daily life like food, housing, income, health care and welfare benefits ought to be met. But mere ... The empowerment frame work of the World Bank which has been refined to understand the ...... Further, she adds the collective domination of men over women ...... G.K. et-al., (2004), Women's Own: The Self-Help Movement of.
Author: Dr. P. Thavitha Thulasi, Assistant professor, Dept. Of Socila WorkSri padmavati Mahila Visvidyalaym Tirupati A.P ISBN No.978-81-311-0520-7Common wealth Publication, 2013
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN INTRODUCTION Women in most societies are subject to discrimination. The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against women makes it binding on the consenting nations of the world to take corrective action to have gender just laws, end violence against women, as well as give women equal property rights, opportunities in education, access to health care, work opportunities, wages and end customs that are derogatory to women. The Self Help Group (SHG) approach adopted by the government of India and many states, including Andhra Pradesh can be considered to be an attempt made in this direction in view of its multidimensionality, though in common the SHGs are looked at in relation to micro finance services of savings and credit. The formation of Women‟s Self Help Groups has emerged since the seventies in Bangladesh and since the early nineties in India-predominantly in the southern states. The groups typically have a membership of between five and twenty members and are informal associations of women. The women elect their leaders on democratic principles, save money, lend to each other and take higher order loans from financial institutions. They grow into change agents in their own village societies. A society cannot progress much, leaving women (who constitutes almost half the section of society), outside the process of development activities. Earlier development theorists had assumed that the process of development is from top to bottom and thus would automatically bring about an improvement of all sections across all genders of society and reduce social and economic inequality. But the experience shows that the rolling down process of development necessarily excludes some sections of society (who are not allowed to take advantages of development)
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and thus raises the phenomenon of social exclusion. (Discrimination across gender is the most distressing fact of such deprivation cutting across caste, class and ethnic composition (De Hann, 1994). The gender discrimination is present in all societies, whether feudal or capitalist). Like their male counterpart, women also play their important parts in the social, economic and cultural process directly or indirectly. Even in the traditional tribal societies (as is observed in Meghalaya, Manipur, Kerala, some parts of West Bengal etc.,) women played the dominant role in the social and economic activity excepting the political processes. In spite of this, they are long neglected in the sense of food and calorie intake, education, health care, political participation and psychologically. Traditionally women were thought to be symbol of sacrifice; they play simultaneous role of a daughter, sister, wife, mother and their activities are mainly confined within the boundary of four walls of the home. Their main task includes bearing and rearing of children, the household chores like cooking, washing, cleaning etc. and above all to please all the members of the family with their service. They in most families take initiative and necessary steps for initiation/beginning of education of their children. In many societies, especially in rural areas, women take the responsibility of fetching drinking water, collecting fire wood as well as take part in gardening and agricultural activities from sowing to harvest besides tending domestic animals like chicken, cows, goats etc. Their role either as a mother or wife in addition to other socio-economic performances has immense importance in the welfare of the society. Sometimes, in the very poor (low-income) families, they themselves sustain without sufficient food or nutritional intake but try hard to fulfill the nutritional need of their male members in the family, whereas, in most cases because of the lack of recognition and due to the nature of works, non-marking of their contribution, proper evaluation of those activities by women have never been done. Their contribution to society is, however, no less than their male counterpart. Even some researchers and
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famous sociologists thought women‟s role in traditional societies was more comprehensive, active, independent and valued (Hamilton, 1981; Schreiner, 1978). This view of women has undergone dramatic change during the recent past as a result of their changing role within and outside the home. One of the main contributors to this visible change has been the Self Help Groups of women which aimed at the empowering women so that they take control not only over their lives but also their families and communities.
WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT Empowerment is a concept that has become popular in recent times to describe an enabling process, for socially marginalized persons and groups to gain advantage and opportunities. Serageldin (1991) describes it as follows: “The empowerment idea manifest itself at all levels of societal interaction. It is found in giving a voice to the disenfranchised, in allowing the weak and the marginalized to have access to the tools and the materials they need to forge their own destinies”. Empowerment is a process which helps people to gain control over their lives through raising awareness, taking action and working in order to exercise greater control. In other words, empowerment facilitates change and enables a person to do what one wants to do. Empowerment is the feeling that activates the psychological energy to accomplish one‟s goals. From the institutional perspective, empowerment is the process of setting the right environment and structure and creating the circumstances where people can use their facilities and abilities to fully actualize their potential.
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DEFINITIONS Some of the earliest definitions of empowerment include that of the Social Work Dictionary (Barker, 1991), which defines empowerment as “the process of helping a group or community to achieve political influence or relevant legal authority”. Adams (1996), says „Empowerment is the means by which individuals, groups and communities take control of their circumstances and achieve their own goals, thereby being able to work towards helping themselves and others to maximize the quality of their lives‟.
Dubhushi (1997) on the other hand considered
empowerment as exercising control over one‟s life, firstly on resources of financial, physical and human and secondly on beliefs, values and attitudes. J.K. Pillai (1995) talks of “empowerment as an active multidimensional process which enables women to realize their full identity and power in all spheres of life”. India‟s draft paper for the Fourth World Women‟s Conference (2000), while emphasizing on empowerment of women, underlines the need to redraw the development plan from women‟s perspective. It called for affirmative discrimination in favour of women in order to empower them economically and politically. MEANING OF EMPOWERMENT 1.
Empowerment is the expansion of assets and capabilities of poor people, to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control, and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives. (WDR 2000/2001).
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Empowerment in its simplest form means the manifestation of redistribution of power that challenges patriarchal ideology and male dominance (Chandra 1997).
CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT Empowerment as a concept is the result of the process which enables an individual to know about herself/himself, what she/he wants, to express it, try to get it
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and fulfill their needs by enhanced confidence, awareness, mobility, choices, control over resources and decision making power. The process, which enables an individual to gain the above qualities, is called empowerment. NEED FOR EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN In the context of human development in our society, empowerment of women and development of children has significant priority in all developmental efforts. Women and children together constitute about one-third of the total population (2001) of our country.
The women as target group account for 48.3 per cent of total
population as per 2001 census. Hence, development of women, safeguarding their interest is to ensure that they are brought into the mainstream to take advantage of the general developmental activities. Even the various sectoral policies announced in recent past – Health (2001), Nutrition (1993), Population (2000), Education (1992), Agriculture (2000) have stressed the need and focused on the comprehensive development of women (Planning Commission, 2002). Women should get access to those modes and medium of expression of their self and self-actualization and through that they can achieve empowerment. The various efforts and activities for the development of women are based on the empowerment strategy that is aimed at increasing the capacity of the women. Whether it is empowerment, in general, or related to women, it can be understood as access to power and control over resources and services. Achieving equality in opportunity, decision making power, gaining confidence, building productive capacities, challenging existing power relations, gaining control over resources are the essential components which an individual or a group has to achieve through the process of empowerment. The outcome of this process could be in the form of
Process that neutralizes women‟s oppression. Bring out of their traditional subordination.
Growth in the grass root political involvement
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Achievement of equal opportunity and equal roles in society.
Becoming aware and gaining their own rights in social realities and play their role.
TYPES OF EMPOWERMENT The following section focuses upon necessary dimensions for attention to facilitate meaningful women empowerment which are ultimately considered to be the key factors in social development. ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Woman‟s roles are seen as reproductive and domestic in support of the male breadwinners of the family and this practice has conditioned women to accept a subservient role. In these circumstances getting more girls into the schools is clearly not a priority but, education is one of the important indicators of women empowerment.
The fact is that women though largely absent from the formal
workplace and, hence, from official labour statistics, are nevertheless heavily engaged in subsistence agricultural and informal sector of economy. There is a constant effort to put women‟s income in bracket in order to consolidate the position that women are only reproducers and not producers. This idea is to be changed.
Women‟s economic right is definitely an
important aspect for enhancement of their status. So, women‟s labour needs to be recognized. Education, more employment avenues, political awareness etc., would all lead to women‟s economic emancipation. SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT A Major limitation to the advancement of women is the institutionalized set of social prescriptions that limit their participation in socio-economic activities and their input in decision making. Adejide (1990) recognizes that the emergence of female
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entrepreneurship process depends upon closely interlinked economic, social, religious and psychological variables. Efforts to increase the potential for women‟s social participation extend down to the level of the household.
Intra-family dynamics affect use of income and
decision over resource allocation along gender lines (Heyzer, 1992). Even though the realities of restricted social and economic participation at the household level may be recognized, it is equally understood that changing relationships at this level may be the most challenging. While empowering women requires fundamental changes at many levels of society, arguably the most complex and elusive transformation may be in relationship within the household and family (Sen et. al., 1994). PHYSICAL EMPOWERMENT Most women in the Third World Countries work very long hours at numerous tedious tasks as well as take care of their children at homes. Given their low social status, there is usually more concern with their productivity and the number of children they raise rather than with their physical well-being. Yet, the health is inextricably linked to the well being of the household, including the level of food security. As Morna et. al., (1992) note, when women are too exhausted (or ill) to work well, food production suffers, thereby contributing to mal-nutrition and hunger. Another area of growing concern is the dangerous nature of many activities engaged by women using traditional production and processing methods.
Burns, smoke
inhalation, excessive exposure to heat and sun, muscle fatigue and frequent headaches are regular risks to the health of women every day. Physical empowerment is therefore, inseparable from other aspects of empowerment.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT It is a common occurrence for women in third world countries to belittle their own position in the society and their contribution to the economy. When asked of their „occupation‟, the majority of rural women say they have none, despite the fact that they may engage in three or more income generating and productive activities to meet the needs of their families. Owing to cultural view of the low position of women in many societies, the women themselves often have a negative view of their potential and importance. Udegbe (1996) recognizes that empowerment must be seen as a „psychological process of transformation‟ and that there is need to „reverse the feeling of learned helplessness‟ among women, leading to an „increase in knowledge, capacity, selfconfidence, high self-esteem, self-reliance and ultimately, to the well being of the empowered‟. To accomplish this goal, Akande and Kuye (1986) state that women must understand the structural sources of their powerlessness and feel the need for change; ready to be active participants in the changes, both as individuals and groups. Education can be a powerful force to change the subordinate view that women have of themselves (Isiugo-Abanihe, 1996). POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN Mahatma Gandhi insisted upon women‟s equal participation and devotion of power to the institutions of local Self-Governance and the Village Panchayat. The Panchayat Raj Act provides for people‟s active participation in the local administration by granting them power to question and by requesting their participation in planning for development of their villages. The Self-Help Group women are mentally ready now and have moral courage to contest the local and Legislative election. There is every possibility that the growth of Self-Help Group in the future will provide large number of women leaders in India.
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The key to enhancing women's political empowerment is the role of building a constituency. Working in neighbourhoods is important for outreach, but so is gaining visibility through television. It means that policies to support women's political empowerment should not only target the women who announce they will run for office, but also have expanding political apprenticeship opportunities for a wide pool of women so that they can build the constituency they need to claim legitimacy. Political empowerment programmes focus on individual women's capabilities, such as on how to run a campaign or speak in public, provide them with useful skills. But this highly individualistic approach is missing out on many opportunities to make a difference by recognizing that political bargaining power and weight is built through alliances, networks and coalitions. Hence, it is important to examine practical ways of supporting this embedded nature of doing politics by working with allies and coalitions, as well as, where relevant, women's families and networks. Women have to deliver their role and responsibility efficiently. Strengthening the capacity of the newly elected Panchayat representatives becomes crucial task to support these women to understand and fulfill the roles and responsibilities expected of them. The best part is some leaders who have contested the PRI elections have either won or lost with narrow margin, have been members of these institutions and played critical role within these institutions. Women‟s transformative potential is often contingent not only on getting the technicalities right (such as how the system sanctions parties that fail to have women high up on their party lists) but understanding the power configurations in a particular context and how it is likely to influence the political landscape.
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For example, in some cases, it may be more conducive to promoting gender justice by being highly selective about which women are supported. Proxy women for political parties with highly reactionary political agendas are hardly going to advocate for gender justice when in office. PROCESS OF EMPOWERMENT The process of empowerment deals with how to increase the capacity of women and what they need to become empowered. First they must be provided with and should get certain essential needs fulfilled. These basic needs could be provided through welfare services. Equal access to resources like educational opportunities, credit and property is the next step in the process of empowerment.
Creating
awareness among women about the existing gender discrimination, gender inequality is the most important in empowering them. Then, they must recognize that their problems stem from inherent structural and institutional discrimination. The empowerment process in the developed countries is different from that of the developing nations of the third world.
It is more strategic i.e., changing
patriarchal norms, gender division of labour, gaining equality and changing the attitude of society towards women in the developed countries. In the developing nations, it is more focused on to meet the basic needs, increase in income, educating and giving training in skill development to meet along with strategic gender needs. Meeting both practical needs and strategic interests are necessary to empower women. Women are the main caretakers in the families below the poverty line. Women contribute to the household income. Hence practical needs of these women related to daily life like food, housing, income, health care and welfare benefits ought to be met. But mere meeting practical needs do not empower women unless strategic interests are fulfilled. Strategic interests are long term and almost common to all women. They are related to improving women‟s position that include action to increase women‟s knowledge and skills, give them legal protection, provide equal
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opportunities/participation in decision making and greater access to resources etc. Strategic interests transform gender relations to empower women. Equal participation of women in the decision-making leads to their empowerment.
It could be achieved through, mobilization and organization of
women at all levels. Increasing consciousness and building awareness is an important component of the process of empowerment. First women must recognize the ideology that legitimizes domination and then understand how it perpetuates their oppression. They try to change the values and attitudes, which are “anti-women” that most women have internalized since their childhood. So self-consciousness and awareness must arise in each individual woman to empower themselves. But this self-consciousness and awareness do not come spontaneously, so does empowerment. Changing other women‟s consciousness must externally induce it. Altering self-image and beliefs about rights and capabilities could create consciousness among other women. Awareness of gender discrimination, challenging the sense of inferiority, recognizing the value of their labour and their contribution to the society and conscientisation will empower women. The process of empowerment cannot take place all of a sudden. It has to pass through various stages, like in the first stage women try to look into the situation from a different perspective, recognize the power structure and other institutional norms which subordinate them by keeping themselves away from them. In this stage also they try to share their feelings and experiences with other women and realize that it is not single women‟s experience but common to all. The process of empowering women is a positive discrimination for women. But empowerment implies a positive role and participation of women in national development not only on their own behalf but for the benefit of society at large. Empowerment of women enhances their ability to make choices within the family and in the society.
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PURPOSE OF EMPOWERMENT Table-1.1: Journey towards Empowerment
Disempowerment
Empowerment
Exploited
Affirmed
Insecure
Confident
Controlled
Competent
Victimized
Assertive
Dependence ….. Independence ……. Interdependence ------------------------------>----------------------------
Source : Project Report of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) 2003.
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT FRAME WORK The UNICEF (ATOL empowerment research, 2002) has developed the equality and empowerment cycle. The cycle has been diagrammatically presented in Figure 1 below. The Women‟s Empowerment Frame work model has the five levels of equality, where empowerment is seen as a necessary part of the development process at each level, for women to advance towards equal status. The five levels of equality are:
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FIGURE-1: Women Empowerment Frame work Welfare
Control
Empowerment
Access
Participation
Conscientisation 1. Welfare: This addresses only the basic needs of women. 2. Access: Equality of access to resources. 3. Awareness-raising or conscientisation: An understanding of the fact that women as a group are subordinate and a rejection of this subordination. 4. Participation: This is the point where women take decisions equally alongside men. Mobilisation is necessary in order to reach this level. 5. Control: The ultimate level of equality and empowerment, where there is a balance of power between women and men. The empowerment frame work of the World Bank which has been refined to understand the underlying causes and processes of observed differences in mobility outcomes (Deepa Narayan 2007). It is discussed that empowerment is fundamentally about enlarging the freedom of poor and marginalized people to make choices and take actions to shape their lives. The outcome focused in applying the framework is escaping poverty.
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This analytic model (Fig2) consists of interaction between two sets of factors: (a) changes in the opportunity structure, consisting of the dominant institutional climate and social structures within which disadvantaged actors must work to advance their interests, and (b) changes in the capabilities of poor individuals or groups to take purposeful actions, that is, to exercise agency. The framework has been slightly refined from earlier versions to highlight the role of families in the exercise of agency. (Deepa Narayan 2007). According to Narayan and Petesch (2007: 15), “The opportunities for poor people to express and realize their interests can blossom where incentives are in place to support their access to information, their political inclusion, their ability to hold their leaders accountable, and their capacity for local organizing. Conversely, where information is closely guarded, local power structures are excluding and unaccountable, and poor people lack basic freedoms of association and collective action, possibilities for their empowerment and economic mobility narrow considerably.”
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FIGURE 2: Overview of the Empowerment Conceptual Framework Opportunity structure
Agency of the poor
Dominant Institutional Climate
Individual and Family Assets
Information
and Capabilities
Inclusion/participation
Material
Accountability
Human
Local organization capacity
Social Political Psychological
Dominant Social Structures Openness
Collective Assets and Capabilities
Competition
Voice Conflict
Organization Representation Identity
Development Outcomes Mobility of the poor Improved incomes, assets for the poor Improved governance, peace, and access to justice Functioning and more inclusive basic services More equitable access to markets and business services Source: Deepa Narayan and Patti Petesch 2007.
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EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN INDIA Indian Constitution in its fundamental rights has provisions for quality, social justice and protection of women. These goals are yet to be realized. Still women are continued to be discriminated, exploited and exposed to inequalities at various levels. So, the concept of empowerment as a goal of development projects and programmes has been gaining wider acceptance. By empowerment women would be able to develop self-esteem, confidence, realize their potential and enhance their collective bargaining power.
Women‟s
empowerment can be viewed as a continuum of several interrelated and mutually reinforcing components (Marilee, Karl, 1995). They are:
Awareness building about women‟s situation, discrimination and rights and opportunities as a step towards gender equality. Collective awareness building provides a sense of group identity and the power of working as a group.
Capacity building and skill development, especially the ability to plan, make decisions, organize, manage and carry out activities to deal with people and institutions in the world around them.
Participation and greater control and decision making power in the home, community and society.
Action to bring about greater equality between men and women. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) has made its commitment to the objective of
“empowering women as the agents of social change and development”. The twelve salient strategies spelt out focused on empowering women by making women economically independent and self-reliant. It was being hoped that the strategies would be realized through the National Policy for empowerment of women.
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Remarkably, Self-Help Groups were considered to be one of the strategies to mark the beginning of major process of empowering women. Committee on the empowerment of women was constituted with 30 members, 20 members of Lok Sabha, 10 member of Rajya Sabha of Indian parliament. The committee presented its first report on “Developmental Schemes for Rural Women” to Lok Sabha on 21 April 1999. The functions of the committee included examining the measures to secure women‟s equality, status and dignity in all matters and considering the reports of National Commission for Women. They undertook on-thespot visits in connection with the representatives of elected Panchayat Raj institutions and Municipal bodies. Planning Commission (1999-2000) had given specific emphasis on empowerment of women, besides the continuation of the important initiative programmes like Rural Women‟s Development and Empowerment Project (RWDEP) which was introduced in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Karnataka and Gujarat for a period of five years. The overall objective of the project is to enable empowerment of women by establishing Self Help Groups which will improve the quality of their lives greatly through greater access to and control over resources. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH ‘SELF-HELP GROUP’ Movement of women development through self-help groups has been introduced in different parts of the country and abroad to promote socio-economic status of the women in particular and to bring out all round development in general. During early 1980s an experimental attempt was made in the neighboring country Bangladesh by Dr. Mohammad Yunis. He wanted to encourage the landless and the marginalized women and women known as beggars to undertake petty trade with little loan given from his own pocket at the initial stage. This was turned into an effort of grand success with its innovative approach to motivate the poor and disadvantaged
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women to inculcate banking habits through small savings and credit activities, which at present has attained a global campaign as “Bangladesh Gramin Bank”. We are aware that Government of India has already been implementing micro-finance programme by creating an autonomous body called “Rashtriya Mahila Kosh’ under the Department of Women and Child Development. The Institution has been formed to promote economic status of women through Self-Help Group.
WHAT IS A SELF HELP GROUP? Self Help Group is the process by which a group of people, especially women with a common objective are facilitated to come together in order to participate in the development activities such as savings, credit and income generation. The SHGs are voluntary associations of people formed to attain a collective goal. The objective of SHGs is to inculcate the habit of thrift, savings and banking culture (availing loan and repaying the same over a given period of time), thereby ensuring economic independence. The principles underlying the SHGs are financing the poorest of the poor, ensuring easiest recovery level, and achieving holistic empowerment.
EMERGENCE OF SELF HELP GROUPS The concept of SHG serves the Principle “by the women, of the women and for the women”. The origin of SHG is from the brain child of GRAMIN BANK of Bangladesh, which was founded by the economist, Prof. Mohammed Yunus of Chittagong University in the Year 1975. This was exclusively established for the poor. Women‟s access to credit in rural areas is beset with a number of problems like insistence on collateral security, cultural distance between rural women arid banks, high transaction cost, restricted and fixed banking hours, inflexibility in
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quantum and purpose of credit, inconvenient repayment schedule, cumbersome procedure and exploitation by the intermediaries. Dissatisfaction with the result of many formal credit programmes has stimulated searches for modalities that may provide effective financial services to rural poor particularly to rural women. Taking the lesson from the experience of other developing countries, like Bangladesh, Indonesia, Bolivia and the Philippines where combination of formal and informal finance provides sustained and valuable services to the poor a few Non-Governmental Organizations in India started experimenting the innovative scheme of Self Help Groups. A Self Help Group (SHG) is a small, economically homogeneous and cohesive group of rural poor voluntarily coming together to;
save small amounts regularly,
mutually agree to contribute to a common fund,
meet their emergency needs on mutual help basis
have collective decision-making,
solve conflict through collective leadership, and
provide collateral-free loans with terms and conditions decided by the group (NA BARD, 1999). The programme of linking SHGs with banks was launched by the National
Bank during 1992-93 in India. The National Bank‟s effort, towards increasing the access of the rural poor to formal banking services, through promotion and creditlinking of SHGs of the rural poor has gathered momentum since 1995-96. NABARD continues to provide hundred per cent refinance to banks. The number of NGOs and other Self-Help Promoting Institutions engaged in the above programme increased from 718 to 1030 during 2000-01. The participation of women in the programme has increased from 85 to 90 per cent during the year (NABARD, 2001). The loan
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repayment performance of SHGs during the year was reported to be more than 95 per cent. In Tamil Nadu 19032 SHGs were financed by the banks compared to 9959 during the previous year.
MEANING OF SELF HELP Self-help is one of the most fascinating yet frustrating aspects of development. It is a dynamic process that transcends the narrow boundaries of any given aspects of development. The purported benefits from self-help are multifarious. Self-help is a fundamental tenet of recent expounded strategies of basic needs and self-reliance. Self-help is both a means and a goal within the strategy of basic needs. It is a means with which to achieve goals of minimum requirements of private consumptions i.e., adequate food, shelter and clothing and community services i.e., safe drinking water, sanitation, public transport, health and education. It is identified as a tool which facilitates people to participate in making the decisions which effect them. As SHGs were initiated to combat the weakness in private credit, formal financial institutions have been able to mobilize savings from the persons or groups who were normally expected to have savings and recycle the same effectively. SHGs pool resources amongst the members and thus meet the money loan needs of the poor. SHGs have emerged from the felt needs of the people and they have evolved their own methods of working. SHGs help in creating a platform for sharing of experiences, collective knowledge, building problem solving, and resource mobilisation from other institutions. In SHGs, the autonomy of the women groups is never undermined and all decision making is entirely in their hands. This group helps women build confidence in themselves as decision makers, planners and to work collectively in a democratic manner.
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CONCEPT OF SELF HELP GROUP „All for all‟ is the principle behind the concept of Self Help Groups (SHGs). It is mainly concerned with the poor and it is for the people, by the people and of the people. SHGs, a mini-voluntary agency for self-help at the micro-level has been a focus on the weaker sections particularly women for their social defence. SHGs have got great potential in creating awareness on day-do-day affairs, promoting in savings habit, developing self and community assets, increasing the income level, increasing the social power etc. The concept of SHGs generates confidence, self-scrutiny and self-reliance.
SHGS IN INDIA There is a very strong role for civil society organizations in the process of empowerment. The state cannot, and should not, empower women. What the state can do is to create enabling conditions which legitimize a change in women‟s position (Srilatha, 1997). In promoting SHG movement in India, however both Government and non-governmental agencies are involved. SHG movement has been designed to benefit women, especially, in rural belt, towards providing them social status and identify. Hence, Central Government had invited the state Governments to involve in the SHG movement.
A two-day conference of Rural Development Ministers of
different states was held at Hyderabad on 23-24 June, 2001 to launch at least one SHG or self-employment activity in each of the 14 lakh habitations in the country by 2004. In India, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have been successful in SHG movement. Therefore, the Central Governmet has asked the State Governments of Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya .Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh to provide the same momentum for women development.
