Effects of Goal-Directed Emotions on Salesperson ... - SAGE Journals

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The authors investigate the motivational effects of emotions in a sales force context. The personal ... uation trigger anticipation of the emotional consequences.
Steven P. Brown, William L. Cron, & John W. Slocum, Jr.

Effects of Goal-Directed Emotions on Salesperson Volitions, Behavior, and Performance: A Longitudinal Study The authors investigate the motivational effects of emotions in a sales force context. The personal stakes that salespeople have in a goal situation triggered anticipation of emotions that result from attaining or failing to attain their performance goal. Positive anticipatory emotions were positively related to volitions and mediated the relationship between personal stakes and volitions. Goal attainment was positively related to positive outcome emotions and negatively related to negative outcome emotions. Goal-directed behavior was positively associated with positive outcome emotions, independently of goal attainment. The findings suggest that emotions are an important driving force behind sales force motivation. The authors discuss the implications for sales management, theory development, and further research.

A

ttempts to identify the motivational antecedents of sales perfonnance constitute one of the longeststanding research streams in marketing research (Churchill et al. 1985). This research, however, has generally neglected a basic psychological factor likely to affect sales force motivation, behavior, and perfonnance: emotions. Although personal selling is a profession in which emotional highs and lows are commonplace, existing research provides little indication of how emotions are related to motivation, behavior, and perfonnance. The research literature suggests that salesperson motivation results primarily from rational thought processes, unaffected by emotions. Yet emotions constitute a powerful psychological force that can affect behavior and perfonnance in important ways. Although emotions pervade many aspects of sales force behavior, we focus specifically on their role as an energizing force driving goal-directed behavior. Our purpose is to investigate the effects of goal-directed emotions on salesperson motivation and performance. Using a longitudinal study design, we assess the role of cognitive appraisals and emotions in motivating intentions and behaviors leading to sales perfonnance. The study suggests that the personal stakes a salesperson has in a goal situation trigger anticipation of the emotional consequences that achieving or failing to achieve a goal would entail. In tum, these anticipatory (or goal-directed)' emotions stimu'We use the terms anticipatory emotions and goal-directed emotions interchangeably.

Steven P. Brown is Assistant Professor of Marketing; William L. Cron is Professor of Marketing; and John W. Slocum, Jr. is the 0. Paul Corley Professor of Organizational Behavior, Edwin L. Cox School of Business, Southern Methodist University. Research funds and support services were provided by the Center for Marketing Management Studies at the Edwin L. Cox School of Business. The authors acknowledge the insightful suggestions and critical comments made by Rajan Varadarajan, Bob Lusch, Joan Brett, Bill Dillon, Ed Locke, Don VandeWalle, Bob Westbrook, and three anonymous JM reviewers on prior drafts of this article. Journal of Marketing Vol. 61 (January 1997), 39-50

late behavioral intentions and goal-directed behaviors, which facilitate goal achievement. Attaining or failing to attain a goal then leads to the experience of positive or negative outcome emotions. We advance the sales management literature by demonstrating the energizing force with which hot cognitions (i.e., affectively laden cognitions) and emotions fuel salesperson motivation. Hot cognitions and emotions stimulate planning and effort and promote enhanced sales perfonnance. By focusing on the role of emotions in energizing motivation, we seek to develop a more complete and realistic view of the psychological forces that impel goal-directed behavior in the sales force. Existing approaches to salesperson motivation, such as expectancy theory and goal theory, have focused primarily on cognitive factors. Although both of these approaches have produced useful insights, to date they have not considered the motivational force potentially generated by goaldirected emotions. Our theoretical model is based on Lazarus's (1991) cognitive theory of emotion and adaptation. It seeks to explain the impetus (or driving force) behind salesperson motivation as a function of goal-directed emotions. Our model is highly consistent with goal theory, but it adds to the literature by focusing on the motivational force generated by goal-directed emotions. In the following sections, we briefly review existing theoretical perspectives on salesperson motivation and then develop the conceptual model guiding our study.

Cognitive Perspectives on Salesperson Motivation Several cognitive approaches have been applied to prediction and explanation of salesperson motivation. Expectancy theory has been the dominant approach, though goal theory and attribution theory also have been employed. Expectancy theory predicts that motivation will be greatest for those job tasks that have the highest probabilities of leading to the most valued outcomes. It has

