Poaceae)
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
50
Silybum marianum
Compositae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
51
Tamarix nilotica
Tamaricaceae
Sandy/sand dunes, around the lakes and spring area (AUL & ALL and SA)
52
Typha domingensis
Typhaceae
Marshy habitats (SA and AUL & ALL)
53
Zygophyllum album
Zygophyllaceae
Halic habitats (SA)
54
Zygophyllum coccineum
Zygophyllaceae
Xeric habitats (SA and AUL)
55
Casuarina stricta
Casuarinaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
56
Eucalyptus rostrata
Myrtaceae
Land reclamation agricultural corridor
falls (WFA and AUL & ALL)
Key for distribution UL: Submerged in the water of the Upper Rayan Lake
WFA: Water Falls Area
LL: Submerged in the water of the Lower Rayan Lake
AUL: Around Upper Rayan Lake
SA: Springs’ Area
ALL: Lower Rayan Lake
FA: Fossil Area
NT: Near the Rayan tunnel
Chapter 5
Results
55
5.2.3. NATURAL VEGETATION The wild plant species and those associated weeds of the study area were listed in table (1c). A total of 56 species belonging to 26 families were recorded. Compositae and Gramineae were the most represented families (16.07 %) followed by Chenopodiaceae (10.71 %); Leguminosae (7.14 %), then Polygonaceae, Juncaceae, Solanaceae, Cyperaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Zygophyllaceae each represented by 3.57 % and the rest of the families each represented by 1.79 %, as indicated by table (1d). TABLE 1d. Recorded families and their represented species in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan Family
No. of represented species
Percentage of existence (%)
Compositae
9
16.07
Gramineae (Poaceae)
9
16.07
Chenopodiaceae
6
10.71
Leguminosae (Fabaceae)
4
7.14
Polygonaceae
2
3.57
Juncaceae
2
3.57
Solanaceae
2
3.57
Cyperaceae
2
3.57
Caryophyllaceae
2
3.57
Zygophyllaceae
2
3.57
Adiantaceae
1
1.79
Cruciferae
1
1.79
Ceratophyllaceae
1
1.79
Convolvulaceae
1
1.79
Asclepiadaceae
1
1.79
Malvaceae
1
1.79
Haloragidaceae
1
1.79
Najadaceae
1
1.79
Nitrariaceae
1
1.79
Palmae
1
1.79
Potamogetonaceae
1
1.79
Ranunculaceae
1
1.79
Tamaricaceae
1
1.79
Typhaceae
1
1.79
Casuarinaceae
1
1.79
Myrtaceae
1
1.79
Chapter 5
Results
53
FIGURE 8a. The percentage of the represented families in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan Potamogetonaceae 2% Nitrariaceae 2%
Palmae 2%
Tamaricaceae 2% Ranunculaceae 2%
Represented families Typhaceae 2%
Casuarinaceae 2%
Myrtaceae 2%
Compositae 16%
Najadaceae 2% Haloragidaceae 2% Malvaceae 2% Asclepiadaceae 2% Convolvulaceae 2%
Gramineae (Poaceae) 16%
Ceratophyllaceae 2%
Chenopodiaceae 11%
Cruciferae 2% Adiantaceae 2% Zygophyllaceae 4% Caryophyllaceae 4%
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) 7%
Cyperaceae 4%
Solanaceae 4%
Juncaceae 4%
Polygonaceae 4%
Chapter 5
Results
57
5.2.3.1. Life Forms & Floristic Categories The Life form spectrum (Figure 8b) exhibited a wide range of variation. Therophytes and geophytes were the highly represented life forms in the study area (28% & 15% respectively),
followed
Hemicryptophytes
by
(10%),
Chamaephytes Helophytes
(12%),
(8%),
Nanophanerophytes
Hydrophytes
(7%),
(12%),
Meso
&
Megaphanerophytes (5%) and cryptophytes (3%) as indicated in table 1e and figure 8b. TABLE 1e. Recorded species life forms and floristic categories in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan No
Latin Name
Life Form
Floristic Category
MMPh
ME
1
Acacia raddiana
2
Adiantum capillus-veneris
Cr
NEO
3
Alhagi graecorum
H
PAL
4
Arthrocnemum macrostachyum
Ch
ME + SA – SI
5
Aster squamatus
Ch
NEO
6
Bassia indica
Th
S – Z + IR – TR
7
Cakile maritima Subsp. Aegyptiaca
Th
ME + ER-SR
8
C all i gonum pol y gonoi de s sub sp. c om os um
Nph
SA-SI + IR-TR
9
Casuarina stricta
NPh
CULT.
10
Ceratophyllum demersum
Hy
COSM
11
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Th
COSM
12
Cichorium endivia subsp. Pumilum
Th
ME + IR-TR
13
Conyza bonariensis
Th
NEO
14
Cornulaca monocantha
Ch
15
Cressa cretica
H
ME + PAL
16
Cynanchum acutum
Nph
ME + IR-TR
17
Cynodon dactylon
G
PAN
18
Cyperus laevigatus
G , He
PAN
19
Desmostachya bipinnata
G
S-Z + SA-SI + IR-TR
20
Echinochloa crusgalli
Th
PAN
21
Eucalyptus rostrata
NPh
CULT.
22
Haloxylon salicornicum
Ch
ME+SA
23
Hyocyamus muticus
Th
ME+SA
24
Imperata cylindrical
H
PAL + ME
25
Juncus acutus
He
ME + IR – TR + ER – SR
26
Juncus rigidus
He , G
ME + SA - SI + IR - TR
27
Launaea nudicaulis
H
SA – SI + S – Z + IR – TR
28
Malva parviflora
Th
ME + IR - TR
Chapter 5
Results
58
29
Melilotus indicus
Th
ME + IR – TR + SA - SI
30
Myriophyllum spicatum
Hy
COSM
31
Najas minor
Hy
ME+ES+IT
32
Nitraria retusa
MMPh
ME
33
Phoenix dactylifera
MMph
Cult.
34
Phragmites australis
G , He
COSM
35
Pluchea dioscoridis
Nph
S – Z + SA - SI
36
Polypogon monospliensis
Th
COSM
37
Potamogeton pectinatus
Hy
COSM
38
Ranunculus sceleratus
Th
M + IR-TR + ER-SR
39
Rumex dentatus
Th
ME + IR – TR + ER – SR
40
Salsola imbricate subsp. Gaetula
Ch
ME
41
Scirpus maritimus
G, H
COSM
42
Senecio glaucus subsp. Coronopifolius
Th
ME + SA – SI + IR - TR
43
Sesbania sesban
Nph
PAL
44
Silybum marianum
H
M + IR-TR + ER-SR
45
Solanum nigrum
Th
COSM
46
Sonchus maritimus
Th
ME+IT
47
Sonchus oleraceus
Th
COSM
48
Spergularia diandra
Th
ME + IR – TR + SA – SI
49
Spergularia marina
G
M
50
Sporopolus spicatus
G
S – Z + SA – SI + ME
51
Stipagrostis ciliate
Cr
ME+ES+IT
52
Stipagrostis lanata
G
SA-SI
53
Tamarix nilotica
Nph
SA – SI + S - Z
54
Typha domingensis
He
PAN
55
Zygophyllum album
Ch
ME+SA
56
Zygophyllum coccineum
Ch
ME+SA
Nph Mph MMph
Nanophanerophytes Microphanerophytes Meso & Megaphanerophytes
Ch H G
Chamaephytes Hemicryptophytes Geophytes
He Hy Th
Helophytes Hydrophytes Therophytes
Cr P
cryptophytes Parasites
IR- TR ME COSM
Irano- Turanian Mediterranean Cosmopolitan
S- Z PAN Nat.
Sudano- Zambezian Pantropical Naturalized
ER- SR NEO Cult
Euro- Siberian Neotropical Cultivated
SA- SI PAL
Sahro- Sindian Palaeotropical
Chapter 5
Results
59
FIGURE 8b. The percentage of the represented species life forms in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan
Life Form He 8%
MMPh Cr 5% 3%
H 10%
G 15%
Ch 12%
Hy 7%
NPh 12% Th 28%
5.2.3.2. General Ecology of Wetland Area 17 plant species were identified in the springs and wetland areas of Wadi El-Rayan Protected area. Figure (8c) showed the identified plant species and their abundance in the measured vegetation sites and cleared the dominance of Phragmites australis in the wetland areas.
FIGURE 8c. Recorded species and their abundance values in the study area of Wadi El-Rayan Zygophyllum coccineum
100%
Zygophyllum album
90%
Typha domingensis
80%
Tamarix nilot ica
70%
Sporobolus spicat us Phragmit es aust ralis
abundance
60%
Phoenix dact ylif era
50%
Nit raria retusa
40%
Juncus acut us Juncu rigidus
30%
Imberat a Cylindrica
20%
Desmost achya bipinnat a
10%
Cynanchum acut um Cressa cret ica
0% 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Sites
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Calligonum polygonoides sub. Comosum A rt hrocnemum macrost achyum
Chapter 5
Results
60
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS (VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION) The application of TWINSPAN on the abundance of 17 species recorded in 20 stands, led to the recognition of 7 groups at the 3rd level of classification. The first dichotomy of the TWINSPAN presented 2 main vegetation groups, based on the similarity of stands in terms of plant species. The first group was indicated by Alhagi graecorum which dominates the springs area (stands 1-7); the second group was indicated by Phragmites australis which dominates the wetland areas around the lake and the springs sites (stands 8-20). FIGURE 8d. The relationships between the 7 groups generated after application of TWINSPAN, 20 vegetation sites denotes to the study area of Wadi El-Rayan Alhagi graecorum
Phragmites australis
Cressa cretica Nitraria retusa Desmostachya bipinnata
1 4 6 7 G1 1: Nitraria retusa 4: Cressa cretica
3 5 G2
Cressa cretica
2
Juncus acutus Juncus acutus
8
11 12 13 15
9 10
Tamarix nilotica
14 16 17 18 19 20
G4 G5 G3 G6 G7 2: Desmostachya bipinnata 3: Cressa cretica 5: Juncus acutus 6: Juncus acutus 7: Tamarix nilotica
Vegetation groups: Desert set of 3 groups: (indicated by Alhagi graecorum) Group 1: comprised 4 stands dominating by Nitraria retusa, which attaining the mean abundance value of 25 %. Group 2: comprised 2 stands dominating by Desmostachya bipinnata, which attaining the mean abundance value of 40 %.
Chapter 5
Results
61
Group 3: comprised 1 stand dominating by Cressa cretica, which attaining the mean abundance value of 30 %. Wetland set of 4 groups: (indicated by Phragmites australis) Group 4: comprised 1 stand dominating by Cressa cretica, which attaining the mean abundance value of 5 %. Group 5: comprised 4 stands dominating by Juncus acutus, which attaining the mean abundance value of 7.5 %. Group 6: comprised 2 stands dominating by Juncus acutus, which attaining the mean abundance value of 7.5 %. Group 7: comprised 6 stands dominating by Tamarix nilotica, which attaining the mean abundance value of 17 %. The analysis showed that the zonation of vegetation showed a shift from previously dominant reed swamps vegetation Phragmites australis towards the woody Tamrix nilotica in the area of the southern of Lower Rayal lake LL (Members of group 7 is currently dominating by T. nilotica). M ± Standard deviation for abundance values of the 7 TWINSPAN groups were calculated (Table 1c). TABLE 1f. TWINSPAN groups for vegetation abundance in the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan Species
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Alhagi graecorum
48
38
30
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
3.5
0
SD 0
Arthrocnemum macrostachyum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.3
2.5
0
0
1.7
2.6
Calligonum polygonoides subsp. Comosum
0
0
5
7.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cressa cretica
0
0
0
0
30
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cynanchum acutum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.8
2
Desmostachya bipinnata
0
0
40
42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Imperata cylindrical
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Juncu rigidus
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Juncus acutus
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
7.5
2.9
7.5
3.5
0
0
Nitraria retusa
25
29
25
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
28
0
0
Phoenix dactylifera
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
Phragmites australis
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
83
5
50
42
67
16
Sporobolus spicatus
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tamarix nilotica
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
11
17
16
Typha domingensis
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Zygophyllum album
25
38
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
7.1
0
0
Zygophyllum coccineum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.8
4.8
0
0
0
0
Chapter 5
Results
62
5.3. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS (PRODUCTIVITY measured by phytomass) Productivity of vegetation of Wadi El-Rayan was represented by the phytomass of Phragmites australis being the key dominant species in the wetland areas. The classification & ordination of the stands included vegetation (productivity of P. australis expressed by phytomass kg. dry weight. M-2) and environmental variables (water and soil) collected during the study period. WATERWARD VEGETATION (WW)
The first vegetation data set was prepared to include the dry weight values of productivity for Phragmites australis representing the waterward vegetation (WW) facing the studied water bodies (lakes/channel/springs). Figure (9), illustrates the variation in P. australis phytomass values (kg. dry weight) in (WW) through the study period of the 14 study sites. FIGURE 9. Variation in P. australis productivity (kg. dry weight) in (WW) through the study period 50 45
Phytomass (Kg/m2)
40 35 30
Autumn
25
Winter
20
Spring Summer
15 10 5 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Sites
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
It is clear from figure (9) that the highest productivity sites were 1, 8 and 14 located around the UL, CC and 4th spring respectively. LANDWARD VEGETATION (LW)
The second data set was prepared to include the dry weight values of productivity for Phragmites australis representing the landward vegetation (LW). Figure (10), illustrates
Chapter 5
Results
63
the variation in P. australis phytomass values (kg. dry weight) in (LW) through the study period of the 14 study sites. FIGURE 10. Variation in P. australis productivity (kg. dry weight) in (LW) through the study period 8
Phytomass (kg/m2)
7 6
5
Autumn Winter
4
Spring
3
Summer
2 1 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Sites8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Figure (10) showed that there is a fluctuation in the resulted productivity measures for P. australis along the 14 sites. The highest productivity values were recorded in sites 3, 2 and 8 respectively. 5.3.1. CLASSIFICATION WATERWARD VEGETATION (WW)
The TWINSPAN classification of the (WW) stands for their values of Phragmites australis productivity (phytomass kg dry wt/m2) in the study period identified 5 different groups at the 3rd classification level for the Wadi El-Rayan wetlands. The first dichotomy of the TWINSPAN differentiated between the significant productive sites (9 sites) in the Upper Rayan Lake (UL), the Connecting Channel (CC) and the 4th spring; and the less productive sites around the Lower Rayan Lake (LL) and the 1st spring (5 sites). (Figure 11). The average productivity values and their standard deviation for the 5 TWINSPAN groups in the 4 seasons were showed (Table 2).
Chapter 5
Results
64
FIGURE 11. The relationships among the 5 groups of productivity generated after application of TWINSPAN, 14 sites denote to the study sites in (WW) of Wadi El-Rayan
4 5 6
2 3 8
1
7
14 G1
G2
G3
9
10
11
13
12
G4
G5
TABLE 2. TWINSPAN groups (Mean ± Standard Deviation) of productivity sites WW Groups Season
Autumn Winter Spring Summer
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
8.90 12.68 10.67 11.74
1.08 1.34 2.18 2.49
14.40 15.68 16.35 13.06
3.75 1.27 3.03 1.57
23.48 45.60 16.82 18.14
-
2.65 2.92 2.36 2.14
0.74 1.38 1.46 1.38
3.20 2.88 0.00 0.00
-
A. HIGH PRODUCTIVITY SITES The highly productive sites were mainly viewed in groups 1, 2 and 3 located around the Upper Lake, connecting channel and the 4th Rayan spring. Group 1 comprised 5 stands with the highest phytomass value (kg. m-2) of 12.68 in winter and lowest value of 8.9 in autumn. Three stands of this group were located around the (UL), one around the (CC) and the last one is located around the 4th spring.
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Results
65
Group 2 comprised 3 stands with the highest phytomass value of 16.35 in spring and lowest value of 13.6 in summer. Two stands of this group were located around the (UL) and the last one is located at the end of (CC) in the water falls area. Group 3 comprised only 1 stand located around the (UL) with the highest phytomass value of 45.6 in winter, and lowest value of 16.82 in spring. These productivity values were the highest recorded values in the study area. B. LOW PRODUCTIVITY The low productive sites were mainly classified in groups 4 and 5 which located in the Lower Lake and the 1st Rayan spring. Group 4 comprised 4 stands with the highest phytomass value of 2.92 in winter and lowest value of 2.14 in summer. The stands of this group were totally located around the (LL). Group 5 comprised only 1 stand located around the 1st Rayan spring with the highest phytomass value of 3.2 in autumn, and lowest recorded value of 2.88 in winter. It was clearly noticed that the members of groups 1, 2 and 3 recorded the highest phytomass values in the study area, while the members of groups 4 and 5 had the least recorded phytomass values in the front line of wetland vegetation. LANDWARD VEGETATION (LW)
The TWINSPAN classification of the (LW) stands for their values of Phragmites australis productivity in the study period has identified 5 groups for the Wadi El-Rayan wetlands. The first dichotomy of the TWINSPAN differentiated between the most productive sites (5 sites) around the (UL) in one side and less productive ones (9 sites) located around parts of the (UL), (LL), (CC) and both of the 1st and 4th Rayan springs. (Figure 12). The average productivity values and their standard deviation for the 5 TWINSPAN groups in the 4 seasons were showed in table (3).
