Environmental and Economic considerations on ...

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS ON HARDSTONE QUARRIES IN MALTA A case study of a hardstone quarry

A project submitted in partial fulfilment for the Bachelor Degree in Environmental Engineering in Project Management Techniques

DANIKA FORMOSA BSc. Environmental Engineering MCAST Institute of Applied Sciences May 2017

Contents Aim ................................................................................................................................................................ 4 Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................... 5 Literature Review .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Geological History of the Maltese Islands ................................................................................................ 6 Rocks of the Maltese Islands..................................................................................................................... 7 Upper Coralline Limestone (UCL) – Qawwi ta’ Fuq............................................................................... 7 Greensand – Ġebla s-Safra .................................................................................................................... 8 Blue Clay – Tafli ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Globigerina Limestone – Tal-Franka ..................................................................................................... 8 Lower Coralline Limestone (LCL) – Qawwi ta’ Taħt, Żonqor ................................................................. 9 Topography and Geomorphology of the Maltese Islands ...................................................................... 10 Quarrying in Malta .................................................................................................................................. 10 Coralline Limestone ............................................................................................................................ 10 Globigerina Limestone ........................................................................................................................ 11 Quarrying Methods ................................................................................................................................. 11 Statistics on operational quarries in Malta and Gozo ......................................................................... 12 The quarrying industry and the environment......................................................................................... 13 Environmental Impacts ....................................................................................................................... 13 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................... 15 The quarrying industry and the economy............................................................................................... 16 Gross Domestic Product...................................................................................................................... 16 Annual Production .............................................................................................................................. 17 Employment ........................................................................................................................................ 19 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 20 Methodology............................................................................................................................................... 21 Desk Study............................................................................................................................................... 21 Site Visits and Field Work........................................................................................................................ 21 Consultations .......................................................................................................................................... 21 Project Plan of Implementation .................................................................................................................. 22 Planning, Reporting and Monitoring Strategies ......................................................................................... 22 Case Study: Wied Incita .............................................................................................................................. 23 Page 1 of 66

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 23 Quarry area ............................................................................................................................................. 24 Boundaries .............................................................................................................................................. 24 Relevant Images and illustrations ........................................................................................................... 24 Quarrying and the Environment ............................................................................................................. 25 Land cover ........................................................................................................................................... 25 Disturbance ......................................................................................................................................... 26 Noise, Vibrations and Dust.................................................................................................................. 26 Waste and Backfill ............................................................................................................................... 26 Development applications ...................................................................................................................... 27 Economic Considerations........................................................................................................................ 27 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 27 Evaluation and Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 28 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 30 References .................................................................................................................................................. 31 APPENDIX I .................................................................................................................................................. 34 Wied Incita – Site Visit March, 2016 ....................................................................................................... 34 Quarried Area...................................................................................................................................... 34 Habitats and Landscape ...................................................................................................................... 35 Environmental Pressures .................................................................................................................... 37 Wied Incita – Site Visit February, 2017 ................................................................................................... 38 Environmental Pressures .................................................................................................................... 43 Wied Inċita – Site Visit, May 2017 .......................................................................................................... 44 Quarried area ...................................................................................................................................... 44 Habitats and Landscape ...................................................................................................................... 47 Environmental Pressures .................................................................................................................... 50 APPENDIX II ................................................................................................................................................. 55 Wied Incita Maps and Figures................................................................................................................. 55 Species List .......................................................................................................................................... 60 APPENDIX III ................................................................................................................................................ 63 Consultation with Carmel Cacopardo – April 2017 ................................................................................. 63 Questions ............................................................................................................................................ 63 Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 63 Page 2 of 66

APPENDIX IV ................................................................................................................................................ 64 Consultation with Resident ..................................................................................................................... 64 Questions ............................................................................................................................................ 64 Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 64 APPENDIX V Project Planning ................................................................................................................. 66

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Aim The aim of this project is to learn more about the impacts of quarrying and the extractive industry on the environment and on the local economy and whether there is the need for improvement. This study also aims at suggesting recommendations for further research, especially in areas where not many studies have been carried out.