Goal-Directed Emotions / 39

proven especially useful for predicting the direction of goal-directed behavior (Tubbs, Boehne, and Dahl 1993). Research based on expectancy theory, however, has not fully explained the impetus or force driving motivated behavior. Focusing as it does on "cold" cognitions (i.e., cognitions devoid of affect), it has not examined the emotional forces that energize and sustain goal-directed behavior. Goal theory constitutes a second cognitive approach to motivation (Chowdhury l 993 ). It predicts that goal properties, such as goal level, goal difficulty, and goal specificity, interact with individual differences, such as self-efficacy (belief that a person has the capabilities needed to reach his or her goal) and need for achievement (dispositional motivation to excel), to determine a person's levels of motivation and performance. More difficult and specific goals are posited to lead lo greater motivation and performance, especially when people believe they have the necessary skills, abilities, and motivation to achieve them. A large volume of research has substantiated these effects (for a review, see Locke and Latham 1990). However, relatively little research has considered the possibility that emotions may mediate them. Locke and Latham (1990, p. 230) suggest the motivating potential of emotions by observing that they can be "an incentive (positive or negative) for future action" and can "provide the psychological fuel for action." Consistent with this premise, we investigate the effects of anticipatory emotions on volitions, goal-directed behaviors, and performance. A third cognitive approach that has been used recently to predict salesperson motivation is Weiner's ( l 985) version of attribution theory (Badovick 1990; Badovick, Hadaway, and Kaminski 1992). Badovick and his colleagues found that emotional responses after success or failure at achieving a quota influenced salespeople's intentions to exert effort in the future and their expectations of success. These studies constitute the only research to date that considers the motivational effects of emotion in sales force contexts. They suggest that emotions have the potential to influence behavioral intentions. Although our approach, like Weiner's (1985) attributional framework, focuses on the relationship between cognitions and emotions as a trigger for motivated behavior, it differs in two important ways. One distinction concerns anticipated versus actual emotional response; the second concerns the difference between general knowledge and cognitive appraisal (or personal stakes). With respect to the first distinction, attribution theory focuses on the emotional experience following some event. Our approach considers the influence that anticipated emotions have on planning, intentions, behavior, and performance. It focuses on the cognitions and emotions that initiate goal-directed behavior. The second distinction is that our approach discriminates between self-relevant cognitive appraisals (i.e., personal stakes) and attributional explanations based on .general knowledge. It is these self-relevant cognitive appraisals, or assessments of how much a person has at stake in a situation, that act as the triggering force for emotions and their consequences. It is important to distinguish cognitive appraisals of personal stakes from explanations that are based on how things are and how they work in general. Although general

40 I Journal of Marketing, January 1997

knowledge is critical for the generation of emotion-because situations can only be understood through what is knowngeneral knowledge alone cannot generate emotion (Lazarus 1991; Lazarus and Smith 1988). Knowledge can only generate emotion through the mediation of cognitive appraisals of the significance of the situation for a person's well-being (Lazarus and Smith 1988). In the words of Lazarus and Smith ( 1988, pp. 282-83), "[I]f personal stakes are not [evoked], knowledge is cold cognition." Thus, the personal stakes people have in achieving their goals play a critical role in initiating the motivational process. Our model considers personal stakes (i.e., cognitive appraisals of the significance of the situation for a person's well-being) as the trigger initiating goal-directeu emotions, intentions, and behavior.

Overview of the Model

The hypothesized model (presented in Figure I) was designed to test Bagozzi's ( 1992; see also Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters 1995) model of goal-directed emotions. This model is based on Lazarus's (199 l) cognitive theory of emotion. A fundamental assumption is that emotions result from cognitive appraisals of how a situation affects a person's personal well-being. The model posits that personal stakes are the primary antecedents of emotion. Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters ( 1995) find that personal stakes and anticipatory emotions predicted intentions and behaviors leading to dieting, exercise, and weight loss in a consumer behavior context. Their model maintains that, when pursuing a goal, a person's cognitive appraisals of what is personally at stake stimulate anticipation of emotions that are likely to result from achieving or failing to achieve a goal. Anticipated emotions lead to intentions to plan and execute behaviors directed toward goal attainment. These goal-directed behaviors then influence the level of goal attainment. Positive emotions result if the goal was attained, whereas negative emotions occur if it was not. Outcome emotions are then likely to condition future intentions and behavior. In the following sections, we describe these constructs more specifically. Personal Stakes

In situations in which people are striving to achieve a goal, they cognitively assess their personal stakes (i.e., the extent to which aspects of their personal well-being are riding on a situation's outcome). The sense of having one's well-being at stake is what Lazarus (1991) refers to as primary cognitive appraisal. If a situation lacks significance for the person's well-being, no emotions will occur and little motivational force will be generated (Lazarus 1991 ). The greater people's personal stakes in the situation, the more emotion they are likely to anticipate experiencing. Personal stakes that might be involved in sales contexts include income, recognition, status, respect of others, self-respect, autonomy, and chances for career advancement. Goal-Directed (Anticipatory) Emotions

According to Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters ( 1995, p. 2), "When a person thinks about the consequences of achieving a goal or not, appraisals of the consequences ...

FIGURE 1 Effects of Anticipatory Emotions on Salesperson Intentions, Behavior, and Performance: A Conceptual Model

Positive Anticipatory Emotion

Stakes

Volitions

produce anticipatory emotional responses." Anticipation of rewards accruing from goal attainment leads to positive anticipatory emotions, whereas anticipation of the consequences of failure leads to negative anticipatory emotions. Because both possibilities focus on uncertain future prospects, people may anticipate both positive and negative emotions simultaneously. Anticipated emotions should trigger planning and effort intentions that lead to behaviors aimed at enhancing performance, increasing the likelihood of experiencing positive outcome emotions, and reducing the likelihood of experiencing negative outcome emotions. Positive and negative anticipated emotions should affect intentions and behavior positively.