Chapter 5
Results
66
FIGURE 12. The relationships among the 5 groups of productivity generated after application of TWINSPAN, 14 sites denote to the study sites in (LW) of Wadi El-Rayan
2
3
5
1 6 8
G1
9
G2
4 12
7 11 14 G4
10 13 G3
G5
TABLE 3. TWINSPAN groups (Mean ± Standard Deviation) for productivity sites LW Groups Season
Autumn Winter Spring Summer
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
5.81 3.82 6.83 2.28
1.01 0.67 0.11 0.45
3.36 5.44 3.49 4.86
0.94 1.77 0.50 1.04
0.91 1.56 0.57 0.55
0.79 0.05 0.80 0.78
1.36 1.16 1.01 2.77
1.36 0.91 0.94 0.46
2.72 1.64 1.17 1.17
0.59 0.38 0.91 0.91
A. HIGH PRODUCTIVITY The highly productive sites were mainly classified in groups 1 and 2 which located in the (UL) and the (CC). Group 1 comprised 2 stands with the highest phytomass value of 6.83 in spring and lowest value of 2.28 in summer. Both of these stands were located around the (UL).
Chapter 5
Results
67
Group 2 comprised 3 stands with the highest phytomass value of 5.44 in winter and lowest value of 3.36 in autumn. Two stands of this group were located around the (UL) and the last one is located at the middle of the (CC). (Figure 8). B. LOW PRODUCTIVITY The low productive sites were mainly classified under groups 3, 4 and 5 which located in the (LL), the 1st and 4th Rayan springs and some parts of the (UL) and the (CC). Group 3 comprised 4 stands with the highest phytomass value of 1.56 in winter and lowest value of 0.55 in summer. One stand of this group was located around the (UL), 2 stands were located around the (LL) and the remaining one was located around the 1st Rayan spring. Group 4 comprised 3 stands with the highest phytomass value of 2.77 in summer and lowest value of 1.01 in spring. One stand of this group was located around the (UL), the second was located around the (LL) and the remaining one located around the 4th Rayan spring. Group 5 comprised 2 stands, one was located around the (UL) and the other located around the (LL). The highest recorded phytomass value was of 2.72 in autumn and lowest recorded value of 1.17 in spring and summer seasons. The outer edges of the wetland which faces the desert (landward) were seemingly the most sensitive to the environmental gradients and water availability, which is reflected in the variation of productivity values among the studied sites (Figure 13).
Chapter 5
Results
FIGURE 13. Map of productivity figure of Wadi El-Rayan wetlands
68
Chapter 5
Results
69
5.3.2. ORDINATION WATER
The 14 stands were plotted against their (WW) Phragmites australis productivity measures in the 4 seasons (Figure 14). The resulting first 2 DCA ordination axes were partially correlated with the water variables in the 4 recorded seasons. The significant correlations were flagged (**) and (*) for their significance levels 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. Tables 4, 5, 6 & 7 showed the correlation matrix for each of the autumn (September), winter (December), spring (March) and summer (June) respectively. FIGURE 14. The 5 TWINSPAN groups and their relationships along the first and second DECORANA axes, 14 sites denote the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan (WW)
11
S11
5
S5
14 S14 1S1
12 S12
6S6 100 S1
7
S7
13
3S3
S13
8
S8
4
S4
2
Axis 2
S2
9
S9
Axis 1
Chapter 5
Results
70
TABLE 4. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Autumn
X1 X2
-
TDS -.039
COD .237
BOD .273
TSS .136
TP .376
NO3 .305
-.035
.243
.402
.428
-.544
.503
-
-.340
Cl -.300
SO4 .169
.059
-.042
-.185
NH4
+
--
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
TABLE 5. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Winter NO3-
X1
TDS -.079
COD -.195
BOD -.023
TSS .226
TP .289
.587(*)
.176
-.077
SO4-.105
X2
-.095
.202
.327
-.332
-.493
.044
-.054
-.081
-.020
NH4
+
Cl
-
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
TABLE 6. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Spring
X1 X2
TDS -.060 -.112
COD -.161 -.074
BOD -.004 -.002
TSS .169 .098
TP .349 .139
NO3-
NH4
.590(*) .071
-.220 .171
+
Cl
-
-.100 -.132
SO4--.066 .034
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
TABLE 7. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with water variables in Summer
X1 X2
NO3-
TDS -.020
COD -.179
BOD -.172
TSS .098
TP .388
.604(*)
.396
.043
SO4-.069
-.077
-.287
-.282
-.216
-.383
-.194
-.675(**)
.311
.166
NH4
+
Cl
-
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
As showed by tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 some significant correlations were detected between axis I and nitrates content in the water samples representing the study sites during winter, spring and summer seasons of the study period. No significant correlations detected between axis I and any of the water variables during autumn season. On the other hand, the only detectable negative significant correlation between axis II was recorded with water ammonia content during the summer season.
Chapter 5
Results
71
SOIL The 14 stands were plotted against their (LW) Phragmites australis productivity values in the study period (Figure 15). The resulting first 2 DCA ordination axes were partially correlated with the measured soil variables. The significant correlations were flagged (**) and (*) for their significance levels 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. Tables 8, 9 & 10 showed the correlation matrix for the measured soil physical and chemical parameters respectively. FIGURE 15. The 5 TWINSPAN groups and their relationships along the first and second DECORANA axes, 14 sites denote the study sites of Wadi El-Rayan (LW)
Axis 2
S13 13
9
S9
12 S12 10 S10 2
8
S8
S2
6
S6
3
S3
4 S4
7 S7 S5 5
14 S14
1
S1
11 S11
Axis 1
Chapter 5
Results
72
Physical parameters (%) TABLE 8. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil physical parameters WHC X1 X2
AW
Ca
OM
CaCO3
-.240
-.239
-.336
.368
-.417
-.083
-.078
-.026
-.173
-.337
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
TABLE 9. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil physical parameters Gravel X1 X2
Sand
-.160 -.190
Silt
-.329 -.222
Clay .255 .217
-.062 -.023
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
Chemical parameters (ppm) TABLE 10. Partial correlation of the 2 DCA ordination axes with soil chemical parameters
X1 X2
TSS -.259 -.208
Cl
-
-.205 -.116
Na+ -.246 -.351
K -.186 -.255
Ca -.279 -.096
Mg++ -.154 .056
HCO3 -.289 -.478
SO4-.383 .286
N .115 .305
P -.214 -.229
** Correlation is highly significant at 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level
As presented by tables 8, 9 and 10 there was no detectable significant correlations between axes I and II and the different soil variables.
Chapter 5
Results
73
5.3.3. VEGETATION-GROUPS ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS WATERWARD VEGETATION (WW)
Tables 11, 12, 13 & 14 presented the mean (M) values and standard deviation (SD) of the water characteristics supporting the recognized TWINSPAN groups in (WW) sites of Phragmites australis productivity recorded in the study period. AUTUMN
TABLE 11. M ± SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in autumn Water Variables
(ppm) TDS COD BOD TSS TP NO3NH4+ ClSO4--
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2132.50 9.23 3.97 9.00 0.52 0.93 0.14 1046.75 333.60
656.27 6.84 2.32 3.83 0.92 0.55 4.28 952.15 247.24
1884.67 6.40 2.30 4.67 0.20 1.07 0.08 624.00 753.02
291.32 2.42 0.98 1.15 0.05 0.34 0.05 102.56 184.08
1718.00 4.80 1.60 4.00 0.00 0.87 0.03 591.00 839.00
-
10775.00 8.80 4.48 13.00 0.75 0.94 0.00 4126.25 2670.00
2918.93 3.51 2.60 8.41 1.17 0.59 0.00 327.68 670.46
3850.00 4.50 1.80 4.00 0.14 0.36 0.24 3449.00 350.20
-
Group 1 comprised stands locating in the (UL), (CC) and the 4th spring in the ratio of 3:1:1 respectively. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest COD and lowest SO4-- average values among the other groups. Group 2 comprised stands locating in the (UL) and (CC) in the ratio of 2:1 respectively. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest NO3- average value among the other groups. Group 3 comprised only 1 stand locating in the (UL). The water variables of this group were characterized with the lowest BOD and TSS average values when compared to the other groups. Group 4 comprised stands locating totally in the (LL). The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TDS, BOD, TSS, TP, Cl- and SO4-- average values among the other groups. It also attains the second highest average value of COD (after group 1) and NH4+ values.
Chapter 5
Results
74
Group 5 comprised only 1 stand locating in the 1st spring. The water variables of this group were characterized with the second highest TDS and Cl- values after group 4. It attained the highest TN and the lowest NO3- average values. WINTER
TABLE 12. M ± SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in winter Water Variables
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
(ppm) TDS COD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2178.06
955.08
1747.67
183.96
1740.00
-
10393.67
529.20
4827.90
-
3.93
2.22
4.59
2.24
5.88
-
2.53
0.95
5.70
-
BOD
1.16
1.14
0.87
0.23
1.00
-
0.81
0.34
1.74
-
TSS TP
2.33
3.03
1.00
1.73
1.00
-
4.67
3.30
0.00
-
0.07
0.36
0.84
1.26
0.27
-
0.04
0.66
0.08
-
NO3NH4+ -
0.95
0.63
1.37
0.14
1.51
-
1.20
0.18
0.13
-
0.13
0.12
0.24
0.21
0.26
-
0.05
0.01
0.06
-
789.33
431.07
510.00
47.03
507.00
-
4010.17
270.95
1722.00
-
117.87
62.27
135.23
11.87
253.80
-
1648.50
228.14
86.80
-
Cl SO4--
Group 1. The water variables of this group were characterized with the second highest BOD average value after group 5. Group 2. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TP average value. It also attained the second highest NO3- and NH4+ average values after groups 3, 4 and 3 respectively. Group 3. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest COD, NO3and NH4+ average values. It also attained the second highest TP average values after groups 2 and 4 respectively. Group 4. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TDS, TSS, Cl- and SO4-- average values. It also attained the lowest average value of COD, BOD, TP and NH4+ compared to the other groups. Group 5. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest BOD average values. It reached the second highest TDS, Cl- and COD values after groups 4 and 3 respectively. This group had the lowest TSS, NO3- and SO4-- average values.
Chapter 5
Results
75
SPRING
TABLE 13. M ± SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in spring Water Variables
(ppm) TDS COD BOD TSS TP NO3NH4+ Cl-SO4
G1 M 1910.60 17.40 6.38 38.50 0.56 0.82 0.15 788.80 252.18
G2 SD 716.64 4.34 2.39 66.86 0.48 0.49 0.22 463.16 128.96
M 1566.00 20.00 4.97 5.00 0.32 1.06 0.05 595.00 140.33
G3 SD 88.39 10.00 1.97 6.61 0.05 0.16 0.04 0.00 36.75
M 1584.00 6.00 1.90 2.50 0.20 0.89 0.32 695.00 240.00
G4 SD
M -
9426.50 22.50 5.69 6.88 0.20 1.07 0.00 3596.00 1419.00
G5 SD 452.33 5.00 1.04 5.91 0.09 0.21 0.01 1225.04 397.99
M 4177.00 28.00 7.50 2.50 0.01 0.07 0.07 2054.00 413.00
SD -
Group 1. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TSS and TP average values. Group 2. The water variables of this group were characterized with the second highest NO3- average value after group 4. It also attains the lowest SO4-- average value. Group 3. The water variables attained the highest NH4+ average values compared with other groups. It also had the lowest COD, BOD and TSS values. Group 4. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TDS, Cland SO4-- average values. It also attained the lowest average value of NH4+ compared to other groups. Group 5. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest COD and BOD average values. It reached the second highest Cl- after levels 3 and 4 respectively. This group had the lowest TSS (together with level 5), TP and NO3- values.
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Results
76
SUMMER
TABLE 14. M ± SD for the water variables related to the TWINSPAN groups in summer Water Variables
(ppm) TDS COD BOD TSS TP NO3NH4+ Cl-SO4
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
1527.20 21.60 7.58 5.50 0.15 0.90 611.80 746.80 1527.20
452.47 7.77 5.95 5.42 0.08 0.50 146.17 27.17 452.47
1434.67 20.00 6.08 5.00 0.13 1.05 750.00 873.00 1434.67
215.43 0.00 2.23 0.00 0.13 0.39 150.00 213.87 215.43
1293.00 18.50 6.20 5.00 0.07 0.81 450.00 856.00 1293.00
-
8763.75 39.25 14.25 24.38 0.18 1.38 1976.00 1422.75 8763.75
796.98 16.50 7.50 6.25 0.06 0.10 838.49 301.39 796.98
3178.00 35.00 12.60 5.00 0.09 0.10 611.00 782.00 3178.00
-
Group 1. The water variables of this group were characterized with the second highest TSS, TP and NH4+ average values. It attained the lowest SO4-- average value. Group 2. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest NH4+ average value. It also attained the second highest NO3- and SO4-- average values after group 4. It also attained the lowest BOD and TSS (with groups 3 and 5) average values. Group 3. The water variables of this group were characterized with the lowest COD, TSS (with groups 2 and 5), TP and Cl- average values. Group 4. The water variables of this group were characterized with the highest TDS, COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3-, Cl- and SO4-- average values, which means almost all measured parameters. Group 5. The water variables of this group were characterized with the second highest TDS, COD and BOD average values. It reached the lowest TSS (with groups 2 and 3), NO3and NH4+ average values.
Chapter 5
Results
77
LANDWARD VEGETATION (LW)
Tables 15 & 16 presented the mean M values and standard deviation SD of the soil physical and chemical characteristics supporting the recognized TWINSPAN levels of (LW) of Phragmites australis productivity recorded in the study sites. Physical Characteristics TABLE 15. M ± SD for the soil physical characteristics related to the TWINSPAN groups Soil Parameters
(%) WHC A. W. Gravel Sand Silt Clay Ca OM CaCO3
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
21.50 12.90 4.22 7.48 86.90 0.81 0.56 0.07 51.43
2.12 1.27 5.97 8.46 15.16 0.11 0.37 0.01 54.55
25.67 15.40 25.36 21.39 51.93 0.47 0.45 0.07 42.48
8.08 4.85 24.39 17.31 40.66 0.16 0.30 0.02 14.75
37.50 22.55 9.36 14.71 75.24 0.34 0.75 0.08 40.59
17.45 10.41 11.72 13.86 25.33 0.18 0.22 0.01 34.89
21.33 12.80 10.48 10.12 78.37 0.69 0.47 0.08 42.01
3.21 1.93 18.15 16.24 34.53 0.19 0.21 0.02 41.59
45.00 27.00 14.54 27.14 56.51 0.35 0.70 0.07 66.35
7.07 4.24 0.78 10.24 10.51 0.13 0.15 0.02 32.03
Group 1. Comprised stands locating totally in the (UL). The stands of this group were characterized by the highest silt and clay average ratios among the stands of the other groups. The soil variables of this group were characterized with the second highest CaCo3 value after group 5. It attained the lowest sand and gravel average ratios among the other groups. Group 2. Comprised stands locating in the (UL) and (CC) in the ratio of 2:1 respectively. The members of this group characterized by the highest gravel and the second highest sand (after group 5) ratios among the recorded groups. It also attained the lowest silt and calcium ratios among the other groups. Group 3. Comprised stands locating in the (UL), (LL) and springs area in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. This group characterized by the highest calcium and organic matter ratios. It attained the second highest WHC and AW (after group 5). It also attained the lowest clay and CaCO3 ratios compared to the other groups. Group 4. Comprised stands locating in the (CC), (LL) and the 1st spring in the ratio of 1:1:1 respectively. This group characterized by the highest organic matter ratio and the second highest silt and clay ratios (after level 1). It also attained the lowest WHC and AW ratios among the remaining levels.
Chapter 5
Results
78
Group 5. Comprised stands located in the (LL) and the 4th spring in the ratio of 1:1 respectively. This group attained the highest WHC, AW, sand and CaCO3 ratios among the other groups and the second highest gravel ratio (after group 2) among the identified groups. Chemical characteristics TABLE 16. M ± SD for the soil chemical characteristics related to the TWINSPAN groups Soil Variables
(ppm) TSS Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++ HCO3 ClSO4-N P
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
4416.00 24.38 68.64 110.00 76.55 93.94 1475.56 0.00 11.33 2.58
814.59 2.28 18.75 14.14 22.34 0.00 548.99 0.00 0.14 0.10
4629.33 20.55 65.65 76.67 93.15 75.03 1826.83 0.48 11.87 2.57
3366.14 5.79 30.01 15.28 109.28 18.91 1584.84 0.83 0.84 0.10
1248.00 12.13 25.55 83.50 78.37 46.67 376.12 46.44 15.39 2.62
638.93 4.27 13.30 27.63 10.62 10.92 141.47 51.70 3.09 0.07
1408.00 11.12 19.24 86.67 53.87 62.42 286.96 62.72 15.09 2.55
775.96 6.57 17.79 15.28 36.48 21.84 136.44 46.56 3.47 0.07
1536.00 11.04 17.55 80.00 106.31 75.03 498.78 27.12 14.30 2.65
1267.14 2.28 12.13 56.57 64.44 0.00 328.84 36.32 1.22 0.03
Group 1. The stands of this group were characterized by the highest sodium, potassium, calcium and bicarbonates contents. The soil variables of this group characterized with the second highest TSS average value among the other groups. It also attained the lowest SO4-- and nitrogen average values. Group 2. The soil variables of this group are characterized with the highest TSS and chlorides contents average value. It attained the second highest sodium, potassium and bicarbonates average values after group 1 and attained the lowest calcium average values. Group 3. The soil variables of this group were characterized with the highest nitrogen average value. It attained the second highest phosphorus average value and attained the lowest TSS and HCO3 average values compared to the other levels. Group 4. The soil variables of this group were characterized with the highest SO4-average value. It had the second highest nitrogen average value and also attained the lowest magnesium and chloride content average values. Group 5. The soil variables of this group were characterized with the highest magnesium and phosphorus average values. It characterized with the second highest bicarbonates
Chapter 5
Results
79
average value after group 1 and reacheed the lowest sodium and potassium average values among the identified groups. 5.3.4. SEASONAL PRODUCTIVITY OF PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS The obtained results indicated that the temporal variation in the aerial dry weight phytomass of Phragmites australis in the wetlands of Wadi El-Rayan attained its maximum in winter season (measured in December) for all the sites and its minimum in summer (measured in June-July) for most of the study sites. Figure (16) shows the mean values for the study sites in the period of the study categorized as upper, lower and springs areas. The highest phytomass values resulted in the Upper Lake as shown in figure (16). FIGURE 16. Mean phytomass values categorized by the different wetland areas in the study period
Chapter 5
Results
80
5.4. WATER CHARACTERISTICS Nine water parameters were measured for the selected sites in the study period from Autumn 2005 to Summer 2006. AUTUMN
Figures (17 & 18) showed the variation of measured water parameters in autumn. FIGURE 17. Variation of measured TDS, Cl- and SO4-- in autumn for the study sites 16000 14000 12000
ppm
10000 TDS 8000
Cl SO4
6000 4000 2000 0 1
2
3
4
5
7
8 Sites
9
10
11
12
13
14
FIGURE 18. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3- and NH4+ in autumn for the study sites 30
25 COD
20
ppm
BOD TSS
15
TP NO3
10
NH4 5
0 1
2
3
4
5
7
8
Sites
9
10
11
12
13
14
Chapter 5
Results
Figures (19, 20, 21 & 22) showed the water physico-chemical features of the study sites.
