emotional intelligence, emotional labour and work ...

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMOTIONAL LABOUR AND WORK EFFECTIVENESS IN SERVICE ORGANISATIONS: A PROPOSED MODEL Abdul Kadir Othman, Hazman Shah Abdullah and Jasmine Ahmad

The paper draws together literature on emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional labour (EL) and examines its influence on work effectiveness (WQ) in different business settings; professional service, service shop and mass service. In professional service, it is proposed that EI is important in assisting employees to achieve highly in five facets of WQ; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. In service shop, the influence of EI is moderate but the role of EL is increasingly important. In mass service, EI does not significantly contribute to high WQ instead EL plays its effective role in promising WQ. Therefore, the role of emotional intelligence and emotional labour in influencing service quality is dependent on the type of service organisations. Key Words: Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour, Work Effectiveness, Service Types

INTRODUCTION

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HIS paper examines the growing application of emotional intelligence (EI) in the development of human capital in modern organisations. A number of studies have posited the importance of EI in work performance (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Carmeli, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram, and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004) as well as service provision (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003, Kernbach and Schutte, 2005,Sojka, and Deeter-Schmeiz, 2002). Many service businesses compete successfully on the basis of high tech or high touch operations or a combination of both. The EI proponents support its universal efficacy. But, it is well established in service science that service businesses vary significantly (Lovelock, 1983, Schmenner, 1986, and Shostack, 1977). This paper is an attempt to develop a contingency based or nuanced view of the fit between different types of service businesses and the potential role of EI in influencing service providers’ work effectiveness (WQ). The role of EI is defined via a set of propositions in three

service settings namely professional service, service shop and mass service. Where the intensity of service providerclient interaction is high (more thick information exchange, high discretion, extended interaction, high value exchange, for example in a professional service), EI will play an important role in affecting WQ. In services where the intensity of service provider-client interaction is low (for example consumer banking), EI has a more limited role in promising WQ. Given the relative intensity and competitive centrality of human capital in service businesses, the concept of EI is viewed as particularly important in developing competitive advantage. However, in services management, the concept of emotional labour (EL), which refers to “the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display” (Hochschild, 1983) cannot be ignored. Organisations establish display rules, which are meant to control the employees’ behaviours during service encounter and generate emotional labour demands. Service personnel are required to display appropriate emotions to enhance their role. However, EL is effective depending on the contexts it is applied. This paper attempts to relate the concept of EI as well as EL to WQ

32 Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad ●

according to different service settings. It is proposed that service provider with different levels of EI will significantly influence WQ through its different dimensions; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. The relationships are moderated by different service settings. Emotional Intelligence Reviewing various definitions of emotional intelligence (EI), the one suggested by Mayer and Salovey (1997) is borrowed since the paper is meant to look at the EI as an ability to perceive, regulate and use emotions and not as the competencies as proposed by other authors. Mayer and Salovey’s ability model defines EI as “intelligence” in the traditional sense, that is, as a set of mental abilities to do with emotions and the processing of emotional information that are a part of, and contribute to, logical thought and intelligence in general. These abilities are arranged hierarchically from basic psychological processes to the more psychologically integrated and complex, and are thought to develop with age and experience in much the same way as crystallised abilities. Moreover, they are considered to be independent of traits and talents and preferred ways of behaving (Mayer and Salovey,

1990). Therefore, EI is defined as the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. The detail and description of each dimension is included in Table 1. Emotional Labour Emotional labour (EL) is viewed as the display of a particular emotion in exchange for a wage. Wong and Law (2002) in reviewing works on EL summarised that there are at least three types of “labour” to be offered to the organisation in exchange for reward. Mental labour refers to the cognitive skills and knowledge as well as the expertise of employees. Physical labour refers to the physical efforts of employees to achieve organisational goals. Emotional labour refers to the extent to which an employee is required to present an appropriate emotion in order to perform the job in an efficient and effective manner (Wong and Law, 2002). One of the earliest works on EL is the one that has been carried out by Hochschild (1983). The study introduced the construct of EL as the act of managing