Volitions The transformation of ant1c1patory emotions into goaldirected behaviors occurs through what Bagozzi ( 1992; see also Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters 1995) refers to as volitions. Volitions include both a directive and a motivational component. They involve planning activities and selection of appropriate behaviors (the directive component), as well as committing oneself to exerting the necessary effort to attain a personal goal (the motivational component). Planning general strategies for working a sales territory and specific strategies for approaching particular accounts exemplifies the directive component of volitions. Developing behavioral intentions regarding the amount of effort to exert illustrates the motivational component.

Goal-Directed Behavior To realize desired outcomes, people must translate their commitments of mental and physical effort into accomplished work. Our model captures the translation of volitions into work over time by longitudinally assessing the extent to which volitions affect goal-directed behavior. Similar to volitions, goal-directed behavior includes directive and motivational components. Our model posits a positive

relationship between intended planning and effort and actual planning and effort measured three months later. Our model also posits a positive relationship between goal-directed behaviors and degree of goal attainment. The more planning and effort people invest, the more likely they are to reach or exceed their goals. In addition, the model posits that the degree of goal attainment is positively related to positive outcome emotions (the emotions actually experienced as a result of goal attainment) and inversely related to negative outcome emotions. The theory described leads to the following hypotheses: H 1: Personal stakes will be positively related to (a) positive anticipatory emotions and (b) negative anticipatory emotions. H 2 : Both positive and negative anticipatory emotions will be positively related to volitions. H 3 : Volitions will be positively related to goal-directed behavior. H 4 : Goal-directed behavior will be positively related to degree of goal attainment. H 5 : Degree of goal attainment will be (a) positively related to positive outcome emotions and (b) negatively related to negative outcome emotions.

Method Context and Goal Situation Data were collected at two points in time from salespeople representing a medical supplies distributor. The salespeople represented over 2000 lines of medical supplies and equipment and had cumulative annual sales of over $140 million. They were assigned geographic territories and were responsible for establishing and maintaining relationships with nonhospital health care providers. Veteran salespeople had an established list of customers on whom they called every week, which left little time for new customer prospecting. Although the majority of their time was spent filling medical supplies reorder opportunities, they also were asked to identify new product and equipment sales opportunities. Sales-

Goal-Directed Emotions / 41

people were paid by commission on gross margin. The average annual commission income was $43,000 per salesperson. The study was conducted with reference to a specific promotion offered by a single supplier. The promoted product was a powered examination table (average unit price approximately $5,400). The promotion lasted three months. Salespeople received a spiff (special monetary compensation) for each unit of the promoted product they sold. Customers also were offered a special reduced price on the product during the promotion period. This type of promotion is commonly implemented by the distributor to give salespeople an incentive to devote selling effort to products to which they would otherwise give relatively little attention. Salespeople needed to deviate from their normal customer calling patterns to be highly successful in the promotion. The promoted product represented a significant commission opportunity because of its high price, though it accounted for less than I 0% of total company sales. Salespeople were encouraged by management to set personal goals for the promotion. Goal-setting may have been further encouraged because, prior to the promotion and following a briefing on the product and promotion by sales management, our Time I questionnaire asked the salespeople to state their personal goal for the promotion. All salespeople responded by specifying the number of units they intended to sell. The average sales goal was 3.2 units (s.d. = 1.39), and the average actual sales was 2.5 units (s.d. = 2.23). Fifty-two percent of the salespeople did not achieve their stated goal, 25% hit their goal exactly, and 23% exceeded their goal. At Time I, questionnaires were completed by salespeople at a sales meeting held at the beginning of the quarter, during which details of the promotion were introdu~ed and explained. The salespeople were familiar with this type of promotion because a limited number of product lines are promoted each quarter. Salespeople were capable of and comfortable with setting personal goals for this promotion, because power tables generally are promoted once a year. The Time I questionnaire included measures of the personal stakes the salespeople had in the promotion, the emotions they anticipated experiencing depending on whether they achieved their goal, and their volitions regarding the amount of general territory planning, specific account planning, and effort they intended to spend pursuing their goals for the promotion. A second questionnaire, completed at the conclusion of the promotion, contained measures of actual goal-directed behaviors in which salespeople engaged during the promotion, performance in relation to the stated goal, and outcome emotions. The entire sales force, totaling 141 salespeople, completed the first questionnaire, and 123 of these people returned the second questionnaire. One questionnaire was returned incomplete at Time 2, which resulted in a total of 122 usable sets of questionnaires, for an 87% response rate. Time 1 Measures

Personal stakes. Personal stakes were measured by asking salespeople the extent to which they perceived nine different personal stakes to be associated with performance in