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SELF HELP GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH The state of Andhra Pradesh has been focus of attention on the world map primarily due to its pro-active government and significant strides made by its programmes and strategies. SHGs are playing an important role in optimization of natural and human resources through people‟s participation and achieving the goals of Vision 2020. The government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up Women‟s Empowerment as SHG movement by women, a path chosen by them to shape their destiny for the better. Development agenda of the state in the last few years was of placing the people especially women in self help groups (SHGs) throughout the state where women are saving an amount agreeable by the group as aprt of their group norms. The state government is making efforts to assist SHGs by providing revolving fund under various programmes and then link them to the formal credit through the banks. There are about 4,36,579 women Self Help Groups in Andhra Pradesh, covering nearly 65,48,685 of rural poor women. The recently released „Status of Microfinance in India‟ report by NABARD examines the reach of the bank-self-helpgroup (SHG) linkage model across the country. The initiative is the largest microcredit and micro savings programme of its kind in the world, and uniquely Indian. As on March 31, 2010, the total number of SHGs directly linked to banks (public and private sector commercial banks, regional rural banks, and cooperative banks) stood at 69.53 lakh, with a savings amount of Rs 6,199 crore and loan outstanding of Rs 28,038 crore. Recent years have, however, seen a fall in numbers. The report states that while the number of SHGs grew by 22.2% in 2008-09 over 2007-08, it fell by 13.6% in 2009-10 over 2008-09. The savings amount with SHGs grew at 46.5% in 2008-09 over 2007-08, but it came down to 11.8% in 2009-10 over 2008-09 (Status of Microfinance in India 2008-09, NABARD)
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While a number of credit linked programmes are being supported by the Central Government, the Government of Andhra Pradesh has also taken up some credit linked schemes, on its own. One such scheme pioneered by the State is the „Pavala Vaddi‟ (Interest @3% pa) facility being provided to crop loan borrowers, since 2008-09. During the current year, 98 lakh farmers in Andhra Pradesh are being provided crop loans aggregating Rs.31,000 crore. Farmers who promptly repay their loans are eligible for this scheme which reduces their interest liability to 3%. From Rabi 2011-12, this scheme has been further liberalized to „interest free‟ loans which will be extended for crop loan borrowers up to Rs 1.00 lakh. The Pavala Vaddi benefit will continue for loans in excess of Rs 1.00 lakh and upto Rs 3.00 lakhs. Andhra Pradesh has 12.7 lakh rural and urban SHG groups covering 1.38 crore members. Outstanding credit to these groups amounts to about Rs 15,000 crores. This year, the lending target is Rs 10,000 crores. Considering that these groups comprise the poorest of the poor, the Pavala Vaddi Scheme has been extended to these Self Help Groups financing also. It is proposed to provide the benefit of zero percent interest to prompt repayers amongst these groups also from 01-01-2012. Both these schemes, targeted at farmers and SHGs, promote prompt repayment and improve the recovery position of Banks (The bank-SHG model of microfinance in India 2011). Andhra Pradesh alone has about half of the Self Help Groups existing in the country. Up to 1994, only 10,000 groups were functioning and in the last six years there is a massive scaling up in Self Help Group activities. An amount of Rs. 1043.78 crores is mobilized as corpus found with these groups so far and it is estimated that it would increase to Rs. 1,500.00 crores in the coming one year. Socio-economic survey of Self Help Groups conducted by District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) in different districts has indicated that the scheme has helped women earn additional monthly income ranging from Rs. 1500/- to Rs. 1800/depending on the economic activities taken up. In addition, women have taken up initiatives in improving their socio-economic status by participating in governmental
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programmes such as family planning, pulse polio, AIDS awareness, small family norm, promoting their nutritional and educations status, awareness on environment, public health through sanitation and clean drinking water etc. A large number of women from Self Help Groups participate in the community development Programmes of the government regularly as active partners, for the development of their villages. It has been planned by the Government to cover all the rural poor women under Self Help Groups in the next 4 to 5 years. It is programmed to cover at least one woman from a BPL (Below Poverty Line) family as a member of Self Help Group in the next two years. So far, all the habitations in the state have at least one Self Help Group. The Government released Rs. 44 crores during 2000-01 to assist 44,000 groups covering 6.6 lakhs women at Rs. 10,000 as revolving fund to each group. This is in addition to Government of India grant of Rs: 4.5 crores. NABARD, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks are providing direct assistance to the Self Help Groups under the “Self Help Linking Scheme” of NABARD. Owing to massive self help movement, there is a perceptible improvement in the socio-economic status of the rural women. Owing to constant efforts of the government, women have become very active, assertive and are concerned with the issues relating to them and their surroundings. Right from the beginning, NGO‟s in Andhra Pradesh are working for the cause of women and more than 200 committed NGO‟s have been involved in facilitating the formation of self-help groups and efforts for their sustenance. NGOS are working in close coordination with DRDAs in training and capacity-building, skill development training programmes building self help group centered organizations, etc.
24
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up the theme of women‟s empowerment as one of the main agenda items to tackle rural poverty and socioeconomic issues. Self-help movement through thrift and savings has been taken up as a mass movement by women a path chosen by the women to shape their destiny. Development agenda of the state in the last few years has been to place the poor, especially the women (below poverty line) in the forefront. This has facilitated formation of a large number of Self Help Groups throughout the length and breadth of the state. There are more than 30 lakh women members of these groups and 22 lakh women are saving and rotate the money through a group interaction which starts as a process of empowerment. The State government is consciously making efforts to assist these self-help groups by providing them revolving fund under DWCRA. The women of Andhra Pradesh have saved more than Rs. 105 crore and the Government has given Rs. 115 crore as working capital grant. All over the world there is a realization that the best way to tackle poverty and enable the community to improve its quality of life is through social mobilization of poor, especially women into self help groups. The macro policy of the state has attempted to address, through these Self-Help Groups, the issues which plague the poor like accessing social services, safe drinking water, shelter, right to information and livelihood. The improvement in the socio-economic status of these women is expected to become the largest organized anti-poverty initiative anywhere in the world. The following table 1.2 shows District-wise cumulative progress of SHGs in Andhra Pradesh.
25
Table-1.2: District-wise Cumulative Progress of SHGs in Andhra Pradesh upto 31 March 2005-06 Sl. No.
Name of the District
Cumulative upto 31 March No. of SHGs provided with bank loan 2005
Cumulative bank loan disbursed upto to 31 March 2005
Cumulative No. of SHGs provided with bank loan upto 31 March 2006
Cumulative bank loan disbursed upto to 31 March 2006
1.
Adilabad
16,999
322.5
19001
1112.39
2.
Anantapur
18,925
579.57
23349
1528.18
3.
Chittoor
26,188
1181.99
30814
3117.76
4.
Cuddapah
58,874
1645.37
67037
5291.14
5.
East Godawari
21,435
790.82
26311
2286.39
6.
Guntur
10,221
696.65
16239
1476.97
7.
Karimnagar
20,933
300.78
24894
1269.39
8.
Khammam
30,984
618.00
33625
1683.65
9.
Krishna
21,961
630.47
27033
2007.31
10.
Kurnool
21,352
687.32
24266
1733.93
11.
Mahaboobnagar
23,492
448.98
27083
1850.95
12.
Medak
22,164
728.04
27008
1775.46
13.
Nalgonda
16,505
622.34
25334
1682.46
14.
Nellore
11,325
575.41
14613
1273.08
15.
Nizamabad
16,372
449.65
26244
1236.00
16.
Prakasam
17,532
696.33
20888
1910.61
17.
Rangareddy
12,632
597.13
14149
1325.54
18.
Srikakulam
27,832
1050.01
29362
2965.40
19.
Visakhapat-nam
22,906
1048.20
29319
2252.71
20.
Vizianagaram
17,541
356.93
19056
1064.86
21.
Warangal
27,731
525.97
31455
1770.53
22.
West Godawari
29,009
1241.71
35158
2840.42
22.
Total
4,92,927
15994.25
587238
43,455.18
Source: MCID, NABARD (2002: “NABARAD and Micro Finance”, 2005-2006.
26
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The present study is designed with a view to examine the impact of Self-Help Groups on empowerment of women. A comprehensive review of literature is collected from a number of research studies as it provides background information and sets the context for the present research. Since the early 1980s, a large number of studies have examined the various dimensions of micro finance programmes and women empowerment. The researcher gathered information from a number of sources including published and unpublished materials. An attempt is made in this chapter to give a brief account of literature related to empowerment of women and Self Help Groups. In doing so, the various studies reviewed have been presented in different sections, the division of which has been made based on the focus of the research and its contribution to the area of women‟s empowerment, Self Help Groups and Micro Finance.
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT Robert Hunter (2012) International Review of Applied Economics, evaluate the impact of economic and non-economic factors on empowerment of women SelfHelp Group (SHG) members. They estimate a structural equation model (SEM) and correct for ordinality in the data to account for the impact of the latent factors on women‟s empowerment. Their SEM results reveal that for the SHG members, the economic factor is the most effective in empowering women. Greater autonomy and social attitudes also have a significant women empowerment impact. Imran Sharif Chaudhry (2009) refers to women empowerment as one of the momentous issues of contemporary development policies in developing countries. Since empowerment is considered a multidimensional concept, it is determined by many socio-economic factors and cultural norms. In this paper, the author had made
27
an attempt to explore the possible determinants of women empowerment using regression analysis based on primary data from a district of Southern Punjab. Considering its multidimensional nature and aspects, a cumulative index for women empowerment is constructed using four indices i.e. personal autonomy, family decision making, domestic economic decisions and political autonomy. An empirical analysis shows some new and diverse results for three different areas namely urban, rural and tribal areas. The results show that women empowerment is considerably influenced by education, access to media and socio-cultural norms of the community. Using rural household survey data collected from 1000 female household heads selected from all the ten administrative regions in Ghana, Tojet (2008) explored the policy implications of using ICTs (Information and Communication Technology) for empowerment of rural women. A contingent valuation (CV) method was used to quantitatively estimate the influence of selected socio-economic factors on rural women‟s willingness to pay for alternative information delivery technologies. Even though the government sets the overall national ICT policy, the results from this study suggest some merit in allocating considerable authority to regional and local authorities in setting priorities and approaches to empowering rural women through the use of ICT. The study results too point to a need to cast rural empowerment policies and programs within the broader poverty reduction policies of the government and also within the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The results again indicate the need to formulate policies and programs to prevent duplication of efforts and critical “Political Will”. Increasing women‟s empowerment, particularly economic security through work outside the home, may protect women from violent behavior in this context.
Nayak‟s (2009) paper is an attempt to analyze the status of women and their empowerment in terms of various indicators such as access to education, employment,
28
household decision making power, financial autonomy, freedom of movement, exposure to media political participation, experience of domestic violence etc. in the state of Assam using secondary data obtained from various sources.
The study
reveals that development process in the state is not gender neutral, women enjoy quite inferior status as compared to the average women in India. Percentage of women in the governmental services and their political participation is quite low and does not show any sign of significant improvement. Sex ratio though not in favour of women is improving overtime. Women enjoy better status in the state as compared to women in India in terms of decision making power at the household level while the situation is reverse in case of their financial autonomy and sexual violence. Lalima (2009) defined empowerment as the ability of women in particular the least privileged to have an access to productive resources that enable them to increase their earning and obtain the goods and services they need and participate in the development process and the decisions that affect them. These two aspects are related and one without the other is not empowerment. The most important factor for any escape from poverty and hunger is access to productive resources for the rural poor. Land and financial resources, technology, seeds and fertilizers, livestock and fisheries, irrigation, marketing opportunities and off-farm employment are also essential to empower the women. Haimanti Mukhopadhyay (2008) probes the role of education in the empowerment of women. In an exhaustive survey comprising forty two villages in the district of Malda, West Bengal, India, the article tries to unearth the status of women, attitude towards girls education in society, problems hindering the education of women, the importance of marriage in women‟s life affecting education as well as the empowerment of women. The article highlights that educated and economically empowered women have said a firm “no” to the prevalent malice of the dowry, thus directly bearing the
fruit
of
economic
empowerment
in
society.
Some
recommendations have been made to eradicate the practice of intra-household and
29
social discrimination of girl child and women. Empowerment through education has emerged as the only way to put an end to the horrors of dowry, as established by the survey. Kamla-Raj (2008) looks at yet another dimension of empowerment, the decision-making process which is generally influenced by the level of knowledge. Kamla Raj argues that women are an integral part of family and a vital force in socioeconomic progress. The present study was undertaken to analyze the DecisionMaking Power among married and unmarried women. The empowering scale was used on 100 women, selected through multi-stage sampling method. The paper reveals that there are no significant differences between married and unmarried women regarding their decision making power. However, highly significant differences are observed, between married and unmarried women, related to their empowerment. Women generally possess low decision making power and are mainly dependent on masculine and/or familial decision making. UNICEF (2007) in its report mentioned that second potential transmission mechanism relates to women‟s economic empowerment. The study reports that when women have access to greater financial resources not only it can improve women‟s standing within the household but they are also more likely to invest in their children than are in men. The research has collected case studies which show that the Indira Kranthi Patham (a poverty alleviation project of the AP government which adopts the strategy of women empowerment through self help groups) project has been successful in promoting such economic empowerment in women. Murty et. al (2005) prioritize two elements in an empowerment strategy: access to information and organization of collectives, both of which enable those with less power to access resources for enabling a more equitable position in societal structures. Women‟s involvement in self-help group it was reported is intended to improve the socio economic status of rural women by encouraging them to undertake
30
income generating activities. Most of the beneficiaries in the study had undertaken agriculture related income generating activities, besides other activities. The SHG members received the benefits from their income generating activities only when they had adequate marketing facilities. Large number of beneficiaries sold their products either in the village or nearby open market. Malhotra (2002) in a review of 45 studies using quantitative and/or qualitative data concluded that empowerment can occur in one or more areas of life at various levels, and be individual and collective. He reported that most studies focused on the house hold level and are usually weak with respect to intervening processes. Only two studies measured data overtime. He suggested that women‟s empowerment needs to occur along the following dimensions: economic, socio-cultural, familial/interpersonal, legal, political, and psychological. However, these dimensions are very broad in scope, and within each dimension, there is a range of sub-domains within which women may be empowered.
Kalpana Sinha (2001) brought forward the experiences from Bangladesh, Srilanka, India, Canada, and Australia together on women empowerment, women in leadership, and women entrepreneurship. The contributors underlined the need for women empowerment through self employment, improving the role of women in the socio –economic development, reduction in gender bias in organization leadership, gender- approach to harness the women reserve and empowering of rural women. All studies stressed the need for empowerment of women through economic development and equally upon the social development aspect too for the sustainability of the programmes. Suguna B. (2001) suggests that the process of empowerment has provided a broad based activity scheduled to the regional, national and global agencies in which participation has been highlighted. By this method, participation of women in the decision making process could be enhanced many fold and progress attained in a
31
much short time. The process of empowerment helps in identifying areas to be targeted, planning strategies for action and outcomes. Empowerment is not a process which is horizontal or vertical but a process which goes round in a circle. Longwe (2001) describes “Empowerment as a process and a self - reinforcing cycle which is the essence of empowerment”, more important than the material gains which result from the process. It is a comparative study, sample was 300 from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Measuring empowerment is seen here as being essentially concerned with assessing the quality of this process, rather than measurement of the outcomes which result from the process. It was also emphasized that women‟s empowerment is the means by which women can collectively recognize and address issues of gender inequality. Data results show that women literacy in Madhya Pradesh is lower than Maharashtra as Madhya Pradesh has 37.82% engaged in decision making in financial matters, 44% are awarded gender inequality and only 25% fight against gender inequality.
Madhya Pradesh, the urban population is
23.21% where as in Maharashtra 38.73%. Efforts are being made in both the states for improving girl child literacy through self-help groups. Kishor (2000) takes the position that women‟s empowerment can be measured by factors contributing to each of the following factors like personal, economical, familial and political empowerment. The authors make a point to include house hold and interfamilial relations as they believe this is a central locus of women‟s empowerment in India and by including the political, they posit that women‟s empowerment measure should include women‟s participation which is systemic transformation by engaging in political action.
32
STUDIES ON SELF HELP GROUPS D.Srinivas Reddy (2011) in the study on “Women‟s Empowerment through SHGs” reveals that 94 percent of the SHGs conduct meetings monthly once. The regularity of attending meetings by the members is 94.67 percent. Large numbers of members of SHGs conduct meetings to share the views of each member, to overcome their problems. Other purposes for conducting the meetings are to calculate their saving amount, to know the loan details and to discuss economic problems in that order. The study reveals that 98.33 percent beneficiaries undergone training given either at Mandal Parishad level or village level or district level or State level. The remaining 1.77 percent beneficiaries are not attended the trainings due to their personal causes. Most of these members have undergone training given by the DRDA . In the large number of cases the training period is 1 to 3 days. The expenses were borne by training agency. More than seven tenth (70%) felt that training is useful for them in maintaining SHG accounts and solidarity. Most of them acquired group management, financial management skills by the training. Vinayak Murthy (2009) undertook the research to study the extent of women empowerment through SHGs in the north Tamil Nadu. It was found that the income of the women has been increased after joining the SHGs. As a result the monthly household expenditure also has been raised by a considerable level. However, the savings increased at a slow rate, because the incremental expenditure is higher. Mostly they are spending for present consumption. The good practice of the women SHGs in the study area is repayment of the loan in time. Nearly 64% of the debtor paid their monthly due with in the time, even some members 19% paid their due in advance. A few members do not pay in time but this is not affecting the further credit of SHGs. Since the repayment of loan is regular and within the time, the study concludes that the economic activities of SHGs are quite success. In this way SHGs in north Tamil Nadu are very successful to promote women empowerment in rural areas.
33
It could be noticed from the studies referred to that an ideal SHG should frame and abide by certain rules to be strictly followed for the success of it. By being a member of SHG, there is possibility for better participation, empower, decision making in their families, control over their earnings and savings etc. Shri Vijay Mahajan (2008) talks of the sustainability of micro finance institutions, costs of different stakeholders in operationalising the micro-finance institutions. His paper examines the relative strength of the micro finance players cost of entry, cost of exit and cost of staying in the business. As the SHG movement has got fairly well-established in a few parts in southern states and is now gaining momentum considerably in the rest of the country, the expectations on SHG‟s potential in livelihood promotions are growing. B.V.Dinakar (2007) attempted to document beneficiaries‟ perceptions on the contributions of Women NGOs (WNGOs) to the socio-economic empowerment of rural women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study included an assessment of WNGOs contributions to improvements‟ in beneficiaries through
socio-economic
activities
and
constraints
affecting
beneficiaries‟
participation in WNGOs activities. An attempt was also made to determine the existence of a significant relationship between the pre and post-participation income of WNGOs beneficiaries. Sample sizes of 240 respondents from 48 Local Women Groups (LWGs), which are affiliated to three active WNGOs in four states of the Niger Delta were utilized for the study. Findings revealed that WNGOs cater for a broad spectrum of rural women. WNGOs were revealed to affect beneficiaries‟ socioeconomic statuses through increased income generation, health awareness and acquisition of food processing skills. Constraints affecting beneficiaries‟ participation in WNGOs activities include inadequate credit facilities, and poor utilization of credit advances, resulting in poor loan repayment levels. Direct relationship was also revealed to exist between increased beneficiary exposure to WNGOs credit facilities and increased beneficiary income. It is believed that WNGOs are capable of more
34
effective
inputs
into
human
and
community
development
activities.
Recommendations are offered in this respect. Prabhu Ghate (2007) reports that Indian micro finance faces the challenges of rapid growth. Self execution as well as exclusion by existing group members and self help promotion agencies is practiced for much the same set of reasons anticipated difficulty in meetings, saving obligation and in keeping with loan repayment and lack of understanding and confidence in group process. The members of SHGs need to go outside the village for daily work which make it difficult to attend weekly meetings. Issues of concern on the financial side include the state of group records and over dues within groups. The quality of group records would appear to be crucial to accountability and transparency within group therefore, to their longevity thereby facilitating transitions from an informal structure to illegal structure.
Self-help
Groups working through savings and credit as an entry point to women‟s empowerment. Groups facilitated by it, do not have legal status. The associations of SHGs which evolved informally in 1991 got formally registered in 1993 thus have a legal status. The additional structure increases the role of the groups in electing representatives, decision making, communications, participation in events, sharing information, mobility and linkages with the outside world, visibility, collective action, and sustainability of the additional structure. Kanango et al (2006) undertook a study on SHGs and tribal development in Mizoram and reported that SHGs are emerging as major agents of development and empowerment of weaker sections in India. Since the beginning of the ninth plan, most of the development programmes are channeled through SHGs in all the parts of the country. SHGs are organized by governmental and non governmental organizations. The government banks and non government organization (NGO‟s) facilitate them by providing revolving fund, organizational base and training credit etc. It is worth while to call SHGs among movement on a national scale for development and empowerment of the poor and the down trodden in the country, 40% are benefited
35
through bank loans. 40% repaid the loan in time. 34% attended the training, women SHG members improved their social and economic status after joining SHGs. Sanjeev Kumar Sharma (2005) conducted a. study on watershed management and grass root institutions. The author reports that SHG is considered a viable organization of the rural poor particularly women for delivery of micro-credit in order to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Some of the studies on SHGs of the rural poor particularly those who manage thrift activities appraise credit need, enforce financial discipline, maintain credit linkages with banks and effectively undertake income generation activities, etc., women playing a central part in the pivotal role as providers and users of water and guardians of environment has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangement for the development and management of water resources. Acceptance and implementation of this principle requires positive policies to address women‟s specific needs and to equip and empower to participate at all levels in water resources programmes including decision making and implementation in ways defined by them. In nutshell, the women are the agents of natural resource management as they are in regular interaction with land, water, fuel, fodder, food, livestock, medicinal plants etc. Rao (2005) in his study found that the forces of community awareness and social mobilization for development unleashed by the UNDP sponsored project motivated the rural community of Garhwal. All women of self help groups (SHGs) took up on them- selves the task of giving fresh range of services from professionals and international organizations. This result is discussed in terms of how social workers can assist self help groups in the current managed health care system. He also found that vast majority of women in the state are interested in organizing groups. Women have opted for schemes like vegetable cultivation, garment shops, pickle making and selling leaf making and selling and petty trades to be taken up through self-help groups. Financial assistance from the government is required to
36
implement these schemes on an experimental basis as this would go a long way in improving the socio-economic status of women. Narayana Swamy S (2005) reports that the SHGs have emerged as a vibrant micro-finance movement with active facilitation, support and guidance of voluntary agencies, government, banks and educational institutions. They have become part and parcel of the rural community. The rural India at present is interlaced with the thinking used of such grassroots organizations. Ritu Jain (2005) in her study titled “Women empowerment challenges and strategies” has stated that the basic principles of SHGs are group approach, mutual trust, organization at small manageable groups, group- cohesiveness, spirit of thrift, demand based lending, collateral free women friendly loan, peer group pressure in repayment, skill training, capacity building and empowerment. Behuria (2004) in his study tried to assess the contribution of the SHGs in empowering women. Two districts of the state of Uttaranchal i.e., Haridwar and Tehrigarwal were studied for the above purpose. The author noted that the main activities undertaken by SHG groups in Uttaranchal are dairy, leaf making, poultry, and piggery, sericulture, rope making, stationary, toy making, shoe making, pickle and broom making etc. Major findings of the study was 51% were benefited from milk products, 28% got income from toy making 72% were growing financially by pickle making etc. All SHG group members involved in these activities report better life than before joining groups. Tripathy (2004) in his article reports on „Some observations on Self Help Groups formed under Swarna Jayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana‟ (SGSY).
This
programme was based on a group (community) approach to rural development, where the rural poor were organized into Self Help Groups. He opined that to create quality groups, rural participation plays a pivotal role in identifying its members who are brought into Self help fold through the process of social mobilization. The Self Help
37
Groups formed and developed under various programmes provide a great opportunity for convergence of various programmes / activities. He, further, added that the groups also address social issues such as education, health, lack of access to natural resources etc. The author suggests that necessary training could be provided to the Self-Help Group members to create awareness on those issues. To sustain the community economic activities, leadership, and membership and training, backed by participatory management is a must for the Self Help Groups. Dinney Mathew K. (2004) in a study on SHGs for empowerment of rural women, observed that the SHG concept is common in the context of both rural and urban development. In the rural agriculture scenario, it serves as an affective mechanism for mobilizing and organizing farmers and villagers to achieve development. Objectives of self supporting income generation are the key to rural development which will benefit a substantial number of poor women in rural communities. It results to solving common problems through group efforts and thereby becoming self reliant. At the grass root level all the activities such as creating awareness, providing information, training in new methods, group marketing etc., can be effectively implemented through SHGs. Srinivas, Satish, Dasgupta (2004) and others opined that micro-financing through SHG bank linkage programme of NABARD is working very effectively and the credit needs of the rural poor is catered by the rural financial institutions through SHGs, a NABARD‟s initiative for linking formal and informal system. They also tell us about the SHG‟s impact on women, progress of SHG bank linkage programme high lights that most of the governments in developing countries are encouraging micro-financing for alleviation of poverty and empowerment of women in their country. Yeswantha Dongre (2003) in a study on self-help groups and the poor rural women observed that SHGs are voluntary associations of people to attain certain
38
collective goals. The objectives of thrift” and “credit” are mostly found in formal groups whose members pool savings. These groups have common perception of need impulse towards collective action. The result is to promote emergent needs of the members including the consumption needs to enable SHGs to mature as institutions where women may discuss and find solutions to their common problems and gain confidence by developing managerial skills for managing the group fund. Dogra (2002) in his study, noted that self help groups in villages of Saraswa Sadhauli I Kadim blocks (Saharanapur district of Uttar Pradesh) were successful in breaking the strangle hold of money leaders. These villages are known for the domination of exploitative nature of money lenders. Villagers in need of money had to borrow at the interest of 5% per month. He reports that a NGO named DISHA organized about 225 Self Help Groups in the areas of its work. Most of Disha‟s Self Help Groups consisted of women members. Groups of 15-20 women formed with monthly installment of Rs20 each. Later on when these savings grew, women were able to take loan to meet several other pressing needs. He cited the example of Phoolkali, a dalit women, who heads a Self Help Group called „NAI UMONG‟(new awakening) which is based in Chalakpur village. Nirmala, a co-ordinator of her group says “although Phoolkali is complete illiterate, yet her ability to do all the arithmetic work relating to groups‟ accounts is astounding. Even the bank officials are amazed at the ability of women who still uses thumb impression to sign her name. She first took a Rs 5,000 loan to take land on contract for farming. She grew wheat and rice on this land. She was able to promptly clear this loan. This success prompted her to take a bigger loan of Rs 10,000 for an income generation activity”. Devasia, Leelamma (2001) is of the opinion that women‟s empowerment is not only in financial form but also of attitudinal and motivational socialization. There is no need for much invention and innovation to empower rural women. What is needed is reorientation, mobilization and realization of women friendly environment in the rural areas. Further, she adds the collective domination of men over women
39
called “patriarchy” had been eased out by the collective action of women by building up, nurturing and bringing in the mahila mandals. The mandals were transformed into entrepreneurial of self help group which would sustain their empowerment. Agarwal Deept (2001) suggests that women need to be viewed not as beneficiaries but as active participants in the process of development and change. Empowerment of women can be effectively achieved if poor women could be organized into groups for community participation as well as for assertion of their rights in various services related to their economic and social well being simultaneously. Micro credit and SHGs are also key elements for the empowerment of the rural women and help them to improve their living conditions and acquire small capital assets. Women are critical actors in the process of moving their families out of poverty. A systematic strategy seeking to change societal attitudes for women, improve women self-perception, create an enabling policy, institutional and legal environment and faster economic empowerment through mobilization, thrift, easy credit, up gradation of services and improved income generation opportunities are essential for emancipation of women.