Table 1: EI Dimensions/Branches and Descriptions of Exemplary skills Dimensions/Branches

Descriptions

Perceiving Emotion

Ability to identify emotion in other people

Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical and psychological states Ability to express emotions accurately and to express needs related to them Ability to discriminate between accurate/honest and inaccurate/dishonest feelings Ability to redirect and prioritise thinking on the basis of associated feelings Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought

Ability to generate emotions to facilitate judgment and memory Ability to capitalise on mood changes to appreciate multiple points of view Ability to use emotional states to facilitate problem solving and creativity Ability to understand relationships among various emotions

Understanding Emotions

Ability to perceive the causes and consequences of emotions Ability to understand complex feelings, emotional blends, and contradictory states Ability to understand transitions among emotions Ability to be open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasant Ability to monitor and reflect on emotions

Managing Emotions

Ability to engage in, prolong, or detach from an emotional state Ability to manage emotions in oneself Ability to manage emotions in others

Source: Salovey, Kokkonen, Lopes and Mayer (2004)

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective Vol. 12 No. 1 January–March 2008 ●

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Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations 33 ●

emotion in the service of one’s job. Hochschild defined EL as “the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display”. She suggests that EL involves the induction or suppression of feeling in order to sustain in others a sense of being cared for in a convivial safe place (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild (1983) also proposed a classification of occupations based on their EL demands. The occupations high in EL are in the categories of professional technical (e.g. nurses, physicians, therapists, and lawyers), clerical (e.g. cashiers, clerks, bank tellers and bill collectors) and service workers (e.g. protective service workers, personnel service workers, health service workers and waiters). In most theories, employees are required to display the standard expression of emotions regardless of how they actually feel (Grandey, 2000). Research on EL primarily focuses on the two dimensions namely surface act and deep act (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Brotheridge, and Lee, 2003). Surface act is fake unfelt emotions and/or suppress felt emotions. Deep act, on the other hand, is modification of felt emotions so that genuine display of emotion will follow. The display rules are present in a number of occupations and generate EL demands. Service personnel are typically expected to display positive emotions to promote goodwill, patronage and spending while keeping to themselves their negative feelings (Diefendorff and Richard, 2003, Grandey, 2000, Hochschild, 1983, Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987) police interrogators and bill collectors are demanded to display negative emotions to gain compliance from debtors and suspects (Stenross and Kleiman, 1989 and Sutton, 1991). In this paper, EL refers the extent to which an employee is required to display an appropriate emotion in order to perform the job efficiently and effectively by using surface acting.

Service Typology Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson and Voss (1992) proposed a classification scheme based on business processes, bringing together several previously suggested classification scheme into a cohesive framework. Based on data from eleven service industries, the authors suggested three types of service processes; professional service, service shops and mass services. The classification is based on six dimensions; people versus equipment, level of customisation, extent of employee/ customer contact, level of employee discretion, value added in back office versus front office and product versus process focus. This paper will apply the service typologies suggested by Silvestro et al. (1992). The three service process types are shown in Table 2. Job Performance Job performance is defined as the aggregated value to the organisation of the discrete behavioural episodes that an individual performs over a standard interval of time (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Job performance, in this paper, serves as a proxy of work effectiveness as it is used to assess how well the employees have accomplished their assigned tasks. Job performance is divided into two dimensions; task performance and contextual performance (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993). Task performance refers to behaviours that are directly linked with completion of the job. It consists of two types; executing technical processes, and maintaining and servicing technical requirements (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Contextual performance, on the other hand, refers to interpersonal behaviours or actions that benefit the organisation. It includes activities such as helping and cooperating with others, following organisational rules

Table 2: Silvestro’s et al. (1992) Service Classification Scheme Service Types

Description

Examples

Professional Service

Organisations with relatively few transactions, highly customised, process oriented, with relatively long customer contact time. Value added process occurs in the front office where considerable judgment is applied in meeting customer needs.

Consultants, corporate banks, doctors and architects

Service Shop

A category which falls between professional and mass services. Value added process occurs in the front office where considerable judgment is applied in meeting customer needs.