42 /Journal of Marketing, January 1997

the promotion: income for the period of the promotion, family's financial well-being, recognition from the company, status within the company, freedom to do the job the way [they] see fit, chances for career advancement, respect of [their] fellow salespeople, feelings about [their] personal selling capabilities, and personal satisfaction with [their] performance and job. These issues were developed through preliminary discussions with salespeople and sales managers in the industry. Salespeople rated how much of each of these issues they had at stake on four-point scales anchored by "not at all" and "have a lot at stake." The salespeople also were asked to rate the importance of each issue on four-point scales anchored by "not important at all" and "very important." The final measure of personal stakes consisted of a multiplicative index of the extent to which each issue was at stake times the importance of that issue to the salesperson. Exploratory factor analysis (principal components) of the nine multiplicative indices resulted in two factors with eigen values greater than 1.0. Results of this analysis are presented in the Appendix. Two issues, income for the period of the promotion and family's financial well-being, loaded on a factor that was interpretable as financial stakes. Five issues-recognition from the company, status within the company, freedom to do my job the way I see fit, chances for career advancement, and respect of my fellow salespeopleloaded on a factor that was interpretable as psychological stakes. The correlation between the two factors was .46. Two items, feeling about my personal selling capabilities and personal satisfaction with my performance and job, did not load highly on either factor and were deleted. The two factors accounted for 75% of the variance in the remaining items. Anticipatory emotions. The measure of anticipatory emotions consisted of 17 emotions taken from Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters 's ( 1995) study. Salespeople were asked to rate their anticipation of seven positive emotions (excitement, delight, happiness, gladness, satisfaction, pride, and self-assurance) in response to the instructions, "If you succeed in achieving your goal for the [manufacturer] promotion, how intensely do you anticipate you will feel each of the following emotions." Anticipated experience of ten negative emotions (anger, frustration, guilt, shame, sadness, disappointment, depression, worry, discomfort, and fear) was then rated in response to the instructions, "If you do not succeed in achieving your goal for the [manufacturer] promotion, how intensely do you anticipate you will feel each of the following emotions." The response format consisted of 11-point scales anchored by "not at all" and "very much." Exploratory principal components analysis produced two factors with eigen values greater than 1.0, which corresponded to positive and negative emotions. Results of this analysis are presented in the Appendix. The two factors accounted for 75% of total variance in the anticipatory emotions items. Composite measures of positive and negative anticipated emotions were created by summing the items composing each factor. Coefficient alpha was .94 for positive emotions and .93 for negative emotions. The correlation between the two factors was .15 (p > . l 0).

Volitions. Volitions constituted a higher-order construct that was indicated by three first-order factors representing anticipated territory planning, anticipated planning of strategies for individual accounts, and anticipated effort. Results of exploratory principal components analysis of these scales with oblique rotation are reported in the Appendix. The three resulting factors accounted for 68% of the variance in the volitions items. Anticipated territory planning was measured by five Likert items (coefficient alpha= .80). Items included "I will spend a great deal of time thinking about my selling strategy for this promotion," "I will develop a plan for how much time to spend on this promotion," "I will list the steps necessary for reaching my goal," "I will think about strategies to fall back on if problems arise during this promotion," and "each week I will make a plan for what I need to accomplish regarding this promotion." Anticipated account planning was measured by three Likert items that had a coefficient alpha of .77. The items included "I will target particular customers for this promotion," "I will be careful to work on my highest priority accounts first," and "I will target particular accounts for this promotion." Anticipated effort was measured by three items that asked salespeople to rate how much time, work intensity, and overall effort they intended to put into the promotion compared to other salespeople on five-point scales ranging from "much less than average" to "much more than average." Items composing each of the three first-order factors were then summated into composite indices. The composite indices were used as observed indicators of the latent volitions construct. Coefficient alpha for the three indicators was .92. Time 2 Measures

Goal-directed behaviors. At the conclusion of the promotion, which occurred three months after administration of the first questionnaire, actual goal-directed behaviors during the promotion period were rated on the same scale items that were used to measure volitions before the promotion. Consistent with the results of principal components analysis of the volitions items at Time 1, three factors with eigen values greater than 1.0, representing territory planning, account-specific planning, and actual effort, emerged from analysis of the goal-directed behavior items. Results of the principal components analysis with oblique rotation are presented in the Appendix. The three factors accounted for 77% of the variance in the goal-directed behavior items. Composite indices for each of these three factors were then formed as indicators of goal-directed behaviors. Coefficient alphas for the three indicators of goal-directed behaviors were general planning, .93; account-specific planning, .84; and actual effort, .94. Degree of goal attainment. Degree of goal attainment was measured by subtracting the salesperson's stated goal for the promotion from the actual number of units sold during the promotion. Outcome emotions. Outcome emotions were measured with the same scales as anticipatory emotions at Time 1. At Time 2, the instructions were reworded: "As a result of your

performance relative to your goal, how intensely do you feel each of the following emotions." Eleven-point scales anchored by "not at all" and "very much" were used. Principal components analysis again produced two factors with eigen values greater than l .O, which corresponded to positive and negative emotions. Results of this analysis are presented in the Appendix. The two factors accounted for 77% of the data in the outcome emotions items. Coefficient alpha was .95 for positive emotions and .94 for negative emotions. The correlation between positive and negative outcome emotions was -.46 (p < .01) at Time 2.