IMPACT OF SHGs Dr. K. H. Shinde (2011) reports that the SHG bank linkage project is expected to be advantageous to the banking sector from both the angles of fulfillment of social goals (like reaching out the poor) and achieving operational efficiency (by externalizing part of their transaction cost). The improvement of the SHG bank Linkage programme in the initial period i.e. in 1992-93 had just 255 SHGs linked to banks with Rs.2.89 million as refinance from NABARD. In a span of one and half decade it expanded rapidly. In 2006-07, 20,24,973 SHGs have been linked with the banks with refinancing of Rs.1,80,407 million. So far as spatial outreach of the SHG bank Linkage is concerned the programme covered 583 districts in 31 states/UTs. The
40
state wise SHG bank linkage data shows that the programme is skewed in favour of the southern states, particularly Andhra Pradesh. This state alone accounts for 26.2 percent of total SHGs formed and 38.1 percent of the Northen region together constitutes 8.7 percent of the total programme. This imbalance is an issue that requires serious attention. It needs sustained efforts in other regions where there is a latent demand for microfinance Chandran and Seilan (2005) state that the empowerment of women through Self Help Groups would lead to benefits not only to the individual women but also the family and community. By empowerment women would be able to develop self confidence, realize their potential and enhance their collective bargaining power. Empowering women is not just for meeting their economic needs but also for more holistic social development. The Self-Help Groups provide credit and empower women socially and economically. The author conducted a study in Kanyakumari Drstrict. In this area majority of Self Help Groups have weekly meetings along with savings. Gradually their premium accumulated to a large group fund. Based on certain indicators such as conducting meetings, savings and membership, the banks give loan to the groups. Most of the SHG women members got excellent experience in money matters and time management. “Empowerment of women through SHGs, a study by Perumal (2005) states that many women members were independently involved in the economic activities individually and with other group members. After joining SHGs the family expenditure too increased due to positive change in the SHGs members‟ income. The incremental income has not only enhanced the expenditure of the family but also promoted the savings. In this context the objectives of the SHGs are fulfilled. Usually, in the society working women are respected by house hold members because they are independent in their income and contributory to house hold expenditure and savings.
Therefore, empowerment to rural women has a much greater positive
influence on factors governing sustainable development as women play a direct and in
41
many cases exclusive role in the increased involvement for solving basic problems of poverty and illiteracy.
Sinha (2004) opines that self-help groups are powerful tool for socio economic empowerment of the rural poor. The positive aspects are women‟s ability to influence or make decisions including decisions about business investments. At times, the step forward implied joint decision making with their husband instead of previous lack of women to participate in discussion on social and legal issues. Overall evidence is of improved family relationship. Women status in the community too improved with higher mobility and visibility. The author too observed that women tend to spend the benefits on family welfare, food, health, school fess and less on their own business. Seshadri & Agarwal (2004) found in their study that the dependency on money lenders had decreased since the participation in SHG programmes. Further it has enhanced women‟s physical spaces and increased participation in decision making and women‟s income has increased, enabling them to have assets in their own names. Thangamani and Sudha (2003) conducted a study on “Capacity Building and credit support for Self Help Group women in Periyaickenpalayam Block”, Coimbatore. Fifty SHGs functioning in Periyaickenpalayam Block (initiated by Sri Avinashilingam Education Trust Institutions) and fifty animators of the SHG‟s were selected for the study. Majority of the members expressed that they had joined SHG to attain economic independence and enhanced social status. The involvement of the SHG members in local body elections is a welcome augury. And also they are motivate the people to right voting and also create awareness in the community level. Nirmala Banerice and Joyantisen (2003) in their study conducted on the working of the SHGs in West Bengal found that the funding pattern under the programme is not only, not transparent but simultaneously involves several agencies
42
without any change of authority between them. The banks were seen to be wary of the programme. They concluded that the guidelines should be made more transparent and that banks should not only focus on avoiding risks but should be generous in supporting the SHGs with credit. The study further indicates that although the SHGs permits per cent of the funds to be given to NGOs for the formation of groups, the transfer of these grants can become a constant and continuous process only if the NGOs have the competence and clarity to carry out the programme and the government functionaries have faith in them. It has also been observed that although SHGs have a positive impact on their members, the process of formation of groups is time consuming and needs dedicated voluntary organizations with skilled manpower for the ventures. Jothy (2002) in a study of SHGs attempted to examine the performance of these groups. According to her, though started some three years ago, SHGs have recorded tremendous achievement in all aspects of their operations including their sustainability. Empowerment through SHGs has enabled a good number of rural women to perform various self sustaining activities such as, monitoring whether the local ration shops are functioning properly, keeping vigil to prevent brewing of illicit liquor, helping the aged, deserted and widows to obtain loans to enable them to lead a decent life, growing vegetables in their back yards and maintaining group unity that transcends the barriers of caste and religion. Lalitha and Nagarjuna (2002) reported that earnings generated from dairy farming etc financed through the SHGs had been instrumental in increasing the physical well being of the house hold, often through better nutrition and sanitation. Mathewaran V.P. (2001) reports that women belonging to the economically weaker sections of society were more repressed. Women‟s participation in the decision making process was either nil or negligible. The development of Indian women will be the biggest source of enrichment for our country‟s development.
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Empowering of women pre-supposes a dynamic and democratic change in the perception and expectation from women in our society. To help women, to attain economic independence is the first priority for such a change. In this regard, the emergence of self - help to seek economic independence for every woman is a welcome change and given the assistance and guidance the self-help group is bound to make not only sea-change in empowering women but also to tap the hither to unutilized powers of women for the development of society as a whole. The SHG realized that a job centered socio economic development, which had faith in social justice and equality, would provide self-respect to women, initiate and strengthen the empowering of women and the resultant sustainable development. Today, women are in the process of enriching themselves through Self-Help Group. The Self Help Group has concentrated on social mobilization of women giving them awareness of their legal and political rights. Education for women is necessary for an understanding and control over social, economic and political force and to improve their quality of life. Education helps women to know of themselves and their children and understand the society as a whole. This paper concluded that education particularly, distance education is an enabling factor for women‟s empowerment and sustainable development. Lakshmi Kantham (2000) stated that Self-Help Group (SHGs) movement is being increasingly accepted as an innovation in the field of rural credit in many developing countries including India, to help the rural poor meet their credit needs by promoting micro level savings. SHGs also provide credit at affordable rates of interest against the exploitative rates charged by moneylenders. As most SHGs are for women members, they can help ensure gender equality and women empowerment. The author reports that out of the 74 women groups included in the study, the member strength varied from 10 – 20.
SHGs have been very effective in meeting the credit
requirement of the members for consumption needs. There are many skills available within the member community, which can be honed for marketable production. Some
44
of such trades are mat weaving, razoi (quilt) stitching and embroidery, carpentry, rope making, clay modeling etc., SHGs with the help of supportive agencies could think of plans for using the participatory approach with collective bargaining strengths to ensure to the members. In addition to credit facilities the SHGs with their participative and community based strategies have sparked off many other socio economic activities. The group in the initial stages largely rotates savings among themselves mostly for consumption purpose. Slowly they get linked with banks which provide leverage for raising small bank loans. With the launching of SGSY scheme in the year 1999, the flow of credit to the SHG has significantly increased. Vasu Deva Rao (2000) in his study on “Swasakti Banks,” established, organized and run by Scheduled Caste women through self-management, has observed many changes in the thinking process of women. Those Scheduled Caste women who were once passive recipients have now become vocal, articulate and active stake holders. They are able to ask for equal wage, self-esteem, and are able to provide better education, nutrition, and health facilities for their girl children. On the community front they could stop the social evil of dowry, child marriages, alcoholism found and prevented men from taking alcohol. Thus the illiterate SC women could gradually change the social scenario, though silently and steadily, to wards better tomorrow. Studies quoted above emphasize that if women are encouraged to actively involve in SHGs, they would exhibit better role, responsibilities as an entrepreneur, wife, mother etc. Women groups have proved that they would indeed bring about a sea-change in the mindset of the very conservative and traditional bound illiterate women in rural areas. The women SHG Group members proved with help of district administration and local officials they could indeed bring in socio-economic development to enhance their potential.
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METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the description of various methods used at different stages of the investigations viz., measurement of variables, selection of the sample, collection of the data, scoring the responses and statistical techniques employed in analysis of data. Women - who constitute clearly 50 percent of the population of our country have not been included in decision making process or given freedom to spend their earnings for themselves. It is still worse in some other places where they do not even have access to education, and social participation. The reasons may be many, but there is need for awareness, motivation and involvement of women at every stage of life. So government of India has started an innovative approach for empowerment of women through one of the income generating schemes, i.e; self help group. Another important section/segment is micro finance, which is emerging as a significant instrument to address the problems faced by the poor, in accessing credit or loans by the poor and also indirectly attacking poverty and unemployment. Self Help Groups have proved to be an effective tool or instrument in India to address the problem of poverty on the one hand and also to empower women on the other. Hence the researcher is interested to conduct research to study the “Empowerment of Women through the Self Help Group approach in Andhra Pradesh. Researches conducted by various agencies so far indicate that this approach has been successful in achieving its goal to a very large extent. However the impact has not been the same as regional and social group variations have been recorded. It is in these contexts that in the present research a comparative study of Tribal and rural self – help group has been taken up.
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NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The present study is comparative in nature as the data was collected from Self Help Groups of Tirupati, a Rural Mandal in Chittoor district and of Meliaputti Mandal of Srikakulam District covering the tribal population. The self-help groups has been reported in a number studies and evaluation reports as being a successful strategy in promoting women‟s empowerment and there by alleviation or reduction of poverty. It is also a fact that the women in these Self Help Groups are empowered in all the areas of life through their co-operative work and would be able to meet their desirable needs. In India about 50% of total population constitutes women, but women workers constitute only 16 percent of total population (World Population Control board, 2006). Out of this 16 percent, 80 percent remains employed in unorganized sectors. A majority of them depend on Agriculture for their livelihood which in turn depends upon the monsoon.
During the off-season and failure of monsoons they need
alternative source of employment or occupation. In the state of Andhra Pradesh with the interest of the development of poor (SC/ST/BC) communities, the state government has been extending full support in implementing several development programmes including the women SHGs for empowerment and poverty alleviation. Empowerment is closely linked to economic independence. Nothing succeeds better than the power of self help. And when efforts are supported by the private and public organizations the results could be extremely gratifying. It is a fact that, today the Self Help Groups in Andhra Pradesh are focused around economic activities like savings, collective marketing, promotion of individual enterprise and in the process moving into the mainstream of economic-society. In the process, leadership qualities blossom, discipline prevails and the true democracy begins to function. This also helps added value to the work they are involved in and thereby give economic support to their families and their communities. It is to be noted that 50 percent of such Self Help Groups in the country have been formed in Andhra Pradesh alone. Andhra Pradesh is the pioneer state to introduce Self Help
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Group concept to achieve self sufficiency and to bring social transformation among the rural women living below the poverty line. It is in this context that the present research was undertaken wherein the researcher made an attempt to look into how these Self Help Groups contribute to the development of rural and tribal women and the linkage of banks, and the benefits and various other aspects and features of these groups. An attempt has been made to look into the level of empowerment among the women with different personal attributes and group characteristics. The aim has been to identify the factors which lead to the empowerment of women, both at the individual level and also the group level. Finally the research also looks at how the women have perceived the impact of the SHG membership on their lives. The present study titled “Empowerment of Women: A Study of SHG Approach in Andhra Pradesh” is an attempt to analyse the Self Help Group approach and how it promoted the women empowerment in Rural and Tribal areas. It also attempts to look at the relationship between the individual and group characteristics and the level of empowerment. The objectives of the present study are given here under.
OBJECTIVES 1.
To study the Scio-economic and demographic status of women involved in Self Help Groups in Andhra Pradesh
2.
To identify the areas of empowerment among the SHG women and the factors contributing to the process of empowerment
3.
To study the influence of personal and group performance factors on the empowerment of women SHG members.
4.
To study the perceptions of the women SHG members about the impact of SHG membership on the quality of life (Q.O.L)
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HYPOTHESES 1.
The age of the women in SHGs has influence on their decision making ability at household level.
2.
There is significant difference between rural and tribal SHG women with respect to their empowerment.
3.
Individual performance in SHG does not influence the empowerment of women.
4.
The extent of women empowerment is strongly associated with the group performance in which they are members.
RESEARCH DESIGN The main objective of this research is to study the nature of participation of women members in self-help groups and the impact of such participation on their lives. It is a comparative study in tribal and rural areas of Srikakulam and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh. As the study aims at studying the impact of SHG membership on empowerment a “Descriptive Research Design” is followed where in variables such as Decision Making Ability, Economic Empowerment, Educational Empowerment, Legal Empowerment, Social Participation, Political Empowerment, Capacity Building, Cosmo-politeness and Access and Control to Assets and Resources were used to measure the empowerment. It gathered information related to the empowerment of women through SHGs by probing in detail about the SHG women members and attempts to understand the achievement of empowerment in two Districts i.e. Chittoor and Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh.
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PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION Before collecting the necessary data from the respondents, the researcher approached the A.P.O. (Assistant Project Officer) in Tirupati rural mandal of Chittoor District and collected necessary information about the self.-help groups in each Panchayat of Tirupati rural mandal. In the same way the researcher approached the Meliaputti Mandal A.P.O. They had provided the researcher with details of the Village Organisations (federations of SHGs at the Gram Panchayat level) for collecting panchayat wise information with the support of Indira Kranthi Patham (IKP) staff. The information thus collected provided details of the number of SHGs in each panchayat and the total number of members in each of these SHGs. This formed the basis for the selection of the sample, the details of which are provided in a later section of this chapter.
AREA OF THE STUDY The sample was selected from Chittoor and Srikakulam districts of Andhra Pradesh which were chosen as the study area. The study is related to the SHGs in Chittoor District, because, the researcher being an employee in Chittoor District, has observed that the percentage of literacy of women is very low when compared with the other districts of Rayalaseema but the women are quite active and report a high level of participation in the SHGs in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The other area selected for the study is her native district. The selection of the districts and the mandals was therefore purposive, the intention also being that it would facilitate action leading from the research and the researcher would be in a position to monitor the process. Further, it would serve the purpose of making a comparison between a tribal and rural population in terms of the level of empowerment and its contribution to the quality of life. Finally, the purpose was also to establish if the location/region actually matters.
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One Mandal from each of these districts of Chittoor and Srikakulam was therefore selected purposively.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE MANDAL A brief description of the sample mandals has been provided below to facilitate understanding of the socio economic and geographical contexts of where the sample population lives as the research makes a comparison between the women in these two locations. Tirupati Rural Mandal: It is located at the foothills of the Eastern Ghats at a distance of 550 kilometres (340 mi) south of Hyderabad, the capital of the state, 250 kilometres (160 mi) east of Bangalore, and 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Chennai. Tirupati local itself has several temples. It has 28 Gram Panchayats. Total Population is 70,953 in 18,592 Households. Male Population is 31,245 and Female Population is 31,543. Children Under 6-years of age is 8,165 (Boys - 4,100 and Girls - 4,065). Total Literates are 43,365 and total self-help groups are 1584 (Annual Mandal report, 2006). Most of the people belong to Reddy Community in Tirupati and almost all families depended up on agriculture and milk products for their livelihoods. Some of the self-help group members follow other livelihoods like, petty business, selling milk and milk products, and pickle making etc. The researcher observed there are little drawbacks like un-hygiene, gender discrimination, child- marriages and alcoholism. Meliaputti or Meliyaputti is a village and a Mandal in Srikakulam district in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. There are 31 panchayats located at the top, in the valley and in the down agency areas. Here almost all people belong to theTribal community and they are speaking Tribal language. Meliaputti Mandal is bordered by Palasa, Nandigam, Tekkali and Pathapatnam mandals of Srikakulam district and Orissa state on the North.
It has an average elevation of 74 meters (246 feet).
Mahendra Tanaya flows besides the village. The demographic details of Meliaputti
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mandal are as follows: Total Population: 57,534 in 11,532 Households Male Population: 24,947 and Female Population: 25,543 Children Under 6-years of age: 7,044 (Boys - 3,560 and Girls - 3,484) Total Literates: 22,669 and total self-help groups are 841 (Annual Mandal Report, 2008). There is an ancient Sri Venugopala Swamy temple, Mandal Parishad High School; S. D. Rajanna Reddy Memorial Government Junior College, Sahiti Sri Degree College etc. There is a post office in Meliaputti. The Orissa border starts from Vasundhara near by meliaputti.
SAMPLING In this study the researcher used multistage random sampling method for collecting the necessary data for the study. At the first and second levels the researcher purposively selected the two districts of Srikakulam and Chittoor districts and Tirupati rural and Melliaputti mandals respectively. The third level of sample selection relates to the selection of gram panchayats. At this level the researcher obtained a list of the 28 Panchayats of Tirupati Rural Mandal in Chittoor and 31 Panchayats of Meliaputti Mandal in Srikakulam District. Then 10% of the gram panchayats were selected at random from the list of each of the districts. This brings the total number of panchayats selected to six covering three panchayats from each of the districts(Table 3.1) The three panchayats selected from the Tirupati rural mandal include Kuntrapakam, C Mallavaram and Brahmanapattu while the panchayats in Meliaputti are Kerasing, Parasurampuram and Bharanikota. This facilitated the inclusion of Mandals with the Tribal and Rural variations.
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BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE GRAM PANCHAYATS SAMPLE GRAM PANCHAYATS IN MELLIAPUTTI MANDAL KERASINGI: It is hill top area and people living in this Grama Panchayat area belong to Savara, Konda Savara tribes and their mother tongue is Savara language. They are continuing their traditional culture till now. They are depending on Podu Cultivation for their livelihood and they are also practicing barter system. There are 21 self-help groups under monitoring of Indira Kranthi Padam. They have forest resources like, Adda leaves, Beedi leaves, Bamboo, teak, turmeric and Honey etc. BHARANIKOTA:
It is fully forest area and there is no proper
transportation. The people belong to Savara, Konda Savara, Kapu Savara. The male and female follow different dressing; male are wear small Dhovathy – Kanduva, female half sari with out blouse. They are very much like dark colours i.e Red Blue Yellow and Green. All these Panchayat people depend up on agriculture for their liveihoods. The women are organized into fourteen self-help groups. PARUSARAMPURAM: It is road point or plain area. Majority of the people here are tribes but all castes are living in this panchayat. Almost all people depend on agriculture for their main occupation. People are quite aware of the governmental programmes, thanks to the Indira Kranthi Patham and they have also benefited from these schemes. People benefited from NREGS programme and it serves as a very important source of livelihood for the people of this panchayat. Self-Help group members have multiple livelihoods like add a leaf making, broom making, and few women were milk producers for their livelihoods. SAMPLE GRAM PANCHAYATS IN TIRUPATI RURAL MANDAL BRAMHANAPATTU: It is located nearly ten kilometers from Tirupati city. Majority people belong to OC community (Bramhana Community) and their
53
occupation is agriculture. The Panchayat consists of four hamlet villages. There are fifteen self-help groups which are actively involved in savings, taking loan and repayment and also participate in other social activities. KUNTRAPAKAM: It is an interior place and it‟s a little difficult to reach that village. All types of households are leading their lives with the large number belonging to the Backward Castes. A number of youth from this community have entered into the services related to the police and military. The level of education among the people here is quite low and the social problems indentified include child marriages, alcoholism and agricultural child labour. The people‟s main occupation is agriculture and agricultural labour. C.MALLAVARAM: This is located near by Chandragiri Mandal. The social groups living in this community include all communities (S.C, S.T, B.C and OC) who live together with little differences and possess a friendly nature. They enjoy a cordial relationship among themselves. The two religions that are followed are Hinduism and Islam. The main occupation is agriculture and they do other construction and labour work. There is a practice of child marriages. Now the selfhelp groups members are trying to stop these type of marriages. There are 18 self-help groups formed and are actively functioning. A feature appearing in this community is the importance given to children‟s education, especially girl child education. The fourth level of sample selection was with regard to the selection of the self help groups from the selected gram panchayats. At this stage it was decided in consultation with the research guide to select 15% of the Self Help Groups from each of the selected gram panchayats. This resulted in the selection of 19 SHGs from Tirupati Rural out of a total of 127 and 18 in Meliaputti out of a total of 117. The SHGs were selected at random using the lottery method.
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The final stage of sample selection included the selection of members from the SHGs. All members from the selected SHGs were included as the final sample and they formed the respondents for the study. The following table gives a clear picture of the sample selection procedure. Table-3.1: Details of the Sample
Tirupati Rural No.GPs =28 (10%)=2.8=3
No.of SHGs 15% Total members
Meliaputti No.GPs=31(10%)=3.1=3
GP1
GP2
GP3
Total
29
48
50
127
No. of SHGs
4
7
8
19
15%
44
93
103
240
Total members
GP1
GP2
GP3
Total
31
51
33
117
5
8
5
18
74
108
78
260
METHOD OF MEASURING EMPOWERMENT The Study envisages measuring the empowerment of women through Self Help Groups. In this study, the information about some intervening variables was collected through a carefully planned personal data sheet developed by the investigator which is incorporated in the beginning of the empowerment scale. The empowerment scale inventory used was the Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) put forward by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 1995) to measure some aspects of women empowerment. Later on, many authors used this method according to the individual needs of the researchers. Initially, a majority of the researchers selected only three variables income, health and education. In the present study the researcher has taken the scale from Anju Malhothra‟s article “Measuring Women‟s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development” which was presented in the World Bank Workshop on “Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives” held on June 28, 2002.
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There are 10 dimensions in the women empowerment scale the details of which are provided in the later section on tools for data collection. Each dimension of the inventory was arranged on a 5 point scoring marks. Table-3.2: Scoring marks of Women Empowerment
Nature of the Statement Positive score
Full ability
Partial ability
Low ability
No ability
Not applicable
3
2
1
0
00
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected through self constructed interview schedule keeping in view the objectives of the study. The areas to be studied were clearly delineated namely personal details, awareness about self-help groups and its functions, participation before and after, changing quality of family and personal life. The second set of queries in the interview schedule relates to the impact of the self help groups on the quality of life as perceived by the respondents. The primary data was collected through personal interview with self help group members in tribal area of Srikakulam District and rural area in Chittoor District where the empowerment tool was also administered individually to all members of the sample SHGs. The second method used and applied was the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) put forward by UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) in 1995 to measure the ten dimensions of women empowerment. It was modified and translated to Telugu language for easy understanding of the respondents. To collect the data from the respondents‟ rapport was developed first followed by the interview method and observation before the GEM was actually administered. The researcher conducted
56
pilot study with 20 women respondents for improvement and strengthening of the tools of data collection. The secondary data was collected from the published books, articles, journals, news papers etc. Further secondary data was also collected from the SHG records of the sample groups and the records of the village organizations to reflect the group functioning.
TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION A comprehensive interview schedule was constructed and areas to be studied were clearly delineated in the interview schedule namely,
identification details,
profile of the respondents, membership with SHGs, information on SHG norms and functioning, regularity of the respondents in savings, loan receiving and repaying the loans during the last one year, benefits received from government programmes during the last one year (benefits from ICDS, benefits from IKP, Health benefits, PDS (public distribution system, NREGS etc.), benefits of various services as a result of the SHG membership (Bank linkage & other financial support, V.O/MS services, promotion of livelihoods, training of SHGs, exposure visits etc.), impact of SHG membership on family and respondent and lastly respondents training during the last one year on leadership, gender related issues, entrepreneurship, legal aspects, SHG concepts etc. The scale adopted to measure the women‟s empowerment included ten major dimensions, i.e; 1. Decision
Making:
Children‟s
Education,
Children‟s
Marriage
and
Purchase/Sale of Assets 2. Economic Empowerment : Earning Ability, Spending Ability, Ability to share personal savings in the family
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3.
Educational Empowerment: Improved self, Improved children, changes in girl childrens‟ education
4. Socio-Cultural Empowerment: Against sex discrimination, against early marriages, fight against child labour 5. Political Empowerment: Participation in voting, own decision in voting, influencing others‟ participation in campaigns, meetings etc., contest in elections 6. Cosmopoliteness: Attitude towards other caste/community, politeness to maintain public relations 7. Social Participation: Collective action towards injustice, social issues( anti liquor, dowry, child marriage etc). and Celebration and participation of local festivals; 8. Access to and control over assets and resources: Government Resources (school, pensions etc), common property resources at village level like community hall, temple, water, waste land, common lands, forests, grazing lands. 9. Capacity building and skill development: Capacity to organize a group, capacity to communicate matters. 10. Legal empowerment: Knowledge on legislations, usage/application of legislations, helping others.
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DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS The researcher in her dada preparation step, prepared a data format, which allows the analyst to use modern analysis software such as SPSS. The major criterion in this is to define the data structure. A data structure is a dynamic collection of related variables and can be conveniently represented. The data structure would help in the further processing of data. The investigator followed the completeness, accuracy and uniformity of the data set created. Step one in the processing of data is editing of the data instruments. The editing is a process of checking to detect and errors and omissions. Second, accuracy is a part for checking for omissions, the accuracy of each recorded answer should be checked. A random check process can be applied to trace the errors and response can also be checked at this step and third, uniformity in editing data sets, another keen look out should be for any lack of uniformity in interpretation of questions. The interview schedule consisted of open ended questions and closed ended questions from self constructed interview schedule. The scale to measure women‟s empowerment tool was used in this study for data collection. After the data collection, all the responses were coded, scored and noted down in the form of frequency distribution. The Empowerment scores of 11 dependent variables viz
Decision
Making ,Economic Empowerment ,Educational Empowerment, Socio-Cultural Empowerment, Political Empowerment, Cosmopoliteness,
Social Participation,
Access to and control over assets and resources- Government Resources , Capacity building and skill development ,Legal empowerment and Overall empowerment were computed . Further, levels of empowerment were also categorized as Low, Moderate and High for each variable based on Quartiles.