Retail banks, rental services and hotels

Mass Service

Organisations where there are many customer transactions, with limited contact time and little customisation. The offering is mainly product-oriented with most of the value being added in the back office and little judgment applied by the front office staff.

Telecommunication, bus services and fast foods


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and procedures, and volunteering to carry out task activities (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Since there is a gap in the literature with regard to the generic factors to measure job performance (authors and researchers tend to construct factors underlying job performance specifically to tailor with their specific research needs), Welbourne, Johnson and Erez (1998) have taken the initiative to investigate the general factors underlying the job performance dimensions. They utilise two related theories, namely Role Theory and Identity Theory and suggest five dimensions of job performance known as Role-Based Performance Scale (RBPS), which has been refined and tested by the authors. RBPS assesses different facets of job incumbent’s roles, which consist of job, career, innovator, team and organisation role. The following discussions will utilise the RBPS model in establishing the linkages between EI and work effectiveness. EI, Service Typology and Job Performance A large body of research work has investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and performance. Employees’ emotional intelligence found it to be positively associated with job satisfaction (Langhorn, 2004, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006 and, Wong and Law, 2002), positively associated with prediction of job advancement (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000), positively associated with organisational commitment (Wong and Law, 2002), positively associated with work performance (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Carmeli, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004), negatively associated with turnover intention (Wong and Law, 2002) and negatively related to stress (Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Slaski, and Cartwright, 2003). EI and Job Role Job has been defined as doing things specifically related to one’s job description (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). Job role is the most salient aspect of the job performance model. Researchers have devoted a lot of efforts in trying to establish associations between EI and work performance especially with regard to the job being completed (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Bachman, Stein, Campbell and Sitarenios, 2000, Carmeli, 2003, Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons

and Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004). Employees with the abilities to perceive, understand, and regulate emotion in self and others and ability to use emotion to facilitate thought and actions would be able to achieve high performance in their job. They are able to accept job challenges, overcome obstacles or work-related problems (Slaski and Cartwright, 2002, 2003), and able to reduce the personaljob conflicts (Abraham, 1999). Those with low EI abilities tend to experience work-related stress (Slaski and Cartwright, 2002, 2003) and emotional dissonance (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987). Consequently job dissatisfaction, a decline in organisational commitment, and, in turn, withdrawal intentions will entail (Abraham, 1998, Morris, and Feldman, 1996) as well as lower job performance. Besides the significant relationship between EI and performance, some studies have failed to establish the association between the two constructs and some found mixed results. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) conducted meta-analytic investigation on 57 studies on EI performance link found that EI is weakly related to job performance. Besides, Jordan and Troth (2004) found that EI was unrelated to individual performance. Instead, they found that EI predicted group performance and integrative conflict resolution styles. Basically, employees with high EI abilities will achieve high level of job performance and employees with low level of EI abilities will end up with low level of job performance. However, the relationships are moderated by types of services which they are associated with. Since the professional service is characterised as customised, high interaction and high judgment required from the service providers, they need to utilise the EI abilities to the highest level so that the services rendered meet the objectives and effective work can be accomplished as in the case of account officers (Bachman, Stein, Campbell, and Sitarenios, 2000), counsellors (Martin Jr, Easton, Wilson, Takemoto, and Sullivan, 2004), professional salespersons (Rozell, Pettijohn, and Parker, 2006) and nurses (McQueen, 2004). Leidner (1999) suggested that to be effective, service provider needs more than EL so that they do not hold up the work. In service shops, the need for EI is moderate since the service is characterised by less customised, less interaction and less judgment required on the part of service providers. In mass service, the job performed by service providers is characterised as routine, low interaction and non-judgmental. The service is produced with little or without personal contact with the customers therefore, EI plays little role in helping