Results Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations are presented in Table l. The model presented in Figure l was estimated with LISREL 8.12 using the sample covariance matrix as input. The residuals of several pairs of latent constructs (positive anticipatory emotions-positive outcome emotions, negative anticipatory emotions-negative outcome emotions, and volitions-goal-directed behaviors) were allowed to correlate to control for the fact that essentially the same measurement items (albeit with different instructions) were used at Time l and Time 2. This procedure controlled for the possibility that similarly worded measurement items could create common method variance across the two measurement periods. Thus, it ensured that the observed structural path coefficients were not artifactually inflated. Estimation of the hypothesized model resulted in a fit of chi-square [59 d.f.] = 132.21, RMSEA = .10, RMR = .086, CFI = .87, GFI = .87.2 All but one of the hypothesized paths (personal stakes-negative anticipatory emotions) were statistically significant. The fit indices suggested potential for improvement through model modifications. The LISREL modification indices suggested that adding a path linking goaldirected behaviors to positive outcome emotions would improve the fit. Inasmuch as this path was substantively interpretable, it was added. This improved the model fit to chisquare [58 d.f.] = 119.85, RMSEA = .094, RMR = .079, CFI = .89, GFI = .89.3 Although the chi-square index was statistically significant, given the complexity of the model these indices generally suggest an adequate fit (Browne and Cudeck 1993 ). Standardized path coefficients for the revised model are presented in Figure 2. In Table 2, we report standardized estimates and t-values for the hypothesized and revised models. The positive direct path from goal-directed behaviors to positive outcome emotions suggests that working hard is psychologically rewarding in and of itself. It indicates that effort contributes simultaneously to better sales performance

2RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; RMR = root mean square residual; CFI = comparative fit index; GFI = goodness-of-fit index. 3Modification indices also suggested that adding a direct path from volitions to positive outcome emotions could potentially improve the fit of the model significantly. Addition of this path, however, produced a counterintuitive negative path coefficient that was not consistent with theory or common sense. This appeared to result from overfitting the model. Hence, we did not attempt to maximize model fit by including this path.

Goal-Directed Emotions I 43

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MStakes (X 1) Personal Stakes (X 2 ) Positive Anticipatory Emotion (PAE) (Y 1) Negative Anticipatory Emotion (NAE) (Y2 ) Anticipatory Effort (Y 3 ) Territory Planning 1 (Y 4 ) Account Planning 1(Y5 ) Effort (Y 6 ) Territory Planning 2 (Y 7 ) Account Planning 2 (Y 8 ) Goal Attain (Y 9 ) Positive Outcome Emotion (POE) (Y 10 ) Negative Outcome Emotion (NOE) (Y 11 )

VARIABLE

15.658 40.275 62.383 41.925 11.658 18.328 12.217 9.533 15.156 11.258 -.517 30.292 27.558

x 8.707 16.872 11.403 20.471 2.379 3.060 2.189 2.867 5.368 2.096 1.528 18.303 15.903

s.d. 1.000 .457 .219 131 .378 .329 .087 .067 .227 .028 .177 .069 -.015

MStakes 1.000 .549 .178 .325 .259 .130 .039 .234 .189 .057 .081 .096

Personal Stakes

1.000 .154 .323 .335 .086 .199 .232 .258 .066 .281 -.032

PAE

1.000 .426 .324 .156 .214 .251 .328 .297 .073 .204

NAE

1.000 .610 .345 .370 .515 .300 .366 .163 -.068

Anticipatory Effort

TABLE 1

1.000 .399 .317 .481 .245 .399 .185 -.200

Territory Planning 1

Descriptive Statistics

1.000 .279 .293 .246 .144 .096 -.119

Account Planning 1

1.000 .657 .567 .510 .588 -.318

Effort

1.000 .688 Ago .512 -.284

Territory Planning 2

1.000 .425 .375 -.159

Account Planning 2

1.000 .501 -.454

Goal Attain

1.000 -.456

POE

1.000

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FIGURE 2 Standardized Maximum-Likelihood Parameter Estimates for the Revised Modela

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and increased positive outcome emotions. The direct path suggests that the effect of goal-directed behavior on positive outcome emotions is not completely mediated by performance outcomes. All but one of the hypotheses (H 1b) were supported. Personal stakes were positively related to both positive and negative anticipatory emotions, but the effect on negative anticipatory emotions was not statistically significant. The nonsignificant effect of personal stakes on negative anticipatory emotions, though surprising, can be explained in the context of the promotion. Salespeople had more to gain than lose in the promotion. They could earn additional commissions (and other accolades) by being successful, but were unlikely to incur serious career or financial consequences if they failed to achieve their goal. As a result, personal stakes in the promotion were likely to be predicated more on the anticipation of rewards than on the anticipation of negative consequences. Both positive and negative anticipatory emotions were positively related to volitions, as is predicted in H2 . The mediational effect of anticipatory emotions on the relationship between personal stakes and volitions was tested by adding a direct path linking personal stakes to volitions. This path did not significantly improve the model's fit (chisquare [ l d.f.] = 2.90, n.s.), which indicates that the effect of personal stakes on volitions was primarily indirect and mediated by positive anticipatory emotions. The model accounted for 33% of the variance in volitions. Volitions, consisting of anticipated planning of general territorial and specific account strategies and intended