FIGURE 19. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 20. Mean values for Cl- and SO4-- in autumn for the study sites
81
Chapter 5
Results
82
FIGURE 21. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 22. Mean values for TP, NO3- & NH4+ in autumn for the study sites
The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest recorded values for water TDS, Cl-, SO4--, TSS and TP. However, the highest COD, BOD and NO3- values were recorded in the connecting channel. The highest NH4+ value was recorded in the springs’ water. On the other hand, the lowest TDS and Cl- values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake. The springs’ water recorded the lowest values of water SO4--, BOD, COD, TSS, TP and NO3-. However, the lowest NH4+ values were recorded in the Lower Lake.
Chapter 5
Results
83
WINTER
Figures (23 & 24) showed the variation of measured water parameters in winter. FIGURE 23. Variation of measured TDS, Cl- and SO4-- in winter for the study sites 12000 10000 8000 ppm
TDS Cl
6000
SO4
4000 2000 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7Sites8
9
10 11 12 13 14
FIGURE 24. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3- and NH4+ in winter for the study sites 10 COD
8
BOD
7
TSS
6
TP
ppm
9
NO3
5
NH4
4 3 2 1 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 Sites 8
9
10 11 12 13 14
Chapter 5
Results
Figures (25, 26, 27 & 28) showed the water physico-chemical features of the study sites.
FIGURE 25. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 26. Mean values for Cl- and SO4-- in autumn for the study sites
84
Chapter 5
Results
85
FIGURE 27. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 28. Mean values for TP, NO3- & NH4+ in autumn for the study sites
The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest recorded values for water TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and TSS. However, the highest COD & NH4+; NO3- & TP; BOD values were recorded in the Upper Lake; connecting channel and springs’ water respectively. On the other hand, the lowest TDS, Cl- & TSS; BOD & NH4+; COD; SO4--, TP & NO3- values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake; connecting channel; Lower Lake and springs’ water respectively.
Chapter 5
Results
86
SPRING
Figures (29 & 30) showed the variation of measured water parameters in spring. FIGURE 29. Variation of measured TDS, Cl- and SO4-- in spring for the study sites 12000
10000
8000 ppm
TDS
6000
Cl SO4
4000
2000
0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7Sites8
9
10
11
12
13
14
FIGURE 30. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3- and NH4+ in spring for the study sites 180 160 140 COD
120
ppm
BOD
100
TSS
80
TP
60
NO3 NH4
40 20 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7Sites8
9
10 11 12 13 14
Chapter 5
Results
Figures (31, 32, 33 & 34) showed the water physico-chemical features of the study sites. FIGURE 31. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 32. Mean values for Cl- and SO4-- in autumn for the study sites
87
Chapter 5
Results
88
FIGURE 33. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 34. Mean values for TP, NO3- & NH4+ in autumn for the study sites
The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest recorded values for water TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and COD. However, the highest TSS, TP & NO3-; NH4+ values were recorded in the connecting channel and Upper Lake water respectively. On the other hand, the lowest TDS, Cl- & COD; BOD & SO4--; TSS, TP & NO3- values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake; connecting channel and springs’ water respectively.
Chapter 5
Results
89
SUMMER
Figures (35 & 36) showed the variation of measured water parameters in summer. FIGURE 35. Variation of measured TDS, Cl- and SO4-- in summer for the study sites 10000 9000 8000 7000 ppm
6000
TDS
5000
Cl SO4
4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7Sites8
9 10 11 12 13 14
FIGURE 36. Variation of measured COD, BOD, TSS, TP, NO3- and NH4+ in summer for the study sites 70
COD
60
BOD TSS
50
TP
ppm
NO3 NH4
40 30 20 10 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 Sites
9
10 11 12 13 14
Chapter 5
Results
Figures (37, 38, 39 & 40) showed the water physico-chemical features of the study sites. FIGURE 37. Mean values of TDS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 38. Mean values for Cl- and SO4-- in autumn for the study sites
90
Chapter 5
Results
91
FIGURE 39. Mean values for COD, BOD and TSS in autumn for the study sites
FIGURE 40. Mean values for TP, NO3- & NH4+ in autumn for the study sites
The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest recorded values for water TDS, Cl-, SO4--, COD, TSS and NO3-. However, the highest TP & NH4+; BOD values were recorded in the connecting channel and springs’ water respectively. On the other hand, the lowest TDS, SO4-- & BOD; COD; Cl-, TSS, TP, NO3- & NH4+ values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake; connecting channel and Springs’ water respectively.
Chapter 5
Results
5.5. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS 5.5.1. SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Figures (41 & 42) showed the variation of measured soil physical parameters of the study sites. FIGURE 41. Variation of measured soil WHC, AW & OM for the study sites 100
W.H.C.
90 70
Ava il a ble wa ter Ca
60
OM
50
Ca CO3
%
80
40 30 20 10 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 Sites
9
10
11
12
13
14
FIGURE 42. Variation of measured gravel, sand, silt & clay for the study sites 120 100 80
%
gravel 60
sand silt
40
clay
20 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sites
9
10
11
12
13
14
92
Chapter 5
Results
Figures (43, 44 & 45) showed the soil physical characteristics of the study sites. FIGURE 43. Mean values of soil W.H.C., available water & CaCO3 for the study sites
FIGURE 44. Mean values for soil Ca++ & organic matter for the study sites
93
Chapter 5
Results
94
FIGURE 45. Mean values for the soil particle analysis for the study sites
The soil of connecting channel of the wetland sites showed the highest values for CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles. However, the highest W.H.C., A.W. and organic matter contents; silt & organic matter content; clay particles values were recorded in the soil around the Lower Lake; springs; and Upper Lake respectively. On the other hand, the lowest W.H.C., A.W., CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles; clay particles; silt particles and organic matter content values were recorded in the soil around the springs; Lower Lake; and connecting channel respectively.
Chapter 5
Results
95
5.5.2. SOIL CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS Figures (46, 47 & 48) showed the variation of measured soil chemical characteristics for the study sites. FIGURE 46. Variation of measured soil TSS and chlorides contents for the study sites 9000 8000 7000 ppm
6000 5000 TSS Cl
4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 Sites
9
10 11 12 13 14
FIGURE 47. Variation of measured soil cations for the study sites 250 Na
ppm
200
K Ca
150
Mg
100 50 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sites
9
10 11 12 13 14
Chapter 5
Results
FIGURE 48. Variation of measured soil anions for the study sites 120 HCO3
100 SO4
ppm
80
N P
60 40 20 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 Sites
9
10 11 12 13 14
Figures (49, 50 & 51) showed the soil physical characteristics of the study sites. FIGURE 49. Mean values of soil W.H.C., available water & CaCO3 for the study sites
96
Chapter 5
Results
97
FIGURE 50. Mean values for soil Ca++ & organic matter for the study sites
FIGURE 51. Mean values for the soil particle analysis for the study sites
The soil collected from around the Upper lake recorded the highest values for Na+, K+, HCO3, TSS and Cl-. However, the highest Ca++, Mg++ & P values were recorded in the soil collected from around the Lower lake. The soil collected from around the springs was containing the highest SO4-- & N values. On the other hand, the lowest Na+, K+, Ca++, P, TSS & Cl-; Mg++ & HCO3; SO4-- & N values were recorded in the soil collected from around the springs; connecting channel; and Upper lake respectively.
Chapter 5
Results
98
5.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE WATER QUALITY OF WADI EL-RAYAN AND QAROUN LAKES Table (17a) showed the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of the measured water parameters in Wadi El-Rayan lakes and springs compared to some water parameters reported for Qaroun Lake (Table 17b). TABLE 17a. Mean and Standard Deviation for the measured water parameters in Wadi El-Rayan lakes and springs during the study period Autumn sites UL CC LL SA
-
TDS M 1686.40 2225.00 10775.00 3435.00
Cl ±SD 67.15 7.07 2918.93 586.90
M 541.80 739.00 4126.25 2956.00
SO4 ±SD 60.42 0.00 327.68 697.21
--
M 550.21 686.40 2670.00 329.40
COD ±SD 362.06 160.65 670.46 29.42
M 7.06 12.80 8.80 2.25
±SD 2.99 5.09 3.51 3.18
BOD M ±SD 2.82 1.54 4.80 1.98 4.48 2.60 1.25 0.78
TSS M 5.60 10.00 13.00 5.00
-
TP ±SD 2.61 5.66 8.41 1.41
M 0.45 0.22 0.75 0.07
+
NO3 ±SD 0.82 0.05 1.17 0.10
M 0.97 1.40 0.94 0.26
NH4 M 0.08 0.09 0.00 0.25
±SD 0.19 0.09 0.59 0.15
±SD 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.01
Winter Site s UL CC LL SA
-
TDS
Cl
M 1689.67 1928.50 10245.50 4353.10
±SD 56.63 37.48 529.20 671.47
M 486.17 504.50 3931.13 1578.50
SO4 ±SD 16.51 84.15 270.95 202.94
--
M 167.93 151.00 1583.48 72.10
±SD 58.42 3.54 228.14 20.79
COD M ±SD 5.56 1.91 4.90 1.39 2.38 0.95 3.85 2.62
M 1. 59 0. 66 0. 73 1. 61
BOD ±SD 1.06 0.08 0.22 0.19
M 0. 50 5. 00 5. 25 0. 00
TSS ±SD 0.84 2.83 3.30 0.00
-
TP M 0.2 8 1.1 7 0.3 7 0.0 9
+
±SD 0.31 1.60 0.66 0.01
NO3 M ±SD 1 0.22 1. 0.07 1. 0.18 0. 0.00 .
TP
NO3
M 0 0. 0. 0. .
NH4 ±SD 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.04
Spring Sites UL CC LL SA
-
TDS M 1550.83 1671.00 9426.50 3682.50
Cl ±SD 43.66 12.73 452.33 699.33
SO4
M 595.00 620.00 3596.00 1834.00
±SD 54.77 35.36 1225.04 311.13
--
M 205.07 141.75 1419.00 410.50
COD ±SD 93.72 31.47 397.99 3.54
M 17.67 18.50 22.50 19.00
±SD 8.52 2.12 5.00 12.73
BOD M ±SD 5.98 2.84 4.75 0.78 5.69 1.04 5.40 2.97
TSS M 5.83 85.00 6.88 3.75
±SD 7.36 102.53 5.91 1.77
M 0.32 0.84 0.20 0.19
-
±SD 0.10 0.79 0.09 0.27
M 0.93 1.30 1.07 0.04
NH4
±SD 0.06 0.07 0.21 0.04
M 0.17 0.10 0.00 0.05
+
±SD 0.22 0.01 0.01 0.03
Summer Sites UL CC LL SA
-
TDS M 1268.17 1685.50 8763.75 2715.50
Cl ±SD 50.49 4.95 796.98 654.07
M 606.67 800.00 1976.00 565.00
SO4 ±SD 160.83 70.71 838.49 65.05
M 759.17 950.00 1422.75 768.00
--
±SD 54.43 236.17 301.39 19.80
COD M 19.42 17.50 39.25 35.00
±SD 0.92 3.54 16.50 0.00
BOD M 5.50 5.83 14.25 15.15
TSS ±SD 1.47 3.83 7.50 3.61
M 5.83 5.00 24.38 3.75
-
TP ±SD 4.65 0.00 6.25 1.77
M 0.10 0.26 0.18 0.09
NO3 ±SD 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.00
M 0.94 1.35 1.38 0.10
NH4
±SD 0.23 0.21 0.10 0.01
M 0.48 0.90 0.46 0.30
Wadi El-Rayan Heavy Metals Sites UL CC LL
Cu 0.004 0.003 0.005
Fe 0.214 0.255 0.257
Cd ND 0.002 0.002
Pb ND ND ND
Zn 0.016 0.021 0.020
Hg ND ND ND
Mg 341.6 286.0 270.0
++
Source
EEAA, 2003
+
±SD 0.06 0.42 0.50 0.06
Chapter 5
Results
99
TABLE 17b. Reported water parameters for Qaroun Lake Cl-
TDS M
±SD
M
18800
6100
6700
34500
15000
SO4
2270
--
5020
1630
Cd
Cu
Fe
Zn
0.02
0.24
0.46
0.02
8500
Source Mansour&Sidky, 2003 Fadel&Flouer, 2005
It was noticed that the Highest TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and some heavy metals values recorded and reported in this study were for the Lower Rayan Lake. When comparing these values to those recorded for Qaroun Lake, it was noticed that: o The TDS, Cl- & SO4-- values in Lake Qaroun were higher than those of Wadi ElRayan Lower Lake by 1.8 – 3.5, 1.6 – 3.6 & 1.9 – 3.2 times respectively. o The heavy metals Cu and Fe values in Lake Qaroun were higher than those of Wadi El-Rayan Lower Lake by 48.0 and 1.8 times respectively. Values for Zn and Cd were almost the same. Hg and Pb were not detected (or below the detection level) in Wadi El-Rayan Lakes.
Chapter 5
Results
100
5.7. FIRE IMPACTS ON THE PHYTOMASS OF PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS The effect of man-made fires on the productivity of the key species Phragmites australis in Wadi El-Rayan wetland ecosystem was assessed. Three sites around the Upper and Lower Lakes were selected to monitor the fire effects during the period from 2005-2007. 2 sets of results were obtained showing the single effect of fire rather than the combined effect of fire followed by grazing in the same area. 5.7.1. THE EFFECT OF FIRE ON THE RATE OF PHYTOMASS ACCUMULATION The Upper Lake The rate of phytomass accumulation increased by 209.3% from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% from spring to summer. Figure (52) showed the variation of phytomass after fire took place in autumn 2005 in the Upper Lake. FIGURE 52. Variation of phytomass after fire in the Upper Lake area
Chapter 5
Results
101
The Lower Lake The rate of phytomass accumulation increased by 144.3% from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% from spring to summer. Figure (53) showed the variation of phytomass after fire took place in autumn 2005 in the Lower Lake. FIGURE 53. Variation of phytomass after fire in the Lower Lake area
As a conclusion, the same trend was realized for the phytomass accumulation rate in both lakes of Wadi El-Rayan, after firing in a three-month interval, which is an increase followed by a decline in summer season. However, the absolute values of the phytomass varied widely from the Upper and Lower Lakes sites after firing. It was found that the absolute values of phytomass were significantly higher in the Upper Lake compared to the Lower Lake (Figures 52, 53 and 54) in the period of the study.