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employees to achieve effective work effectiveness. Employees can achieve high job performance by conforming to the SOP (Collier, 1990) or conforming to the organisation’s display rules (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, and Wharton, 1999). Studies have shown that EL is important in specific jobs such as flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983), convenience store clerks (Sutton and Rafaeli, 1988), cashiers (Rafaeli, 1989), bill collectors (Sutton, 1991), waitresses (Paules, 1991), fast food restaurant workers (Leidner, 1993, 1996) and hairdressers (Parkinson, 1991). Therefore, the following proposition is developed. Proposition 1(a): Depending on service types, EI significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through job role. The influence of EI on work effectiveness (job role) is high in professional service, moderate in service shop and low in mass service. Proposition 1(b): Depending on service types, EL significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through job role. The influence of EL on work effectiveness (job role) is high in mass service, moderate in service shop and low in professional service. EI and Career Role Career has been defined as obtaining the necessary skills to progress through one’s organisation (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The concept of career as suggested by the authors is related to career commitment and career satisfaction. Career commitment refers to identification with and involvement in one’s occupation (Meuller, Wallace, and Price, 1992) and career satisfaction refers to one’s feelings of satisfaction with his or her career as a whole (Lounsbury et al., 2003). Employees who are satisfied with their career should feel high career commitment and are willing to obtain the necessary skills to progress through the organisation (Poon, 2004). She added that people who are able to perceive and understand their feelings should be able to assess their job skills and interests, set appropriate career objectives, develop realistic career plans, and obtain the developmental experiences needed to take advantage of career opportunities (Poon, 2004). Studies have found that EI is positively related to career commitment (Aremu, 2005, Carson and Carson, 1998), career success (Cooper, 1997), career progress (Dulewicz and Higgs,

2000), and career development (Brown, George Curran and Smith, 2003, Stough, and De Guara, 2003). One study found that EI moderates the effect of work-family conflict on career commitment (Carmeli, 2003). Besides, one study emphasises on the importance of emotion management on career orientation (Pulkkinen, Ohranen, and Tolvanen, 1999). To sum up, employees with high abilities to accurately perceive emotion in self and others, understand emotions of self and others, manage those emotions, and use the emotions to facilitate thought and actions may achieve career role effectiveness but employees with low EI abilities may obtain low career role effectiveness. Again, the relationships are moderated by service types to which the employees are attached. Bringing in the Silvestro’s et al. (1992) service positioning matrix, professional service providers require EI abilities to achieve high career role. Since professional service providers deal with customised needs of the customers they have to equip themselves with the necessary skills so that they can use their judgment to better serve the customers. Having high emotional awareness facilitates the use of emotional input to form judgment, make choices, and decide among options and having the ability to express emotions enables one to effectively communicate with others to realise one’s goals (George, 2000). In service shop, the need for EI to facilitate one’s career role is lower since the service is more standardised and has lesser degree of interaction with customers. The urgency to acquire necessary skills to work effectively with customers is lower compared to professional service. At the other end of the continuum, mass service employees require the minimum amount of EI abilities to gain career role effectiveness. Since the service is standardised, EI may slightly influence service providers to acquire necessary skills to progress in one’s job. Career role in mass service is structured and pre determined by the management. It is basically associated with the EL practices of how to please the customers. Employees are rewarded with raises and promotions if they comply with display rules (Sutton, 1991). Therefore, the following proposition is suggested. Proposition 2(a): Depending on service types, EI significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through career role. The influence of EI on work effectiveness (career) is high in professional service, moderate in service shop and low in mass service. Proposition 2(b): Depending on service types, EL significantly and positively influences work