effort (all measured at Time 1), were strongly related to goal-directed behaviors (actual planning and effort), which were measured at Time 2. Volitions accounted for 39% of the variance in goal-directed behaviors. Given the three-month time interval, this represents substantial predictive validity. These results strongly support H 3 . Consistent with H4 , goal-directed behaviors were strongly related to degree of goal attainment. The more planning and effort salespeople invested in the promotion, the better they performed relative to their goal. Goaldirected behavior accounted for 33% of the variance in goal attainment. As hypothesized (H 5 ), degree of goal attainment was positively related to positive outcome emotions and negatively related to negative outcome emotions. The inverse relationship between goal attainment and negative outcome emotions was stronger than the positive relationship between goal attainment and positive outcome emotions. This suggests that not achieving the goal for the promotion had a somewhat stronger emotional impact for the salesperson than did attaining it. This is especially interesting in light of the finding that personal stakes were more strongly related to positive than negative anticipatory emotions. This may result from disconfirmation of expectations. When a person expects to achieve a goal, actually attaining it is likely to result in mild positive affect, whereas disconfirming expectations of success by failing is likely to result in a more intense negative emotion (cf. Howard and Barry 1991; Westbrook 1987). Approximately 39% of the variance in

Goal-Directed Emotions I 45

positive outcome emotions and 25% of the variance in negative emotions was explained by the model.

Discussion The results clearly demonstrate the importance of anticipated emotions in stimulating volitions, goal-directed behaviors, and performance. Emotions help explain the driving force behind salesperson motivation. They also help explain the process through which personal stakes and anticipated emotions influence planning, intentions, goaldirected behaviors, performance, and outcome emotions. The dynamics of this process are consistent with cognitive appraisal theories of emotion (e.g., Bagozzi 1992; Lazarus 1991 ). A person's stakes in a situation stimulate anticipation of the emotions likely to result from performance. In tum, anticipated emotions lead to volitions regarding the amount of planning and effort that a person

will invest in his or her own performance. Volitions lead to goal-directed behavior-the actual amount of planning and effort a person undertakes. Goal-directed behaviors then contribute to performance relative to a person's self-set goal. Performance affects positive outcome emotions positively and negative outcome emotions negatively. Performance relative to a person's goal did not completely mediate the effect of goal-directed behaviors on positive outcome emotions. The direct effect of goal-directed behaviors on positive outcome emotions suggests that instrumental behavior is psychologically rewarding in and of itself. The psychological rewards of sales work do not depend on performance outcomes alone. Working hard to achieve a sales goal appears to be intrinsically satisfying, in addition to contributing to better performance. This finding is consistent with previous sales force research (Brown and Peterson 1994) and intrinsic motivation theory (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi 1990; Deci and Ryan 1985; White 1959).

TABLE 2 Results of LISREL Analyses Hypothesized Model Path Structural Pathsa Stakes --t PAE Stakes --t NAE PAE --t Volitions NAE --t Volitions Volitions --t Behavior Behavior --t Goal Attainment Goal Attainment --t PAE Goal Attainment --t NAE Behavior --t POE

Correlated Residuals PAE --t POE NAE--t NOE Volitions --t Behavior Measurement Paths lambda x 1 lambda x2 lambda y 1 lambda y 2 lambda y 3 lambda y4 lambda y5 lambda y6 lambda y7 lambda y8 lambda y9 lambda y 10 lambda y11

Standardized Path Coefficient

t-valueb

.59 .14 .35 .43 .69 .57 .49 -.56

3.71 1.48 3.56 4.15 4.07 6.06 6.45 -7.40

.59 .14 .35 .42 .67 .57 .29 -.56 .37

3.79 1.50 3.57 4.14 3.96 6.12 3.15 -7.41 3.59

.23 .37 -.05

3.20 4.03 -.38

.18 .37 -.04

2.62 4.03 -.33

.47 .97 .97 .96 .78

3.44 Fixed Fixed Fixed 8.36 8.31 5.01 7.95 9.49 8.20 Fixed Fixed Fixed

.47 .97 .97 .96 .78 .78 .48 .75 .90 .75 1.00 .98 .97

3.44 Fixed Fixed Fixed 8.36 8.31 5.02 8.24 9.79 8.27 Fixed Fixed Fixed

.77

.48 .74 .90 .76 1.00 .98 .97

X~ 9 = 132.80 RMSEA = .10 RMR = .086 CFI = .87

aPAE = positive anticipatory emotions; NAE = negative anticipatory emotions; POE emotions. bt-values greater than 12.01 are statistically significant.

46 /Journal of Marketing, January 1997

Revised Model Standardized Path Coefficient

t-valueb

X~ 8 = 119.85 RMSEA = .094 RMR = .079 CFI = .89

= positive outcome emotions; NOE = negative outcome

Anticipated emotions mediate the relationship between personal stakes and volitions. The relationship between personal stakes arid volitions, though substantial, is primarily indirect and mediated by positive anticipated emotions. The direct path from personal stakes to volitions was nonsignificant when the effects of anticipated emotions were controlled. These results indicate that salespeople act on their feelings, as well as on their thoughts, and that emotions provide a powerful motivational force.