Chapter 5
Results
102
FIGURE 54. variation in the absolute values of phytomass in Upper and Lower Lakes after firing
5.7.2. THE COMBINED EFFECT OF FIRE & GRAZING ON THE RATE OF PHYTOMASS ACCUMULATION The rate of phytomass accumulation was assessed in the Upper Lake area after occasional fire followed by cattle grazing. The rate of phytomass accumulation was continuously increased by 147.9% from winter to spring, and 56% from spring to summer. Figure (55) showed the variation of phytomass after fire took place in autumn 2005 in the Upper Lake. FIGURE 55. Variation of phytomass after fire & grazing in the Upper Lake area
Chapter 6
Discussion
Chapter 6
Discussion
103
Chapter 6
DISCUSSION The present study area is affected by an extreme arid climate where the plant life is scarce and restricted to places near water sources that providing sufficient moisture for plant growth. In his study to correlate the species distribution in arid desert ecosystems of the eastern desert, Abd El-Ghani (1998) reported that the vegetation is restricted to wadis, runnels and depressions with deep fine sediments that receive adequate water supply. This is described by Monod (1954). From an ecological point of view, the study area is of hyper arid nature modified by the presence of great water bodies (Wadi El-Rayan Lakes), resulted in the formation of wetlands and marshy habitats attracting wildlife of surrounding desert fauna. From historical point of view, the area identified as the gateway to the western desert of Egypt by ancient tribe nomads (Saleh, 1998). It also located on the boundaries of the Nile Valley with its riverian flora. The nature of recorded vegetation in this study is reflecting the main habitats reported by Zahran & Willis (2009); El-Hennawy (2004) and Serag, et al (2003). The last 2 authors had almost the same habitat except that classification El-Hennawy (2004) reported sand formation habitat which divided by Serag, et al (2003) to sand sheets and sand dunes. Xerophytic (desert areas), halophytic (marsh habitats around the lakes and springs) and aquatic (hydrophytes of the lakes) vegetation types were found inhabiting the area of Wadi El-Rayan. The TWINSPAN distinguished two main vegetation sets of desert and wetland habitats indicated by Alhagi graecorum and Phragmites australis respectively. The Lower Rayan Lake is of closed nature without runoff. Therefore, extensive evaporation of water from such closed ecosystems, the gradual increase of salts, heavy metals, pesticides and other pollutants are expected to change the lake quality and affect its aquatic life. Mansour & Sidky (2003) reported that the waters in Wadi El-Rayan and Qaroun showed similar ionic characteristics, but those from Lake Qaroun contained total dissolved salts (TDS) ranging from 4.0 to 35.0 g/l with an average of 19.0 g/l which
Chapter 6
Discussion
104
was much higher than those recorded for the first and the second lakes of Wadi El-Rayan (e.g. 1.6 and 4.7 g/l respectively). The overall results of this study revealed that Lake Qaroun components were more polluted than those of Wadi El-Rayan lakes, and the Lower Lake of this wetland was more polluted than the first. The findings of this study on water quality showed similarity to those reported by Mansour & Sidky, (2003). WRRI (2007) reported that the salinity varies from 1631 (for Upper Lake) to 10451 ppm (Lower Lake), which confirmed the results obtained by this study. The same author also reported
that
the
ionic
sequence for the samples collected from the
(UL) follows the group: Na+ > Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ and Cl- > SO4-- > HCO3-, while for the (LL) the sample follows Na+ > Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ and SO4-- > Cl- > HCO3-. The ionic ratio rNa/rCl was found more than unity in the (UL) & (LL) which indicates that, the water of these samples is of meteoric origin and the environment of this water is continental. This study revealed that the Lower Lake has much higher salinity concentration (expressed as water TDS) compared to the Upper Lake and the connecting channel. The history of TDS in the Rayan lakes can expressed by figure (56), which captured from the results of WRPA monitoring program (EEAA, 2003). FIGURE 56. Trend of TDS for the 2 Rayan lakes (After EEAA, 2003) Trend of TDS for the 2 Rayan Lakes and their junction canal throughout the period from 2000 to 2006
ppm
16000 14000
LL
12000
CC
10000
UL 9140
8000 6000
5632
6264
9787
7600
4000 1552
2000
1509
1597
1500
2230
1902 1678
1618
1466
1740
2001
2003
2005
0 2000
2006
Years
The results presented in this study have agreed with those reported by the WRPA monitoring program in terms of TDS values for the (UL), (CC) and (LL). The rates of COD and
Chapter 6
Discussion
105
TSS show higher values in spring & summer, which might be attributed to intensifying the aquaculture activities existed in the area after the dormancy season and also for the seasonal change in the nature of agriculture activities of Fayoum (WRRI, 2007). This study realized that the water of the Lower Rayan Lake though characterized by the highest values of measured water parameters among Wadi El-Rayan water bodies, yet still much lower for when compared with those of Qaroun Lake. This was clear when comparing the TDS, Cl & SO4 values and some metals such as Cu, Fe, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb. These results agreed to great extent with what reported by Mansour & Sidky (2003) and Fadel & Flouer (2005). Classification (TWINSPAN) and Ordination (DECORANA) are the two approaches of multivariate analysis used in this study. Application of TWINSPAN technique in the present study was useful in classifying the wetland study sites into five main groups representing different productivity categories of Wadi El-Rayan wetland. The members of each pair of groups are, in some cases, linked together by having one reference season. The success of TWINSPAN classification can be assessed by the results of the current study and the knowledge of the history and status of water chemical characteristics of Rayan Lakes. From historical records and collected data during the study period, a series of obtained records for the TDS in the Lower Lake shows that the rate of salinity is increasing. The application of TWINSPAN to the species productivity against the study period produced reliable results reflecting the nature of productivity of the key plant species of the Wadi El-Rayan wetlands ecosystem. In the present study, the TWINSPAN separated the system of the Lower Rayan Lake from those of the Upper Lake and the Connecting Channel, which is logic when related to the elevation aspects and water quality. The TWINSPAN clearly distinguished the highly productive wetland sites and located them around the Upper Lake, the Connecting Channel and the 4th Rayan spring. However, those less productive (5 sites) were grouped separately around the Lower Lake and the 1st Rayan spring. The locating of the high productivity levels by TWINSPAN around the Upper Rayan Lake and the connecting channel was easily coped with the historical as well as the outputs of the present study which showed that the Lower Lake is attaining the highest and increasing
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levels of salinity when compared with the Upper Lake and the connecting channel. The TWINSPAN outputs were important to consider when suggesting management strategies and actions towards the problems addressed at the beginning of this thesis. Phragmites australis had more chance to grow and flourish in the water with mild TDS levels as in the Upper Lake, the Channel and the springs’ water. Less water TDS as well as higher soil clay & organic matter, calcium carbonates content were recorded in the areas of the Upper Lake and Connecting Channel. The soil collected from around the Upper Lake recorded the highest values for Na+, K+, HCO3-, TSS and Cl-, which all reflects the TWINSPAN outputs. The areas closest to the lake shore, recorded relatively dense vegetation as an indicator of the relatively high plant production producing more competitive conditions and resulting in the lower plant species diversity. The key species (P. australis) formed extensive monospecific stands. Disturbance factors (such as grazing and fire) might affect the vegetative cover slightly and hence the diversity remains low. Vegetation forms dense impenetrable thickets, only its perimeter is usually overused (in some areas) while the interior remains safe (unutilized). EEAA, (2005) and Shaltout et al, (2004) reported that the shoot height, density and standing crop phytomass of P. australis were higher in the south of Lake Burullus than its north. One of the possible causes was the relatively high water salinity in the north of the lake which is connected with the Mediterranean Sea through a sea outlet. The adverse effect of increasing salinity on the growth variables of this plant was reported also by Hellings & Gallagher (1992). Both investigations supported the obtained results from this study: the higher plant productivity sites in the less saline Upper Rayan Lake than that in the more saline Lower Rayan Lake. The relatively higher trophic status of the Upper Lake, due to direct receiving of the agricultural wastewater from the open drain (Al Wadi Drain), and the waste effluents from the intensive fish culture operations (which pour into the connecting channel) may considered among the factors responsible for the heavy growth of P. australis around the (UL) and (CC) than that around the (LL). This also confirmed for the same plant species in Burullus as indicated by El-Shennawy (2002).
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Other feature, which can confirm the success of the TWINSPAN to separate the high productivity sites in the (UL), (CC) and the 4th Rayan spring, was the succession phenomenon that took place in the vegetation around the Lower Lake. The wetland reed P. australis was replaced by the woody Tamarix nilotica species, which is frequent in the area surrounding the Lower Lake due to sand formation and sand dune accumulation and the seepage effect of the lake creating a salt marsh habitat supporting the growth of several halophytes and marshy vegetation (e.g. Nitraria retusa & Cressa cretica). We can clearly observe the succession of vegetation along the fringes of the Lower Rayan lake as narrow belts or lines. Normally we found the submerged stage near the coast line (Potamogeton pectinatus), then reed swamps (P. australis & Typha domingensis) and sedge meadow (Juncus rigidus & Juncus acutus) stages and finally the woody (Tamarix nilotica). The woodland stage is currently visible rather than the reed swamps and sedge meadow stages. This stage of succession has been accelerated due to the severe water level decrease of the inlet water to the Rayan lakes, which is much visible in the Lower Lake, because of its receiving nature without run-off. The middle stages of succession had been not able to develop due to permanent water loss and drying of their habitats. The creeping of sand sheets also is something welcomed by the Tamarix species. Another reason for the quick disappearance of the middle stages is the elevated levels of salinity, which can reach more than 12.000 ppm of TDS at the fringes of the Lower Rayan Lake. The TWINSPAN showed that member of some groups were dominated by Tamarix nilotica around the area of the lakes especially those around the southern area of the Lower Rayan Lake LL. This phenomenon was very clear in the areas showed significant water retraction (Figure 4) such as those around the second lake. The failure of Phragmites australis to regenerate and resume growing in these areas could be strongly attributed to the increased salinity of the lake water and quick retraction of the shore line which freed more dry salt area more suitable to woody Tamarix species. The water retraction still taking place since 1999 up to the time of performing this study. The series of photos for Modawara bay and the area southern to the Lower Rayan lake in 2000 and in 2008 & 2009 can clearly shows this phenomenon.
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Modawara bay 2000
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Modawara bay 2000
Modawara bay 2009
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Lower Lake boundaries with Phragmites australis 2000
Large previous extension area of the Lower Lake currently occupied by Tamarix nilotica 2009
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The application of Detrended Correspondence Analysis DECORANA as ordination technique in this study was to relate the different productivity spots to their site environmental variables. It is supposed that the productivity of P. australis in the wetland waterward (WW) sites are more affected by the water characteristics than those in the landward vegetation (LW) line. However, several high productivity sites are conjoint in (WW) and (LW) as proved by the TWINSPAN (sites 1, 2, 3, 6, 8). The study sites were carefully selected to be as far as possible from the disturbance and human impacts (represented in the grazing and fires), suggesting that the plant development has been mainly influenced by either water and edaphic conditions for a long time. Application of both the classification and ordination techniques has resulted in a clear demonstration of the common reed’s productivity quantitative pattern in the study area, which has never previously realized. For water quality variables, the correlation of first 2 DCA axes to the water variables of the study sites in the four studied seasons indicated that the most significant correlations for the productivity values in the waterward vegetation (WW). In winter, positive correlation has been realized for nitrates to the DCA axis 1 at significance level 0.05 while total phosphorus is showing a significant negative correlation with the DCA axis 2 (table 4). In spring, a positive correlation has been realized for nitrates to the DCA axis 1 at significance level 0.05 (table 5). In summer, nitrates and ammonia are showing positive and negative correlations to the DCA axes 1 and 2 at significance levels 0.05 and 0.01 respectively (table 6). These findings may be attributed to the nature and quality of the received agricultural wastes in different seasons as the fertilizing behavior differs. For edaphic factors, the correlation of first 2 DCA axes to the soil physical and chemical characteristics of the study sites, showed no significant correlations against the productivity values in the landward vegetation (LW). The uncontrolled firing in Wadi El-Rayan is a man-made practice feature affecting the wetland ecosystem, which is never previously studied. The cause of fires is always a
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matter of guessing. It may be attributed to the production of new sprouts for unauthorized cattle and buffalo grazing in some locations around the Upper Lake. The Lower Rayan lake was behaving the same in the past (till nearly 2001), but stopped fires in the most of lake peripheries after that due to the retraction of wetland forage around it due to water decreased levels. Stopping firing in the Lower Lake has strengthen the guessing that the cause is for producing a palatable new sprouts for the grazing animals. The recorded fires in this study were occurred and monitored in September 2005-2007 on the wetland cover around both of the Rayan lakes. The rate of phytomass development for P. australis wetland in Wadi El-Rayan showed a continuous increase in the grazed area after fire, while that in non-grazed area showed an increase followed by a decrease, however, the value of phytomass is much more in non-grazed area. The rate of phytomass accumulation in the lower lake showed a similar trend to that in the upper lake in non-grazed area. However, the absolute value of phytomass increase reached 56.7, 71.8 & 72.1 times more in the Upper Lake than those in the Lower Lake at winter, spring and summer seasons respectively. The above ground parts of the common reed are killed by fire, but rhizomes typically survive (Haslam, 1969; Kruse & Higgins, 1998; Ward, 1968). Although damage or death to common reed rhizomes is possible, it is not common. (Haslam 1969) indicates that burning common reed breaks rhizome internal dormancy. Slight scorching by spring fires in Britain increased rhizome bud formation by as much as 400%. Common reed sprouts rapidly from surviving rhizomes after fire. Sprouts may appear as soon as 5 days after fire (Ward, 1968). This is almost the case in Wadi El-Rayan Upper Lake. Fires that took place in the Rayan Lower Lake may retard its vegetation sprouts up to more than one month. Rarely is common reed abundance decreased by fire, and postfire recovery is typically rapid New common reed establishment on burned sites is possible if a viable seed or rhizome source exists. In the case of Wadi El-Rayan, a huge stock of the common reed rhizomes existed especially in the area of the Upper Lake and the connecting channel.
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Common reed postfire abundance (cover, biomass production, and/or density) is rarely different from pre-fire abundance by the 2nd or 3rd post-fire year (Ward, 1968; Ailes, 1993). It is not uncommon for burned sites to have greater common reed abundance than unburned sites (Greenall, 1995; Thompson & Shay 1985). For the case of Wadi El-Rayan, the same trend was realized for the phytomass accumulation rate in both of Wadi El-Rayan lakes, after firing in a three-month interval, which is increasing followed by decreasing rate. However, the controlled fire is amongst methods of wetland management. The most important reason for burning marshes is to favor preferred plants and destroy those of little value. A secondary reason is to remove accumulated dead material. A clear view of intended results and selection of appropriate seasons and conditions for burning are important (Allan & Anderson, 1955). The use of fire in coastal marsh management is described as a means to remove dead vegetation, re-establish lower succession stages, or return the marsh to an early hydric community. Fire prevents accumulation of organic matter and thus impedes elevation of the marsh and succession to upland communities. Any habitat management will alter the structure of the ecological community. In general, burning develops landscape and vegetation more suitable for wildlife. Proper choice of season and water conditions will prevent damage to the marsh during burning and will maximize benefits from the practice. (Diaber, 1974). The literature indicates no adverse effects of fire on fish or aquatic invertebrates. Ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, spruce grouse, and ptarmigans obtain new habitat from fire. Habitat changes following fire benefit some large mammals but neither harm or benefit most small mammals. (Kelsall, et al, 1977). Disturbance related to chance perturbations, water depth, and the incidence of fire accounted for much of the variation in the sedge meadow community. Annual burning (presumably by local residents) maintains the meadows against invasion by shrubs, increases nutrient mineralization, and provides a pronounced change in albedo which permits earlier spring growth. (Auclair, et al, 1973)
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Immediate and long-term effects of fire on wildlife are reviewed. Included are discussions of changes in species composition and energy flow following fire, changes in density and overall abundance of wildlife following fire, and various case histories to support the major points presented. The evolution of birds and mammals in burnable habitat (including the effects of fire upon wildlife speciation as a result of fire) and adaptation of birds and mammals to flammable habitat are examined. With reference to wetlands, burning results in open water and encourages seed-bearing plants which are valuable waterfowl foods. (Bendell, 1974). Fires have both coin side faces with their advantages and disadvantages on the wetlands. This will depend on the nature of existing ecosystem (e.g. the nature of surrounding water body, the wetland in-undulating time, etc). In Wadi El-Rayan case, it is not urgently needed as the sedge meadows are still there. The edaphic factors are also supporting the same composition as the soil particle analysis shows frequent silt and clay particles than sand; the latter is supporting the shrubby and woody stage such as Tamarix nilotica growing frequently on the external borders of the Phragmites australis wetland especially in the lower Rayan Lake with frequent sandy soils. So, even there are no recorded investigations about the effects of fire on the wetland productivity in this area, it is not recommended to allow firing processes. The study of the fire impact on the productivity of Wadi El-Rayan wetland was very helpful in providing suitable management actions to conserve the integrity of the ecosystem. Fires in common reed marshes can be used to benefit wildlife, but can also negatively impact nesting birds. Prescribed fires should avoid destroying currently used nesting habitat. Studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s in the Delta Marsh indicated that spring fires before 20 April typically missed the beginning of mallard and northern pintail nesting. Impacts on nesting birds can be minimized if summer fires are ignited after gadwall and blue-winged teal have left their nests (Ward, 1968). Fall fires can decrease snow retention and affect spring run off levels, which may affect the value of winter and spring wildlife habitats. (Ward, 1974).
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The section in this study which offered a simple management overview about Wadi ElRayan showed the main values, threats, and the status of the key values of the protected area according to the latest management effectiveness evaluation. This was necessary to introduce two new objectives installed from the lessons learnt and results of this study which are: 1) Restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan Lakes and 2) Conservation of Wadi El-Rayan wetlands (Grazing and firing). Useful objectives, strategies and actions were introduced in each of the 2 objectives to be considered while implementing the Wadi El-Rayan Management Plan. Two potential strips for grazing were defined according to the estimated phytomass figures and other management activities of the protected area (e.g. passages of ecotourism activities, visitor accession roads and tracks, natural area, important biodiversity areas, etc). Grazing activities should be limited to the boundaries delineated by protected area management unit within those proposed strips and not extending outside to avoid the possible cause of disturbance to the wild life and ecotourism resources. Grazing practice should be dual between those two proposed strips and different seasons. Good management for the grazing activities will limit the uncontrolled firing of the wetlands especially if the WRPA management unit kept a database about the owners and their grazed animals every season. GRAZING MUST NOT BE ALLOWED IN CASE OF WEAK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM WHICH CAN NOT LIMIT AND MONITOR IT WITHIN THE PROPOSED BOUNDARIES OR SEASONS. The produced GIS maps were very helpful to show the picture of the identified high/low wetland vegetation productivity sites in addition to the potential grazing sites among these sites taking in consideration the seasons and sites of actions.
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Chapter 7
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT WADI EL-RAYAN PROTECTED AREA (WRPA) The first management plan for a protected area in Egypt has been developed for Wadi El-Rayan in 2002. Using the 1994 IUCN protected area management categories, WRPA has been classified in a two-category system. A category II part managed mainly for ecosystem protection and integrity, environmental education and ecotourism, and a category VI part managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems, environmental education and recreation. (Parris, et al, 2002). The natural resources of the protected area are under threat due to the human activities inside WRPA but effective management practices; law enforcement (in collaboration with stakeholders) and monitoring can ensure the sustainable use of the natural resources. The public use inside the area has been identified to include eco-tourism activities, economic activities and human settlement. (Parris, et al, 2002) Values of WRPA The management effectiveness evaluation for WRPA (Paleczny, et al, 2007) classified and presented the values of Wadi El-Rayan protected area under 3 categories as follows: Category 1. Biodiversity/Natural Resources/Cultural Resources: ·
Fossils/World Heritage Site
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Springs oasis (Gazelle)
·
Lakes (wetlands, shoreline, aquatic)
·
Desert
Category 2. Ecotourism/Recreational Resources: ·
Main visitor area (waterfalls, beach)
·
Visitor centre
·
Safary camp
·
Campsites and bird hides
·
Tracks
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Category 3. Community Well-being (socio-economic) ·
Land reclamation villages (Lower Lake)
·
Local communities within WRPA, such as: fishermen, salt miners, cafeterias, boat owners, oil extraction, monastery.
