of positive and negative music on performance of a selected karate drill was investi- ... Schwartz, Fernhall, and Plowman (1990) found that listening to fast-tempo.
PerceptualandMotorSkilLr, 1994,78, 1217-1218. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1994
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE MUSIC O N PERFORMANCE OF A KARATE DRILL ALBERT R. FERGUSON, MICHAEL R. CARBONNEAU, CATHERINE CHAMBLISS Ursinus College
Summary.-Although athletes frequently report using music whde training or before an event, laboratory studies have not detected a beneficial effect, so the influence of positive and negative music on performance of a selected karate drill was investigated in this double-blind study using 14 volunteers from two Shotokan karate schools. Each subject performed a preselected drill three times following positive and negative music and white noise in a random order. Performance of the drill was rated on a 7item, 5-point scale by 2 raters. Differences among conditions were assessed via a within-subjects t test for paired scores. The subjects' self-evaluation of their performance was also examined. Enhancement of performance for both types of music over white noise was significant.
Music is frequently used by athletes to "psych-up"; however, research on music and athletic performance has not yielded expected enhancement. Schwartz, Fernhall, and Plowman (1990) found that listening to fast-tempo music did not affect stationary bicycle performance. Copeland and Franks (1991) measured physiological (heart rate) and psychological effects of different types of music on treadmill endurance but found little to support the hypothesis that fast or loud music increases physiological or psychological arousal. Soft, slow music had a relaxing effect as reported by the subjects and evidenced physiologically since time to exhaustion was significantly longer during this music condition. Lipschultz and Chambliss (unpublished) asked subjects how different songs made them feel, either positive (happy, inspired, or content) or negative (sad, unmotivated, or discontent). The music samples were differentially associated with emotions. Fast-tempo, loud songs were rated as positive and slow-tempo, soft songs were identified as negative. Since previous research has not consistently supported the hypothesis that music improves athletic performance, this experiment was conducted to measure the effects of positive, negative, or no music on a karate drill. Method.-Four female and 10 male subjects (11 to 45 years old, M = 31.7, SD = 12.6) from two Shotokan karate classes volunteered. Their experience in karate ranged from l to 18 years (M = 6.6, SD = 4.9). An unpublished Kata Evaluation Scale, developed in 1984 by one of the
'We gratefully acknowledge the Quakertown area YMCA and Andrew I? Jones of the Hatboro YMCA Karate Club for their cooperation in recruiting volunteers for t h s study. Address correspondence to C. Chambliss, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Ursinus College, Collegeville, PA 19426.
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experimenters in collaboration with national and international karate organizations, was used to judge the subjects. This 7-item, 5-point scale in Likert format measures elements of performance, with 1 denoting unsatisfactory and 5 denoting excellent. A rater recorded the duration of each subject's performance of each kata with a stop watch. After completion of the trials each student completed a self-report sheet on which they described their perceptions of the quality of their kata execution. Music was presented to each subject through a or table tape player with headphones. Three randomly presented audiocassettes containing music previously classified as positive or negative (Lipschultz & Chambliss, unpublished), or white noise were used as the three treatment conditions. Each subject performed a selected kata (Heian 1) three times, once after each of the three 1-rnin, exposures to music (positive, negative, or whitenoise control). An assistant helped each subject in securing the tape player and headphones, and randomized the order of music treatments. During each of the three individually conducted trials, the subjects listened to a 1min. tape (positive or negative music, or white noise) and then performed the kata. Ratings were completed after each performance by two experienced observers who were blind to the order of the music presented. Results.-Total scores were calculated for each kata performance by summing the separate evaluative items. The interrater reliability of this measure was significant ( r = .86, p < .001). Within-subject t-test comparisons of total scores showed significant differences between the katas performed after exposure to music and those after white noise. The mean rating on trials performed after positively viewed music was significantly higher than that for drills performed after white noise (M = 33.6, SD = 4.8 versus M = 24.2, SD = 4.7; t = 13.93, p < .0001). The mean rating on trials after negative music was also significantly higher than that after white noise (M = 33.5, SD = 4.5 versus M = 24.2, SD = 4.7; t = 12.60, p < .0001). There was no significant difference in mean ratings across the positive and negative music conditions. O n the postexperimental selfevaluation, 11 subjects said the music made them feel more comfortable and 10 reported feeling more relaxed. REFERENCES COPELAND, B. L., & FRANKS, B. D. (1991) Effects of types and intensities of background rnusic on treadmill endurance. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31, 100103. LIPSCHULTL,W., & CHAMBLISS, C. (unpublished) The effect of music and intensity on optimism. (Unpublished manuscript, Ursinus College, Collegeville, PA, 1992) S C ~ ~ W A RS. T ZE., , FERNHALL, B., & PLOWMAN, S. A. (1990) Effects of music on exercise performance. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation, 10, 3 12-316.
Accepted April 13, 1994.