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DATA ANALYSIS Data is analysed using appropriate Statistical techniques viz., Frequency tables(One-way tables), Cross tabulations (Two-way tables), Percentages, Chi-square test, Independent sample t-test (Student‟s t-test), One-way ANOVA,
Duncan‟s
Multiple Range Test and Karl Pearson coefficient of correlations using SPSS-20 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) to find out association between the variables. The results are properly interpreted at different significant levels and major findings are represented graphically.
FIELD EXPERIENCE In the process of data collection, the researcher had a number of positive and difficult experiences which she now attempts to explain; she has incorporated all her experiences in the following section hoping that it will be useful to the scholars who do research in future. The Investigator selected two districts namely Chittoor and Srikakulam districts for her study. In Chittoor district Tirupathi rural mandal & in Srikakulam district Meliaputti tribal mandal was selected for the in depth study respectively. Prior to her data collection the investigator visited three panchayats namely Karasingh, Parasarampuram & Bharanikota of Meliaputti mandal of Srikakulam district and Brahmanapattu, C.Mallavaram & Kuntrapakam of Tirupati rural mandal in Chittoor district. To conduct pilot study of the self constructed interview schedule and gain expertise, the Women Empowerment tool (UNDP) were translated into Telugu Language for easy understanding and comfortable answering. Before administration of the tool the researcher visited the respondents‟ households to build rapport.
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It was summer in the month of May when the investigator started data collection from Meliaputti Mandal of Srikakulam District, the three Panchayats – Parusarampuram, Bharanikota and Karasinghi. These are located at three different regions. Parusarampuram Panchayat is situated at a lower level. „Kerasinghi‟ Panchayat is a hill top Panchayat where as Bharanikota is in the forest zone. This Panchayat has no public transport facility. Meeting “self-help group” members was a difficulty yet the researcher followed her own procedure and made the things easy. First the researcher went to Mandal Parishad Offices and met M.D.O., A.P.M. (at IKP Office) and explained them about the study and requested for their support in the smooth conduct of the research. Thhey had advised the researcher to take the help of leaders at village level and also provided some useful suggestions. They had also provided information of the contact persons from the three panchayats which served as an important entry point into a totally strange and new community. An important lesson that the researcher picked up from this very practical experience is how the process of involving the community leaders and key informants is useful to gain entry and acceptance into a community, particularly the hill top tribal communities.
MELIAPUTTI MANDAL The investigator began the data collection from ‘Parusarampuram’ Panchayat, it comprises of 8 villages. Kotturu was the village where she began her data collection first. People were celebrating Mango fruit festival and she had a rich experience of being with them during these celebrations. It not only provided and opportunity for observation of their life style and living conditions but also an entry point into the community and facilitated the data collection process. People were celebrating on the occasion of the newly yielded fruits and having the festival which is an important event in their culture. She never heard about it though her village is not far away from this village, it is celebrated on Tuesdays. The strange thing is that one person from each house will be on fasting on that day. On the same day village
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people prepare porridge under the Neem tree and offer it to the village deity as a breakfast. Later they offer prayers for being provided with substantial harvest and good income up to this point. Investigator found it interesting to know what they do in the name of their tradition. She was horrified to watch the further event, where every one in the village sacrificed hens, sheep, goats and pigs as an offering. The same night they also drew Arts/figures on the walls, it is called Edising. The investigator observed that they still believed in superstitions; their illiteracy seemed to have been the reason. They extract kernel from the fruit, grained it and make porridge to have it. They fix a time to drink the porridge for the first time; this is the tribes‟ life style. Men and women sing songs, dance and play together during the festivals. The researcher also joined with them in their merry making. By making herself a part of celebrations she could build good rapport with them and collected all the data with great ease. The second village is „Kerasinghi’ Panchayat- It is a hill-top Panchayat and comprises of 10 hamlets. Collecting data from the selected 8 groups was indeed a difficult thing. Hence the researcher took the help of IKP‟s village organizers and made the SHG group members to assemble at a convenient place and convened meetings with them. In addition to this she organized cultural programmes with “Maa Badi” school children. As a result of this parents of the children climbed down the hill to attend the cultural programmes. She spoke to them and collected the data. She also spoke to the people whose houses can be reached on foot and collect the data. She hired few village organizers who in turn spoke to the people on the remote areas of hill top and collected data on my own behalf. Third, „Bharani Kota’- It is located in the forest region The investigator came to know about a new thing of this Panchayat people. They don‟t trust strangers easily. It is a Naxal affected region hence they don‟t talk to others easily. This Panchayat does not have bus /transport facility. She was needed to reach this place on foot only. When she was walking along, she was reminded of the stories read in her childhood
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where the people walked long distance in forest. They were also celebrating Mango festival at the time of the visit. All the village people were available to the researcher since they were celebrating the festival. As all the people were made available, she found on opportunity to speak to them to collect the data. The researcher collected very good information from them.
TIRUPATI RURAL MANDAL The Researcher has chosen 3 Panchayats from this Mandal to collect the data. As she conducted a rural camp in ‘Baramhanapattu’ Panchayat, the investigator selected it first to collect the data. She had a good rapport with the people of this Panchayat and this was also one good reason why she had chosen this panchayat first to collect the data. The other reason was that her old students were from this panchayat/village. She took their help and support and finished the data collection with in no time and with great ease. Second, „Kuntrapakam’- It is an interior Panchayat. Inspite of it, she was able to collect the data easily. In the process of data collection she took the help of the leaders her to build a good rapport with people (women SHG members). She followed a new procedure this time to collect the data and convened a meeting with the village people and told them that making the children to play was her intention. They agreed to this idea happily and come forward to play „Kabbadi‟. She also promised a prize to the winners. All of them participated with great enthusiasm. As usual the best team won the match, one pencil box and an eraser was given to the team members of the winner team. The team mates of the defeated team were also given some prizes as a mark of appreciation and they were given pencil and an eraser. Later she convened a meeting with old people and collected information about gram panchayat. In this connection women self-help group members cooperated and gave the necessary information. This is a different experience to the researcher. Despite the
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lack of bus facility, she hired an Autorikshaw and visited all villages of this panchayat. The third, ‘C.Mallavaram’- The investigator took the help of
Sri
Gurumurthy, APM, (IKP office) and convened meeting with self-help group members and explained the reason for her visit and also the objective of her research. SHG women asked her, if she was paid for doing this. The researcher explained to them clearly that this data collection is the part of her Ph.D. research. The researcher went to that panchayat for two weeks, daily to their houses so that they trust the investigator, then the work of collecting data has become easy. The above experience is an eye opener to the need of employing different ways and means of reaching people in different contexts and cultures and how important this is to the process of collecting reliable and accurate data.
Data
collection is not a routine process but needs people‟s involvement with consent.
CHAPTERIZATION OF THE THESIS The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter one is introductory in nature, Chapter two defines the concepts used in the study and reviews the related literature. The third chapter describes the research design, objectives, hypothesis and methodology, Chapter four presents analysis of the data. Chapter five sums up and records the results of the study.
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CHAPTER-IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter deals with the analysis and discussion of the primary data collected from the respondents for the research. The chapter is presented in five sections in order to cover the main focus areas of the data analysis. The first section relates to the profile of the respondents and includes data on age, education, religion, caste, marital status, occupation, type of family, type of house, primary status in the family, head of the household, family size and income.
A description of the
respondents based on these characteristics is considered important in view of the use of these parameters in further analysis of data to assess the level of empowerment among the women. In the later part of this section is included the data on the Self Helf Groups i.e; period of association with SHG, status in the group, group size and data related to the group norms and group functioning. This section therefore forms the base against which the later sections are developed for analysis and discussion. In section two an attempt has been made to see whether the personal characteristics and the group characteristics discussed in section one had anything to do with the level of empowerment of the respondent women which has been done using the basic descriptive tables. Further statistical analysis is presented in section three where the relationship between basic profile parameters and level of empowerment have been looked into to identify those characteristics which mattered in order to promote empowerment among women. The fourth section looks at the relation between the profile variables and the level of empowerment through the use of T test, One-way ANOVA and Duncan‟s Multiple Range Test. The final section relates to the impact of SHG membership on the quality of life as perceived by the women.(respondents).
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4.1 SOCIO - ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS The socio-economic back ground of the respondents is an important factor in measuring their empowerment. In order to analyze the perception, performance, participation and perseverance of women self-help groups in getting empowerment, it is necessary to know the socio-economic status of the respondents as the literature on empowerment gives a lot of emphasis on the socio economic back ground of a person and other details about the empowerment in the sample.
AGE The entire sample of 500 women self help group members was categorized into three groups on the basis of their age. The specific groups of age are 21-30 years, 31-40 years, 41 and above years.
Table 4.1: Age wise Distribution of the Respondents
21-30 Age of the respondent 31-40 In year 41 and Above Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati rural Mandal 151 130 58.1% 54.2% 84 83 32.3% 34.6% 25 27 9.6% 11.3% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 281 56.2% 167 33.4% 52 10.4% 500 100.0%
Majority of the respondents are found to be in the 21-30 years age group in both the mandals. While the respondents in this age group in Meliaputti mandal are 58.1% it is 54.2% in Tirupati rural mandal. This is followed by the next age group of 31-40, which is true of both the mandals. The least number of respondents are from the 41-50 age group, again in both the mandals, thereby indicating that more young
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women seek membership into the SHGs and it would be important to see if this turns out to be an important indicator in terms of the level of empowerment.
EDUCATION Education is another factor which influences the status of SHG women members. Education serves as a means towards change and development. It also helps to develop and create awareness about the ways of life through the acquisition of appropriate skills. Considered as the most important component in the process of human capital formation, education helps the individuals to overcome their prejudice and to support their family income. The researcher has therefore considered studying this aspect. By taking respondent‟s reported level of education as criterion the whole sample was divided into five subgroups, as presented in the following table.
Table 4.2: Education of the Respondents
Illiterate Can sign Education levels
Up to 5th 6th to 10th Above 10th grade
Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Rural Mandal 8 18 3.1% 7.5% 119 111 45.8% 46.3% 57 65 21.9% 27.1% 53 25 20.4% 10.4% 23 21 8.8% 8.8% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 26 5.2% 230 46.0% 122 24.4% 78 15.6% 44 8.8% 500 100.0%
Table 4.2 above shows the distribution of the respondents according to their education. The above table reveals that out of 260 sample, majority of (45.8%) Meliaputti Mandal can sign, and the corresponding figure is 46.3% in Tirupati Rural
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Mandal which is also the highest reported. Given the community characteristics as described in chapter three, it would be expected that the Tirupati rural community would have more literate women when compared to the location of the tribal Melliaputti. However, it is interesting to note that the distribution is almost even in both the mandals where most women could only sign, and this could also be attributed to the SHG membership, since the group norms insisted on the women‟s ability to sign and no bank loan would be sanctioned to a group which had women placing their thumb impression instead of a signature. This pushed most women to sign. It would be interesting to see if the level of education had anything to do with the level of empowerment, which is presented in the later sections of this chapter.
CASTE Apart from the broad category community, caste is one of the important factors which help or hinder the emergence and growth of women empowerment. As such the data has been analysed to look at the caste wise spread of the respondents. The intention was with specific reference to the Tirupati rural mandal which was expected to have a mix of all castes while this is not true of Melliaputti mandal which has been purposively selected to represent the tribal population.
However the
randomly selected sample did include a few Scheduled Caste members. The entire sample of 500 women self-help group members were categorized into five groups on the basis of their castes. The specific groups are Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Backward Castes, Minorities and Other Castes.
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Table 4.3: Caste Distribution of the Respondents
ST SC Social Category
BC MIN OC
Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 246 20 94.6% 8.3% 14 62 5.4% 25.8% 0 116 0.0% 48.3% 0 10 0.0% 4.2% 0 32 0.0% 13.3% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 266 53.2% 76 15.2% 116 23.2% 10 2.0% 32 6.4% 500 100.0%
It is clear from the table 4.3 above that the highest number (94.6 %) of respondents are Scheduled Tribes (ST) in Meliaputti Mandal while the remaining are Scheduled Castes. In Tirupati rural mandal, on the other hand a good number of 48.3% of the respondents are Backward Castes. The above table also clearly indicates the spread of the sample in Tirupati among the Scheduled castes and the other castes with a small representation of the minorities. The sample in both the mandals is thus representative of the universe as far as the caste is concerned.
RELIGION Religion has been an important cultural pursuit in all social groups from primitive to modern times. Women devise their ideological and moral basis for their institutionalized role from the religion (Murali Mohn K. 1983). The entire sample of 500 women self help group members were categorized into three groups on the basis of their Religion. The specific groups are Hindu, Muslim and Christian.
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Table-4.4: Religion of the Respondents
Hindu Religion
Muslim Christian Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 246 218 94.6% 90.8% 0 10 0.0% 4.2% 14 0 5.4% 0.0% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 464 92.8% 12 2.5% 14 2.8% 500 100.0%
Religion of respondents is shown in table -4.4. Majority of the (94.6%) respondents are reported to be belonging to Hindu religion in the Meliaputti Mandal while the corresponding figure is 90.8% in Tirupati rural. The remaining few are Muslims and Christians.
MARITAL STATUS As is the case in all occasions of data analysis for marital status, the entire sample of 500 women self help group members was categorized into three groups on the basis of their marital status. The specific groups are married, unmarried and widowed.
Table 4.5: Marital Status of the Respondents
marital status
Married Widowed Total
Name of the mandal Tirupati Maliaputti rural 224 212 86.8% 89.1% 34 26 13.2% 10.9% 258 238 100.0% 100.0%
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Total 436 87.9% 60 12.1% 496 100.0%
Majority of the (86.8%) respondents are represented to Married in Meliaputti Mandal and 89.1% married in Tirupati Rural Mandal. Remaining few are widowed. It is interesting to note that there were no unmarried members in the self groups in both the mandals. Being married is not a pre-requisite for obtaining membership in a self group for women. However, in this case there were no unmarried members. Referring back to age of the respondents discussed in the earlier sections of this chapter, there were no members below the age of 21 and in terms of the period of association with the SHG the least was two years. In a direct way measurement it can be concluded that the age at marriage in both the study Mandals is well above the prescribed age for marriage of 18years. This could possibly be due to the association with the self help groups where the group norms in principle do not allow early marriages. As part of the data collection process the members have reported as part of the discussion on non economic benefits of the SHG membership, how they had taken up collective actions against issues pertaining to their lives and these include alcoholism, children‟s schooling and keeping away from work and early marriages.
OCCUPATION The entire sample of 500 women self help group members were categorized into three groups on the basis of their occupation in accordance with their reported response. The specific groups are agriculture, petty trades and private employment.
Table-4.6: Occupation of the Respondents Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 230 152 Agriculture 89.1% 63.3% 20 76 Petty Business Occupation Trade 7.8% 31.7% 8 12 Private Employee 3.1% 5.0% 258 240 Total 100.0% 100.0%
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Total 382 76.7% 96 19.3% 20 4.0% 498 100.0%
Majority of the (89.1%) respondents reported in Meliaputti Mandal and 63.3% respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal as being dependent on Agricultural as the main occupation only. Petty trades and private employment seem to be the main source of income for a very few respondents, with a slight more variations in the Tirupati Rural mandal as would be expected given the proximity of the village to the urban area of Tirupati. Whether the type of employment influences the level of empowerment in women will be seen in the sections to follow.
TYPE OF FAMILY The entire sample of 500 women self help group members were categorized into two groups on the basis of their type of family, the specific groups are Joint Family and Nuclear Family.
Table-4.7: Type of Family of the Respondents
Joint Type of family Nuclear Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 2 11 0.8% 4.6% 258 229 99.2% 95.4% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 13 2.6% 487 97.4% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (99.2%) respondents in Meliaputti Mandal and 95.4% respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal reported as following a nuclear family system. Remaining3% belong to the joint family system and interestingly this is more in the rural mandal than the tribal one, where one would expect that the joint family system would be still in existence, given the remoteness of the area, the cultural practices and community norms that explain the way of life and tend to be binding on the families. .
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TYPE OF HOUSE The sample of 500 women self-help group members was categorized into four groups on the basis of their type of house: the specific groups are Pucca , Kutcha , Tiled Roof and others. Table-4.8: Type of House of the Respondents
Pucca Kutcha Type of house Tiled Roof Others Total
Name of the mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 167 151 64.2% 62.9% 84 46 32.3% 19.2% 7 29 2.7% 12.1% 2 14 0.8% 5.8% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 318 63.6% 130 26.0% 36 7.2% 16 3.2% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (64.2%) respondents have reported as staying in pucca houses in Meliaputti Mandal and an almost equal number of 62.9% respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal. In terms of the kutcha house, more number have reported in the tribal mandal of Melliaputti which equals to nearly one third of the respondents. The general trend has been that members of SHGs have been able to access the government programmes including the Indiramma which provides sanction for housing. If one third of the members report living in a Kutcha house it means that SHGs in this community still need to be supported in building their capacities for accessing government programmes.
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PRIMARY STATUS IN THE FAMILY The study sample of 500 women self help group members was categorized into three groups on the basis of their primary status in the family. The specific groups are wife, Mother, Mother-in-law and daughter-in-law. The grouping relates to the status identified by the respondent for her self as being the primary status in the family.
Table-4.9: Respondents Status in the Family
Wife Primary status in the family
Mother Mother-in-Law Daughter-inLaw
Total
Name of the mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 249 225 95.8% 93.8% 9 8 3.5% 3.3% 0 2 0.0% 0.8% 2 5 0.8% 2.1% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 474 94.8% 17 3.4% 2 0.4% 7 1.4% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (95.8%) respondents reported wife as the primary status in the family in Meliaputti Mandal and 93.8% respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal. This can be explained in the context of the high prevalence of the nuclear family system as reported earlier. As a result, those who reported their status as mother are a very small number of 3.4% while those who reported as mother in law and daughter in law are negligible.
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HEAD OF THE FAMILY The sample of 500 women self-help group members was categorized into two groups on the basis of who the head is in the family. The specific groups are Male Headed family and Female Headed family.
Table-4.10: Head of the Household
head of the family
Male Headed Female Headed Total
Name of the Mandal Maliaputti Tirupati Mandal rural 230 220 88.5% 91.7% 30 20 11.5% 8.3% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 450 90.0% 50 10.0% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (88.5%) respondents reported as having male headed families in Meliaputti Mandal and it is much higher at 91.7% in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The tribal mandal has a slightly more number of female headed households when compared to the Tirupati rural mandal.
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SIZE OF THE FAMILY Table-4.11: Size of the Family Name of the Mandal Meliaputti Mandal Size of the family
Up to 4 members
4 to 8 members
Total
Tirupati Rural
Total
Count % within Name of the mandal Count
% within Name of the mandal Count % within Name of the mandal
228
200
428
87.7%
83.3%
85.6%
32
40
72
12.3%
16.7%
14.4%
260
240
500
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
87.7% respondents stated size of the family up to four members, in Meliaputti Mandal and 83.3% respondents stated the same in Tirupati Rural Mandal. In view of the dominant type of family being nuclear and the now the family size being dominantly up to four members, it is clear that small family norm is being adopted by the members in both the mandals. Large family size of 4-8 members has been reported by more number of women in the Tirupati rural mandal which also coincides with the more number of joint families in this mandal when compared to the tribal mandal of Melliaputti.
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TOTAL FAMILY INCOME Table-4.12: Total Family Income
Total family income
Up to 25000
Count
Name of the Mandal Meliaput Tirupati Total ti Manda Rural 116
Above 25000
% within Name of the Mandal Count % within Name of the Mandal Count
Total
68
184
44.6%
28.3%
144
172
55.4%
71.7%
260
240
Majority of the (554%) respondents have annual income income
36.8% 316 63.2% 500
above Rs.25000/-
in Meliaputti Mandal and the highest income of respondents i.e 83.3% of are
in Tirupati Rural Mandal, remaining few per cent have up to Rs. 25000/- Mandal wise Annual income.
4.1.1 BASIC INFORMATION ON THE SAMPLE SHGs SHG related information, like that of the profile of the respondents forms the basis for further analysis to identify which group factors actually contribute to promote empowerment among women. These are looked at in terms of period of association with the SHG, reasons for joining the SHG, status in the group, and group norms such as frequency in conduct of meetings, savings, size of the group etc. By taking respondent‟s reported period of association with SHG as criterion the whole sample was divided into three subgroups, as presented in the following table.
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Table-4.13: Period of Association with SHG Name of the mandal Maliaputti Tirupati rural 3 46 1.2% 19.2% 229 120 88.1% 50.0% 28 74 10.8% 30.8% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
2-3 years period of association with SHG
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Total 49 9.8% 349 69.8% 102 20.4% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (88.1%) respondents reported in Meliaputti Mandal and 50% respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal as having 4 to 5 year period of association with SHG. A small per cent (1.2%) have a 2 to 3 year membership in Meliaputti Mandal and 19.2 % in Tirupati Rural Mandal. This means that majority of them have a minimum 4 years of membership in the SHG which serves as an useful indicator to measure if the length of SHG membership relates to the level of empowerment. It is generally understood and reported that, longer the association with the group higher would be the level of empowerment.
Table-4.14: Reason for Joining SHG
Reason for joining SHG
Joined Voluntarily On the advice of Family On the advice of Friends and Relatives
Total
Name of the mandal Meliaputti Tirupati rural 108 137 41.5% 57.1% 2 6 0.8% 2.5% 150 97
Total 245 49.0% 8 1.6% 247
57.7%
40.4%
49.4%
260 100.0%
240 100.0%
500 100.0%
From the above table showing the reason for joining in to the SHG by the respondents, it can be seen that a high per cent i.e., 57 .7 % of the respondents joined in the SHG on the advice of friends and relatives from the Meliaputti Mandal. However in Tirupati rural mandal the most popular reason for joining the SHG is a volunatray decision made by the members themselves. As for the second most important reason it is just the vice versa in these mandals. However it is evident that it
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is either a voluntary decision or the advice of friends and relatives which is the main source of inspiration for the women to take membership in the SHG. It is surprising that in either of the cases family has not been the reason. Table-4.15: Current Status in the Group
Leader current status in the group
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Name of the mandal Tirupati Maliaputti rural 35 40 13.5% 16.7% 2 23 0.8% 9.6% 223 177 85.8% 73.8% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 75 15.0% 25 5.0% 400 80.0% 500 100.0%
With regard to the current status in the group , it can be noticed that 85.8% of the respondents are members in the group from Meliaputti Mandal and 73.8% of the respondents from Tirupati Rural Mandal. Few per cent are 0.8% ex-leaders from Meliaputti Mandal and 9.6% of the respondents from Tirupati Rural Mandal. 13.5% in Melliaputti and 16.7 % in Tirupati rural mandal are currently leaders in the group. Taking into consideration the data related to the duration of membership in SHG and the status of members in SHG, it can be said that rotation of leadership is in practice in Tirupati rural to some extent, but almost absent in Meliaputti mandal since there are hardly any members who are ex leaders in the sample, though the sampling was done at the group level and all members were included in the study sample.
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Table-4.16: Group Size Name of the Mandal Meliaputti Tirupati Rural 72 81
Total 153
10
Total Members in the SHG
27.7%
33.8%
30.6%
11
107 41.2%
66 27.5%
173 34.6%
12
78 30.0%
37 15.4%
115 23.0%
15
3 1.2%
56 23.3%
59 11.8%
260 100.0%
240 100.0%
500 100.0%
Total
From the above table showing the total members in the SHG, it can be seen that a maximum of 41.2% of the respondents in the Meliaputti Mandal report a group size of 11 while the highest number 33.8% of the respondents in Tirupati ruram report a group size of 10. The ideal group size of 15 as suggested by many promoters of SHGs including the government and NGOs, is found to be at a very low prevalence of 1.2 % in Maliaputti mandal while slightly less than a quarter (23.3%) in Tirupati Rural Mandal reported a membership of 15. Table-4.17: Frequency of Meetings
frequency of meetings Total
Monthly Fortnight
Name of the mandal Maliaputti Tirupati rural 228 239 87.7% 99.6% 32 1 12.3% 0.4% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
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Total 467 93.4% 33 6.6% 500 100.0%
With regards to the frequency of meetings it is found that in both the mandals the most prevalent frequency for the conduct of group meetings is monthly which is about almost 100% in Tirupati rural mandal. During the first few years of the introduction of the SHGs promoted by the government of Andhra Pradesh most of the SHGs had a norm of conducting weekly meetings which was helpful in promoting group cohesiveness and solidarity. Over a period of time, once the „we feeling‟ was evident in many groups, the focus of the groups have turned to be predominantly financial with savings and credit being the main activity. Once these have been streamlined and the activities got institutionalized, the group meetings have become infrequent and the frequency was agreed to be monthly. It is in this context that we find almost all the groups having a monthly meeting, with an exception of 12.3% respondents from Meliaputti mandal who follow a fortnightly meeting norm. These are groups which are 2-3 years old. It would be interesting to see if the frequency of meetings ahs anything to do with the level of empowerment.
frequency of savings
Total
Table-4.18: Frequency of Savings Name of the mandal Tirupati Maliaputti rural 228 239 Monthly 87.7% 99.6% 32 1 Fortnight 12.3% 0.4% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 467 93.4% 33 6.6% 500 100.0%
Majority of the (87.7% in Meliaputti) respondents in both the mandals (99.6% in Tirupati rural)) reported frequency of savings as being monthly. The frequency of savings coincides with the frequency of meetings, and this is quite evident in this case with data presented in the above table.
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Table-4.19: Frequency of Loan Allocation
Monthly loan allocation Fortnight Total
Name of the mandal Maliaputti Tirupati rural 228 239 87.7% 99.6% 32 1 12.3% 0.4% 260 240 100.0% 100.0%
Total 467 93.4% 33 6.6% 500 100.0%
With regard to the frequency of loan allocation as reported by the respondents it can be seen from the above table that higher percentage i.e. 87.7%of the respondents in Meliaputti Mandal and 99.6% of the respondents in Tirupati Rural Mandal practice a frequency of monthly while 12.3 % in Meliaputti
have a
fortnightly allocation of loans. The frequency of loan allocation is in tune with the frequency of meetings.