·
Local communities outside WRPA.
The threats on the natural resources of WRPA are diverse. The Rayan lakes, which supporting the wetland ecosystem have received specific threats can be listed below: 1. fish farming activities 2. habitat change 3. human disturbance/damage 4. poaching 5. Pollution-agricultural and communities’ sewage 6. Water declining levels (input) 7. water deteriorating quality
The Rayan springs received their specific threats as follows: 1. habitat change 2. human disturbance/damage 3. invasive species 4. water over use The threat status for Wadi El-Rayan lakes has been classified HIGH, while that of Rayan springs has classified as MEDIUM. See table (19) after (Paleczny, et al, 2007). Table (18) shows the status of key values in WRPA.
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TABLE 18. The status of key values in WRPA
Key Improved condition or situation over the last five years Stable condition or situation over the last five years Worsened condition or situation over the last five years
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TABLE 19. Threat Summary for WRPA Values
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The Wadi El-Rayan management plan is currently under revision and update. So, it is very useful to introduce management solutions for problems investigated in this study. The first management plan for WRPA comprised warnings towards a coming water problem due to the increased demands. Three specific objectives were then adopted: 1) Natural resource management, 2) Human and economic activities & 3) Public awareness and environmental education programs, Parris, et al., (2002). The author wishes to introduce new objectives, strategies and actions to be considered when reviewing and updating the Wadi El-Rayan management plan. These new management proposed strategies and actions will essentially deal with water issue and wetland problems (manly grazing and firing). The wetland ecosystem received a little concern except as a part of management process for Wadi El-Rayan protected area as a whole. Water decrease, grazing and uncontrolled fires are among the most important threats that currently impact the wetland ecosystem, Paleczny, et al., (2007). The identification of Wadi El-Rayan as an Important Bird Area IBA by BirdLife international and location within the territory of a protected area confirm its significance as a natural resource even considering the artificial origin of the Rayan lakes. In this study and after recognizing the ecology of the system, Objectives & Strategies and actions for better management to maximize the conservation and benefits from that ecosystem may be proposed. The restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan Lakes should be represented as a separate issue under a broader objective which can be the conservation of water resources; strategies and actions were proposed hereafter. However, strategies and actions for managing both of grazing and fire should be amended in the management plan under the main objective of conservation of biodiversity or as a separate objective which can be conservation of Wadi ElRayan wetlands.
The proposed objectives with their strategies and actions are as follows:
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7.1. RESTORATION OF WATER BALANCE OF WADI EL-RAYAN LAKES: The main source of water feeding WR Lakes is mainly agricultural drainage from Fayoum Governorate. In turn, the quantity and quality of the received water are mainly depending on several factors affecting the water source (Bahr El Banat, Bahr El-Nazla and El Wadi drain). These factors can be political such as water use for reclaiming new lands for agriculture, while others can be miss-management of the included water bodies (cleaning and hydrology), and weak collaboration among the relevant authorities such as permitting agricultural activities while having water demands problems. A mixture of the above mentioned factors are affecting WR lakes water producing a severe water loss and water level decrease. The decrease of water quantity which usually lead to a decrease of water level and deterioration of water quality by increasing of water salinity in the lower lake, all these factors are leading to environmental and socio-economic problems including the following: - The increasing salinity of the water of the lower lake is leading to a major change in the vegetation succession - The increasing salinity of the lower lake, will lead to ecological impacts in terms of changing of aquatic fauna and flora - Decreasing the productivity and fish diversity which will have striking impacts on the social life of the local community Objectives: · Stability of the water resources/demands of Rayan Lakes through implementation of a well defined collaboration strategy with the relevant stakeholders. · Extensive collaboration with the relevant stakeholders to promote the control of the water use and applying the other scenarios ensuring the water availability to the Rayan lakes · Preventing any illegal discharging of different pollution sources into the water of the lakes e.g. illegal fishing activities that use decayed remains, vehicle cleaning beside the body of the lake system….etc.
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· Limiting of man made fires that increase the enrichment of the water of the lakes with inorganic elements. · Avoiding the wastewater discharging from the land reclamation scheme. · Monitoring of water quantity/quality of the two Rayan lakes and their connecting canal. ·
Monitoring of inlet to outlet of the operating fish farming activities
Strategies and actions: · Re-invigorate meetings with the Ministries of agriculture and irrigation concerning water levels. Undertake an information campaign with these ministries and with related groups to educate people about the related problems and impact on social, economic and ecological benefits. · Develop an education and awareness program/campaign about water issue, and its importance to Wadi El-Rayan from ecological as well as recreational point of views. · Effectively monitor the feeding behavior and waste disposal of existing aquacultures in Wadi El-Rayan · Establishing artificial wetland areas at the main waste run-off ways to the connecting channel or the lake for treating the waste effluents of the fish farms. · Develop suitable monitoring indicators for water quality & quantity in Wadi El-Rayan Lakes. · Where necessary and suitable, develop partnerships with other agencies (e.g., Oceanography and fisheries) for research and monitoring. · Follow-up on the nearby land reclamation waste disposal and propose at necessary the suitable actions to conserve the lake and wetland ecosystems.
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7.2. CONSERVATION OF WADI El-RAYAN WETLANDS (Grazing and Firing issues) The Wadi El-Rayan area is a target for grazing cattle and buffalos from the neighboring villages. The over-grazing is severely affecting the natural system unless being controlled and limited in terms of seasonality and area extent. The grazing behavior affects Wadi El-Rayan natural system through several means: -
Landscape alteration due to animal traces
-
Man-mad firing of the wetland vegetation for obtaining new palatable sprouts
-
Wildlife disturbance especially the migratory bird community and other biodiversity elements
-
The associate human activities which represented in introducing new species such as domestic donkeys and dogs, etc
The wetland plant community in Wadi El-Rayan is relatively stable in terms of appearance of new species and succession. The only affected part is that surrounding the lower lake due to the current and severe water input decrease associated with increased salinity rate. The fires cause may attribute to a direct need of the grazers for palatable plant matters for their animals. Permitting a sort of controlled grazing will mostly stop those man made fires. The general effects of fire, is emphasized that peatlands and other wetlands should not be burned, drained, or otherwise interfered with in any way that hinders their ability to store water, mitigate floods, and maintain the water level in surrounding lands. (Hanson, 1939). In WRPA the current strategy is to prevent the grazing in all the protected area sectors. However, the grazing is currently active due to weak implementation of management procedure. The grazing activity is concentrated in the Upper Lake and the connecting canal and may approach the waterfalls area. It was frequent around the Lower Lake when the wetland vegetation was rich with reeds and other palatable species, but decreased considerably nowadays for the decrease in water level decrease in the lake, and replaced with the woody vegetation.
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Objectives · Limit and control the grazing process inside WRPA in terms of seasons and zones · Extensive collaboration with the local communities inside and outside WRPA to promote the control over the use of wetlands as forage · Raising the public awareness to the target locals working in the grazing activities. Strategies and Actions · Permit grazing activities in a dual manner interchanging between strip 1 & 2 in winter-spring & summer-autumn respectively. (See figure 20). · Strengthen the implementation of management procedure (Patrolling and law enforcement) is very essential if grazing is permitted to keep the grazing activities in the specified season and zone,, other wise permitting of grazing will then destroy the ecosystem. · Establish a specific monitoring program tracking: 1) seasonal productivity change in rate/value, 2) the potential invasive species & 3) recording any possible shift in the existed plant community. · Develop an awareness campaigns aiming to identify the locals with the wise use of natural resources and consider them as conservation partners. · Introducing a kind of incentives for the local people to limit or stop their grazing activities such as a special handicraft program based on the naturally existing Phragmites australis. The plant can be wisely and seasonally clipped from high productivity sites, reported in this study, for handicraft benefiting local people who stopped their grazing activities inside Wadi El-Rayan wetlands.
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FIGURE 57. Map for potential grazing strips in Wadi El-Rayan wetlands
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CONCLUSION The present thesis may be considered the first of its kind to deal both with the vegetation ecology and management of one of the main inland wetlands in Egypt: Wadi El-Rayan depression in Fayoum Governorate, which also considered one of the Egypt's 27 protected areas. The obtained results revealed the following conclusion: 1. The vegetation ecology of Wadi El-Rayan (Lakes and springs areas) was assessed through twenty stands resulted in 2 main vegetation groups indicated by Alhagi graecorum dominates the springs desert areas; and Phragmites australis which dominates the wetland areas around the lake and the springs sites. 2. The wetland vegetation productivity was assessed through measuring the phytomass of the key wetland species Phragmites australis resulting in five different levels of productivity. 3. The highly productive sites were those located around the Upper Lake, the Connecting Channel and the 4th spring, whereas the low productive sites were around the Lower Lake and the 1st spring for both water and lee ward vegetation. 4. Significant correlations were detected between the multivariate ordination axes for vegetation groups and water variables in different seasons (positive and negative correlations with nitrates and ammonia respectively) 5. No significant correlations were recorded between the ordination axes and the different soil variables. 6. As an impact of fire, the rate of phytomass accumulation increased in the period from winter to spring, and then decreased to summer for both of the Rayan lakes. 7. The effect of fire and grazing in the same area was represented in the increasing rate of phytomass accumulation in the period from winter to spring, and less decrease value period from spring to summer.
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8. Maps were produced for locating the sampling program of the study area, high and low productivity levels and potential grazing sites of Wadi El-Rayan wetland. 9. Proposed amendment of WRPA management plan introduced as two main issues: 1) Restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan lakes and 2) Conservation of Wadi ElRyan wetlands (grazing and firing issues). Seven objectives and seven strategies & actions were proposed for the first issue, while three objectives and five strategies & actions were proposed for the second issue.
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Conclusion
1
SUMMARY Wadi El-Rayan is a well developed wetland ecosystem since late Eighties. Its characterizations in terms of ecology and productivity are poorly described, especially under the recent changes in water status of Rayan lakes and human impacts due to the running economic activities. The present study described the main community of Wadi El-Rayan dominated by Phragmites australis and figures out the seasonal productivity represented in phytomass (kg dry weight/m2) of wetland vegetation. Five habitat types were recorded in Wadi ElRayan area, which are reed swamps, salt marshes, sand formations, gravel and neomulitic desert and aquatic habitats. Xerophytes, halophytes and hydrophytes are forming the main bulk of Wadi El-Rayan vegetation. A total of 56 species belonging to 26 families were recorded. Compositae and Gramineae are the highly represented families, however therophytes and geophytes are the main life forms. The main vegetation cover in Wadi El-Rayan area was assessed through twenty stands represents the plant cover around the lakes and the springs area. Twenty eight stands (fourteen sites) were selected to represent the main water bodies in the area (Upper Lake, Lower Lake, Connecting Channel and the Springs area) for measuring productivity in the study period. Fifty six water samples and fourteen soil samples were collected and analyzed during the period of the study. Statistical Multivariate Analysis of the waterward vegetation (WW) and landward vegetation (LW) of the wetland areas (Upper Rayan Lake, Lower Rayan Lake, the Connecting Channel and the Springs Area) in the period of the study clarified 5 different levels of productivity for each. The highly productive sites were those located around the Upper Lake, the Connecting Channel and the 4th spring, whereas the low productive sites were those around the Lower Lake and the 1st spring for both of the water and land wards vegetation. Some significant correlations were detected between the first two ordination axes. A significant correlation was recorded between axis I and water variables during winter,
2 spring and summer seasons of the study period. On the other hand, the only detectable negative significant correlation was between axis II and water ammonia content during summer season. However, no significant correlations between axes I and II and the different soil variables. The temporal variation in the aerial dry weight phytomass of Phragmites australis in the wetlands of Wadi El-Rayan attained its maximum in winter season (measured in December) for all the sites and its minimum in summer (measured in June-July) for most of the study sites. The Lower Rayan Lake showed the highest values of water TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and TSS. However, the highest COD, BOD, NO3-, NH4+ and TP values were recorded in the Connecting Channel, Upper Lake and Springs water with various concentrations. On the other hand, the lowest TDS, Cl-, SO4-- and TSS values were recorded in the water of the Upper Lake; Connecting Channel and Springs. The soil of Connecting Channel wetland sites showed the highest recorded values for CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles. However, the soil collected from the shores of the Upper lake showed the highest values for Na+, K+, HCO3-, TSS and Cl-. The highest W.H.C., A.W. and organic matter contents; silt & organic matter content; clay particles values were recorded in the soil around the Lower Lake; springs; and Upper Lake respectively. The highest Ca++, Mg++ & P values were recorded in the soil collected from around the Lower Lake. The soil collected from around the springs was containing the highest SO4-- & N values. On the other hand, the lowest W.H.C., A.W., CaCO3, Ca++, gravel and sand particles; clay particles; silt particles and organic matter content values were recorded in the soil around the springs; Lower Lake; and Connecting Channel respectively. However, the lowest Na+, K+, Ca++, P, TSS & Cl-; Mg++ & HCO3-; SO4-- & N values were recorded in the soil collected from around the springs; Connecting channel; and Upper lake respectively When comparing the highest recorded values for water variable in Rayan Lakes to those recorded for Qaroun Lake, it was noticed that 1) the TDS, Cl- & SO4-- values in Lake
3 Qaroun is higher than those of Wadi El-Rayan Lower Lake by 1.8 – 3.5, 1.6 – 3.6 & 1.9 – 3.2 times respectively. However, the heavy metals Cu and Fe values in Lake Qaroun is higher than those of Wadi El-Rayan Lower Lake by 48.0 and 1.8 times respectively. Values for Zn and Cd are almost the same. Hg and Pb were not detected (or below the detection level) in Wadi El-Rayan Lakes. Three sites around the Upper Lake and Lower Lake were selected to monitor the effect of fire during the study period. Single effect of fire and the combined effect of both fire and grazing in the same area were realized. The rate of phytomass accumulation increased by 209.3% in the period from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% in the period from spring to summer for the Upper Lake, however, in the Lower lake increased by 144.3% in the period from winter to spring, and decreased by 31% in the period from spring to summer, as a single effect of fire. The effect of fire followed by grazing in the same area is represented in the increasing rate of phytomass accumulation by 147.9% in the period from winter to spring, and 56% in the period from spring to summer. The absolute values of the phytomass were highly varied from the Upper and Lower Lakes sites after firing and reached 56.7, 71.8 & 72.1 times more in the Upper Lake than those in the Lower Lake. The environmental management section of this study listed the main values of Wadi ElRayan Protected Area and their affecting threats according to the latest management effectiveness evaluation. Amendment of WRPA management plan is proposed in terms of 2 main issues: 1) Restoration of water balance of Wadi El-Rayan lakes and 2) Conservation of Wadi El-Ryan wetlands (grazing and firing issues). Both of the 2 main issues has its proposed objectives and strategies & actions. Seven objectives and seven strategies & actions were proposed for the first issue, while three objectives and five strategies & actions were proposed for the second issue. A map was introduced for the potential grazing strips in Wadi El-Rayan wetlands.
Appendices
Appendices 138
Appendix 1. THE AUTHOR
Mohamed Talaat Abdou Ahmed El-Hennawy Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area - Nature Conservation Sector Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Cabinet of Ministers 30 Misr Helwan Agricultural Road, Maadi, Cairo, Egypt Off. Tel. & Fax:002 02 25248792/ 25271391 Mobile: +2 010 5763613 E-mail:
[email protected]
Profile Mohamed Talaat El-Hennawy, joined the Nature Conservation Sector (NCS) within the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) as environmental researcher at Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area since 1999. His work involves different aspects of protected area management, planning and implementation of scientific monitoring program and management planning through development and evaluation of site plans/work plans and management plans of different PA sectors and programs. He involved in designing and preparing the PA educational publications (brochures, posters, newsletters,...etc) and PA signpost network through text development/integration, revision and bi-lingual preparation (English/Arabic). He is also in charge of many other positions: 1) Head of the national NCS committee for implementing the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; 2) Manager of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area; 3) member of the national team for planning and management of the Natural World Heritage Site in Wadi El-Hitan (Valley of the Whales); 4) coordinator of planning and management effectiveness with the Egyptian - Italian project (UNDP/Italian Cooperation) support to Wadi El-Rayan PA, as one component of the broad Egyptian-Italian Environmental Cooperation Program of the Italian Cooperation in Egypt; 5) member of the national team for evaluation of management effectiveness of protected areas in Egypt; 6) part time trainer of the national team for capacity building of nature conservation sector' staff; & 7) member of the national team for business planning of protected areas in Egypt. He is also member of board of several non-governmental organizations (e.g. Friends of Wadi El-Hitan, Valley of the Whales & Egyptian Society for Wild Life Conservation). During the course of his career, he trained in Egypt as well as abroad in Italy, Greece, and Lebanon on the natural/cultural resources management, evaluation of management effectiveness of protected areas, scientific monitoring, business planning of PA and sustainable development. He has a very good experience about water quality control and analyses. Prior joining the EEAA, he was a biological and chemical environmental analyses specialist at the water technology and chemical analysis unit, of the Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura. During which he was involving in 1) water & wastewater analysis (Microbiological and physico-chemical), 2) participating in international/national projects dealing with water quality assessment; 3) sharing by practical work and preparation of training courses for the technicians operating the drinkingwater units at Dakahlia Governorate and 4) teaching of the practical course of engineering chemistry for the primary year engineering students. He involved as a part time member at Environmental Impact Assessment and Consultancy Center of Mansoura University; his activities included the preparation of environmental classification models and EIA studies of the projects. Prior to Mansoura University, he was a microbiologist at the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture, Blue Green Center; his activities included the production of algal bio-fertilizers, through the microbiological Lab. work (media preparation, sterilization, culture preparation, incubation and selection of desired and well- adapted strains of blue green algae that fix nitrogen for commercial field production). He received his Master Degree in 2000 on Plant/Fresh Water Ecology, his Diploma in management of water resources in 2004 and now he work to finish his PhD on ecology and environmental management of wetland ecosystems.