Managerial Implications A significant implication of this study is that emotions play an important role in motivating goal-directed behavior. Managers should be aware that salespeople act on their feelings as well as on their thoughts. The motivational power of emotions can potentially be managed to benefit the organization. Sales managers may ignore or try to avoid dealing with emotions. Managers are likely to differ in their propensities to consider and respect salespeople's emotions. Our results suggest that considerable potential exists to leverage the motivational potential of goal-directed emotions. Management styles and approaches that do not consider the power of emotions will be less able to harness their motivational force than those that focus on emotions. The results clearly indicate that the way salespeople expect to feel as a result of attaining or not attaining their goals gives them a powerful motive to plan and exert effort. Achieving goals enables them to advance their personal interests and realize meaningful rewards. It is the anticipation of attaining these benefits and rewards that stimulates positive anticipatory emotions. In many situations, desire to avert the personal losses and difficulties that failure might entail is also likely to be a powerful motivator. Our study suggests that goal-directed emotions and motivation are rooted in the fundamental self-interests that salespeople have riding on their own performance. It is important for management to understand the financial and psychological considerations that salespeople associate with their goals. These personal stakes initiate the motivational process illustrated in our model. Management can potentially leverage the motivational process by clarifying and reinforcing the existence of personal stakes in relation to sales performance. Anticipated emotions and their consequences will be greater when personal stakes, such as recognition, status within the company, autonomy, and respect of peers, are clear and salient. The results suggest that the motivational impact of goals can be enhanced by adding-or simply reinforcing-personal stakes that salespeople find meaningful. Our study showed that both psychological and financial stakes influence anticipatory emotions. The linkages between goal attainment and financial stakes may be clearer to salespeople, because compensation plans are usually formally stated. Linkages relating goal attainment to psychological stakes may be less clear, especially to new salespeople. Understanding of psychological stakes may result from familiarity with and absorption into the culture of the organization. Training and socialization of new salespeople should clarify and highlight linkages between psychological

stakes and job performance. Psychological stakes also may vary according to individual differences of salespeople, such as differences in career stages and life circumstances. Effectively leveraging psychological stakes is likely to require considerable familiarity with individual salespeople's current concerns so that the issues that most directly affect their well-being are known by managers and are emphasized. When sales organizations encourage emotional expression, it is often in the context of award ceremonies that are held at the end of a sales cycle. Such events are useful for enhancing the experience of outcome emotions, as well as for providing fulfillment of the personal stakes salespeople had in the goal situation. They also may be useful in fostering anticipatory emotions for the next selling cycle. Our results suggest that stimulation of anticipatory emotions is a key to motivating the sales force. In light of these findings, it may be beneficial for organizations to seek ways to cultivate goal-directed emotions more specifically and actively. This might be done by concluding award ceremonies with a preview of the rewards and consequences of attaining or failing to attain goals in the next selling cycle. It also might be done by periodically emphasizing the potential emotional consequences of a person's progress toward a goal. This may be particularly important in contexts similar to the one examined here in which the promotional goal was less important to the salespeople than the overall goal of achieving an annual sales quota. The observed means for personal stakes suggest that this promotion was perceived to have enough self-relevance to be motivating but was not perceived as a "life and death" situation. In such a situation, efforts to motivate anticipated emotions directly may be warranted. It is interesting to note that anticipatory emotions were much stronger than outcome emotions (see Table 1). This was true for both positive and negative emotions. This suggests that people may anticipate stronger feelings than they ultimately experience. It appears that goal pursuit (the "thrill of the chase") can be more arousing than the actual experience of success or failure. Understanding the level of emotional intensity that salespeople experience during various phases of the selling cycle can increase empathy and help managers communicate more effectively with salespeople. Because of the early state of knowledge development on goal··directed emotions, it is important that caution be used in interpreting the results. It is possible that extremely high levels of anticipated emotions may have more negative than positive effects and may lead to undue stress and other maladaptive behaviors. This would be likely to occur when personal stakes are perceived to be unreasonably high. Such effects would be likely to lead to conflict, psychological withdrawal, and increased turnover among at least a portion of the sales force (Levinson 1976).