4.2 PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS VS- EMPOWERMENT In this section an attempt has been made to see whether the personal characteristics and the group characteristics discussed in section one had anything to do with the level of empowerment of the respondent women which has been done using the basic descriptive tables. The profile of the respondents against which the empowerment is measured includes data on age, education, religion, caste, marital status, occupation, type of family, type of house, primary status in the family, head of the household, family size and income. In the later part of this section is included the data on the Self Helf Groups i.e; period of association with SHG, status in the group, group size and data related to the group norms and group functioning. As indicated in chapter 3 on methodology the scale to measure women‟s empowerment tool was used in this study for data collection. After the data collection, all the responses were coded, scored and noted down in the form of frequency distribution. The Empowerment scores of 10 dependent variables viz
Decision
Making ,Economic Empowerment ,Educational Empowerment, Socio-Cultural Empowerment, Political Empowerment, Cosmopoliteness,
Social Participation,
Access to and control over assets and resources- Government Resources , Capacity
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building and skill development, Legal empowerment and Overall empowerment were computed . Further, levels of empowerment were also categorized as Low, Moderate and High for each variable based on Quartiles.
Table-4.20: Age of the Respondents Vs Empowerment Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti
Overall empowerment
Age of the respondent
25 years 25 to 50 years 50 to 75 years
Total
Tirupati rural
Age of the responden t
Up to 25 years 25 to 50 years 50 to 75 years
Total
Low
Moderate
High
12 34.3% 54 26.2% 2 10.5% 68 26.2% 15 40.5% 61 32.6% 7 43.8% 83 34.6%
20 57.1% 97 47.1% 16 84.2% 133 51.2% 17 45.9% 60 32.1% 8 50.0% 85 35.4%
3 8.6% 55 26.7% 1 5.3% 59 22.7% 5 13.5% 66 35.3% 1 6.3% 72 30.0%
Total 35 100.0% 206 100.0% 19 100.0% 260 100.0% 37 100.0% 187 100.0% 16 100.0% 240 100.0%
The above table 4.20 depicts the comparison of women empowerment between Meliaputti and that of women in Tirupati Rural with reference to the age of the respondents. It is observed that in Meliaputti Mandal there is moderate empowerment of women irrespective of the age groups (25 years/25 to 50 years/50 to 75 years). With reference to Tirupati Rural 25 years women show moderate empowerment (45.9%), 25 to 50 years women have high empowerment (35.5%) and 50 to 75 years women show moderate empowerment. The overall empowerment status of women in Meliaputti Village show moderate empowerment. With reference to Tirupati Rural Mandal women too show moderate empowerment. However the distribution in this mandal is almost even, surprisingly even in the low empowerment group which includes slightly over a third of the respondents. This is almost evenly distributed between the age groups with a slightly smaller number in the 25-50 age group which appears to be the age at which the activities and involvement of women are at its peak. This is also the age group in which more women have been found to be highly empowered. In Meliaputti, on the other hand, it is obvious that among the
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women empowerment there is difference in the number of low (26.2%), moderate (51.2%), high (22.7%) empowerment, that is only few a women were highly empowered. Table-4.21: Education Vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the mandal
Overall empowerment
Illiterate Can sign Education Maliaputti
Up to 5th class 6th to 10th class College
Total Illiterate Can sign Tirupati rural
Education
Up to 5th class 6th to 10th class College
Total
Low
Moderate
High
3 13.0% 36 33.3% 15 28.3% 5 9.8% 9 36.0% 68 26.2% 5 31.3% 39 36.8% 22 30.6% 6 24.0% 11 52.4% 83 34.6%
15 65.2% 44 40.7% 30 56.6% 34 66.7% 10 40.0% 133 51.2% 5 31.3% 35 33.0% 30 41.7% 11 44.0% 4 19.0% 85 35.4%
5 21.7% 28 25.9% 8 15.1% 12 23.5% 6 24.0% 59 22.7% 6 37.5% 32 30.2% 20 27.8% 8 32.0% 6 28.6% 72 30.0%
Total 23 100.0% 108 100.0% 53 100.0% 51 100.0% 25 100.0% 260 100.0% 16 100.0% 106 100.0% 72 100.0% 25 100.0% 21 100.0% 240 100.0%
In Meliaputti Mandal 65.2% of the respondents who are illiterate are having moderate level of empowerment followed by 40.7% of the respondents who can sign also have moderate level of empowerment followed by 66.7% of them who studied up to 6th to 10th class have moderate level of empowerment. Similarly, 40.0% of the respondents who studied college education have moderate level of empowerment. In Tirupati Rural Mandal 37.5% of the respondents who are illiterates are highly empowered compared with 36.8% of respondents who can sign have low level of empowerment. 41.7% of the respondents who studied up to 5th report a moderate
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level of empowerment. 44.0% of the respondents who had studied between 6th and 10th class have moderate level of empowerment. It may also be noted that the highest number of the low empowerment was reported by the respondents who are educated up to the college level in Tirupati rural mandal. Does this mean that education does not have an influence on the level of empowerment? The literature suggests that education is indeed an important factor that impacts women resulting empowerment. This is tested in the later sections of this chapter. One aspect that clearly emerges from the data is that regular attendance at meetings and participation in trainings is an important aspect in the SHG membership and the membership alone does not result in the desired outcome which is empowerment of women.
It has also been found
through observation that women who are highly educated often do not take part in the group processes, particularly the collective actions. This table at a superficial level indicates that formal education per say does not influence the level of empowerment. It is education combined with other factors that cause empowerment particularly among the women in the Meliaputti tribal mandal. This is further tested in the later sections of this chapter.
Table-4.22: Social Category Vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti
Overall empowerment Total
Social category
ST SC
Total ST SC
Tirupati Rural
Social category
BC MIN OC
Total
Low 65 26.4 3 21.4 68 26.2 10 50 23 37.1 41 35.3 0 0 9 28.1 83 34.6
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Moderate 126 51.2 7 50.0 133 51.2 2 10 16 25.8 45 38.8 5 50 17 53.1 85 35.4
High 55 22.4 4 28.6 59 22.7 8 40 23 37.1 30 25.9 5 50 6 18.8 72 30.0
246 100 14 100 260 100 20 100 62 100 116 100 10 100 32 100 240 100
The above table 4.22 is the comparison of women empowerment between Meliaputti Mandal and that of Tirupati rural with reference to the social category of the respondents. It is observed that in Meliaputti Mandal almost an equal number of women are moderately empowered in both the caste groups of Scheduled tribe (51.2%) and Scheduled caste (50%). Remaining has low and high empowerment. However there is a slight variation in the high empowerment group where more STs than SCs are included and more SCs than STs report a low level of empowerment. Among the Tirupati Rural Mandal too they are more moderately empowered with the inclusion of
53.1% of the
women in the forward caste (O.C). However, here it is observed that equal number of respondents of scheduled caste (37.1%) women fall in the high and low empowered group where as the moderately empowered are at the lowest of 25.8%. With regard to the scheduled tribe women respondents are of low level empowerment in Tirupati Rural Mandal. There is an overall moderate empowerment (35.4%), but here it is observed that there are an almost equal number of women reporting low (34.6%) and high empowerment (30.0%). There is not much difference observed among the caste groups in Tirupati rural mandal with regard to the women empowerment. All the three categories of low, moderate and high are observed both in Meliaputti and Tirupati Rural Mandal. However the scheduled tribes seem to be doing better in a tribal dominant community (Melliaputti) than in a mixed community (Tirupati rural) while the scheduled castes seem to be doing well in both the communities.
Table-4.23: Religion Vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal Hindu Maliaputti Mandal
Religion Christian Total
Tirupati Rural
Religion
Hindu Muslim
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 63 125 57 25.7% 51.0% 23.3% 5 8 2 33.3% 53.3% 13.3% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 83 79 67 36.2% 34.5% 29.3% 0 6 5
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Total 245 100.0% 15 100.0% 260 100.0% 229 100.0% 11
Total
0.0% 83 34.6%
54.5% 85 35.4%
45.5% 72 30.0%
100.0% 240 100.0%
In Meliaputti Mandal 51.0% of the respondents who belong to Hindu religion are having moderate level of empowerment and the corresponding figure for the Christians is 53.3%. Remaining few report having low and high level of empowerment.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal 54.5% of the muslim respondents and 34..5% of the Hindu religion respondents were having moderate level of empowerment.
Table-4.24: Marital Status vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti
Marital status
Married Widowed
Total
Tirupati rural
Marital status
Married Widowed
Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 68 96 62 30.0% 42.5% 27.5% 8 11 15 23.6% 32.3% 44.1% 76 107 77 29.2% 41.2% 29.6% 48 80 86 22.5% 37.3% 40.2% 6 4 16 23.0% 15.4% 61.6% 54 84 102 22.5% 35.0% 42.5%
Total 226 100.0% 34 100.0% 260 100.0% 214 100.0% 26 100.0% 240 100.0%
Source: Primary data From the above table shows that 42.5% of the respondents who are married having moderate empowerment, who are widowed 44.1% in Meliaputti Mandal. In Tirupati Rural Mandal 40.2% of the respondents who are high empowered and the same way 61.6% of the respondents highly empowered widowed respectively.
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Table-4.25: Type of House Vs Empowerment of the Respondents Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 47 79 41 28.1% 47.3% 24.6% 20 53 11 23.8% 63.1% 13.1% 1 1 5 14.3% 14.3% 71.4% 0 0 2 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 52 64 35 34.4% 42.4% 23.2% 9 14 23 19.6% 30.4% 50.0% 15 5 9 51.7% 17.2% 31.0% 7 2 5 50.0% 14.3% 35.7% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Name of the Mandal Pacca Maliaputi Mandal
type of house
Katcha Tiled Roof Others
Total Pacca
Tirupati Rural
type of house
Katcha Tiled Roof Others
Total
Total 167 100.0% 84 100.0% 7 100.0% 2 100.0% 260 100.0% 151 100.0% 46 100.0% 29 100.0% 14 100.0% 240 100.0%
In Meliaputti Mandal 47.3% of the respondents who are having Pacca house are having moderate level of empowerment while 63.1% of those having a kutcha house also report a moderate level of empowerment. Those with a tiled roof are in small number in Meliaputti, but 71.4% of these respondents are highly empowered.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal 42.4% of the respondents who have a pucca house report a moderate level of empowerment. 50.0% of the respondents with a kutcha house are in fact highly empowered while 51.7% of the respondents having house with a tiled roof have a low level of empowerment. In this context house is taken as an indicator to reflect the economic status of the household to which the respondent woman belongs. It is therefore a economic related indicator used to measure the influence of economic status on the empowerment of women. The impact on the different dimensions of empowerment and finally the overall empowerment is presented in the following sections of this chapter.
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Table-4.26: Family Income vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Total family income
Up to 25000 Above 25000
Total
Tirupati Rural
Total family income
Up to 25000 Above 25000
Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 38 52 26 32.8% 44.8% 22.4% 30 81 33 20.8% 56.3% 22.9% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 27 27 14 39.7% 39.7% 20.6% 56 58 58 32.6% 33.7% 33.7% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Total 116 100.0% 144 100.0% 260 100.0% 68 100.0% 172 100.0% 240 100.0%
In Meliaputti Mandal moderate level of empowerment has been reported by 44.8% of the respondents whose annual income is up to Rs 25000/- while the highest number in the above Rs 25000/ annual income group have also reported a moderate empowerment and this equals to 56.3% of the respondents which is slightly higher than the other group of respondents. The figures for high level of empowerment are nearly the same for both the group of respondents irrespective of the income. On the other hand, more number of women in the lower income group reported low level of empowerment when compared to the second income group.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal with regard to the level of empowerment the respondents are almost evenly distributed between the low, moderate and high groups in the income category of above RS 25000/. 9.7% of the respondents who are of equal per cent of low level empowerment, Rs. Up to 25000/- . In the above Rs 25000/- income group the picture seems to be a little different in the sense that 6-7% less number of respondents report a low and moderate level of empowerment when compared to the other group, while 13% more number report a high level of empowerment. The influence of family income on the level of empowerment seem to be different in both the mandals and this needs to be tested further.
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Table-4.27: Size of the Family vs Empowerment of the Respondents Overall empowerment Moderat Low High e 62 111 55 27.2% 48.7% 24.1% 6 22 4 18.8% 68.8% 12.5% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 65 72 63 32.5% 36.0% 31.5% 18 13 9 45.0% 32.5% 22.5% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Name of the Mandal Up to 4 members 4-8 members
Size of family Maliaputti Mandal
Total Up to 4 members 4-8 members
Size of family Tirupati Rural
Total
Total 228 100.0% 32 100.0% 260 100.0% 200 100.0% 40 100.0% 240 100.0%
In Meliaputti Mandal 48.7% of the respondents with a family size of up to 4 are of moderate empowerment while 68.8% of the respondents with 4-8 family size are of moderate empowerment. In Tirupati Rural Mandal in the small family size category of up to 4 members the level of empowerment is almost evenly distributed between the three levels, while in the 4-8 member households, more number report a low level of empowerment and less number report a high level of empowerment. It may however be noted that the distribution of the sample between the two categories is uneven and therefore the actual relation between the family size and level of empowerment cannot be looked at and compared. This needs further testing which is done in the later sections of this chapter.
4.2.1
GROUP CHARACTERISTICS, FUNCTIONING AND LEVEL OF EMPOWERMENT In this section an attempt has been made to look at the distribution of the
respondents vis-à-vis the level of empowerment taking in to consideration the basic characteristics of the group to which they belong and the group functioning against selected parameters.
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Table-4.28: Period of Association with SHG vs Empowerment Name of the Mandal 2-3 years Maliaputti Mandal
period of association with SHG
4-5 years >5 years
Total 2-3 years Tirupati Rural
period of association with SHG
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Overall empowerment Moder Low High ate 1 1 1 33.3% 33.3% 33.3% 57 124 48 24.9% 54.1% 21.0% 10 8 10 35.7% 28.6% 35.7% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 27 18 1 58.7% 39.1% 2.2% 34 61 25 28.3% 50.8% 20.8% 22 6 46 29.7% 8.1% 62.2% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
With regard to the Maliaputti Mandal, the majority 54.1% of the respondents who are having 4-5 years of association with SHG shows moderate level of empowerment. An equal percentage 35.7% of respondent having above 5 years of association with SHG show low and high level of empowerment. The respondents associated with an SHG for 2-3 years fall equally in to in the three levels of empowerment i.e; low, moderate and high.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal, 58.7% of the respondents having 2-3 years of association with SHG show low level of empowerment. On the other hand, 50.8% of those having 4-5 years of association with SHG show moderate level of empowerment . Finally, a significant percentage 62.2% of the respondents having above 5 years of association with SHG show a high level of empowerment.
Length of association with an SHG does not seem to influence the level of empowerment in Meliapuuti mandal as much as in Tirupati rural where the highest number of respondent in each category changes with the years of association with the SHG. Highest number of respondents are at the low level of empowerment in 2-3
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years category while this increases to moderate in the 4-5years group and then to high in the five years and above group. With respect to two Mandals together, the level of empowerment is almost evenly distributed among the groups of length of association with the SHGs with a slightly high percentage of them reporting moderate level of empowerment as members of SHGs.
Table-4.29: Reason for Joining SHG vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
reason for joining SHG
Joined Voluntarily On the advice of Family On the advice of Friends and Relatives Total
Tirupati Rural
reason for joinig SHG
Joined Voluntarily On the advice of Family On the advice of Friends and Relatives Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 12 69 27 11.1% 63.9% 25.0% 2 0 0 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 54 64 32
108 100.0% 2 100.0% 150
36.0%
42.7%
21.3%
100.0%
68 26.2% 40 29.2% 3 50.0% 40
133 51.2% 54 39.4% 2 33.3% 29
59 22.7% 43 31.4% 1 16.7% 28
260 100.0% 137 100.0% 6 100.0% 97
41.2%
29.9%
28.9%
100.0%
83 34.6%
85 35.4%
72 30.0%
240 100.0%
Total
In the Maliaputti Mandal , 63.9% of the respondents who joined voluntarily in the SHGs have Modarate level of empowerment. Very few families had joined the group on the advice of family and all of them have low level of empowerment. 42.7% of the respondents who joined SHG‟s on the advice of friends & relatives have moderate level of empowerment
In the Tirupati rural Mandal 39.4% of the respondents who joined voluntarily in the SHGs have moderate level of empowerment and 50.0% of the respondents who joined on the advice of family have low level of empowerment while 41.2% of the respondents who joined on the advice of friends and relatives also report a low level of empowerment. In both the mandals, voluntary entry in to the group seems to
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be common and the level of empowerment also seems to be high in this group. It is observed in the two mandals that the respondents who joined the SHGs on the advice of the family have low level of empowerment.
Table-4.30: Current Status in the Group vs Empowerment of the Respondents Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 1 3 31 2.9% 8.6% 88.6% 0 0 2 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 67 130 26 30.0% 58.3% 11.7% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 1 1 38 2.5% 2.5% 95.0% 0 0 23 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 82 84 11 46.3% 47.5% 6.2% 83 85 72
Name of the Mandal Leader Maliaputti Mandal
current status in the group
ExLeader Member
Total Leader Tirupati Rural
current status in the group
ExLeader Member
Total
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240
In Maliaputti Mandal 88.6% of the respondents whose current status in the group is that of a leader or an ex-leader has high level of empowerment. 58.3% of the respondents whose status is that of a member of the report a moderate level of empowerment followed by 30% who are moderately empowered and only about 12% are highly empowered.
The observations are almost similar in Tirupati rural mandal where 100% of the ex-leaders are having a level high empowerment and 95% of the respondents whose current status is that of the group leader have high empowerment, and few of the group members have moderate and low level of empowerment. Respondents who are currently the members of a group and have not been leaders at all are almost evenly distributed between the low and high level of empowerment with a very low 6.2% reporting a high level of empowerment.
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It is obvious from the above table, that the respondents who have the status as a leader or ex-leader in the group report a high level of empowerment. Literature on the role of SHGs in women empowerment and observations during the group meetings clearly suggest a direct relation between the position in the group and the level of empowerment. In view of the additional trainings that the leaders receive and the responsibilities they perform as leaders of the group the leaders clearly show a high level of involvement, articulate and informative of the group processes and the transactions. They had also shown their level of mobility while having to meet the bank officials on different occasions and also the staff of the various government departments in connections with the programmes that they implement. Long term leadership seems to be affecting the group dynamics with the leaders taking over a dominating role as they stay longer as leaders. It is in this context that the concept of leadership rotation has been introduced into the norms related to the SHGs in Andhra Pradesh. However there are flaws in the implementation of these norms where there are instances reported of both members not wanting to take the role of leaders in view of the increased time that they will have to spend and the likely increase in the responsibilities and the leaders not wanting to give up their role.
Table-4.31: Having other Membership vs Empowerment of Respondents
Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Having Other membersh ip
No Yes
Total
Tirupati Rural
Having Other membersh ip Total
No Yes
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 68 133 55 26.6% 52.0% 21.5% 0 0 4 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 82 80 43 40.0% 39.0% 21.0% 1 5 29 2.9% 14.3% 82.9% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
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Total 256 100.0% 4 100.0% 260 100.0% 205 100.0% 35 100.0% 240 100.0%
With regard to Maliaputti Mandal 52.0% of the respondents who does not have other membership in the groups, possess moderate level of empowerment and 100.0% of the respondents having membership in other groups have high level of empowerment .
In Tirupati Rural Mandal 40.0% of the respondents who do not have other membership in other groups possess low level of empowerment and 82.9% of the respondents having membership in other groups have high level of empowerment. Group membership contributes to the social capital of an individual and thereby to its empowerment. Larger the social capital higher would be the level of empowerment in view of the interaction, mutual flow of services including sharing of information and support systems that promote collective action towards the achievement of goals. Table-4.32: Group Size vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Group Size
10 -15 members 15-20 members Total
Tirupati Rural
Group Size
10 -15 members Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 51 96 40 27.3% 51.3% 21.4% 17 37 19 23.3% 50.7% 26.0% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Total 187 100.0% 73 100.0% 260 100.0% 240 100.0% 240 100.0%
It is observed in Maliaputti Mandal that 51.3% of the respondents are moderately empowered among those who belong a SHG with a group size of 10-15 members. 50.7% of the respondents in the group size of 15 -20 members are also moderately empowered. In Tirupati Rural Mandal all the members belong to a group size of 10-15 members and they are almost evenly distributed into the three levels of empowerment, with a slightly high number 35.4% of the respondents being moderately empowered.
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Table-4.33: Frequency of Savings vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
frequenc y of savings
Monthly Fortnight Total
Tirupati Rural
frequenc y of savings
Monthly Fortnight Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 58 120 53 25.1% 51.9% 22.9% 10 13 6 34.5% 44.8% 20.7% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% 83 75 72 36.1 % 32.6% 31.30% 1 2 7 10.0% 20.0% 70.0% 83 85 72 34.6% 35.4% 30.0%
Total 231 100.0% 29 100.0% 260 100.0% 230 100.0% 10 100.0% 240 100.0%
It is noted in Maliaputti Mandal that 51.9% of those who save monthly as members of SHGs are moderately empowered and 44.8% of the respondents who save fortnightly are too moderately empowered. 70% of the respondents in Tirupati Rural high empowered who have save fortnightly and 36.1% of respondents who save monthly as members of SHG‟s are low empowered in Tirupati Rural Mandal.
Table-4.34: Frequency of Meetings vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Overall empowerment
frequency of meetings
Monthly Fortnight
Total
Tirupati Rural
frequency of meetings
Monthly Fortnight
Total
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Low 56 24.6% 12 37.5% 68 26.2% 82 34.3% 1 100% 83 34.6%
Moderate High 119 53 52.2% 23.2% 14 6 43.75% 18.75% 133 59 51.2% 22.7% 85 72 35.6% 30.1% 0 0 0% 0% 85 72 35.4% 30.0%
Total 228 100% 32 100% 260 100% 239 100% 1 100% 240 100%
It is noticed from Maliaputti Mandal that 52.2% of the respondent whose groups held monthly meeting are moderately empowered and 43.75% of the respondent whose groups held fortnightly meeting are too moderately empowered.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal all groups but one follow a pattern of monthly meeting and the level of empowerment is almost evenly distributed between the three levels with slightly high number of them being moderately empowered.
Frequency of meetings has been considered to be an important indicator of promoting empowerment among the women members of the self help groups. The assumption was that frequent meeting and interaction among the members facilitates sharing of information and problems for group support.
It also builds group
cohesiveness and solidarity. As such in Andhra Pradesh, initially the norm of weekly meetings has been promoted and the SHGs did conduct weekly meetings. However, over the years, the norm changed to monthly meetings due to two reasons; firstly, members found it difficult to meet every week in view of the household and farm work in rural areas, and secondly, after the first couple of years, once the group solidarity was built and the financial focus started increasing in the groups, the need to meet frequently was not felt by the members. As such they negotiated for a monthly meeting within the project. As there are a few groups which are 2-3 years old in Meliaputti mandal, it is likely that some SHGs there still have a fortnightly meeting.
Table-4.35: Amount of Savings vs Empowerment of the Respondents Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Overall empowerment
Amount of savings
Low 10 34.5% 58 25.1% 68 26.2% 83 34.6% 83 34.6%
Rs.80 Rs.100
Total
Tirupati Rural
Amount of savings
Rs.100
Total
98
Moderate 13 44.8% 120 51.9% 133 51.2% 85 35.4% 85 35.4%
High 6 20.7% 53 22.9% 59 22.7% 72 30.0% 72 30.0%
Total 29 100% 231 100% 260 100% 240 100% 240 100%
It is observed from Malaiputti Mandal that 44.8% of the respondents who save an amount of Rs. 80/- are moderately empowered and 51.9% of them who save Rs 100/- too are moderately empowered. In Tirupati Rural Mandal there is a single norm in practice, which is Rs 100/month and 35.4% of these respondents are moderately empowered. Hence, it appears that amount of saving does not have impact on the level of empowerment. This however needs statistical testing which is done and presented in the following sections of this chapter.
Table-4.36: Periodicity of Loan Allocation vs Empowerment Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
loan allocation
Monthly Fortnight
Total
Tirupati Rural
loan allocation
Monthly Fortnight
Total
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 56 119 53 24.6 52.2 23.2 12 14 6 37.5 43.8 18.8 68 133 59 26.2 51.2 22.7 82 85 72 34.3 35.6 30.1 1 0 0 100.0 0.0 0.0 83 85 72 34.6 35.4 30.0
Total 228 100 32 100 260 100 239 100 1 100 240 100
In Meliaputti Mandal 52.2% of the respondents whose groups allot monthly loans are moderately empowered followed by 43.8% of them who receive fortnight loans who too are moderately empowered.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal there is a single practice of monthly allocation of loans and 35.6% of these respondents are moderately empowered. It may be noted here that the frequency of savings and loan allocation are in tune with the frequency of meetings, through which it can be concluded that the payment of savings and loan allocation is done in the group meetings which is indeed an important parameter in promoting effective group functioning.
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Table-4.37: Frequency of Loan Repayment vs Empowerment
Name of the Mandal
Maliaputti Mandal
Overall empowerment
Loan repayment
Monthly Fortnight
Total Tirupati rural
loan repayment Monthly Total
Low 58 25.1 10 34.5 68 26.2 83 34.6 83 34.6
Moderate 120 51.9 13 44.8 133 51.2 85 35.4 85 35.4
High 53 22.9 6 20.7 59 22.7 72 30.0 72 30.0
Total 231 100 29 100 260 100 240 100 240 100
It is evident in Meliaputti Mandal that 51.9% of the respondents who repay loans monthly are moderately empowered and 44.8% who repay loans fortnightly too are moderately empowered.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal there is a single frequency of loan repayment which is monthly and 35.4% of the respondents are moderately empowered. In this section an attempt has been made to look at the relationship between the personal characteristics of the respondents and the level of empowerment vis-a vis the ten dimensions of empowerment used in this research to measure the empowerment among women. In doing so, Chi-Square test has been used to assess the significance. After having provided a description of this relationship between the personal characteristics and each of the dimensions of empowerment, an analysis of the overall empowerment in relation to the characteristics has been presented.
4.3.1 HEAD OF THE HOUSEHOLD Holvoet (2005) finds in her study of women in rural Kenya that in direct bankborrower minimal credit, women do not gain much in terms of decision-making power within the female headed families. The findings of the present study reveal that in an analysis to test the relationship between the head of the household and decision making ability, it is observed in Meliaputti Mandal that the decision making ability of women is low in large number of male headed families (80% of the respondents). It
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is high in the female headed families 86.7%. Similar findings are noted in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The Chi Square is significant at 1% level for both the Mandals. Hence, it is proved from the statistical analysis that there is a highly significant association between the head of the family and decision making ability of women.