Appendices 139
Academic Background 2005present
Ph.D. student, “Ecology & Management of Wetland Ecosystems, Wadi El-Rayan, Western Desert, Egypt”, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
2004
Diploma, (Management of Water Resources and services), HYDROAID, April to August 2004, International Training center of the International Labor Organization, Turin, Italy
2000
M.Sc. (Plant Ecology - Fresh Water Ecology), Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.
1994
B.Sc. (Botany), Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.
Professional Experience 2009 - date
Manager of Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2008 - date
Head of the National NCS committee for implementing the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation in Egypt, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2007 Present
Member of the national team on business planning of protected areas, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2006 Present
Member of the national team on management effectiveness evaluation of protected areas, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2006 Present
Part Time Trainer within the national team for capacity building of Nature Conservation Sector' staff, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2005 Present
Member of the national team on planning and management of the World Natural Heritage Site in Wadi El-Hitan (Valley of the Whales), Wadi El-Rayan Protected area, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
2009
International Expert, Nile Basin Initiative, Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Project (Wetland and biodiversity component). Editing the Wetlands and Biodiversity Baseline Report for Egypt.
2007 - 2008
National Expert on business planning of protected areas, Nature Conservation Sector Capacity Building Project, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. (UNDP/Italian Cooperation)
Appendices 140
2006 - 2008
National Expert on evaluation of protected areas management effectiveness, Nature Conservation Sector Capacity Building Project, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. (UNDP/Italian Cooperation)
2000 - 2008
Coordinator of management & effectiveness monitoring, Egyptian-Italian Project Support to Wadi El-Rayan Protected area, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. (Italian Cooperation project)
2005 - 2008
Head of Planning & Management Effectiveness Evaluation unit, Egyptian-Italian Project Support to Wadi El-Rayan Protected area, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. (UNDP/Italian Cooperation project)
1999 Present
Environmental Researcher in Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.
1997 - 1999
Part time member at Environmental Impact Assessment and Consultancy Center, Mansoura University, Mansoura Egypt; preparation of classification models of the projects for EIA studies.
1997 - 1999
Teaching the practical course of engineering chemistry (water and wastewater analyses) for undergraduate Engineering students, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
1995 - 1999
Biological and Chemical Environmental analyses specialist, Water Technology and Chemical Analysis Unit, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
1995
Microbiologist at the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture (Blue green center), for Production of bio-fertilizers.
1993&1994
Volunteer at Ras Mohamed National Park Sector, South Sinai, Egypt.
Projects (Member – Participation) 2009
Nile Basin Initiative, Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Project.
1999 - 2008
Egyptian Italian Environmental Cooperation Program, Italian Cooperation, Cairo
1999 - 2008
Egyptian Italian Project support to Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area, UNDP/Italian Cooperation/EEAA
2006-2007
Nature Conservation Sector Capacity Building Project, UNDP/Italian Cooperation/EEAA
2004
Medicinal Plants Conservation Project in Arid and Semi Arid Regions, UNDP/GEF/EEAA project
1996 - 1998
Long-Term Program for Pollution Monitoring and Research In The Mediterranean (MED POL Phase II), University of Mansoura/EU project
1995 - 1997
Assessment of Water Quality from Compact Units for Drinking Purposes in Dakahlia Governorate, Mansoura University/Dakahlia Governorate project
Appendices 141
Appendix 2. Selected Photos
Wadi El-Hitan, The Valley of The Whales, Natural World Heritage Site
Appendices 142
Modawara bay 2000
Appendices 143
Waterfalls before 2000 (above) and in 2007 (below)
Appendices 144
Springs’ area
Appendices 145
Fire sites
Appendices 146
Productivity sampling
Appendices 147
Rayan first spring
Appendices 148
Nitraria retusa
Appendices 149
Alhagi graecorum
Tamarix nilotica
Appendices 150
Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum
Appendices 151
Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum
Sporopolus spicatus
Appendices 152
Cressa cretica
Juncus rigidus
Appendices 153
Phragmites australis
Desmostachya bipinnata
Appendices 154
Typha domingensis
Scirpus maritimus
Appendices 155
Myriophyllum spicatum
Appendices 156
Zygophyllum album
Cornulaca monocantha
Appendices 157
Birds in Wadi El-Rayan
Appendices 158
Appendix 3. List of Birds No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
LATIN NAME Accipiter brevipes Accipiter nisus Acrocephalus arundinaceus Acrocephalus dumetorum Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Acrocephalus scirpaceus Acrocephalus stentoreus Actitis hypoleucos Alaemon alaudipes Alcedo atthis Anas acuta Anas clypeata Anas crecca Anas penelope Anas platyrhynchos Anas querquedula Anas strepera Anthus campestris Anthus cervinus Anthus pratensis Anthus spinoletta Anthus trivialis Apus apus Apus pallidus Ardea cinerea Ardea purpurea Ardeola ralloides Arenaria interpres Aythya ferina Aythya fuligula Aythya nyroca Botaurus stellaris Bubulcus ibis Burhinus oedicneumus Buteo buteo Buteo rufinus Calidris alba Calidris alpina Calidris canutus Calidris ferruginea Calidris minuta Calidris temminckii Centropus senegalensis
ENGLISH NAME Levant Sparrowhawk Sparrowhawk Great Reed Warbler Blyth’s Reed Warbler Sedge Warbler Reed Warbler Clamorous Reed Warbler Common Sandpiper Hoopoe lark Kingfisher Pintail Shoveler Teal Wigeon Mallard Garganey Gadwall Tawny Pipit Red-throated Pipit Meadow pipit Water Pipit Tree Pipit Commun Swift Pallid Swift Grey Heron Purple Heron Squacco Heron Turnstone Pochard Tufted Duck Ferruginous Duck Bittern Cattle Egret Stone-curlew Buzzard Long-legged Buzzard Sanderling Dunlin Knot Curlew Sand Piper Little Stint Temminck’s Stint Senegal Coucal
ARABIC NAME NOTES Migrant ﺑﯿﺪق/ﺑﺎز Migrant ﺑﺎﺷﻖ Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﻘﺼﺐ اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮة Migrant/Winter visitor Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﺪ Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﻐﺎب Breeding Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﻘﺼﺐ اﻟﺼﯿﺎﺣﺔ Summer visitor طﯿﻄﻮى Migrant ﻣﻜﺎء Resident ﺻﯿﺎد اﻟﺴﻤﻚ Winter visitor ﺑﻠﺒﻮل Winter visitor ﻛﯿﺶ Winter visitor ﺷﺮﺷﯿﺮ ﺷﺘﻮى Winter visitor ظﺎى Winter visitor ﺧﻀﺎرى Winter visitor ﺷﺮﺷﯿﺮ ﺻﯿﻔﻰ Winter visitor ﺳﻤﺎرى Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ أﺣﻤﺮ اﻟﺰور Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ اﻟﻐﯿﻂ Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺎء Migrant أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺠﺮ Summer visitor ﺳﻤﺎﻣﺔ Migrant ﺳﻤﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﺎھﺘﺔ Resident ﺑﻠﺸﻮن رﻣﺎدى Winter visitor ﻣﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﺤﺰﻳﻦ Resident/Migrant واق أﺑﯿﺾ Migrant ﻗﻨﺒﺮة اﻟﻤﺎء Winter visitor ﺣﻤﺮاى Winter visitor زراﻗﻰ أﺑﻮ ﺷﻮﺷﺔ Winter visitor زرﻗﺎى اﺣﻤﺮ Winter visitor واق او ﻋﺠﺎج Resident/Migrant أﺑﻮ ﻗﺮدان Migrant ﻛﺮوان ﺟﺒﻠﻰ Migrant ﺻﻘﺮ ﺣﻮام Migrant ﺻﻘﺮ ﺟﺮاح Migrant ﻣﺪروان Migrant درﻳﺠﺔ Migrant درﻳﺠﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل Migrant درﻳﺠﺔ ﻛﺮواﻧﯿﺔ Winter visitor ﻛﺮوان اﻟﻤﺎء Winter visitor ﻓﻄﯿﺮة ﺗﻤﻨﻚ Resident ﻣﻚ أو ﻛﻮﻛﻮ
Appendices 159
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Cercotrichas glactotes Ceryle rudis Charadrius alexandrinus Charadrius dubius Charadrius hiaticula Charadrius leschenaultii Chlidonias hybridus Chlidonias leucopterus Chlidonias niger Ciconia ciconia Ciconia nigra Circaetus gallicus Circus aeruginosus Circus cyaneus Circus macrourus Circus pygargus Coracias garrulus Corvus bruniceps Corvus corone cornix Coturnix coturnix Cuculus canorus Cursorius cursor Delichron urbica Egretta alba Egretta garzetta Eremophila bilopha Falco biarmicus Falco columbarius Falco concolor Falco naumanni Falco pelegrinoides Falco tinnunculus Ficedula albicollis Ficedula hypoleuca Fringilla coelebs Fulica atra Gallinago gallinago Gallinago media Gallinula chloropus Gelochelidon nilotica Glareola pratincola Grus grus Himantopus himantopus Hirundo daurica Hirundo rustica Hoplopterus spinosus Ixobrychus minutus
Rufous Bush - Robin Pied King Fisher Kentish Plover Little Ringed Plover Ringed Plover Greater Sand Plover Whiskered Tern White-winged Black tern Black Tern White Stork Black Stork Short-toed Eagle Marsh Harrier Hen Harrier Pallid Harrier Montagu's Harrier Roller Brown-necked Raven Hooded Crow Quail Cokoo Cream Colored Corser House Matrin Great White Egret Little Egret Temmink,s Lark Lanner Merlin Sooty falcon Lesser Kestrel Barbary's Falcon Kestrel Collared Flycatcher Pied Flycatcher Chaffinch Coot Common Snip Great Snipe Moorhen Gull-billed Tern Collared Pratincole Crane Black-winged Stilt Red-rumped Swallow Swallow Spur-winged plover Little Bittern
Summer visitor دﺧﻠﺔ ﺣﻤﺮاء Breeding Resident ﺻﯿﺎد اﻟﺴﻤﻚ اﻷﺑﻠﻖ Resident ﻗﻄﻘﺎط أﺑﻮ اﻟﺮؤوس Migrant ﻗﻄﻘﺎط ﻣﺘﻮج ﺻﻐﯿﺮ Migrant ﻗﻄﻘﺎط ﻣﺘﻮج ﻛﺒﯿﺮ Migrant ﻗﻄﻘﺎط اﻟﺮﻣﻞ اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮ Migrant ﺧﻄﺎف أﺑﻮ ﺑﻄﻦ Migrant ﺧﻄﺎف أﺑﯿﺾ اﻟﺨﺪ Migrant ﺧﻄﺎف أﺳﻮد Migrant ﻟﻘﻠﻖ أﺑﯿﺾ Migrant ﻟﻘﻠﻖ أﺳﻮد Migrant ﻋﻘﺎب أﺑﯿﺾ Winter visitor/Resident ﻣﺮزة اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﻘﻌﺎت Migrant ﻣﺮزة اﻟﺪﺟﺎج Migrant ﻣﺮزة ﺑﻐﺸﺎء winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﺷﺮدة Migrant ﻏﺮاب زﻳﺘﻮﻧﻰ Resident ﻏﺮاب ﻧﻮﺣﻰ Resident ﻏﺮاب ﺑﻠﺪى Winter visitor ﺳﻤﺎن Migrant وﻗﻮاق/ ھﻮھﻮ Breeding Resident ﺟﺮوان/ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﻞ Migrant ﺳﻨﻮﻧﻮ أﺑﯿﺾ اﻟﺒﻄﻦ Winter visitor ﺑﻠﺸﻮن أﺑﯿﺾ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ Resident ﺑﻠﺸﻮن أﺑﯿﺾ ﺻﻐﯿﺮ Migrant ﻗﻨﺒﺮة اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء Migrant ﺻﻘﺮ ﺣﺮ Migrant اﺑﻮ رﻳﺔ Breeding summer visitor ﺻﻘﺮ اﻟﻐﺮوب Migrant ﻋﻮﺳﻖ ﺻﻐﯿﺮ Migrant ﺷﺎھﯿﻦ ﻣﻐﺮﺑﻰ Resident ﻋﻮﺳﻖ Migrant ﺧﺎطﻒ اﻟﺬﺑﺎب اﻟﻤﻄﻮق Migrant ﺧﺎطﻒ اﻟﺬﺑﺎب اﻷﺑﻘﻊ Migrant ﻋﺼﻔﻮر ظﺎﻟﻢ Resident/Winter visitor ﻏﺮ ﺑﻜﺎﺷﯿﻦ Migrant ﺷﻨﻘﺐ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ Resident/Winter visitor ﻓﺮﺧﺔ اﻟﻤﺎء Migrant ﺧﻄﺎف ﻧﻮرﺳﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻘﺎر Migrant اﺑﻮ اﻟﯿﺴﺮ Migrant ﻏﺮﻧﻮج/ ﻛﺮﻛﻰ Winter visitor أﺑﻮ اﻟﻤﻐﺎزل ﻋﺻﻔور اﻟﺟﻧﺔ أﺣﻣر اﻟﻌﺟز
Resident
ﻋﺼﻔﻮر اﻟﺠﻨﺔ زﻗﺰاق ﺑﻠﺪى واق ﺻﻐﯿﺮ
Migrant Breeding Resident Breeding Resident
Appendices 160
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
Jinx torquilla Lanius collurio Lanius minor Lanius mridunals Lanius senator Larus fuscus Larus genei Larus ichthyaetus Larus ridibundus Limosa limosa Luscinia megarhinchos Luscinia svecica Merops apiaster Merops superciliosus Milvus migrans Monticola saxatilis Monticola solitarius Motacilla alba Motacilla cinerea Motacilla flava Muscicapa striata Netta rufina Numenius arquata Nycticorax nycticorax Oenanthe deserti Oenanthe hispanica Oenanthe isabellina Oenanthe leucopyga Oenanthe monacha Oenanthe oenanthe Oriolus oriolus Pandion haeliatus Passer domesticus Passer hispaniolensis Phalacrocorax carbo Phoenicopterus ruber Phoenicurus ochruros Phoenicurus phoenicurus Phylloscopus bonelli Phylloscopus collybita Phylloscopus sibilatrix Phylloscopus trochillus Platalea leucorodia Plegadis falcinellus Podiceps cristatus Podiceps nigricollis Porphyrio porphyrio