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effectiveness through career role. The influence of EL on work effectiveness (career) is high in mass service, moderate in service shop and low in professional service. EI and Innovator Role Innovator has been defined as creativity and innovation in one’s job and the organisation as a whole (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). If organisations intend to remain competitive in a complex and changing environment, they must have the employees who are not only creative in their jobs but also contribute to the effectiveness and adaptability of the organisations as a whole (Schein, 1980). Thompson and Werner (1997) asserted that “in most organisations, it is no longer sufficient for an employee simply to carry out his or her essential job functions. Employees today are expected to take initiative and engage in those behaviours which insure that the organisation’s goals are realised. Moreover, the rapid pace of change in many industries today has made the “job descriptions” per se somewhat obsolete”. Creativity has been defined as “the product of novel and useful ideas” (George and Zhou, 2002, Madjar, Oldham, and Pratt, 2002). Creative ideas are derived from the employees’ abilities to identify relationships or associations that others did not see. Innovation or creativity is not a straight forward process. According to Easterby-Smith, Crossan and Niccolini (2000), innovative learning is obviously complex, involving a mix of rational, intuitive, emotional and social processes. Similarly, a number of studies have fairly established that emotion plays an important role in employees’ readiness to be creative and innovative (Amabile, Barsade, Mueller and Staw, 2005, Fenwick, 2003, Fong, 2006, Fredrickson, 1998, 2001, and Park, 2005). Studies have shown that EI is related to innovation and creativity (Stough and De Guara, 2003, Suliaman, and Al-Shaikh, 2006). Employees with high EI will result in high innovator role but employees with low EI will end up with low innovator role. Emotionally intelligent employees are able to identify, understand, manage and use negative or positive feelings by the way of finding associations among available elements to find novel and creative solution to the problem at hand. The relationships, nonetheless, are moderated by service types in which the employees are working. In professional service, services offered are customised and require discretion and judgment from the service

providers. Creativity and innovation in one’s job is highly valued in attending to the customers’ needs and concern. In service shop, the need for EI is lower compared to professional service. Complying with the job requirements and using little discretion and judgment are expected from the employees. Their role is restricted to the organisations’ established rules (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, and Wharton, 1999). In mass service, since the services offered are standardised, routine and with minimum level of interaction with the customers, service providers cannot use EI abilities to facilitate their innovator role. Employees in fast food restaurants, for example, are working in accordance to the established standard operating procedures (SOP) with little interaction with the customers. Deviation from the procedures is not tolerated therefore, the need for EI to facilitate employees’ innovator role is minimum in mass service. They need EL more than EI in performing effective work. Therefore, the following proposition is suggested. Proposition 3(a): Depending on service types, EI significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through innovator role. The influence of EI on work effectiveness (innovator role) is high in professional service, moderate in service shop and low in mass service. Proposition 3(b): Depending on service types, EL significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through innovator role. The influence of EL on work effectiveness (innovator role) is high in mass service, moderate in service shop and low in professional service. EI and Team Role Team has been defined as working with co-workers and team members towards success of the firm (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The importance of team role in organisation as well as in research has recently been realised and given a special attention due to its effect in creating a synergy in work outcomes. Thus, teamwork has been included in the new performance models (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997, and Campbell, 1990). A number of studies have highlighted the link between EI and team performance. Rice (1999) suggested that EI plays a role in certain aspects of effective team leadership and team performance. Stough and De Guara (2003) found that emotional control, a component of EI was positively related to the ability to work as a team member


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towards the success of the organisation. Similarly, Feyerherm and Rice (2002) found that understanding emotion and managing emotion were positively corelated with some measures of team performance especially with regard to customer service dimensions suggesting the importance of EI in customer service environment. Perlini and Halverson (2006) found both intrapersonal competency and general mood, components of EI, predicted number of National Hockey League points and games played. Jordan, Ashkanasy, Hartel and Hooper (2002) found that high EI teams operated at high level of performance throughout the study period. Rapisarda (2002) found that EI competencies of influence, empathy and achievement orientation were positively related to students and faculty ratings of team cohesiveness. She also found that empathy was positively related to student and faculty ratings of team performance, whereas achievement orientation was positively related to student ratings of team performance. Jordan and Troth (2004) found that EI predicted successful problem solving of cognitive tasks in teams and contributed to integrative conflict resolution styles and team performance. The findings are consistent with their earlier studies (Jordan and Troth, 2002). To sum up, employees who have high EI abilities will attain effective team role but employees with low EI abilities will result in ineffective team role. Team effectiveness is obtained through empathy, cooperation, collaborative efforts in problem solving and conflict avoidance. The relationships, nevertheless, are moderated by the types of service the employees are affiliated to. In professional service, employees are expected to work in team so that they can perform at their best. Therefore, the abilities to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in self and others are critical in contributing to the team role effectiveness. In service shops, since the services are more standardised and less interaction, the need for EI abilities is moderate. Although team work is important, it is not as critical as in professional service. Usually, there are some guidelines stipulated by the management of how the team should work together. In mass service, the employees are offering standardised and routine services with minimum interaction with the customers. Although working in team is required, the management usually has already determined every aspects of team so that the team can function effectively. Rules and regulations are established, roles and functions of team members are predetermined, and methods are fixed by the management. Therefore, in mass service, because of structured team role, the need for EI is the least significant