Economic Empowerment is an important aspect which contributes for comprehensive development. The economic empowerment of women is high in female headed families (86.7%) compared to that of Male headed families (68.3%) in Meliaputti Mandal. Similar findings are observed in Tirupati rural Mandal and proved that there is significant association between the head of family vs. Economic empowerment. The study is on par with Sunita Roy (1999) who reported that empowerment of women should focus on aspects like (a) direct involvement of women in programming and management, (b) effective collaboration with community organizations, (c) organizing and strengthening of women‟s self-help groups, (d) sensitization and advocacy for gender justice in society, (e) identifying women‟s need and priorities while generating employment, (f) organizing women in different groups to undertake certain productive activities to earn their livelihood and (g) elimination of violence and discrimination against women at physical, mental, domestic or societal level. The results clearly revealed that the major factors affecting the empowerment were access to land, independent earning, community participation, decision making and self confidence. Educational empowerment among women is measured in terms of their own education, children‟s education and practices related to the education of the girl child. It is observed that, in Meliaputti Mandal the educational empowerment of women is moderate (46.5 %) in male headed families and is high in female headed families (43.3%). In Tirupati Rural equal number of women (35.9%) report high and moderate empowerment among those with male headed family, while 45% of those with female headed families were highly empowered. It is proved from the statistical analysis (chi square) that there is highly significant association at 1% level between head of the family and educational empowerment among women in Meliaputti mandal while there is no significant relation in Tirupati Rural Mandal.
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Socio-cultural empowerment has been looked at as views and practices against sex discrimination, early marriages and child labour. By observing the findings of impact of head of the family on the socio-cultural empowerment, it is noted that in Meliaputti Mandal the women in male headed families have moderate socio-cultural empowerment (52.6), than that of female headed families where a mere 13.3 % report a moderate level of empowerment and half of them have a
low level of
empowerment. However 36.7% of them were highly empowered. Similar results were observed in Tirupati Rural Mandal where 44% of the women in male headed families are moderately empowered 50% of them in women headed families are at a low level of empowerment. In the category of high empowerment the difference is not much at 32.7% and 35% respectively. The statistical analysis proved that there is significant association between socio - cultural empowerment and head of the family. The women of female headed families in difficult situations are prone to maintain their families where in they have less time to participate in socio-cultural activities. The chi square value was significant at 1% for Meliaputti mandal and 5% for Tirupati rural mandal. Political empowerment has been measured in terms of Participation in voting, Own decision in voting, Influencing others participation through meetings and campaigns and contest in elections. Political empowerment looked at in terms of the head of the family indicates that in Meliaputti Mandal the women in male headed families have moderate political empowerment (50.4%), than those of female headed families where 60% of the women are highly empowered. In Tirupati Rural Mandal the results are almost similar again with more number of women (55%) from female headed families are highly empowered when compared to the male headed headed families where a large number 45% are moderately empowered and only 28.6% are highly empowered. The statistical analysis proved that there is significant association between political empowerment and head of the family where women in female headed households are more politically empowered than the women from male headed families where the men seem to be influencing the political activities of women. The chi square value is significant at 1% level for Meliaputti mandal and at 5% level for Tirupati rural mandal.
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Cosmo-politeness as an indicator of empowerment has been measured in terms of attitude towards other caste/community, politeness to maintain public relations etc. The data from Meliaputti reveals that 74.8% of the women in male headed families have low Cosmo-politeness attitude compared to that of women from female headed families where 36.7% report a low level of empowerment, but 56.7% report as being highly empowered. In Tirupati Rural Mandal the women in both the male and female headed families have low Cosmo-politeness attitude to the extent of 65.5% and 45% respectively, while 55% of those from female headed families are highly empowered as far as the cosmo-politeness is considered. This shows that there is significant association between head of the family and Cosmo-politeness attitude in both the mandals with the association being significant at 1% for Meliaputti mandal and at 5% for Tirupati rural.
Social participation in this study has been measured as taking/participating in collective action towards injustice, social issues (anti liquor, dowry, child marriages etc), celebration of and participation in local festivals. This seem to be contributing to the acquisition of social capital which is explained in the literature as "..the rules, norms, obligations, reciprocity and trust embedded in social relations, social structures and society's institutional arrangements which enable members to achieve their individual and community objectives." Narayan (1997).1 Many definitions define what social capital is and what it does. In fact, there seems to be broader agreement in the literature about what social capital does, than what it is! In particular, it is widely agreed that social capital facilitates mutually beneficial collective action.
Five mechanisms for how social capital affects outcomes Narayan and Pritchett (1997) describe five mechanisms for how social capital affects outcomes. They are: a.
Improve society's ability to monitor the performance of government, either because government officials are more embedded in the social network or because monitoring the public provision of services is a public good:
b.
Increase possibilities for co-operative action in solving problems with a local common property element;
1
Voices of the Poor: Poverty and Social Capital in Tanzania, World Bank, Washington D.C., USA
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c.
Facilitate the diffusion of innovations by increasing inter-linkages among individuals;
d.
Reduce information imperfections and expand the range of enforcement mechanisms, thereby increasing transactions in output, credit, land and labour markets;
e.
Increase informal insurance (or informal safety nets) between households, thereby allowing households to pursue higher returns, but more risky, activities and production techniques. By observing the findings of impact of head of the family on level of social
participation among women, it is noted that in Meliaputti Mandal the women in male headed families have moderate social-participation (32.6), than those of female headed families which is low and the same was observed in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The statistical analysis proved that there is no significant association between socio cultural empowerment and head of family. The women of female headed families in difficult situations are prone to maintain their families wherein they have less time to participate in socio-cultural activities.
The indicator access and control to assets and resources is looked at in terms of both government (schools, pensions, LIC etc) and common property resources at village level (community hall, temple, water, waste land, common lands, forests, gracious lands etc). With regard to the access and control to assets and resources among women and its relation to head of the family it is noted that in Meliaputti Mandal, the women in male headed families have low (38.3%) and moderate (34.8%) level of empowerment than those of female headed families where 60% of women report a high level of control over assets and resources. In Tirupati Rural Mandal, high level of control over resources is reported by 35% of the women from male headed families and the observations in female headed families were different, where 55% report high level of access to control over resources. The statistical analysis proved that there is a highly significant association between access and control over resources among women and of head of family in Meliaputti mandal where the chi square value was significant at 1% level while in Tirupati rural there association was not significant.
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The SHGs in addition to promoting thrift and savings ensure capacity building and skill development among women. The findings noted here indicate that the women in both male and female headed families in Meliaputti Mandal have high level of capacity building and skill. Hence, it is statistically proved that there is no significant association between the above said variables.
In Tirupati Rural Mandal compared to that of male headed families the female headed families have high level of capacity building and skill development. However, statistically the association between the two variables was shown to be insignificant.
The legal empowerment has been measured in terms of knowledge, usage or application and helping others. In terms of the relationship between head of the family and level of legal empowerment, the data reveals that there is no significant relationship between the two variables. More number of women with female headed families seems to fall into the high legally empowered group when compared to those with male headed families. The chi square values indicate a significant association at 5% level between the head of the family and legal empowerment in Meliaputti Mandal while it is not significant in Tirupati rural Mandal.
Table-4.38: Head of the Family vs Overall Empowerment Chi-square 11.300
p-value 0.004
Head of the family in Meliaputti Mandal
Male Headed Female Headed
Total Chi-square
p-value
2.198
0.333
Head of the family in Tirupati Rural
Total
Male Headed Female Headed
Overall empowerment Low Moderate High 66 118 46 28.7% 51.3% 20.0% 2 15 13 6.7% 50.0% 43.3% 68 133 59 26.2% 51.2% 22.7% overall empowerment Low 79 35.9% 4 20.0% 83 34.6%
Moderate 77 35.0% 8 40.0% 85 35.4%
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High 64 29.1% 8 40.0% 72 30.0%
Total 230 100.0% 30 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 220 100.0% 20 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by head of the family 70
68.8 67.6
68
66 64 62
62.8 61.8
60 58 Male Headed Female Headed
Male Headed Female Headed
Maliaputti
Tirupati rural
Having looked at the relationship between the head of the family and the ten variables used in this research to measure empowerment, now the relationship between the head of the family and overall empowerment of the women is being looked at.
The table 4.42 reveals that in Meliaputti Mandal a large percentage of women both in the male headed (51.3%) and female headed (50%) report a moderate level of overall empowerment. However in terms the high level of empowerment more number of women (43.3%) from the female headed families falls into this category when compared to those from the male headed families (20%). Similar observations are found in Tirupati rural Mandal as well. The chi square value shows significance at 1% level in terms of the association between head of family and overall empowerment in Meliaputti Mandal, and no significance or no association between head of the family and overall empowerment in Tirupati Rural Mandal.
This indicates that SHG women in Tirupati rural Mandal are empowered on many of the indicators identified to measure the level of empowerment irrespective of who the head of the family is. Their participation in decision making, social activities, politics, awareness of legal aspects and access to and control over resources is not influenced by who the head of the family is. Women from the male headed families
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are equally empowered when compared to the women from the female headed families. It may therefore be noted here that the men in Tirupati rural mandal seem to have been influenced by the SHG participation of women and the flow of benefits as a result of the women‟s membership in SHGs, that they support the participation of women in the activities at the household and community level. In Melaputti, on the other hand, which is a predominantly tribal mandal, women from the male headed families are less empowered than the women in female headed families.
It is
therefore likely that women in this mandal depend on their male counterparts for decision making, political participation, access to and control over resources, participation in social activities, legal awareness etc. Women from the female headed families are likely to be being pushed into taking decisions, participating and accessing resources in the absence of male members in the family. Further training and working with men in these communities could be an approach to empower women in Meliaputti mandal.
4.3.2 AGE AND EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN Age appears to be an important factor in terms of assessing the level of empowerment among women. Evidence from research show that women's age and family structure are the strongest determinants of women's authority in decision making. Older women and women in nuclear households are more likely than other women to participate in family decisions. While it is assumed and suggested in the existing literature that women at a middle age are more empowered than the younger women and that they tend to be more empowered as they grow older, these trends seem to be changing during the recent past.
Young women are also empowered and they seem to be more
empowered on some factors when compared to the older women. The association seems to be particularly significant in Meliaputti, the tribal mandal when compared to the Tirupati rural mandal. In the following section, the association between age and level of empowerment of women on the identified ten indicators is discussed.
The data pertaining to the association of age with decision making in Meliaputti Mandal indicate low level of empowerment in all age groups i.e; up to 25
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years, 25 to 50 years, and 50 to 75 years. However with regard to the high level of empowerment the number increases as the age increases. The same was not found in Tirupati Rural Mandal where more number of women in all the three age groups were at a low level of empowerment with regard to decision making, at the high level, this did not remain consistent with age increase and moved up and down. The statistical analysis proved a significant association at 5% level between and age and decision making ability of women in Meliaputti mandal. However in Tirupati rural there is no significant association between
decision making ability of women and their age.
The data reveals that with regard to the economic empowerment of women vis-à-vis age 74.3% of respondents have high level empowerment in the age group 25 to 50 years in the Meliaputti Mandal, while 62.5% of the respondents report high in economic empowerment in the age group 50 to 75 years.However only 41.6% women in the age group of below 25years report high level of empowerment. The chi square test shows that there is 1% level significant association between age and economic empowerment of women in Meliaputti Mandal, which means that the economic empowerment of women increases as their age increases but is at its peak in the middle age group of 25-50 years. However there is no significant association between age and economic empowerment in Tirupati Rural Mandal. Women of all age groups are equally empowered economically.
Mostofa et al. (2008) in their study in
Bangladesh revealed that women under 20 years of age had less empowerment than the women who were between the ages 40-44.
The next indicator looked at in terms of its relation to age is the educational empowerment of women. It is noted that there is a significant association between age and education empowerment in both the mandals with older women being less empowered than the younger ones. The chi square tests showed a highly significant association at 1% level in Meliaputti mandal, while it was significant at 5% level in Tirupati rural mandal. The findings of the study indicated that there is a change observed among women‟s perception towards educational empowerment due to more exposure to the communication process and training methodologies, the association of which is due to the membership in the SHGs.
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Women‟s views and practices against sex discrimination, early marriages and child labour seem to be changing with age. The chi square values indicate a highly significant association at 1% level between the socio cultural empowerment of women and their age in both the mandals. While the younger women oppose the practices and views towards sex discrimination, early marriages of girls and child labour, the older women seem to be in support of these. It may be noted here that the educational levels among the younger women are also high when compared to the older women which does have an impact on how women react to these issues. This is also true of the socio cultural context in which they have grown. The socio cultural context of the younger women was that which encouraged women‟s education, employment and mobility due to which their involvement in the SHGs and related responsibilities was more compared to the older women. The status in the SHG along with age also seems to impact the socio cultural empowerment of women. This is discussed further in the later sections of the chapter.
The Political empowerment of women in Meliaputti mandal seem to be associated with their age with the chi square value being significant at 5% level in Meliaputti Mandal while in Tirupati Rural Mandal the association seem to be highly significant at 1% level.
Participation in voting, Own decision in voting, Influencing others participation through meetings and campaigns and contesting in elections seem to be increasing with age in both the mandals. More older women than young it appears actively participate in the political processes related to their communities. This could be associated with the willingness to participate based on their knowledge and also due to the availability of more time fro such activities. Younger women talked of the need for them to spend more time on issues related to the family and children including the family occupation which takes a lot of their time. As a result they prefer to spend less time on political issues. Instead they prefer spending the little time available towards the SHG related activities like meetings and trainings which they consider are more useful than the political participation itself.
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The Cosmo politeness attitude and age are associated with age in both the mandals with the chi square value being significant at 5% level. The attitude towards other caste/community, politeness to maintain public relations etc seem to be more positive among the younger women who indicate a high level of empowerment when compared to the older women. Younger women seem to be more inclusive, tolerable and keen on maintaining public relations in view of the possible benefits to the family and children. Women‟s participation in social issues, collective actions against practices related to injustice and participation in festivals and functions seem to be quite high among women in general. The results are on par with Krishnaraj and Kay (2002) who stated that Women‟s groups have emerged as a dynamic, articulate constituency enabling women to work together in collective agency. Self-help groups have facilitated the formation of social capital, where people learn to work together for a common purpose in a group or organization. However, the levels of participation seem to be changing with age. In testing the association by conducting the chi square test it was found that the there is a highly significant level of association between age and social participation in both the mandals with the values being significant at 1% level.
The data shows that the SHGs have been successful in promoting access to and control over assets and resources among women since the findings reveal that a good number of women have indicated a moderate level of empowerment in both mandals. However, what is interesting to note is that this level of empowerment varies with age.
With the chi square value being significant at 1% level in Tirupati rural
mandal and at 5% level in Meliaputti, it is clear that age influences the degree of access and control. It is general understood and felt that it‟s the younger women who enjoy more control and access over resources and assets but the data shows that it‟s actually the other way round, since more older women report moderate and level l of access when compared to the younger women members of the self help groups.
Age does not seem to be a factor that influences the process of capacity building and skill development among women in SHGs. The chi square value does not show an association between the two variables in both the mandals. The non negotiable adopted by SHGs in Andhra Pradesh, rather facilitated for adoption by the
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SHGs is the participation of members in training programmes, demonstrations and exposure visits. This seem to have contributed towards the capacity building and skill development among women irrespective of their age as all members are required to attend these. The process adopted by the state in the conducting of these programmes for the SHG members included the selection of local community as the venue for training which facilitated the participation of a large number of women. Further, the adoption of the CRP (Community Resource Persons) model by the state, wherein the trainers are identified and trained from within the community or the neighbourhood also seem to have facilitated the capacity building and skill development among SHG women.
The Legal empowerment among women does not seem to have any association with their age in both the mandals.
The women‟s knowledge of
legislations, usage or application and helping others did not change with age. On the other hand the level of legal empowerment itself was quite low among the members in both the mandals. The empowerment was more an indication of the knowledge rather than its application either for self or for others. This is true in both the mandals. During the discussions with the SHG women which were held as part of the field work, it was mentioned that the training given to them did have a focus on the legal instruments available to women, but they did not find the need to use these. Minor conflicts even at the personal level were very often resolved at the SHG level or within the community. Major conflicts, always related to property were the ones that needed legal involvement and it was the men who were associated with these issues.
Table-4.39: Impact Chi-square
p-value
14.706**
0.005 Upto 25 years
Age in Meliaputti Mandal
25 to 50 years 50 to 75 years Total
Chi-square
p-value
11.789* Age
0.019 Upto 25 years
of Age on Overall Empowerment overall empowerment Low 12 34.3% 54 26.2% 2 10.5% 68 26.2%
Moderate 20 57.1% 97 47.1% 16 84.2% 133 51.2%
High 3 8.6% 55 26.7% 1 5.3% 59 22.7%
overall empowerment Low 15
Moderate 17
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High 5
Total 35 100.0% 206 100.0% 19 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 37
in Tirupati Rural
40.5% 61 32.6% 7 43.8% 83 34.6%
25 to 50 years 50 to 75 years Total
45.9% 60 32.1% 8 50.0% 85 35.4%
13.5% 66 35.3% 1 6.3% 72 30.0%
100.0% 187 100.0% 16 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by age 72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52
69.2 64.4
63.6 60.9 58.9
58.2
Upt 25 years
25 to 50 years
50 to 75 years
Upt 25 years
Maliaputti
25 to 50 years
50 to 75 years
Tirupati rural
In terms of the overall empowerment among the SHG women, age does appear to be an influencing factor. We have seen in the above sections that age played an important role in the level of empowerment of women with regard to 7/8 of the individual variables used to measure the empowerment among women. There was also a variation between the two mandals in terms of how these variables were influenced by age. The variation is recorded between both the mandals even in terms of the overall empowerment. The chi square value which is significant at 1% level in Meliaputti mandal suggests a high level of association between age and overall empowerment of women, while in Tirupati rural the association is significant at 5% level. The young women seem to be less empowered than the middle aged and the older women in the self help groups, in both the mandals.
4.3.3 EDUCATION AND EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
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The benefits of educating girls and women are well understood, but education‟s role as a catalyst for promoting gender equality and empowering women is not. Because research has established that basic education of girls and women improves key development outcomes, such as reducing fertility and child mortality or increasing worker productivity, it is often assumed that education enhances women‟s well-being and gives them a greater voice in household decisions, more autonomy in shaping their lives, and better opportunities for participating in the community and labor market. But a recent literature review by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), entitled “Impact of Investments in Female Education on Gender Equality,” shows that education is a necessary but not sufficient investment to achieve gender equality or improve women‟s well-being. In most cases, only secondary or higher levels of schooling lead to improved options, opportunities, and outcomes for women. That said, for secondary and higher levels of education to have the greatest payoff, investments also are needed that address the social and economic constraints that can impede education‟s benefits. ICRW research shows that women are more likely to control their own destinies and effect change in their own communities when they have higher levels of education. As such, the international development community and developing country governments must begin investing in girls‟ and women‟s post-primary education if they are to achieve the third Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of gender equality and women‟s empowerment. In this research, an attempt has been made to study the relation between the education level of women and their empowerment. This is done by first looking at the association between education and each of the ten variables used to measure the empowerment of women and then the overall empowerment. Education is a human right and an essential tool for achieving the goals of equality, development and peace. Non-discriminatory education benefits both girls and boys and thus ultimately contributes to more equal relationships between women and men. Equality of access to and attainment of educational qualifications is necessary if more women are to become agents of change. Literacy of women is an important key to improving health, nutrition and education in the family and to empowering women to participate in decision-making in society. Investing in formal and non-formal education and training for girls and women, with its exceptionally
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high social and economic return, has proved to be one of the best means of achieving sustainable development and economic growth that is both sustained and sustainable.
Autonomy is the ability to obtain information and make decisions about one's own concerns. It facilitates access to material resources such as food, land, income and other forms of wealth, and social resources such as knowledge, power, prestige within the family and community. Women's autonomy in health-care decision-making is extremely important for better maternal and child health outcomes, and as an indicator of women's empowerment.
In the present research the association between the level of education among the SHG women and their decision making ability has been tested using the chi square and it has been found that there is no significant relation between these two in both the mandals. Large numbers of women in both the mandals and in almost all the educational groups report a low level of decision making ability. At the same time the distribution of those who report a high decision making ability is almost equal among the illiterate women and those educated up to the college level in both the mandals. These findings are contrary to the findings reported in many studies which suggest that education enhances the decision making ability among women. It can therefore be considered that while the membership in self help groups have been little contributory in promoting decision making ability among women in general, in principle it can promote the decision making ability among women, irrespective of their educational status. This however needs further testing
The economic empowerment of women in Meliaputti mandal is associated with their level of education as the chi square value is significant at 5% level. It suggests that the economic empowerment of women increases with the increase in education. However in Tirupati rural mandal there is no association between the economic empowerment of women and their level of education. Numerous studies in the last decade, in the international arena have shown, however, that educating the female population in a country helps economic growth, and yet there appears to be no correlation
between
education,
improvement
in
economic
conditions
and
empowerment of women, that women‟s status is elusive, multidimensional and hard
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to measure and it is important to look at different aspects of women‟s status to understand these complex relationships (Durant and Sathar 2007).
The Educational level of the women seem to have an influence on their children‟s education and practices related to the education of the girl child in Meliaputti mandal with the chi square value being significant at 5% level. However in Tirupati rural mandal there is no association between the two variables. The women‟s views and practices against sex discrimination, early marriages and child labour are being influenced by the level of education in Meliaputti mandal. The views and practices seem to be more against these issues as the level of education increases which suggests that more and more educated women do not support practices and views against sex discrimination, early marriages and child labour. However, in Tirupati rural mandal education did not make a difference to these views and practices. The level of participation of women in voting, ability to make their own decisions in voting, ability to influence others and contesting in elections described as political empowerment in this context is highly associated with the educational levels of women in Meliaputti mandal with the chi square value being significant at 1% level while the association in Tirupati is not as strong with a 5% level of significance. Education does seem to influence the cosmo-politeness among SHG women in both the mandals since the chi square values are insignificant in both the cases. Education also does not seem to influence the social participation of women in both the mandals which means that SHG women participate equally in collective action towards injustice, social issues (anti liquor, dowry, child marriages etc), celebrations and local festivals irrespective of their level of education.
It can
therefore be said that the participation in SHGs does not restrict the educated women from social participation. On the other hand it could be that the SHG membership creates knowledge of social participation among the less educated women and motivates them towards collective action on issues concerning their lives and their communities.
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The access to and control over assets and resources of women in Meliaputti mandal does not seem to be associated with their level of education in Meliaputti Mandal However, the statistical analysis proved that there is a significant association between Access and control to assets and resources and level of education among SHG women in Tirupati rural mandal where the chi square value is significant at 5% level. Capacity building and skill development of women in Meliaputti Mandal is highly associated with their level of education as the chi square value is significant at 1% level. In Tirupati rural mandal the education level does seem to matter women in building their capacities and developing skills. Legal empowerment measured in terms of women‟s knowledge of legislations, use or application of these and helping others is highly influenced by their level education in Meliaputti mandal with the chi square value being significant at 1% level. In Tirupati rural mandal the association between these two variables is not statistically significant. Table-4.40: Impact of Education on Overall Empowerment Chi-square*
p-value
18.256
0.019
Overall empowerment
Illiterate Can sign Education in Meliaputti Mandal
th
Up to 5 class 6th to 10
th
class
College Total Chi-square
p-value
6.893
0.548 Illiterate
Education in Tirupati Rural
Can sign Up to 5 class
th
6th to 10 class
th
Low 3 13.0% 36 33.3% 15 28.3% 5 9.8% 9 36.0% 68 26.2%
Moderate 15 65.2% 44 40.7% 30 56.6% 34 66.7% 10 40.0% 133 51.2%
High 5 21.7% 28 25.9% 8 15.1% 12 23.5% 6 24.0% 59 22.7%
Overall empowerment Low 5 31.3% 39 36.8% 22 30.6% 6 24.0%
Moderate 5 31.3% 35 33.0% 30 41.7% 11 44.0%
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High 6 37.5% 32 30.2% 20 27.8% 8 32.0%
Total 23 100.0% 108 100.0% 53 100.0% 51 100.0% 25 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 16 100.0% 106 100.0% 72 100.0% 25 100.0%
11 52.4% 83 34.6%
College Total
4 19.0% 85 35.4%
6 28.6% 72 30.0%
21 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by education 64.1
63.9 62.6
63.8 62.9
62.6
62.6
61.3
Maliaputti
6th to 10th
Up to 5th
Can sign
Illiterate
College
6th to 10th
Up to 5th
Can sign
61.2
College
63.6
Illiterate
64.5 64.0 63.5 63.0 62.5 62.0 61.5 61.0 60.5 60.0 59.5
Tirupati rural
The Overall empowerment of women in Meliaputti Mandal is associated with their level of. Statistical analysis proved that there is 5% level significant association between overall empowerment and education in Meliaputti Mandal and no such significant association in Tirupati rural Mandal.
4.3.4 SOCIAL CATEGORY AND EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN Caste in India has very often been identified and used as an indicator for analysis in order to assess the relationship between outcomes and social backwardness. This is true because of the caste structure and the hierarchy that it creates among the people based on the caste. It is an established fact that the social backwardness is more among the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes due to which a number of programmes have been planned and implemented to promote their development by addressing the issues related to the backwardness. The self help group approach is one such attempts made by the government in this direction. It is therefore expected that this programme would have an impact their social backwardness.
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In a study in Karnataka among the SC category, 46.2 per cent of the respondents had medium empowerment, in ST category equal per cent (41.2%) of respondents had low and medium empowerment, respectively. In case of other backward caste and forward community 44.4 and 48.1 per cent of the respondents had medium empowerment respectively. However, it was found that there was no significant association between empowerment of women and their caste (Bharathamma 2005) their by indicating that the SHG approach had been successful in bridging the gap in social backwardness based on caste among the rural poor. In this section an attempt has been made to look at the association between the social category (caste) and the ten indicators identified and used to measure empowerment among women and finally the overall empowerment.