Wryneck Red backed Shrike Lesser Grey Shrike Southern Grey Shrike Woodchat Shrike Lesser Black-backed Gull Slender-billed Gull Great Black-headed Gull Black-headed Gull Black-tailed Godwit Nightingale Bluethroat Eurasian Bee-eater Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Black Kite Rock Thrush Blue Rock Thrush White Wagtail Gery Wag Tail Yellow Wagtail Spotted Flycatcher Red-crested Pochard Curlew Night Heron Desert Wheater Black-eared Wheatear Isabelline Wheatear White-crowned Black Wheatear Hooded Wheatear Norhten Wheatear Golden Oriole Osprey House Sparrow Spanish Sparrow Cormorant Greater Flamingo Black Redstart Redstart Bonelli's Warbler Chiffchaff Wood Warbler Willow Warbler Spoonbill Glossy Ibis Great Crested Grebe Black-Necked Grebe Purple Gallinule
Migrant أم ﻟﻮاء/ ﻟﻮاء Migrant دﻗﻨﺎش اﻛﺤﻞ Migrant دﻗﻨﺎش ﺻﺮدى Breeding Resident دﻗﻨﺎش اﻟﺒﺎدﻳﺔ Resident دﻗﻨﺎش أوروﺑﻰ Migrant ﻧﻮرس دﻏﺒﺔ Resident ﻧﻮرس ﻗﺮﻗﻄﻰ Winter visitor ﻧﻮرس اﻟﺴﻤﻚ Winter visitor ﻧﻮرس أﺳﻮد اﻟﺮأس Migrant ﺑﻮﻳﻘﺔ ﺳﻮداء اﻟﺬﻧﺐ Migrant اﻟﻤﻐﻨﺎء اﻷﺳﻤﺮ Winter visitor اﻟﺤﺴﯿﻨﻰ Migrant وروار أوروﺑﻰ Summer visitor وروار أزرق اﻟﺨﺪ Migrant ﺣﺪأة ﺳﻮداء Winter visitor أﺑﻮﺷﻮك/ ﺳﻜﺎﻟﺔ Winter visitor ﺣﻤﺎﻣﺔ زرﻗﺎء Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﺎدة أﺑﯿﺾ Migrant أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﺎدة رﻣﺎدى Migrant أﺑﻮ ﻓﺼﺎدة أﺻﻔﺮ Winter visitor ﺧﺎطﻒ اﻟﺬﺑﺎب اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻂ Winter visitor وﻧﺲ Winter visitor ﻛﺮوان اﻟﻐﯿﻂ Winter visitor ﺑﻠﺸﻮن اﻟﻠﯿﻞ Migarnt أﺑﻠﻖ اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء Migrant أﺑﻠﻖ أﺳﻮد اﻷذن Migrant/Winter visitor أﺑﻠﻖ أﺷﮫﺐ Migrant أﺑﻮ ﺳﻠﯿﻤﺎن Migrant أﺑﻠﻖ أﺑﻮ طﺎﻗﯿﺔ Migrant أﺑﻠﻖ أﺑﻮ ﺑﻠﯿﻖ Migrant ﻋﺼﻔﻮر اﻟﺘﻮت Migrant ﻧﺴﻮرى Breeding Resident ﻋﺼﻔﻮر دورى Migrant ﻋﺼﻔﻮر اﺳﺒﺎﻧﻰ Winter visitor ﻏﺮاب اﻟﺒﺤﺮ Occasional visitor اﻟﺒﺸﺎروش Winter visitor ﺣﻤﯿﺮاء ﺳﻮداء Winter visitor ﺣﻤﯿﺮاء Migrant ﻧﻘﺸﺎرة ﺻﻔﺮاء اﻟﻌﺠﺰ Winter visitor ﺷﺎدﻳﺔ اﻟﺨﻤﺎﻳﻞ/ ﺳﻜﺴﻜﺔ Migrant ﻧﻘﺸﺎرة اﻟﺸﺠﺮة Migrant ﻧﻘﺸﺎرة اﻟﺼﻔﺼﺎف Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻣﻠﻌﻘﺔ Winter visitor أﺑﻮ ﻣﻨﺠﻞ أﺳﻮد Winter visitor ﻏﻄﺎس ﻣﺘﻮج Winter visitor ﻏﻄﺎس أﺳﻮد اﻟﺮﻗﺒﺔ Breeding Resident ﻓﺮﺧﺔ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﻧﻰ
Appendices 161
139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177
Porzana porzana Prinia gracilis Pterocles orientalis Pterocles senegallus Riparia riparia Saxicola rubetra Saxicola torquata Scotocerca inquieta Sterna albifrons Sterna caspia Sterna hirundo Streptopelia decaocto Streptopelia senegalensis Streptotelia turtur Sylvia atricapilla Sylvia borin Sylvia cantillans Sylvia communis Sylvia curruca Sylvia melanocphalla Sylvia rueppelli Tachybaptus ruficollis Tadorna tadorna Tringa glareola Tringa nebularia Tringa ochropus
Spotted Crake Graceful Warbler Black-bellied Sandgrouse Spotted Sand Grouse Sand martin Whinchat Stonechat Scrub Warbler Little Tern Caspian Tern Common Tern Collared Dove Palm dove Turtle Dove Blackcap Garden Warbler Subalpine Warbler Whitethroat Lesser Whitethroat Sardinian Warbler Rueppell's Warbler Little Grebe Shelduck Wood Sand Piper Greenshank Green Sandpiper Barn Owl Barn Swallow Common Buzzard Common Crane Common Cuckoo Common Redstart Eagle Owl European Reed Warbler European Roller Little Owl Marsh Owl Scope Owl
ﻣﺮﻋﺔ ﻣﻨﻘﻄﺔ Breeding Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ/ ﻓﺼﯿﺔ Migrant ﻗﻄﺎ أﺳﻮد اﻟﺒﻄﻦ Migrant ﻗﻄﺎ ارﻗﻂ Resident ﺳﻨﻮﻧﻮ اﻟﺮﻣﻞ Migrant ﻗﻠﯿﻌﻰ أﺣﻤﺮ Winter visitor ﻗﻠﯿﻌﻰ ﻣﻄﻮق Breeding Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﺪﻏﻞ Winter visitor ﺧﻄﺎف ﺻﻐﯿﺮ Migrant ﺧﻄﺎف أﺑﻮ ﺑﻠﺤﺔ winter visitor ﺧﻄﺎف اﻟﺒﺤﺮ Resident ﻗﻤﺮى ﻣﻄﻮق Resident ﻗﻤﺮى ﺑﻠﺪى Resident ﻗﻤﺮى Migrant أﺑﻮ ﻗﻠﻨﺴﻮة Migrant دﺧﻠﺔ ﻛﺤﻠﺔ Migrant دﺧﻠﺔ اﻟﺼﺮود Migrant زرﻳﻘﺔ ﻓﯿﺮاﻧﻰ Migrant دﺧﻠﺔ ﻓﯿﺮاﻧﻰ Migrant دﺧﻠﺔ رأﺳﺎء Migrant زرﻳﻘﺔ ﻗﺼﺎﺑﻰ Winter visitor ﻏﻄﺎس ﺻﻐﯿﺮ Occasional winter visitor ﺷﮫﺮﻣﺎن Migrant/Winter visitor طﯿﻄﻮى ﻏﯿﺎض Resident طﯿﻄﻮى أﺧﻀﺮ اﻟﺴﺎق Migrant/Winter visitor طﯿﻄﻮى أﺧﻀﺮ resident ﺑﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﺤﻈﯿﺮة Migrant ﻋﺼﻔﻮر اﻟﺠﻨﺔ Migrant ﺻﻘﺮ ﺣﻮام Migrant ﻏﺮﻧﻮج/ ﻛﺮﻛﻰ Migrant وﻗﻮاق/ ھﻮھﻮ Winter Migrant ﺣﻤﯿﺮاء ﺑﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﻮر Resident ھﺎزﺟﺔ اﻟﻐﺎب Migrant ﻏﺮاب زﻳﺘﻮﻧﻰ Resident ﺑﻮﻣﺔ ﺻﻐﯿﺮة ﺑﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﻘﻌﺎت ﺑﻮﻣﺔ ﺳﻜﻮب
Appendices 162
Appendix 4. List of Mammals No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
LATIN NAME Hemiechinus auritus auritus aegypticus Crocidura flavescencs deitac Crocidura floweri Gerbillus pyramidium pyramidium Gerbillus andersoni andersoni Gerbillus gerbillus gerbillus Dipodillus amoenus amoenus Meriones lybicus lybicus Arvicanthis niloticus niloticus Rattus rattus Rattus norvegicus Nesokia indica suilla Jaculus jaculus Mus musculus Canis aureus lupaster Fennecus zerada Vulpes vulpes Aegyptica Vulpes ruepelli Ruepelli Felis sylvestris libyca Gazella dorcas Dorcas Herpestes ichneumon Mustela nivalis Lepus capensis Rothschildi Felis chaus nilotica Gazella leptocerus leptocerus
ENGLISH NAME Long-eared hedgehogs Giant musk shrew Flower's shrew Greater gerbil Anderson's gerbil Lesser gerbil Charming dipodil Libyan jird Field rat House rat Brown rat Bandicoot rat Desert jerboas House mouse Golden jackal Fennec fox Red fox
Ruppell’s sand fox African wild cat Dorcas gazelle Egyptian mongoose Weasel Cape hare Jungle cat Slender horned gazelle
ARABIC NAME ﻗﻨﻔﺪ طﻮﻳﻞ اﻷذن
ﻓﺄر اﻟﻐﯿﻂ اﻟﻔﺄر اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﻰ اﻟﻔﺄر اﻟﺒﻨﻰ ﻳﺮﺑﻮع ﺣﺮ اﻟﻔﺄر اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﻲ اﻟﺬﺋﺐ
ﺛﻌﻠﺐ اﻟﻔﻨﻚ اﻟﺜﻌﻠﺐ اﻻﺣﻤﺮ ﺛﻌﻠﺐ اﻟﺮﻣﻞ اﻟﻘﻂ اﻟﺒﺮي اﻻﻓﺮﻳﻘﻲ اﻟﻐﺰال اﻟﻤﺼﺮي اﻟﻨﻤﺲ اﻟﻤﺼﺮي اﻟﻌﺮﺳﻪ أرﻧﺐ اﻟﻜﺎب ﻗﻂ اﻷدﻏﺎل اﻟﻐﺰال اﻷﺑﯿﺾ
Appendices 163
Appendix 5. List of Fish
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
LATINE NAME Alestes nurse Aphanius disper Aphanius fasciatus Altherina boyeri Altherina spp., Bagrus bayad Bagrus docmak Bagrus spp., Barbus bynni Clarias lazera Ctenopharyngodon idella Cyprinus carpio Dicentrarchus labrax Dicentrarchus punctatus Haplochromis spp., Hemichromis bimaculatus Hemiramphus far Labeo nilotica Lates niloticus Liza aurata Liza ramada Mugil cephalus Oreochromis aureus Oreochromis niloticus Sardinella spp., Sarotherodon galilaeus Sparus auratus Synodntis schall Tilapia zilii
ENGLISH NAME Imberi Tooth carp Tominnow – Pastrica Silverside Silverside Forsskal catfish Catfish Catfish Barbel African catfish Grass carp Common carp Seabass Spotted seabass Cichlid Cichlid Halfbeak Nile carp Nile perch Golden grey mulet Thinlip grey mullet Flathead grey mullet Tilapia Tilapia Sardin Tilapia Gilthead seabream Barbel Green tilapia
ARABIC NAME راي ﺳﺮدﻳﻦ ﻧﻮرس ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻖ ﺑﺎﺳﺎرﻳﺎ
ﺑﺎﺳﺎرﻳﺎ ﺑﯿﺎض
ﺑﻘﺮ دﻗﻤﺎق ﺑﯿﺎض ﺑﯿﻨﻲ ﻗﺮﻣﻮط ﻣﺒﺮوك اﻟﺤﺸﯿﺶ
ﻣﺒﺮوك ﻗﺎروص ﻗﺎروص ھﺎﺑﻠﻮﻛﺮوﻣﺲ ﻗﺰم ھﺒﻤﻮﻛﺮوﻣﺲ ﻣﺨﻄﻂ أﺑﻮ ﻣﻨﻘﺎر ﻟﺒﯿﺲ )ﻟﻔﺎش( ﻗﺸﺮ ﺑﯿﺎض ھﺎﻟﯿﻠﻰ طﻮﺑﺎر ﺑﻮرى ﺑﻠﻄﻰ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﻠﻄﻰ أﺑﯿﺾ راي ﺳﺮدﻳﻦ ﺑﻠﻄﻲ ﺟﻠﯿﻠﻲ دﻧﯿﺲ ﺷﯿﻼن )ﺑﻠﻄﻲ أﺧﻀﺮ( ﺣﺠﺎرى
Appendices 164
Appendix 6. List of Insects SPECIES Agelena lepida
FAMILY Agelenidae
ORDER Araneida
Argiope trifasciata, Argiope Araneidae lobata, Cyrtophora citricola Cheiracanthium sp. Clubionidae Dictyna sp. Dictynidae Stegodyphus sp. Eresidae Pterotricha schaefferi, Haplodrassus sp., Setaphis Gnaphosidae sp. Trochosa sp., Pirata sp., Evippa ungulata Lycosidae Peucetia sp., Oxyopes sp. Oxyopidae Philodromus sp., Thanatus sp., Ebo sp.
Philodromidae
Mogrus bonnetii Salticidae Tetragnatha nitens Tetragnathidae Theridion sp. Therididae Thomisus onustus Thomosidae Buthacus leptochelys, Androctonus amoreuxi Olpium kochi Olpiidae Geleodes graecus Suborder lxodides
Scorpionida Pseudoscorpionida Solphugida Acarida
Appendices 165
Appendix 7. List of Reptiles No
SCIENTIFIC NAME
ENGLISH NAME
ARABIC NAME ﺑﺮص أﺑﻮ ﻛﻒ
1
Ptyodactylus hasselquistii
Fan-footed Gecko
2
Cerastes cerastea,
Lesser Ceraster Viper
ﺣﯿﻪ ﻗﺮﻋﺎء
3
Cerastes vipera
Horned viper
ﺣﯿﻪ ﻣﻘﺮﻧﻪ
4
Psammophis schokari
Sshokari Sand Snake
ھﺮﺳﯿﻦ
5
Lytorhynchus diadema
Diademed Sand Snake
ﺑﺴﺒﺎس
6
Malpolon moilensis
Moila Snake
7
Varanus griseus
Desert Monitor
8
Mesalina rubropunctat
Red Spotted Lizered
9
Acanthodactylus scutellatus
Nidua Lizered
10
Tropiocolores steudneri
Steudners Gecko
11
Tarrentola annularis
Egyptian Gecko
ﺑﺮص رﺑﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﻨﻘﻂ
12
Stenodactylus
Peteries Gecko
ﺑﺮص واﺳﻊ اﻟﻌﯿﻦ
13
Stenodactylus stenodactylus
Elegant Gecko
ﺑﺮص واﺳﻊ اﻟﻌﯿﻦ
14
Sphenops sepsoides
Audouins Sand skink
أﺑﻮ اﻟﻌﯿﻮن ورل ﺻﺤﺮاوي ﺳﻘﻨﻘﺮ ﻣﻨﻘﻂ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﺳﻘﻨﻘﺮ اﻟﺮﻣﻞ اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮ ﺑﺮص ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﺤﺠﺮ
ﺳﺤﻠﯿﻪ ﻧﻌﺎﻣﻪ
Appendices 166
Appendix 8. List of Benthic Fauna Littoral
Sub-Littoral Mantids
Ant-lions
Monorius pharaonsis Cataglifus bicolor Myraeleon sp.
Spiders
Agelenidae
Daeselflies
Tiger-Beetles
Cicindela sp.
Mayflies
Ear-wigs
Midges
Housefly
Labidura riparia Euborella annulipes Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa Liogryllus bioaculatus Gryllus doaesticus Musca doaestica
Sand-beetles Blood-sucking fly
Ants:
Crickets
Dragonflies
Sphadrocantis sp. Mantis sp. Crocotheaes sp. Heaianex echipoioer Orthetrus chrysostiosa Ischnura seseoalensis
Caddisflies
Baedtis sp. Centroptilua sp. Chironoaus sp. Spaniotota sp. Trichoptera
Crustacea
Gannarus sp.
Tenebrianidae
Rotifera
Brachinous sp.
Tabanus sp. Siphona sp
Foraminifera
Rotatia beccarii
Gastropoda
Diving-beetles
Melanoides tuberculatus Physa acuta Cleopatra buliaoides Theodorus niloticus Bulinus truncatus Anodonta sp. Unio sp. Cybister sp.
Water-bugs
Anisops sardea
Water-scorpions
Raoatra vicina
Water-boataen
Corixa nierogliphica
Nematodes
Onocholainus sp.
Oligochaetes
Chaetogaster sp.
Bivalvia
Appendices 167
Appendix 9. List of vertebrate fossils
SPECIES
CLASS
FAMILY
GENUS
NAME AFTER
Ancalecetus simonsi
Mammalia
Basilosauridae
Dorudon osiris
Gingrich, 1996
Basilosaurus isis
Mammalia
Basilosauridae
Basilosaurus
Cope, 1868
Zeuglodon osieis
Mammalia
Basilosauridae
Dorudon osiris
Dames, 1894
Shark teeth
Elasmobravchii
Mitsukurinidae
Scapanorhynchus
Woodard, 1889
Cardita viquesneli
Bivalvia
Carditidae
Cardita
Oppenheim, 1903
Carolia plcunoides
Bivalvia
Anomiidae
Carolia
Cantraine,1838
Drepanocheilus wagihi
Gastropoda
Aprrhaidae
Drepanocheilus
Abass, 1963
Lucina fajumensis
Bivalvia
Lucinidae
Lucina
Oppenheim, 1903
Mesalia fasciata
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Mesalia
Lamarck, 1830
Nautilus mokattamesis
Cephaloposda
Nautiloidea
Nautilus
Food, 1787
Nicaisoloph clot-beyi
Bivalvia
Ostreidae
Nicaisoloph
Bellardi, 1854
Ostrea elegans
Bivalvia
Ostreidae
Ostrea
Linne, 1758
Pycnodonte gigantica
Bivalvia
Gryphaeidae
Pycnodonte
Solnder, 1766
Turritella carinifera
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Turritella
Cossmann, 1901
Turritella pharaonica
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Turritella
Deshayes, 1824
Vulsella crispata
Bivalvia
Carditidae
Vulsella
Fisher, 1870
Appendices 168
Appendix 10. Economic activities in WRPA Land reclamation is a major component of the government of Egypt’s policy of food self-sufficiency and for this reason such schemes take precedence on virtually any other form of land use in the country. In the south-west of the WRPA about 4500 feddans of drip-irrigation scheme is located. The impact of the scheme in the WRPA is likely to be significant both on soil salinity and on the quantity and quality of water in the Rayan lakes. Perhaps, more critically, the scheme may also affect, in ways which are still to be determined, the adjacent and ecologically sensitive spring’s area of the WRPA, through the influx of thousands of settlers into the area. Oil extraction. There are currently 7 operational oil wells producing about 360,000 barrels/year, established in the northern region of the WRPA by the Qaroun Petroleum Company, a joint venture with the American company Apache. The visible impact of current drilling operations within the WRPA is limited to landscape mutilation due to the development of infrastructure, including a central pumping and storage station, several km of asphalt access roads and a helicopter landing pad. Aquaculture. Authorizations for two fish farms of 1000 and 1300 feddans have been granted in the area along the waterway between the two Rayan lakes.