for the employees to achieve effective team role. Complying with display rules or adopting EL practices may be adequate to work in highly structured team as the case in mass service. According to Wharton and Erickson (1993) employees are required to display integrative emotions intended to bring people together. One has quoted that “in highly standardised situation, it may be easy to fake an emotion. In less standardised situations (such as in professional service) there is the danger that the true feelings may lurk through and may be recognised by other people” (Zapf, 2002). Therefore, the following proposition is formed. Proposition 4(a): Depending on service types, EI significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through team role. The influence of EI on work effectiveness (team role) is high in professional service, moderate in service shop and low in mass service. Proposition 4(b): Depending on service types, EL significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through team role. The influence of EL on work effectiveness (team role) is high in mass service, moderate in service shop and low in professional service. EI and Organisation Role Organisation has been defined as going above the call of duty in one’s concern for the firm (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The concept is associated with organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) (Organ, 1988) where OCBs are defined as discretionary behaviours on the part of a person that are believed to promote directly the effective functioning of an organisation. Researchers have recently realised the importance of organisation role in employees’ work performance model (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993, Brief and Motowidlo, 1986, Campbell, 1990, Johnson, 2001, MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Ahearne, 1998, Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994, Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1997, and Rotundo and Sackett, 2002). OCB consists of behaviours that go beyond specific role requirements, with the stipulation that such behaviours are performed voluntarily without expectation of rewards (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986). They include altruism (helping others), conscientiousness (going beyond the minimum role requirements), courtesy (preventing workrelated problems from occurring), sportsmanship (tolerating unfavourable circumstances without complaining) and civic virtue (participating in, involving


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in, and concerning about the life of the company) (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter, 1990). Research has demonstrated that positive emotion (e.g. enthusiasm and pride) is related to organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) whereas negative emotion (e.g. anger and anxiety) is related to counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) (Spector and Fox, 2002). OCB is associated with empathy and perceived ability to help. Abraham (1999) claimed that EI may enhance certain prosocial behaviours, one of which is assisting coworkers with personal matters. Research has also shown mixed results on the ability of EI to enhance citizenship behaviours. Day and Carroll (2004) found that EI were unrelated to individual-level citizenship behaviour but somewhat related to group-level citizenship behaviour. Similarly, Côté and Miners (2006) found that the association between EI and OCB directed at the organisation becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases, but not the association between EI and OCB directed at the individual. Employees who have high EI abilities are able to generate positive emotion and reduce negative one through emotion management to achieve high organisation role but employees with low EI abilities may end up with low organisation role. Again, the relationships are moderated by the types of services with which the employees are associated. In professional service, since the service is customised dependent on employees’ discretion and high interaction with the customers, the abilities to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in self and others will significantly contribute to organisation role. Employees with high EI abilities are able to align their needs and organisation needs and able to anticipate their future with the organisation. Besides, they are able to see others’ work related problems and are willing to offer their help. In service shops, since the services are more standardised and less interaction with the customers as well as other employees, going above the call of duties e.g. helping others and promoting the company may produce better outcomes but not as significant as in professional service. In mass service, offering standardised and routine service does not significantly require employees’ discretion and judgment as well as interaction with others. Therefore, EI role is the least significant in helping the employees to perform well as suggested by Zapf (2002) that doing “object-related work” does not require effective emotion management. Besides, going above the call of duties, to help others and promoting the organisation for example, is the least significant in the service delivery. Conforming