Theoretical Implications and Research Directions We demonstrate how personal stakes and anticipatory emotions generate volitions, goal-directed behaviors, and performance. We show the capability of emotional processes to explain the impetus behind salesperson motivation. The process represented in our model is highly consistent with

Goal-Directed Emotions/ 47

goal theory, but it adds importantly to it by showing how emotions energize goal-directed behavior. Relationships between goal properties and emotional processes constitute a potentially rich field for further research. It would be worthwhile to include personal stakes and anticipatory emotions in studies testing effects of goal level on effort and performance. Anticipatory emotions may mediate relationships between goal levels and motivation and effort. When goal levels are too low to constitute a reasonable challenge or too high to offer a fighting chance for attainment, personal stakes and anticipatory emotions may be lower than when goals are both challenging and reasonable. This logic might underlie the inverted-U relationship between goal level and effort found by Chowdhury (1993), for example. It also would be worthwhile to investigate whether specific goals generate stronger anticipatory emotions than do vague or "do your best" goals and whether anticipatory emotions mediate the relationship between goal specificity and motivation. Although our results indicate that positive anticipated emotions mediate the personal stakes-volitions relationship, the unexplained variance in anticipated emotions, particularly negative emotions, suggests that additional factors may influence these emotions. It would be worthwhile for further research to investigate other determinants of goal-directed emotions. Personality variables, such as need for achievement, self-efficacy, and positive and negative affectivity (i.e., dispositional tendencies to view things in a positive or negative light; e.g., Watson and Tellegen 1985), for example, could potentially influence goal-directed emotions. It also would be worthwhile for further research to consider additional dimensions of cognitive appraisal, such as those described by Smith and Ellsworth (1985) and Roseman ( 199 l ), in relation to discrete emotions. Psychological

research suggests that the specific quality of emotional experience depends on how elements of the situation are cognitively interpreted. This suggests that the nature of emotional experience can potentially be managed by influencing perceptions of the situation. Research also must address how salespeople can best cope with adversity. Salespeople frequently experience rejection and other events capable of sparking negative emotions. Investigation of how various methods of coping with negative events and emotions affect subsequent motivation, behavior, and attitudes would be interesting and useful. Training salespeople to cope effectively with negative events and emotions could potentially increase motivation and productivity and reduce turnover. Emotion is likely to be important in determining job behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes, and it represents virtually unexplored territory for sales and marketing managers. In conclusion, we address a significant gap in the understanding of salesperson motivation and demonstrate that personal stakes and anticipatory emotions help explain the impetus behind salesperson motivation. Our study indicates the importance of hot cognitions and emotions in relation to salesperson motivation, behavior, and performance. The existing view of these phenomena is incomplete and tends to view salespeople as persons who act only on their thoughts and not on their feelings. This study represents an important step toward developing a more holistic view of salespeople as persons whose feelings (as well as thoughts) provide the impetus for action. It is important for additional research to develop this perspective further. It is also important for managers to understand and manage the "complete person" (Levinson 1976, 1994 ). Understanding the affective influences on motivation and behavior can contribute importantly to more effective and humane sales force management.

APPENDIX Results of Exploratory Factor Analyses (Principal Components)a Factor Loadings Personal Stakes Income for the period of the promotion My family's financial well-being Recognition from the company Status within the company Freedom to do my job the way I see fit Chances for career advancement Respect of my fellow salespeople Anticipated Emotions Excited Delighted Happy Glad Satisfied Proud Self-assured Angry Frustrated Guilty Ashamed Sad

48 / Journal of Marketing, January 1997

Financial

Psychological

.93 .97

.91 .91 .52

.67 .92

Positive

Negative

.89 .91 .88 .90

.86 .83 .79

.80

.94

.60

.61 .58

Anticipated Emotions Disappointed Depressed Worried Uncomfortable Fearful

Volitions I will spend a good deal of time thinking about my selling strategy for this promotion. I will develop a plan for how much time to spend on this promotion. I will list the steps necessary for reaching my goal. I will think about strategies I can fall back on if problems arise during this promotion. Each week I will make a plan for what I need to accomplish regarding this promotion. I will target specific accounts for this promotion. I am careful to work my highest priority accounts first I will target particular customers for this promotion. Compared to other salespeople, how much time do you anticipate spending on this promotion? Compared to other salespeople, how much intensity of effort do you anticipate putting into this promotion? Compared to other salespeople, how much overall effort do you anticipate putting into this promotion?

Positive

Negative

.B4 .B4

.B5 .7B .B1

Territory Planning

Account· Specific Planning

Effort

.64 .53 .88 .73 .60 .B6 .70 .B6 .BO

.93 .93

Goal-Directed Behavior I will spend a good deal of time thinking about my selling strategy for this promotion. I will develop a plan for how much time to spend on this promotion. I will list the steps necessary for reaching my goal. I will think about strategies I can fall back on if problems arise during this promotion. Each week I will make a plan for what I need to accomplish regarding this promotion. I will target specific accounts for this promotion. I am careful to work my highest priority accounts first. I will target particular customers for this promotion. Compared to other salespeople, how much time do you anticipate spending on this promotion? Compared to other salespeople, how much intensity of effort do you anticipate putting into this promotion? Compared to other salespeople, how much overall effort do you anticipate putting into this promotion? Outcome Emotions Excited Delighted Happy Glad Satisfied Proud Self-assured Angry Frustrated Guilty Ashamed Sad Disappointed Depressed Worried Uncomfortable Fearful

.74 .76 .60 .67 .81 .62 .B4 .BO .92 .91 .94

Positive

Negative

.98 .96 .96 .88 .93 .92 .87 .6B .62 .BO .92 .92 .60 .90 .BB .91 .B6

aNo cross-loadings exceeded .30.

Goal-Directed Emotions/ 49

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