The first is already being developed by a private company as an intensive farm. To date, the main infrastructure includes 106 concrete ponds (400 m2 each), 29 non-concrete ponds under construction/operation, a larger feeding pond and several feed and water distribution canals. The farm currently has an estimated daily requirement of more than 100.000 m3 of freshwater. The planned expansion of the farm will bring the number of ponds to a total of 120 in addition to a fish feed production unit, a hatchery unit and a canal which will supply the farm with water by gravity directly from the waterway between the two lakes. The most obvious and immediate impact of the actual and planned farm system will be due to the untreated wastewater being dumped into the main waterway feeding the lower lake without filtration or sedimentation of suspended organic matter. This is likely to lead to eutrophication of the near side of the second lake, propagation of infectious and parasitic diseases originating from the fish farm, and expected anaerobic conditions leading to algal blooms in the waterfall area and surrounding beaches (main visitor area), situated about 2 km downstream from the farm. In turn, this would inevitably have an adverse effect on the thriving tourism activities currently concentrated in this area of the WRPA. The introduced EIA studies are not comprehensive; however, it stated that the farm should fix filters before discharge into the lake. The annual fish production for each pond is about 3-4 tons which means about 370 tons of fish per year, which generating about LE 3,700,000 annually. The second is developed by NGO: Fayoum fish farming society on extensive farming basis. The invested area is larger than the first farm and the impact is more or less the same as the intensive farm. To date, the main infrastructure includes 68 farms each of 4-6 ponds (about 8000 m2 each). 58 farms are currently operating while the other 10 are under construction. The
Appendices 169
annual fish production is about 2.5-3 tons for each pond, which means about 870 tons of fish per year, which generating about LE 8,700,000 annually. Fisheries. Fisheries activities in the Wadi El Rayan lakes are managed by the fisheries department of the Fayoum Governorate. The PA includes some of 1724 local fishermen using 182 traditional fish boats and was yielding an annual total of about 450 tons of fish in 1994, down from about 600 tons in 1988. Presently. At current levels of activity the overall impact of this economic sector is thought to be relatively mild although no data are available on its possible effects on the birdlife of the WRPA. Tourism. Wadi El Rayan has the highest number of visitors of any Protected Area in Egypt outside South Sinai and the highest number of Egyptian visitors of any Protected Area in the country (Baha El Din & Baha El Din, 1999). About 150 000 visitors are annually visiting WRPA. The vast majority of visitors is Egyptian (over 95%) and demand for the WRPA as a recreational destination is likely to continue to rise, given the over-crowded and highly polluted conditions prevailing in many urban areas of lower Egypt. The fees collection is currently generating about LE 299,415 for the latest update in 2006/07. The main visitor area in the WRPA, widely known as the Waterfall Area, covers a stretch of beach of about one km along the northern shore of the Lower Lake. Existing infrastructures include six cafeterias, a tourist camp, 2 public WC units, a small police station and a mosque. Overall, the environmental impact of current tourism infrastructure and activities is considered to be mild (IUCN, 1998b; 2000b). The park is currently redesigning the area in an attempt to transform it into a recreational area with a strong eco-tourist and educational vocation. Expanding and improving the existing visitor centre , will offer eco-tourist and educational services to the visiting public as well as providing a hub for local touroperators. New simple camping site and bird watching hide and other visitor facilities have been established in key locations. Salt extraction. The impact of this activity is thought to be negligible under the present mode of operation and as long as it does not expand to ecologically fragile areas such as the Springs and the Fossil areas. This activity is based on very poor local people whom permitted by the WRPA to work in a very limited barrel desert area (has no importance for biodiversity or other values) due to their very limited income levels.
Appendices 170
Appendix 11. Selected Maps for WRPA
Management Categories of WRPA
Appendices 171
Zonation Map of WRPA
Appendices 172
Land Use Map of WRPA
Appendices 173
Management Categories and Zones Map of WRPA
Appendices 174
The Dried up parts of WRPA lakes in 2009
Appendices 175
Areas covered by vegetation in WRPA
Appendices 176
Contour and high escarpments Map of WRPA
Appendices 177
ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺠﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﺴﻄﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﳌﺴﺠﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﲝﲑﺓ ﻗﺎﺭﻭﻥ ﰎ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺃﻥ (١ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺠﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﲝﲑﺓ ﻗﺎﺭﻭﻥ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺜﻴﻼﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﱴ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻓﻰ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ )ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ( ٣.٢-١.٩ ، ٣.٦-١.٦ ، ٣.٥-١.٨ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ ﻓﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ .ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻗﻴﻤﺎ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﲝﲑﺓ ﻗﺎﺭﻭﻥ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﲝﲑﺓ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ٤٨ﻭ ١.٨ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ ،ﻓﻰ ﺣﲔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺻﲔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﺩﻣﻴﻮﻡ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻛﻠﺘﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺗﲔ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﱂ ﺗﺴﺠﻞ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﻓﻰ ﲝﲑﺓ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻴﺎ. ﰎ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺣﻮﻝ ﲝﲑﺗﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﻟﺮﺻﺪ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳊﺮﻳﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﰎ ﺇﻇﻬﺎﺭ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳊﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﻨﻔﺮﺩﺍ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳌﺸﱰﻙ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﻳﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻋﻰ .ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %٢٠٩.٣ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺛﻢ ﺍﳔﻔﺾ ﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %٣١ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ،ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ ﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %١٤٤.٣ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺛﻢ ﺍﳔﻔﺾ ﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %٣١ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﻣﻨﻔﺮﺩ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﻳﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳌﺰﺩﻭﺝ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﺘﺒﻮﻋﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻋﻰ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ ﻣﻄﺮﺩﺍ ﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %١٤٧.٩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻭﲟﻘﺪﺍﺭ %٥٦ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ ﻓﺘﺒﺎﻳﻨﺖ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺗﲔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ٧٢.١ ،٧١.٨ ،٥٦.٧ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ. ﺗﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﳉﺰء ﺍﳋﺎﺹ ﺑﺎﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﶈﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﳌﻬﺪﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱴ ﺗﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﳍﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺟﺎء ﻓﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﰎ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﺡ ﲢﺴﲔ ﻓﻰ ﺧﻄﺔ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﶈﻤﻴﺔ ﲤﺜﻞ ﻓﻰ ﻗﻀﻴﺘﲔ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺘﲔ(١ : ﺍﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻰ ﻟﺒﺤﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭ (٢ﺻﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ )ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﻻ ﻗﻀﻴﱴ ﺍﻟﺮﻋﻰ ﻭﺍﳊﺮﻳﻖ( .ﻛﻤﺎ ﰎ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﺡ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﱰﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﲔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﲔ ﻟﺘﺤﺴﲔ ﻛﻔﺎءﺓ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﶈﻤﻴﺔ .ﻓﻘﺪ ﰎ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭﺳﺒﻊ ﺍﺳﱰﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺛﻢ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭﲬﺲ ﺍﺳﱰﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﰎ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﳌﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﳝﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﳑﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻋﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ.
ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻴﺾ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳏﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻰ ﻭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﳌﺎء ﺧﻼﻝ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ ،ﻓﻰ ﺣﲔ ﱂ ﺗﺴﺠﻞ ﺃﻯ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺩﻻﻟﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳏﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻭﻣﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ. ﻭﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﺔ )ﻣﻘﺎﺳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺠﻢ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺟﺎﻑ/ﻣﱰ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ( ﺃﻗﺼﺎﻩ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء )ﻣﻘﺎﺳﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺷﻬﺮ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﱪ( ﻛﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﺴﻄﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺣﺪﻩ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻰ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ )ﻣﻘﺎﺳﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺷﻬﺮﻯ ﻳﻮﻧﻴﻮ-ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ( ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻏﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ. ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﲝﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺎ ﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻴﺎﻫﻬﺎ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ،ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﲔ ﺍﳊﻴﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ،ﺍﻟﻨﱰﺍﺕ ،ﺍﻷﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻰ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﳍﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻭﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ .ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ ،ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﻭﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ. ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺍﻤﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺎ ﳌﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺮﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺼﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﺎﻝ ،ﻓﻰ ﺣﲔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺍﻤﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺎ ﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺎﺳﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺷﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻜﺮﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ .ﻭﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻔﺎﻅ ﺑﺎﳌﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﺍﳌﺎء ﺍﳌﺘﺎﺡ ﻭﳏﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ؛ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ؛ ﻭﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻤﻰ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺍﻤﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ؛ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ .ﻭﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﳌﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ،ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﱴ ﰎ ﲡﻤﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﻟﱰﻛﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﱰﻭﺟﲔ .ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻔﺎﻅ ﺑﺎﳌﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﺍﳌﺎء ﺍﳌﺘﺎﺡ ﻭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻛﺮﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺃﻳﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺼﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﺎﻝ؛ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻤﻰ؛ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺍﻤﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ؛ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ؛ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ .ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺎﺳﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ؛ ﺍﳌﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺷﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻜﺮﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ؛ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﱰﻭﺟﲔ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﺑﺔ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ؛ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ؛ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﱰﺗﻴﺐ.
ﺍﳌﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻰ ﺗﻌﺪ ﳏﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﱴ ﺗﻜﻮﻧﺖ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺿﻰ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻰ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺘﻪ ﱂ ﺗﺘﻨﺎﻭﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱴ ﺣﺪﺛﺖ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻰ ﻓﻰ ﲝﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﻴﺔ. ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﲰﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ )ﻛﺠﻢ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺟﺎﻑ/ﻣﱰ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ( ﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻊ .Phragmites australisﻭﻗﺪ ﰎ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻞ ﲬﺲ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺋﻞ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻫﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻨﻘﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﺒﻴﺔ ،ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻨﻘﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻠﺤﻴﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻠﻴﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﺰﻟﻄﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻣﻴﻮﻟﻴﺘﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ .ﻭﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻠﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﰎ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻞ ٥٦ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﻴﺎ ﲣﺺ ٢٦ ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺔ ،ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺃﻛﺜﺮﻫﺎ ﲤﺜﻴﻼ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺠﻴﻠﻴﺔ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ therophytesﻭﺍﻷﺭﺿﻴﺔ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﲤﺜﻴﻼ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﰎ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﺎ ﺣﻮﻝ ﲝﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﰎ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﲦﺎﻥ ﻭﻋﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﻗﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﺎ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﺴﻄﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ )ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ،ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ( ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻰ ﳑﺜﻠﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳊﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﻓﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﰎ ﲢﻠﻴﻞ ﺳﺖ ﻭﲬﺴﲔ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ. ﰎ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻹﺣﺼﺎﺋﻰ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﺎﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻤﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﻷﻣﺎﻣﻰ )ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ( ﻭﺍﳋﻠﻔﻰ )ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﻟﻠﺼﺤﺮﺍء( ﳌﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ،ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺪ ﻛﺒﲑ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻇﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻤﻰ ﲬﺲ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺧﻂ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ،ﻭﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﲔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺣﲔ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ ﻭﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﲔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻜﻼ ﺍﳋﻄﲔ ﺍﻷﻣﺎﻣﻰ ﻭﺍﳋﻠﻔﻰ. ﰎ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﻌﺾ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳏﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻰ ﻭﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺇﳚﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳏﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﱰﺍﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻴﻒ.
ﺷﻜﺮ ﺍﳊﻤﺪ ﻛﻞ ﺍﳊﻤﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﷲ ﺳﺒﺤﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﺗﻌﺎﱃ ﺃﻭﻻ ﻭﺃﺧﲑﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﻘﻪ ﻭﺳﺪﺍﺩﻩ ﻹﲤﺎﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻷﺑﻰ ﻭﺃﻣﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺨﺮ ﻭﺍﻻﻋﺘﺰﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺷﺊ ﻗﺪﻣﻮﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﻮﺍ ﻳﻘﺪﻣﻮﻧﻪ ﱃ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﻃﻠﺐ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻛﻞ ﺍﻹﺧﻼﺹ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺸﺠﻴﻊ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﻮﻻﻫﻤﺎ ﳌﺎ ﰎ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﲝﻤﺪ ﺍﷲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﲞﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺗﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﺃﺷﺮﻓﻮﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﻣﻨﺤﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻭﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﺢ ﺣﱴ ﲣﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺸﺮﻓﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺩ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺻﺪﺭﻫﻢ ﻭﺍﻻﺣﱰﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱴ ﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﻓﻰ ﺇﻓﺴﺎﺡ ﺍﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻭﻃﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﺃﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺸﺠﻴﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻓﻊ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﺣﱴ ﺍﺳﺘﻜﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ .ﻭﳜﺺ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺗﺬﺓ: ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﻮﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺯﻫﺮﺍﻥ ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ،ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺮﺩﺍﺵ ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺑﺪﻣﻴﺎﻁ ،ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺣﺴﲎ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ،ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﲔ ﴰﺲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﲞﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﳏﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭﳜﺺ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﺮ :ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺍﳉﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻰ ﳏﻤﺪ ﺳﺎﻣﺢ ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﳌﺨﻠﺺ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﲑ ﳏﺪﻭﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺇﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﳋﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺑﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻭﻣﻮﺭﻓﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻥ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﺮ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺣﺴﺎﻡ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ،ﻋﺮﻓﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺪ ،ﻭﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ ،ﺃﲪﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻋﻰ ،ﻗﺪﺭﻯ ﺳﻨﻮﺳﻰ ،ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﲪﺪ ﻭﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﺄﻯ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﻝ ﻓﻰ ﺧﺮﻭﺝ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺑﻮ ﺳﻌﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﳌﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻰ ﻟﻠﺒﺤﻮﺙ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻓﻰ ﲢﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺍﻹﺳﻢ :ﳏﻤﺪ ﻃﻠﻌـﺖ ﻋﺒـﺪﻩ ﺃﲪـﺪ ﺍﳊﻨـــﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ :ﻣﺪﻳﺮ ﳏﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ -ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺷﺌﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ – ﺭﺋﺎﺳﺔ ﳎﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﺍﳉﻨﺴﻴﺔ :ﻣﺼـــﺮﻯ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﳌﻴﻼﺩ ٥ :ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ ١٩٧٣ ﳏﻞ ﺍﳌﻴﻼﺩ :ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ – ﲨﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ :ﻣﺘﺰﻭﺝ ﺗﻠﻴﻔﻮﻥ ﻭﻓﺎﻛﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ٠٠٢ ٠٢ ٢٥٢٤٨٧٩٢ / ٢٥٢٧١٣٩١ : ﳏﻤﻮﻝ٠٠٢ ٠١٠٥٧٦٣٦١٣ : ﺑﺮﻳﺪ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﻰ
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ﺍﳋﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﳝﻴﺔ ٢٠١٠ﺩﻛﺘﻮﺭﺍﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ )ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ( ﺑﻌﻨﻮﺍﻥ "ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ :ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ،ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺼﺮ" ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﲔ ﴰﺲ – ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ – ﻣﺼﺮ. ٢٠٠٤ﺩﺑﻠﻮﻡ "ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻴﺔ" ،HYDROAID ،ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﱃ ﳌﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ،ﺗﻮﺭﻳﻨﻮ ،ﺇﻳﻄﺎﻟﻴﺎ. ٢٠٠٠ﻣﺎﺟﺴﺘﲑ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ )ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ( ﺑﻌﻨﻮﺍﻥ "ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﺬﺑﺔ – ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻗﻬﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺩﻣﻴﺎﻁ " ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ – ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ – ﻣﺼﺮ. ١٩٩٤ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮﺭﻳﻮﺱ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ )ﻧﺒﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺹ( ،ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ -ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺼﻮﺭﺓ.
ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ،ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ،ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺼﺮ ﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻘﺩﻤﺔ ﻟﻨﻴل ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺩﻜﺘﻭﺭﺍﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﻨﺒﺎﺕ )ﻋﻠﻡ ﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻨﺒﺎﺕ( ﳏﻤﺪ ﻃﻠﻌﺖ ﻋﺒﺪﻩ ﺃﲪﺪ ﺍﳊﻨﺎﻭﻯ ﺒﻜﺎﻟﻭﺭﻴﻭﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﻨﺒﺎﺕ١٩٩٤ ،
ﻤﺎﺠﺴﺘﻴﺭ ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ٢٠٠٠ ، ﳉﻨﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﺮﺍﻑ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﻮﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺯﻫﺮﺍﻥ ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺮﺩﺍﺵ ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺒﺩﻤﻴﺎﻁ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺣﺴﲎ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻴﻥ ﺸﻤﺱ
ﳉﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻴﻢ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺑﺸﺮﻯ ﺳﺎﱂ
ﺭﺌﻴﺱ ﻗﺴﻡ ﻋﻠﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺴﻜﻨﺩﺭﻴﺔ
ﺃ.ﺩ .ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﳊﻤﻴﺪ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺧﻀﺮ ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺒﺩﻤﻴﺎﻁ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﻮﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺯﻫﺮﺍﻥ
ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ
ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺣﺴﲎ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ
ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻴﻥ ﺸﻤﺱ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺃﻣﲑﺓ ﺍﲪﺪ ﺣﺴﻨﲔ ﺭﺌﻴﺱ ﻗﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ
ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﲔ ﴰﺲ
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ﺇﻫﺪﺍء
ﺇﱃ ﺃﺑﻰ ﻭﺃﻣﻰ ﺇﱃ ﺯﻭﺟﱴ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﱂ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳉﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻳﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ
ﳏﻤﺪ ﻃﻠﻌﺖ ﺍﳊﻨﺎﻭﻯÓ
٢٠١٠
ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ،ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺼﺮ ﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻘﺩﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺩﻜﺘﻭﺭﺍﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﻨﺒﺎﺕ )ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ( ﳏﻤﺪ ﻃﻠﻌﺖ ﻋﺒﺪﻩ ﺃﲪﺪ ﺍﳊﻨﺎﻭﻯ ﺒﻜﺎﻟﻭﺭﻴﻭﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﻨﺒﺎﺕ١٩٩٤ ،
ﻤﺎﺠﺴﺘﻴﺭ ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ٢٠٠٠ ، ﳉﻨﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﺮﺍﻑ ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﻮﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺯﻫﺮﺍﻥ
ﺃ.ﺩ .ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺮﺩﺍﺵ
ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ
ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺒﺩﻤﻴﺎﻁ
ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ
ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻭﺭﺓ
ﺃ.ﺩ .ﺣﺴﲎ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ ،ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻴﻥ ﺸﻤﺱ ٢٠١٠
ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻃﺒﺔ
ﻭﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ،ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺼﺮ ﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻘﺩﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺩﻜﺘﻭﺭﺍﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ،ﻨﺒﺎﺕ )ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ(
ﳏﻤﺪ ﻃﻠﻌﺖ ﻋﺒﺪﻩ ﺃﲪﺪ ﺍﳊﻨﺎﻭﻯ ﺒﻜﺎﻟﻭﺭﻴﻭﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﻨﺒﺎﺕ١٩٩٤ ،
ﻤﺎﺠﺴﺘﻴﺭ ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻴﺔ٢٠٠٠ ،
ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﲔ ﴰﺲ ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ٢٠١٠