With regard to the decision making ability among the SHG women it has been found that there is no association with the social category. This is true in both the mandals where the statistical analysis show that the association is insignificant. In Meliaputti the respondents belong to the two caste groups of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. The decision making ability was at an almost similar level in both the groups with a large number of them falling into the low level of ability (72% to 78%). In Tirupati mandal on the other hand the respondents were also backward castes, other castes and the minorities in addition to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Large numbers of them (56% to 72%) here have also fallen into the low level category. Among those who reported high level of decision making ability there were more among the STs (40%) than SCs(39%) and BCs(26%).
The Economic empowerment of the SHG women in Meliaputti is not associated with the social category as similar observations are found for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and it tested to be statistically insignificant. In Tirupati rural mandal the caste does influence the economic empowerment and the chi square value is significant at 5% level. More number of STs (55%) are at a low level of empowerment while a good number (66%) of other castes report a high level of economic empowerment.
119
The Educational empowerment of SHG women in Tirupati Rural Mandal is significantly associated with the caste at 5% level. In Meliaputti no such association has been reported.
Results similar to that of educational empowerment have also been observed with regard to the socio cultural empowerment where there is no association between caste and socio cultural empowerment in Meliaputti mandal where as the association in Tirupati is significant at 5% level.
The participation of women in voting, own decision making in voting, influencing others and contesting in elections does not seem to be influenced by caste in Meliaputti mandal but in Tirupati rural again caste seem to be playing an important role in influencing the political behaviour of SHG women. The statistical analysis shows a significant association with the chi square value being significant at 5% level.
Social category does not have a statistically significant association with cosmo-politeness attitude in both the mandals. Similar observations are found with regard to the association between social category and social participation. Caste does not seem restrict women SHG members in both these mandals from getting together and voicing out the injustices, participation in collective actions and working on social issues.
Access to and control over assets and resources in Meliaputti Mandal and also Tirupati rural mandal among women of SHGs does get influenced by the caste as they are not statistically significantly not associated.
The Capacity building and skill development among women in Meliaputti Mandal are not significantly associated. However it is observed that in Tirupati Rural Mandal the statistical analysis proved that there is a highly significant association at 1% value between capacity building and skill development and caste.
Legal empowerment and caste are not statistically significantly associated in both the mandals.
120
Table-4.41: Impact of Social Category on Overall Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
0.356
0.837
Social category in Meliaputti Mandal
ST SC
Total Chi-square
p-value
19.476*
0.013 ST SC
Social category in Tirupati Rural
BC MIN OC
Total
Overall empowerment Low 65 26.4% 3 21.4% 68 26.2%
Moderate 126 51.2% 7 50.0% 133 51.2%
Total
High 55 22.4% 4 28.6% 59 22.7%
246 100.0% 14 100.0% 260 100.0%
overall empowerment Low 10 50.0% 23 37.1% 41 35.3% 0 0.0% 9 28.1% 83 34.6%
Moderate 2 10.0% 16 25.8% 45 38.8% 5 50.0% 17 53.1% 85 35.4%
Total High 8 40.0% 23 37.1% 30 25.9% 5 50.0% 6 18.8% 72 30.0%
20 100.0% 62 100.0% 116 100.0% 10 100.0% 32 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by social category 80
70
62.7
62.4
61.3
ST
SC
ST
65.8
70.2 62.7
61.6
60 50 40
30 20 10 0
Maliaputti
SC
BC
MIN
OC
Tirupati rural
The overall empowerment among the SHG women in Meliaputti Mandal does not have anything to do with the caste. It is also clear from the discussions in the above sections that there is no clear association between caste and empowerment in
121
most of the indicators. This could probably be due to the fact that the sample in this mandal relates to only two caste groups i.e; Scheduled castes and tribes. However, in Tirupati rural mandal the association between overall empowerment and caste is significant at 5% level. 4.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Having tested the association of personal and household level characteristics with the level of empowerment vis-à-vis the ten indicators identified and used in this research, in this section an attempt is made to further test the association with the use of various statistical tests. This has been done mandal wise and then a comparison between the two mandals is presented. Tirupati Rural Mandal Table-4.42: Summary of Independent sample t-test by Head of the Family
Decision making ability Economic empowerment Educational empowerment Socio cultural empowerment Political empowerment Cosmopoliteness attitude Social Participation
head of the family
Mean
Std. Deviation
t-value
p-value
Male Headed
6.5455
1.55646
5.290**
0.000
Female Headed
8.4500
1.35627
Male Headed
6.5409
1.42808
3.499**
0.001
Female Headed
7.7000
1.30182
Male Headed
7.3955
1.59422
0.147
0.883
Female Headed
7.4500
1.53811
Male Headed
6.3136
2.19106
0.800
0.425
Female Headed
5.9000
2.46875
Male Headed
8.9727
2.21641
1.513
0.132
Female Headed
9.7500
1.99671
Male Headed
4.3045
1.29734
2.313*
0.022
Female Headed
5.0000
1.16980
Male Headed
6.9545
2.83451
0.394
0.694
Female Headed
6.7000
1.83819 1.466
0.144
1.503
0.134
0.042
0.966
1.535
0.126
Access and control to assets and resources
Male Headed
4.1364
1.35806
Female Headed
4.6000
1.31389
Capacity building and skill development
Male Headed
5.0864
1.20380
Female Headed
5.5000
.82717
Legal empowerment Overall empowerment
Male Headed
6.5318
1.80661
Female Headed
6.5500
2.30503
Male Headed
62.7818
13.55953
Female Headed
67.6000
12.01928
From the results of Independent sample t- test in table 4.46, it is observed that there is significant influence of head of the family on ‘Decision making ability’, ‘Economic empowerment’ and ‘Cosmo-politeness attitude’.
122
The p-value „0.032 < 0.05‟ of „Decision making ability’’ depicts that there is a significant impact of head of the family, for which „Male headed family‟ with mean value 6.54 is noticeably lower than the mean score of „Female headed family‟ (Mean =8.45) . From p-values of ‘Economic empowerment’ and ‘Cosmo-politeness attitude’, one can understand that Female headed families are showing higher empowerment than that of families run by Males. Female and Male headed families have shown similar empowerment in other aspects
viz
Educational,
Socio
cultural,
Political
empowerment,
Social
Participation, Access and control to assets and resources, Capacity building and skill development, Legal empowerment and Overall empowerment. Table-4.43: Summary of One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test by Age
Decision making ability
Economic empowerment
Educational empowerment
Socio cultural empowerment
Political empowerment
Cosmo-politeness attitude
Social Participation
Access and control to assets and resources
Capacity building and skill development Legal empowerment
Age
Mean
Std. Deviation
F-value
p-value
3.506*
0.032
0.806
0.448
4.574*
0.011
12.108**
0.000
0.804
0.449
1.115
0.329
0.492
0.612
3.105*
0.047
0.354
0.702
2.714
0.068
Upt 25 years
6.1622 a
1.77190
25 to 50 years
6.8503 b
1.60946
50 to 75 years
6.8700 b
1.12546
Upt 25 years
6.4324
1.23694
25 to 50 years
6.7005
1.51911
50 to 75 years
6.3750
1.02470
Upt 25 years
7.0270 a
1.65809
25 to 50 years
7.5508 a
1.55243
50 to 75 years
6.5000 b
1.46059
Upt 25 years
4.8649 a
2.28719
25 to 50 years
6.6310 b
2.11947
50 to 75 years
6.4375 b
1.59034
Upt 25 years
8.7027
1.86882
25 to 50 years
9.1337
2.31830
50 to 75 years
8.6875
1.40089
Upt 25 years
4.2703
1.21675
25 to 50 years
4.4171
1.35096
50 to 75 years
3.9375
.68007
Upt 25 years
6.5676
1.80340
25 to 50 years
7.0267
3.01508
50 to 75 years
6.6875
.79320
Upt 25 years
3.6757 a
1.29216
25 to 50 years
4.2781 b
1.39804
50 to 75 years
4.1250 b
.61914
Upt 25 years
5.2703
1.14622
25 to 50 years
5.0963
1.20543
50 to 75 years
5.0625
.99791
Upt 25 years
5.9730
1.64125
123
25 to 50 years
Overall empowerment
6.6791
1.88193
50 to 75 years
6.1250
1.66833
Upt 25 years
58.9459 a
10.26306
25 to 50 years
64.3636 b
14.25031
50 to 75 years
69.1875 b
6.79430
3.310*
0.038
From the results of one-way ANOVA test in table 4.47, it is understood that the impact of age is particularly visible in five variables i.e., Decision making ability’, ‘Educational empowerment’, ‘Socio cultural empowerment’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’ and „Overall empowerment. The p-value „0.032 < 0.05‟ for the variable „Decision making ability’’ reveals that there is a significant influence of age, for which „below 25 years‟ with mean value 6.16 is noticeably lower than those who are 25-50 age group (Mean = 6.85) and „50 -75 year olds‟ (Mean =6.87). Also the indication given with alphabetical letters for the group means by Duncan‟s Multiple Range test(DMRT) i.e., „below 25 years‟ = a, „25–50 years‟ = b, ‟50 – 75 years‟ = b, explains that younger women are significantly differing from moderate and older age groups. It implies that the older women, from the study, are having more „decision making ability‟. Similarly the p-value (0.011 < 0.05) of variable ‘Educational empowerment', shows that there is an influence of age on the variable. However, the mean scores of younger aged women (7.03) and middle aged women (7.56) are more, followed by older aged women (Mean=6.5). Also from DMRT, it is understood that older aged women are significantly differing from younger and middle aged women with regard to „Educational empowerment‟. The same pattern can be observed for the variables viz., ‘Socio cultural empowerment’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’ and „Overall empowerment’. Hence younger women performing well than that of older in Educational, Socio cultural, Access and control to assets and resources and also overall empowerment. Other variables like „Economic empowerment, Political empowerment, Cosmo-politeness attitude, Social Participation, Capacity building and skill development and Legal empowerment‟, are not influenced by age.
124
Table-4.44: Summary of One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test by Education
Decision making ability
Economic empowerment
Educational empowerment
Socio cultural empowerment
Political empowerment
Cosmopoliteness attitude
Social Participation
Access and control to assets and resources
Capacity building and skill development
Education
Mean
Std. Deviation
Illiterate
6.8750
1.74642
Can sign
6.7642
1.61865
Up to 5th
6.5972
1.51667
6th to 10th
6.5200
1.35769
College
6.8571
2.24245
Illiterate
5.9375
1.87861
Can sign
6.6981
1.28856
Up to 5th
6.7083
1.61365
6th to 10th
6.7600
1.53514
College
6.4762
1.12335
Illiterate
7.5625
1.78769
Can sign
7.1415
1.61209
Up to 5th
7.6111
1.44919
6th to 10th
7.7200
1.40000
College
7.4762
1.88730
Illiterate
6.0625
2.54214
Can sign
6.4057
2.06457
Up to 5th
6.3611
2.25367
6th to 10th
6.1600
2.11503
College
5.6667
2.70801
Illiterate
9.1875
2.31571
Can sign
9.2358
2.14499
Up to 5th
8.8889
2.12003
6th to 10th
8.7600
2.55408
College
8.7619
2.38547
Illiterate
4.5000
1.54919
Can sign
4.4528
1.14752
Up to 5th
4.4028
1.39071
6th to 10th
4.0000
1.32288
College
4.0952
1.48003
Illiterate
7.3125
1.57982
Can sign
7.1981
3.38461
Up to 5th
6.5833
2.18671
6th to 10th
7.0000
2.16025
College
6.4286
2.33605
Illiterate
4.2500
1.43759
Can sign
4.3868
1.18379
Up to 5th
4.0417
1.45774
6th to 10th
3.9200
1.38203
College
3.8095
1.66190
Illiterate
5.5000
.73030
Can sign
4.9717
1.15022
Up to 5th
5.2361
1.16876
6th to 10th
5.1200
1.45258
College
5.1905
1.28915
125
F-value
p-value
0.281
0.890
1.131
0.342
1.338
0.257
0.566
0.688
0.491
0.742
0.897
0.466
0.783
0.537
1.442
0.221
1.025
0.395
Legal empowerment
Overall empowerment
Illiterate
6.9375
1.80624
Can sign
6.5283
1.85271
Up to 5th
6.4306
1.84487
6th to 10th
6.6000
1.82574
College
6.5238
2.01542
Illiterate
64.1250
15.69660
Can sign
63.7830
13.15838
Up to 5th
62.8611
13.46389
6th to 10th
62.5600
13.85364
College
61.2857
14.03262
0.252
0.908
0.197
0.940
From the results of one way ANOVA test in table no 4.48 it is understood that the education of the women has not influenced the empowerment level of women in various dimensions in Tirupati mandal. Irrespective of their education level, the women in Tirupati are empowered well in ten dimensions of empowerment. Table-4.45: Summary of One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test by Social category
Decision making ability
Economic empowerment
Educational empowerment
Socio cultural empowerment
Social category ST
Mean
Std. Deviation
6.7000
2.10513
SC
6.9677
1.75525
BC
6.6207
1.48415
MIN
7.2000
1.93218
OC
6.3438
1.40528
ST
6.1000 a
2.19809
SC
7.0161 b
1.23464
BC
6.4569 b
1.47673
MIN
6.8000 b
.63246
OC
6.8438 b
1.19432
ST
7.4500
1.84890
SC
7.4839
1.73434
BC
7.3017
1.46981
MIN
8.6000
.69921
OC
7.1875
1.63505
ST
6.3000
2.77394
SC
6.5645
2.17000
BC
6.2069
2.15292
MIN
7.3000
2.26323
OC
5.6563
2.04165
126
F-value
p-value
1.111
0.352
2.440*
0.048
1.755
0.139
1.466
0.213
Political empowerment
Cosmo-politeness attitude
Social Participation
Access and control to assets and resources
Capacity building and skill development
Legal empowerment
Overall empowerment
ST
8.3500 a
2.79614
SC
9.3548 a
2.09681
BC
8.8017 a
2.22328
MIN
10.6000 b
1.64655
OC
9.2188 a
1.84451
ST
4.2500
1.83174
SC
4.5968
1.22085
BC
4.2069
1.28210
MIN
5.0000
1.05409
OC
4.3438
1.12478
ST
6.5500
2.52305
SC
7.5161
4.24937
BC
6.6897
1.91749
MIN
7.0000
2.26078
OC
6.9063
1.82030
ST
4.0000
1.74718
SC
4.4355
1.31350
BC
4.1034
1.28793
MIN
4.4000
1.77639
OC
3.9688
1.28225
ST
4.8000 a
1.57614
SC
5.3226 a
1.06777
BC
4.8879 a
1.20702
MIN
5.9000 b
0.31623
OC
5.5313 c
0.91526
ST
6.8000
2.21478
SC
6.5161
1.99788
BC
6.3707
1.71708
MIN
7.4000
1.77639
OC
6.7188
1.78225
ST
61.3000
18.91560
SC
65.7742
13.84507
BC
61.6466
12.96836
MIN
70.2000
12.46150
OC
62.7188
9.74922
2.509*
0.043
1.576
0.181
1.014
0.401
0.987
0.415
4.217**
0.003
0.960
0.430
1.756
0.139
From the results of one-way ANOVA in table 4.49, it is observed that there is significant influence of social category on ‘Economic empowerment’, ‘Political empowerment’ and ’Capacity Building and Skill Development’. Since the p-value corresponding to ‘Economic empowerment’ (0.048) is less than 0.05, it can be represented that there is significant influence of „Social Category‟ of which STs with mean score 6.1 is noticeably lower than the mean empowerment scores of women from other social categories.
127
Further it is identified that the ‘Political empowerment’ and ‘Capacity building and Skill Development’ abilities are likely to be less in „Minorities‟ than that of women from other social categories in Tirupati rural mandal. Other dimensions of empowerment including overall empowerment have not been influenced by social category of the women in Tirupati rural Mandal. Table-4.46: Summary of One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test by Period of association with SHG .
Decision making ability
Economic empowerment
Educational empowerment
Socio cultural empowerment
Political empowerment
Cosmopoliteness attitude
Social Participation
Access and control to assets and resources Capacity building and skill development
Legal empowerment
Overall empowerment
period of associatio n with SHG 2-3 years
Mean
Std. Deviation
F-value
p-value
6.0652 a
1.01985
29.591**
0.000
4-5 years
6.2833 a
1.45049
>5 years
7.7838 b
1.69018
2-3 years
5.7391 a
1.35704
12.124**
0.000
4-5 years
6.8000 b
1.27418
10.551**
0.000
27.201**
0.000
21.683**
0.000
21.913**
0.000
8.811**
0.000
18.995**
0.000
23.390**
0.000
24.773**
0.000
30.894**
0.000
>5 years
6.9324 b
1.57316
2-3 years
6.8261 a
1.46522
4-5 years
7.2250 a
1.53098
>5 years
8.0405 b
1.55660
2-3 years
4.9348 a
1.79384
4-5 years
5.9917 b
1.92505
>5 years
7.5811 c
2.23917
2-3 years
7.4565 a
1.95171
4-5 years
9.0667 b
1.78101
>5 years
9.9730 c
2.43813
2-3 years
3.4565 a
1.12953
4-5 years
4.3500 b
1.01791
>5 years
4.9459 c
1.47947
2-3 years
5.4565 a
1.73470
4-5 years
7.2000 b
3.16653
>5 years
7.4189 b
2.25137
2-3 years
3.3261 a
.92025
4-5 years
4.1250 b
1.11944
>5 years
4.7838 c
1.62405
2-3 years
4.1739 a
1.41899
4-5 years
5.2333 b
.97647
>5 years
5.5270 b
1.00986
2-3 years
5.3696 a
1.23574
4-5 years
6.3583 b
1.62851
>5 years
7.5405 c
1.99444
2-3 years
52.8043 a
9.02249
4-5 years
62.6333 b
10.32573
>5 years
70.5270 c
15.74734
128
One-way ANOVA is clear in proving once again that,
the „period of
association of women with SHG‟ have shown strong significant influence on their empowerment in ten dimensions and also in „overall empowerment‟. This fact is statistically proved at 1% level of significance since p-values corresponding to ten dimensions along with overall empowerment are less than 0.01. Table-4.47: One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test by current status in the group
Decision making ability
Economic empowerment
Educational empowerment
Socio cultural empowerment
Political empowerment
Cosmo politeness attitude
Social Participation
Access and control to assets and resources
Capacity building and skill development
Legal empowerment
Overall empowerment
Current Status Leader
Mean
Std. Deviation
F-value
p-value
8.8500 a
.66216
225.051**
0.000
Ex-Leader
9.0000 a
.00000
Member
5.9209 b
1.06838
Leader
7.3500 a
.73554
32.916**
0.000
Ex-Leader
8.3043 b
.97397
Member
6.2599 c
1.41430
Leader
8.9000 a
.63246
59.822**
0.000
Ex-Leader
9.0000 a
.00000
Member
6.8531 b
1.47745
Leader
8.8000 a
.99228
114.585**
0.000
Ex-Leader
9.0000 a
.00000
Member
5.3559 b
1.77830
Leader
11.7000 a
1.22370
106.490**
0.000
Ex-Leader
11.3478 a
.48698
Member
8.1356 b
1.76575
Leader
5.8500 a
.69982
120.614**
0.000
Ex-Leader
6.0000 a
.00000
Member
3.8136 b
1.01368 42.580**
0.000
171.409**
0.000
24.419**
0.000
164.724**
0.000
266.322**
0.000
Leader
9.4750 a
4.58530
Ex-Leader
9.0000 a
.00000
Member
6.0904 b
1.72309
Leader
5.8750 a
.51578
Ex-Leader
6.0000 a
0.00000
Member
3.5537 b
0.98206
Leader
5.9000 a
0.49614
Ex-Leader
6.0000 a
0.00000
Member
4.8305 b
1.23149
Leader
8.8250 a
0.67511
Ex-Leader
9.0000 a
0.00000
Member
5.6949 b
1.35581
Leader
81.5250 a
7.72272
Ex-Leader
82.6522 a
0.48698
Member
56.5085 b
7.92157
129
Further DMRT clearly
proved that ‘Decision making ability’ and
‘Educational empowerment’ are significantly higher in the women who have more than 5 years of association with SHG, where as high level of ‘Economic empowerment’, ‘Social Participation’ and ‘Capacity building and skill development’ are observed in the women who have more than 4 years of association with SHG. Noticeably, in other dimensions viz., „Sociocultural empowerment’, ‘Political empowerment’, ‘Cosmopoliteness attitude’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’, ‘Legal empowerment’ and ‘Overall empowerment’ , the women with more than 5 years of association with SHG stood first then followed by between 4 – 5 years of association and 2-3 years of association. Hence, each year of association of women with SHGs contributes significantly towards empowerment in these five dimensions which drives in achieving overall empowerment in Tirupati rural mandal. From the results of one-way ANOVA it can be noticed that the current status of the women in SHG (Leader, Ex-Leader, or Member) plays a vital role in empowering them at various dimensions, since all p-values corresponding to ten dimensions along with overall empowerment are less than 0.01in Tirupati rural mandal.
Further with the help of DMRT, it can be concluded that Leadership (Ex or present) has more influence in enhancing their empowerment levels at various dimensions except in „Economic empowerment’. It is evident from the mean scores of empowerment that the ex- Leaders or present Leaders are highly empowered in ten dimensions than „members‟, which leads them to have overall empowerment in Tirupati rural mandal. But in ‘Economic empowerment’, ex-leaders and leaders are also significantly differed with one another, for which Ex-leader have more empowerment than leader and members.
130
Table-4.48: Comparison between Meliaputti and Tirupati Rural Mandal N
Mean
Std. Deviation
t-value
p-value
Decision making ability
Name of the mandal Maliaputti
260
6.3462
1.53322
2.534*
0.012
Tirupati rural
240
6.7042
1.62614
Economic empowerment
Maliaputti
260
6.9192
1.14458
2.419*
0.016
Tirupati rural
240
6.6375
1.45139
Educational empowerment
Maliaputti
260
7.5000
1.43185
0.741
0.459
Tirupati rural
240
7.4000
1.58655
Socio cultural empowerment
Maliaputti
260
6.0615
2.00098
1.155
0.249
Tirupati rural
240
6.2792
2.21283
Political empowerment
Maliaputti
260
8.7615
1.93047
1.491
0.136
Tirupati rural
240
9.0375
2.20561
Cosmopoliteness attitude
Maliaputti
260
4.3231
1.04135
0.376
0.707
Tirupati rural
240
4.3625
1.29928 0.220
0.826
2.097*
0.037
4.887**
0.000
1.126
0.261
0.513
0.608
Social Participation Access and control to assets and resources Capacity building and skill development Legal empowerment Overall empowerment
Maliaputti
260
6.8885
1.72397
Tirupati rural
240
6.9333
2.76328
Maliaputti
260
3.9308
1.24701
Tirupati rural
240
4.1750
1.35784
Maliaputti
260
5.5692
.85594
Tirupati rural
240
5.1208
1.18126
Maliaputti
260
6.3462
1.86499
Tirupati rural
240
6.5333
1.84746
Maliaputti
260
62.6462
9.78365
Tirupati rural
240
63.1833
13.48111
Comparative analysis is carried out between two mandal with regard to various dimensions of empowerment and results are exhibited in table 4.52. The results of Student‟s t-test reveal that the women in Maliaputti and Tirupati rural mandals differ significantly in „Decision making ability’, ‘Economic empowerment’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’ and ‘Capacity building and skill development’. Tirupati rural women have more „Decision making ability’ and ‘Access and control to assets and resources’ than the women from Meliaputti mandal. But women
of
Meliaputti
mandal
stood
first
with
regard
empowerment’and ‘Capacity building and skill development’.
131
to
‘Economic
MELIAPUTTI MANDAL Table-4.49: Summary of Independent sample t-test by Head of the Family
Decision making ability Economic empowerment Educational empowerment Socio cultural empowerment Political empowerment Cosmopoliteness attitude Social Participation Access and control to assets and resources Capacity building and skill development Legal empowerment Overall empowerment
Head of the family
Mean
Std. Deviation
t-value
p-value
9.681**
0.000
1.603
0.110
1.632
0.104
0.469
0.639
4.274**
0.000
3.887**
0.000
1.620
0.106
3.511**
0.001
0.470
0.639
3.245**
0.001
3.754**
0.000
Male Headed
6.0609
1.32683
Female Headed
8.5333
1.22428
Male Headed
6.8783
1.15708
Female Headed
7.2333
1.00630
Male Headed
7.5522
1.34274
Female Headed
7.1000
1.97135
Male Headed
6.0826
1.93048
Female Headed
5.9000
2.50998
Male Headed
8.5826
1.84785
Female Headed
10.1333
2.02967
Male Headed
4.2348
.97864
Female Headed
5.0000
1.25945
Male Headed
6.8261
1.75962
Female Headed
7.3667
1.35146
Male Headed
3.8348
1.21080
Female Headed
4.6667
1.29544
Male Headed
5.5783
.85675
Female Headed
5.5000
.86103
Male Headed
6.2130
1.85331
Female Headed
7.3667
1.65015
Male Headed
6 1.8435
9.35014
Female Headed
68.8000
10.96515
From the results of Independent sample t-test in table 4.53, it is observed that there is significant influence of head of the family on ‘Decision making ability’, ‘Political empowerment’ ‘Cosmo-politeness attitude’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’, ‘Legal empowerment’ and ‘Overall empowerment’. The p-value (0.000 < 0.05) of „Decision making ability’ reveals that there is a significant impact of head of the family, for which „Male headed family‟ with mean value 6.06 is noticeably lower than the mean score of „Female headed family‟ (Mean =8.53) . From p-values of ‘Political empowerment’, ‘Cosmo-politeness attitude’, ‘Access and control to assets and resources’ and ‘Legal empowerment’ one can understand that Female headed families are showing higher empowerment than that of families run by Males in Meliaputti mandal. Finally, apart from the above significant findings from Meliaputti Mandal, „Head of the family‟ showed major impact on „Overall empowerment‟ of the Women, since p-value 0.0005 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years 2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years
Mean
Std. Deviation
5.3333 a 6.1790 b 7.6071 b 7.3333 6.9083 6.9643 8.6667 7.4803 7.5357 6.0000 6.0786 5.9286 9.6667 8.7031 9.1429 4.6667 4.2926 4.5357 6.0000 6.8952 6.9286 4.0000 3.9258 3.9643 6.0000 5.5590 5.6071 5.6667 6.3144 6.6786 65.3333 62.3362 64.8929
1.52753 1.44438 1.66309 .57735 1.19037 .74447 .57735 1.42835 1.50264 2.64575 1.92010 2.59527 2.08167 1.88462 2.27245 1.15470 1.00306 1.31887 3.00000 1.68518 1.94229 2.00000 1.19894 1.57485 .00000 .87473 .73733 3.05505 1.82016 2.12661 14.57166 9.18311 13.54646
F-value
p-value
12.466**
0.000
0.227
0.797
1.026
0.360
0.071
0.931
0.981
0.376
0.844
0.431
0.406
0.667
0.016
0.984
0.422
0.656
0.675
0.510
0.966
0.382
When it comes to period of association with SHG, only one significant finding is observed with „Decision making ability‟. The p-value (0.0005 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
63.249**
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Decision making ability Low 1 33.3% 175 76.4% 12 42.9% 188 72.3%
Moderate 1 33.3% 19 8.3% 0 0.0% 20 7.7%
High 1 33.3% 35 15.3% 16 57.1% 52 20.0%
Decision making ability Low 41 89.1% 93 77.5% 26 35.1% 160 66.7%
Moderate 1 2.2% 6 5.0% 0 0.0% 7 2.9%
High 4 8.7% 21 17.5% 48 64.9% 73 30.4%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The data presented in table 4.61 clearly proves once again that, the „period of association of women with SHG‟ have shown strong significant influence on their ability in decision making. This fact is statistically proved at 1% level of significance since p-values corresponding to this dimension is less than 0.01. This is true in both mandals of Meliaputti and Tirupati rural which suggests that the decision making ability among SHG women increase with age.