to the SOP is the norms. Therefore, the following proposition is recommended. Proposition 5(a): Depending on service types, EI significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through organisation role. The influence of EI on work effectiveness (organisation role) is high in professional service, moderate in service shop and low in mass service. Proposition 5(b): Depending on service types, EL significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through organisation role. The influence of EL on work effectiveness (organisation role) is high in mass service, moderate in service shop and low in professional service. CONCLUSION Service work involves interacting with others (customers, colleagues and managers), therefore dealing with emotions is inevitable. This paper examines the role of EI in influencing work effectiveness in service organisations. EI as an ability to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions is critical for service providers to effectively carry out their work. Borrowing Welbourne, Johnson and Erez’s (1998) model of job performance, it has been shown that EI plays a salient role in influencing service providers’ job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role towards an extent that is required by types of services to which they are associated. Using Silvestro’s et al. (1992) service positioning matrix, the propositions are made based on the characteristics of service types. EI is proposed to be the most salient concept in professional service whereas EL is the most important concept in mass service to influence employees’ work effectiveness. The role of EI as well as EL in service shop is believed to be moderate. The diagram in Figure 1 depicts the influence of EI as well as EL on service employees’ work effectiveness by considering the effects of service types on their relationships. Managerial and Research Implication Since it has been established that EI affects work effectiveness of the service providers especially those who are associated with professional service, the management should consider selecting staff with high EI and developing the EI skills and abilities so that the human capital is ready to pursue particular strategies of customer intimacy, care and nurturing. Given that EI abilities can be developed, training in specific facets of


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High

High E1 Low

Customization

Professional Service

Med

Service Shop

Low EL High

WQ

Mass Service Low

Figure 1: A Normative Model of EI, Service Typologies, EL and WQ

EI; appraising, understanding emotions and managing in self and others as well as utilising emotions to facilitate performance would guarantee that the service providers could deliver services as expected by the management. Training in EI is proven to enhance service provision (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003). Moreover, the management should consider the organisation’s compensation system to value not only the hard skills but also the soft skills of the employees. Besides, the compensation system should also reflect on the employees’ creativity and innovation, teamwork effectiveness and organisation citizenship behaviours. These employees’ extra-job roles require high EI abilities. Another aspect to consider is the current selection process practiced by the organisations. Again, the selection process should reflect not only on the applicants’ hard skills but also their soft skills. New employees with high emotional awareness and regulation should be hired (Ashkanasy, 2002, Jordan, Ashkanasy and Hartel, 2002, and Leidner, 1999).

scale should be used so that the researcher should obtain an acceptable response rate. Second, the homogeneity of the sample should be ensured by looking at the organisation with a comparable size or operation (e.g., HQ or branch) (Calder, Phillips and Tybout, 1981). A proper selection of the sample is able to reduce the unexplained variance due to sampling error, and what remains is the one explained by the variables in the model. As an internal measure, job performance should be observed from two different perspectives; peer evaluation and supervisor evaluation. It is suggested because looking at job performance from different perspectives can eliminate or at least reduce the bias associated with the single source ratings. Furthermore, the accuracy of the assessment is more likely to be achieved because the peer can provide information that the supervisor is lacking since the peer is closer to the employee than the supervisor.

The paper limits its scope in investigating the relationship between EI and WQ. Some moderating factors that naturally embedded in the service types (Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson, and Voss, 1992) have been included (by design) but, some are omitted (those related to personal differences such as personality traits). Future research should include these factors to control the unintended variances. Besides, future research should focus on testing the conceptualisation of the relationships between EI and WQ in different service settings. However, proper care should be taken in ensuring that the findings are valid and reliable so that they can be generalised to the whole service industry. First, there are abundant of EI measures available to be adapted. Researchers should properly select the best measure that can produce the intended results. A brief but practical

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Abdul Kadir Othman ([email protected]) is Lecture at the Faculty of Office Management and Technology, MARA University of Technology, Terengganu Branch. He is currently pursuing his PhD on the Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Work Effectiveness in Service Industry at the Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. Hazman Shah Abdullah ([email protected]) is Professor, Human Resource Management , Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. He has written and published numerous articles on different themes, which include Human Resource Management, Quality Management, Administrative Science and Strategic Management, to name a few. Jasmine Ahmed ([email protected]) is Associate Professor , Human Resource Management Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. Her work has been published in number of local as well as international journals.


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