143
Table-4.58: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Economic Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
4.981
0.083 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square 26.373**
p-value 0.000
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
Total
2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years
Economic empowerment Low High 0 3 0.0% 100.0% 73 156 31.9% 68.1% 4 24 14.3% 85.7% 77 183 29.6% 70.4% Economic empowerment Low High 33 13 71.7% 28.3% 57 63 47.5% 52.5% 18 56 24.3% 75.7% 108 132 45.0% 55.0%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
It is observed from the above table 4.62 that, in Meliaputti Mandal, Economic empowerment of women is not influenced by their period of association with the SHG. However in Tirupati rural mandal the association between these two variables is highly significant at 1% value. Hence it is proved from the statistical analysis that there is significant association between period of association with SHG member in years and economic empowerment in Tirupati rural mandal. Women empowerment takes place when women challenge the existing social norms and culture, to effectively improve their well being. Therefore as Cheston and Kuhn (2002) argue increased self-confidence does not automatically lead to empowerment. It may contribute decisively to a woman‟s ability and willingness to challenge the social injustices and discriminatory systems that they face. This implies that as women become financially better-off their self confidence and bargaining power within the household increases and this indirectly leads to their empowerment.
144
Table-4.59: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Educational Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
4.629
0.328 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years Total
Chi-square
p-value
40.423**
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years Total
Educational empowerment Low 0 0.0% 54 23.6% 8 28.6% 62 23.8%
Moderate 1 33.3% 103 45.0% 8 28.6% 112 43.1%
High 2 66.7% 72 31.4% 12 42.9% 86 33.1%
Educational empowerment Low 19 41.3% 37 30.8% 13 17.6% 69 28.8%
Moderate 21 45.7% 49 40.8% 13 17.6% 83 34.6%
High 6 13.0% 34 28.3% 48 64.9% 88 36.7%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis presented in table 4.63 proved that there is no significant association between educational empowerment and period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal and that there is a highly significant association in Tirupati Rural Mandal. This suggests that educational empowerment‟ is significantly higher in the women who have more than 5 years of association with SHG. This means that women with more than five years of association with the SHGs are more positive towards children‟s education and practices related to the education of the girl child.
145
Table-4.60: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Socio-Cultural Empowerment Chi-square p-value Socio-cultural empowerment 18.783**
0.001
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
78.699**
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Low 1 33.3% 52 22.7% 14 50.0% 67 25.8%
Moderate 1 33.3% 121 52.8% 3 10.7% 125 48.1%
High 1 33.3% 56 24.5% 11 39.3% 68 26.2%
Socio-cultural empowerment Low 21 45.7% 25 20.8% 15 20.3% 61 25.4%
Moderate 22 47.8% 70 58.3% 8 10.8% 100 41.7%
High 3 6.5% 25 20.8% 51 68.9% 79 32.9%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is significant association between Socio-cultural empowerment and period of association with SHG in both the mandals with the chi square value being significant at 1% level. This indicates that the views and practices of SHG women against sex discrimination, early marriages and child labour get stronger as their length of stay with the SHG increases. Table-4.61: Impact of Period of Association with SHGs on Political Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
9.572
0.048 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years Total
Chi-square
p-value
66.732**
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years Total
Political empowerment Low 0 0.0% 74 32.3% 10 35.7% 84 32.3%
Moderate 2 66.7% 112 48.9% 7 25.0% 121 46.5%
High 1 33.3% 43 18.8% 11 39.3% 55 21.2%
Political empowerment Low 22 47.8% 25 20.8% 16 21.6% 63 26.3%
146
Moderate 23 50.0% 68 56.7% 12 16.2% 103 42.9%
High 1 2.2% 27 22.5% 46 62.2% 74 30.8%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
By observing the findings of period of association with SHG and its impact on the political empowerment, it is noted that in Meliaputti Mandal there is no such association. However in Tirupati Rural Mandal the women with more than 5 years of association with SHG, followed by those between 4 – 5 years of association are more politically empowered. Hence, each year of association of women with SHGs contributes significantly towards empowerment in the political areas in Tirupati rural mandal which is measured in terms of
participation in voting, own decision in
voting, influencing others participation through meetings and campaigns and contest in elections. Table-4.62: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Cosmo-Politeness Attitude Chi-square
p-value
6.725
0.151 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
59.114
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Cosmo-politeness attitude Low 2 66.7% 165 72.1% 16 57.1% 183 70.4%
Moderate 0 0.0% 20 8.7% 1 3.6% 21 8.1%
High 1 33.3% 44 19.2% 11 39.3% 56 21.5%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0%
Cosmo-politeness attitude Low 40 87.0% 85 70.8% 28 37.8% 153 63.8%
Moderate 5 10.9% 9 7.5% 0 0.0% 14 5.8%
High 1 2.2% 26 21.7% 46 62.2% 73 30.4%
Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The Cosmo-politeness attitude of women in Tirupati rural mandal gets influenced by their duration of stay with the SHG. The statistical analysis noted that there is no significant association between Cosmo-politeness attitude and period of association with SHG in Meliaputti mandal but observed to be high in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The women‟s attitude towards other caste/community, politeness to maintain public relations etc gets more positive as the association with SHG increases in years.
147
Table-4.63: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Social Participation Chi-square
p-value
2.501
0.644
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
2-3 years 4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
55.463
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Social Participation Low 2 66.7% 91 39.7% 10 35.7% 103 39.6%
Moderate 0 0.0% 76 33.2% 8 28.6% 84 32.3%
High 1 33.3% 62 27.1% 10 35.7% 73 28.1%
Social Participation Low 35 76.1% 54 45.0% 23 31.1% 112 46.7%
Moderate 10 21.7% 33 27.5% 5 6.8% 48 20.0%
High 1 2.2% 33 27.5% 46 62.2% 80 33.3%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The above tables shows that the statistical analysis proved that there is no association in Meliaputti Mandal between the social participation of women and their period of association with the SHG and the association is highly significant in Tirupati Rural Mandal.
This means that more and more women participate in
collective action towards injustice, social issues (anti liquor, dowry, child marriages etc), celebration of and participation in local festivals as they stay longer with the SHG. The message that clearly emerges from the data is that in Tirupati rural mandal the SHGs do focus on issues beyond savings and credit and prepare women to work on issues that impact their lives, both at the household and community level. This does not seem to be happening in Meliaputti because the social participation of women does not seem to be increasing with the increase in the period of their association with the SHG.
It is therefore suggested the organizers of the SHG
programme in Meliaputti look into this issue and arrange for the trainings and other capacity building programmes to focus on this issue.
148
Table-4.64: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Access and Control to Assets and Resources Chi-square
p-value
16.768*
0.002 2-3 years
Period of association with SHG in Meliaputti
4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
59.742**
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Access and control to assets and resources Low 1 33.3% 77 33.6% 18 64.3% 96 36.9%
Moderate 1 33.3% 83 36.2% 0 0.0% 84 32.3%
High 1 33.3% 69 30.1% 10 35.7% 80 30.8%
Access and control to assets and resources Low 24 52.2% 27 22.5% 24 32.4% 75 31.3%
Moderate 20 43.5% 53 44.2% 4 5.4% 77 32.1%
High 2 4.3% 40 33.3% 46 62.2% 88 36.7%
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
There is significant association between access and control to assets and resources and period of association with SHG in Meliaputti mandal and highly significant in Tirupati rural mandal. In both the mandals the women‟s access to and control over resources increases with the increase in the period of association with the SHG. The access and control to assets and resources which is looked at in terms of both government (schools, pensions, LIC etc) and common property resources at village level (community hall, temple, water, waste land, common lands, forests, gracious lands etc) is raised through the social capital due the SHG membership. The members together seem to be facilitating access to these common resources in the community.
During the process of data collection women narrated how they
demanded for regularity of teachers at schools, that the distribution of the old age pensions are now more regular and the full amount is given to the elderly without any deductions unlike the earlier practices.
149
Table-6.65: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Capacity Building and Skill Development Chi-square
p-value
1.147
0.563
Capacity building and skill development Low High 0 3 0.0% 100.0% 60 169 26.2% 73.8% 8 20 28.6% 71.4% 68 192 26.2% 73.8% Capacity building and skill development Low High 33 13 71.7% 28.3% 52 68 43.3% 56.7% 16 58 21.6% 78.4% 101 139 42.1% 57.9%
2-3 years period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
29.387
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Total 3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The above table shows the results that the period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural proved to have a highly significant association with capacity building and skill development of the SHG women. No such association is reported in Meliaputti Mandal. With the regular conduct of training programmes and exposure visits to members of the SHGs which are planned and executed on a regular basis as part of the process of institution building, it is expected that these programmes would definitely have an impact on the SHG women and that the capacities and skills would increase as they stay with the SHGs for longer.
However the message from
Meliaputti is that no such thing is happening and this could be a cause of concern for the organizers and the members themselves. It calls for the attention of all concerned to increase the focus and direct all efforts towards enhancing the capacities and developing skills of the group members. The capacity building strategy for the mandal could build on the findings of this research.
150
Table-4.66: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Legal Empowerment Chi-square p-value Legal empowerment 9.197
0.056 2-3 years
Period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years
Total Chi-square
p-value
69.183**
0.000 2-3 years
Period of association with SHG In Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years
Total
Low 2 66.7% 84 36.7% 11 39.3% 97 37.3%
Moderate 0 0.0% 99 43.2% 6 21.4% 105 40.4%
High 1 33.3% 46 20.1% 11 39.3% 58 22.3%
Legal empowerment Low 23 50.0% 37 30.8% 17 23.0% 77 32.1%
Moderate 22 47.8% 62 51.7% 11 14.9% 95 39.6%
High 1 2.2% 21 17.5% 46 62.2% 68 28.3%
Total
3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
The above table shows that in Meliaputti Mandal the legal empowerment among SHG women does not et influenced by their period of association with the SHG. However in Tirupati Rural Mandal the statistical analysis proved that there is a highly significant association between Legal empowerment and period of association with the SHG. Table-4.67: Impact of Period of Association with SHG on Overall Empowerment Chi-square p-value overall empowerment 7.101
0.131 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Meliaputti Mandal
4-5 years >5 years Total
Chi-square
p-value
74.156
0.000 2-3 years
period of association with SHG in Tirupati Rural
4-5 years >5 years Total
Low 1 33.3% 57 24.9% 10 35.7% 68 26.2%
Moderate 1 33.3% 124 54.1% 8 28.6% 133 51.2%
High 1 33.3% 48 21.0% 10 35.7% 59 22.7%
overall empowerment Low 27 58.7% 34 28.3% 22 29.7% 83 34.6%
Moderate 18 39.1% 61 50.8% 6 8.1% 85 35.4%
151
High 1 2.2% 25 20.8% 46 62.2% 72 30.0%
Total
3 100.0% 229 100.0% 28 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 46 100.0% 120 100.0% 74 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by period of association with SHG 80 70
65.3
62.3
70.5
64.9
62.6
60
52.8
50
40 30 20 10 0 2-3 years
4-5 years
>5 years
2-3 years
Maliaputti
4-5 years
>5 years
Tirupati rural
The statistical analysis proved that there is significant association between overall empowerment and period of association with SHG among the women in Tirupati rural Mandal. 50.8% respondents with 4 to5 years association with SHG report moderate empowerment and among those with above 5 years association with SHG 62% report a high level of overall empowerment. So, those who have more period of association with SHG, they have a high overall empowerment. Compared to both Mandals, Tirupati Rural Mandal having is having highly significant association between period of association with SHG and overall empowerment.
SHG
membership seem to be having a positive progressive impact on the lives of the women in Tirupati rural mandal, while in Meliaputti the results are not in the expected direction. The organizers could look into the details to identify the possible reasons and plan interventions accordingly.
152
Table-4.68: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Decision Making Ability Chi-square
p-value
150.082
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
178.177
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Decision making ability Low 2 5.7% 0 0.0% 186 83.4% 188 72.3%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 20 9.0% 20 7.7%
High 33 94.3% 2 100.0% 17 7.6% 52 20.0%
Decision making ability Low 2 5.0% 0 0.0% 158 89.3% 160 66.7%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 7 4.0% 7 2.9%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total
High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 12 6.8% 73 30.4%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between decision making ability and women‟s status in the group in both the mandals. The tables below show that the association is similar with regard to all the ten dimensions of women‟s empowerment used in this research. Performing the role of the leader either now or in the past facilitates a high level of empowerment among SHG women on all the dimensions without much variation in the degree of empowerment.
153
Table-4.69: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Economic Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
14.997**
0.001
Economic empowerment
Leader current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
69.892**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Total
Low High 1 34 2.9% 97.1% 0 2 0.0% 100.0% 76 147 34.1% 65.9% 77 183 29.6% 70.4% Economic empowerment
35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total
Low 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 108 61.0% 108 45.0%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
High 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 69 39.0% 132 55.0%
There is a highly significant association between the women‟s status in the group and their level of economic empowerment. Table-4.70: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Educational Empowerment Chi-square p-value Educational empowerment 61.511**
0.000
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Leader Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
140.344**
0.000
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Total
Leader Ex-Leader Member
Low 1 2.9% 0 0.0% 61 27.4% 62 23.8%
Moderate 3 8.6% 0 0.0% 109 48.9% 112 43.1%
High 31 88.6% 2 100.0% 53 23.8% 86 33.1%
Educational empowerment Low 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 68 38.4% 69 28.8%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 83 46.9% 83 34.6%
154
Total
35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total
High 39 97.5% 23 100.0% 26 14.7% 88 36.7%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
By observing the findings with regard to the impact of current status in the group on the educational empowerment of women it is noted that in Meliaputti Mandal, and the same in Tirupati Rural Mandal, it is proved that there is a statistically highly significant association between the two variables. Leaders and ex leaders are more educationally empowered than the members. Table-4.71: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Socio-Cultural Empowerment Chi-square 82.104**
p-value 0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member Total
Chi-square**
p-value
158.181
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member Total
Socio-cultural empowerment Low Moderate High 0 5 30 0.0% 14.3% 85.7% 0 0 2 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 67 120 36 30.0% 53.8% 16.1% 67 125 68 25.8% 48.1% 26.2% Socio cultural empowerment Low 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 60 33.9% 61 25.4%
Moderate 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 99 55.9% 100 41.7%
High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 18 10.2% 79 32.9%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between
Socio-cultural empowerment and the current status in the group in both
Mandals. Here it is observed both in Meliaputti and Tirupati Rural Mandal that being either leaders or ex-leaders facilitates a high level of socio-cultural empowerment among the SHG women.
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Table-4.72: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Political Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
110.630**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square**
p-value
174.900
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Political empowerment Low 2 5.7% 0 0.0% 82 36.8% 84 32.3%
Moderate 3 8.6% 0 0.0% 118 52.9% 121 46.5%
Total
High 30 85.7% 2 100.0% 23 10.3% 55 21.2%
35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0%
Political empowerment Low 2 5.0% 0 0.0% 61 34.5% 63 26.3%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 103 58.2% 103 42.9%
Total
High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 13 7.3% 74 30.8%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between Political empowerment, and current status in the group in both the Mandals. Table-4.73: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Cosmo-Politeness Attitude Chi-square
p-value
108.015**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
178.185**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Cosmo-politeness attitude Low 4 11.4% 0 0.0% 179 80.3% 183 70.4%
Moderate 1 2.9% 0 0.0% 20 9.0% 21 8.1%
High 30 85.7% 2 100.0% 24 10.8% 56 21.5%
Cosmo-politeness attitude Low 2 5.0% 0 0.0% 151 85.3% 153 63.8%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 14 7.9% 14 5.8%
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High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 12 6.8% 73 30.4%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The above table proved that there is highly significant association between Cosmo-politeness attitudinal and current status in group in both the mandals. Table-4.74: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Social Participation Chi-square
p-value
73.084**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
155.207**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Social Participation Low 3 8.6% 0 0.0% 100 44.8% 103 39.6%
Moderate 2 5.7% 0 0.0% 82 36.8% 84 32.3%
High 30 85.7% 2 100.0% 41 18.4% 73 28.1%
Social Participation Low 2 5.0% 0 0.0% 110 62.1% 112 46.7%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 48 27.1% 48 20.0%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total
High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 19 10.7% 80 33.3%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
Majority of 85.7%, of the respondents who are leaders are highly empowered in social participation in Meliaputti Mandal, and 95%, followed the same in Tirupati rural mandal. Here it is noticed that those who play the key role and responsibility of leadership, they are highly empowered. Here, statistically highly significant association is found between Social Participation and current status in the group.
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Table-4.75: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Access and Control to Assets and Resources Chi-square
p-value
69.478**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
140.336**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Access and control to assets and resources Low 1 2.9% 0 0.0% 95 42.6% 96 36.9%
Moderate 3 8.6% 0 0.0% 81 36.3% 84 32.3%
High 31 88.6% 2 100.0% 47 21.1% 80 30.8%
Access and control to assets and resources Low 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 74 41.8% 75 31.3%
Moderate 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 77 43.5% 77 32.1%
High 39 97.5% 23 100.0% 26 14.7% 88 36.7%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between Access and control to assets and resources and current status in the group. 88.6% of the leader respondents in Meliaputti mandal have high empowerment in the access and control to assets and resources and 97.5% are the same in Tirupati rural mandal. Table-4.76: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Capacity Building and Skill Development Chi-square p-value Capacity building and skill development Total 15.278** 0.000 Low High 0 35 35 Leader 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% current status in 0 2 2 the group Ex-Leader in Meliaputti 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% Mandal 68 155 223 Member 30.5% 69.5% 100.0% 68 192 260 Total 26.2% 73.8% 100.0% Chi-square p-value Capacity building and skill development Total 53.209** 0.000 Low High Leader current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
2 5.0% 0 0.0% 99 55.9% 101
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38 95.0% 23 100.0% 78 44.1% 139
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240
42.1%
57.9%
100.0%
By observing the finding of impact of current status in the group on capacity building and skill development of the women in SHGs it is found that 100% of the leaders and ex leaders in Meliaputti Mandal report a high level of empowerment and almost similar finding is observed in Tirupati Rural Mandal. The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association observed between both the variables with the value being significant at 1% level. Table-4.77: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Legal Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
103.080**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Ex-Leader Member
Total Chi-square
p-value
189.028**
0.000 Leader
current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
Ex-Leader Member
Total
Legal empowerment Low 1 2.9% 0 0.0% 96 43.0% 97 37.3%
Moderate 4 11.4% 0 0.0% 101 45.3% 105 40.4%
High 30 85.7% 2 100.0% 26 11.7% 58 22.3%
Legal empowerment Low 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 77 43.5% 77 32.1%
Moderate 3 7.5% 0 0.0% 92 52.0% 95 39.6%
High 37 92.5% 23 100.0% 8 4.5% 68 28.3%
Total 35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
The statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between Legal empowerment and current status in the group in both the mandals. The leaders are highly empowered of legal aspects when compared to the members.
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Table-4.78: Impact of Current Status in the Group on Overall Empowerment Chi-square
p-value
108.900**
0.000
Current status in the group in Meliaputti Mandal
Overall empowerment Low 1 2.9% 0 0.0% 67 30.0% 68 26.2%
Leader Ex-Leader Member Total
Chisquare** 181.827 current status in the group in Tirupati Rural
p-value
Moderate 3 8.6% 0 0.0% 130 58.3% 133 51.2%
Total
High 31 88.6% 2 100.0% 26 11.7% 59 22.7%
35 100.0% 2 100.0% 223 100.0% 260 100.0%
Overall empowerment
0.000
Low 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 82 46.3% 83 34.6%
Leader Ex-Leader Member Total
Moderate 1 2.5% 0 0.0% 84 47.5% 85 35.4%
Total High 38 95.0% 23 100.0% 11 6.2% 72 30.0%
40 100.0% 23 100.0% 177 100.0% 240 100.0%
Overall empowerment by Current Status in SHG 90 80
79.0
83.0
70
81.5
82.7
59.9
60
56.5
50 40 30 20 10 0 Leader
Ex-Leader
Member
Leader
Maliaputti
Ex-Leader
Member
Tirupati rural
By observing the overall empowerment in Meliaputti Mandal, high level of empowerment appeared in leaders (88.6%), and also in ex leaders (100.0%). Similarly 95% of the leaders in Tirupati rural mandals and 100% of the ex leaders are having high level of overall empowerment. When it comes to the members most of them report either a low or moderate level of overall empowerment. It can be seen
160
from the tables in the above section that most of the women with the current status as members report a low level of empowerment on most of the dimensions.
The
statistical analysis proved that there is highly significant association between overall empowerment and the current status in the group and similar findings are observed in both the Mandals. It may be noted here that in the state run programme of poverty alleviation through empowerment of women using the self help group approach, rotation of leadership has been made a non negotiable in the self help groups. This was based on the earlier experiences under the UNDP supported project in three districts in Andhra Pradesh where it was found that leadership in SHG made a lot of difference not only to the women‟s lives, but also to their families and communities. The results in the present study also indicate the powerful contribution of SHG leadership to the empowerment of women in all dimensions and also to the overall empowerment. However, the data shows that 86% of the SHG women in Meliaputti and 74% of them in Tirupati rural mandal still remain to be members even after twelve years of implementation of the programme in the state. This clearly indicates that the non negotiable norm of leadership rotation has not been practiced in both the mandals and more so in Meliaputti. This is indeed a serious cause of concern and calls for the immediate attention of the programme planners and implementers in order to promote equal level of empowerment among all the SHG members by facilitating the strict implementation of the norm of leadership rotation. 4.6 GROUP PERFORMANCE AND EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN Development alone cannot bring peace and prosperity unless social justice and gender equality are ensured. It has been well accepted that various development programmes have bypassed women who constitute about half of the population of the country. International conventions and conferences, legal enactments, constitutional provisions etc. highlighted the imperative need for gender equality and women empowerment. The rural poor, with the intermediation of government departments and NGOs join together for self help to secure better economic growth. This has resulted in the formation of a large number of self help groups in the country, which mobilize savings and recycle the resources generated among the members. SHG‟s are necessary to overcome exploitation, create confidence for the economic self-reliance
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of the rural poor, particularly among women who are mostly invisible in the social structure. These groups enable them to come together for a common objective and gain strength from each other to deal with exploitation, which they are facing, in several forms. A group becomes the basis for action and change. Significantly, credit is a major factor in boosting economic development if it is effectively utilized. The government‟s recent initiatives to streamline credit operations and delivery system through micro-finance movement and strengthening and expansion of credit institutions (SHG‟s) can definitely help in the revival of rural economy and empowerment of the rural poor. Micro-credit intervention programme has been wellrecognized world over as an effective tool for poverty alleviation and improving socio-economic conditions of rural poor. In India too, micro-credit is making a strong headway in its efforts to reduce poverty and empower the rural poor.
However, whether such empowerment actually takes place or not depends not only on the individual characteristics of the group members and their role in the SHG but also the level of group performance since the factors that contribute to the empowerment of the women relate to the processes and interactions in the group as also the quality of these processes. It is in this context that an attempt has been made in this section to see what aspects of the group functioning influence the empowerment of women and to what extent. The findings could be useful in the policy context wherein the group strengthening strategy could be based on these indicators of group performance. The indicators considered in this research include conduct of meetings, members‟ attendance in meetings, regularity in savings and loan repayments. The Critical Rating Index (CRI), a standardized instrument used to assess the group performance in the state in order to facilitate bank linkages has also been considered in the selection of these four indicators. All four of them find an important place in the CRI with a good allocation of maximum marks, a high scoring of which can help the group obtain the required „A‟ grade.
Based on the overall
score obtained for the identified four indicators, the group performance has been grouped into low, medium and high. The association between group performance and each of the ten dimensions of empowerment has been tested in the following sections using the Chi Square. Few groups in Tirupati and a small number in Meliaputti actually fall into the high group performance category. As a result the comparisons are more in terms of the average performance and low performance.
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Table-4.79: Group Performance - Decision Making Ability of Women Respondents Chi-square 9.191
p-value 0.056 Low
Group Performance Average Meliaputti Mandal High Total Chi-square
p-value
9.786*
0.044 Low
Group Performance Average Tirupati Rural High Total
Decision making ability Low Moderate 0 0 0.0% 0.0% 163 17 72.1% 7.5% 25 3 78.1% 9.4% 188 20 72.3% 7.7%
High 2 100.0% 46 20.4% 4 12.5% 52 20.0%
Decision making ability Low 37 86.0% 122 62.2% 1 100.0% 160 66.7%
Moderate 0 0.0% 7 3.6% 0 0.0% 7 2.9%
High 6 14.0% 67 34.2% 0 0.0% 73 30.4%
Total 2 100.0% 226 100.0% 32 100.0% 260 100.0% Total 43 100.0% 196 100.0% 1 100.0% 240 100.0%
Group performance is significantly influencing (P-value 0.044