Abstract The quarrying industry is a very important industry in Malta and has raised many concerns over the years. The impacts of quarrying on the environment and the effects of the industry on the economy are outlined in this report and earmarked for a deeper study through further research. The literature review draws upon works by various researchers in the fields of geology, Maltese stone, the quarrying and construction industry and the economy. The study utilised three methods to reach its aim: 1. A review of literature 2. Site visits to obtain visual effects of quarries 3. Consultations with various stakeholders involved in the quarrying industry to elicit their perceptions on the industry, to obtain information on the industry itself and to evoke the problems related to the industry. Consequently, Wied Inċita in Attard l/o Ħaż-Żebbuġ, was used as a case study to gain a better understanding on the relationship between quarrying, the environment and the economy. The study found that the quarrying industry is giving unfavourable results in terms of the environment, however it contributes significantly to the economy. It has also shown that there is a lack of case studies and baseline information on many quarries, with makes it difficult to establish significant impacts in detail. Key words: quarrying, Maltese stone, geology, Wied Inċita, local economy, environmental impacts

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Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all those who contributed to my study at different stages of the project. Thanks are due to Dr. Peter Gatt who inspired me to study the quarrying industry and directed me, as well as Dr. Mario Balzan for his help in planning the project. I would also like to show appreciation to the residents of Attard who have given me invaluable information and assistance to compile and analyse the data. My thanks are also due to Mr. Carmel Cacopardo, the Maltese Green Party and all other stakeholders who have spared their time and helped me greatly with their suggestions and advice. I am also thankful to the lecturers and staff at the Institute of Applied Science and the librarians at MCAST Main Campus, for their patience and support. My final word of thanks goes to my family, especially my mother and my partner, who have been tremendously supportive at various stages of my project.

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Literature Review Geological History of the Maltese Islands The geological history of the Maltese Islands is said to be very young, having said to begun about twentyfive million years ago, during a time between the Oligocene (38 - 23 million years ago) and the Miocene Epochs (23 - 5 million years ago) (Azzopardi, 2002), an era where most of all exposed rocks were deposited. Most parts of the Islands are composed of marine sedimentary rock, although the sedimentary platform on which the Maltese Islands lie on rocks which are said to have been formed during the Triassic epoch (240 – 208 million years ago) and hence there are no surface outcrops of this geological period (MEPA, 2015). The site on which the Islands now lie was once only a sea-bed whereby millions of minute organisms and algae accumulated and deposited themselves. Over time, together with the accumulation of sand and other materials, all these cemented and became hard rock. Over millions of years, the accumulation of materials formed rock strata. Plate tectonics in the Mediterranean Region approximately 10 million year ago, caused movement in the continental shelves. This lead to the folding of land due to the pressure exerted by the African continent colliding with Eurasia. Because of this, rock-tops began to appear above sea level. Approximately five million year ago, the Mediterranean began to dry up after it was sealed off from the Atlantic Ocean (ScienceDaily, 2009). The subsidence of the water, allowed the land between Sicily and the Maltese Islands to appear above the surface of sea and hence, there was dry land, a continuous strip between the two land masses. Consequently, as the water in the Mediterranean continued to evaporate, the salt which was found in the sea was left behind and began to accumulate layers on the seabed (Briegel & Xiao, 2001). These new masses of land allowed animals to move freely between the two lands. Remains at Għar Dalam in Birzebbugia prove the existence of such historic animals, mainly from Europe and possibly Africa to the Maltese Islands (Savona-Venura, e.d.). This phenomenal event led to the Zanclean flood in the Miocene Epoch, where the level of the Atlantic Ocean rose and reclaimed the Mediterranean basin, possibly because of the thawing of ice at the end of one of the Ice age periods. The water gushed through the Strait of Gibraltar, inundating most parts of the Mediterranean Basin, leaving only the top of the high lands above sea level. This extreme event cut the Maltese Islands off from Sicily and all surrounding areas, forming the islands (Maslin, 2013). In the Pleistocene Epoch, which was about two million years ago, another Ice Age occurred and all Europe except the Mediterranean Region was covered in ice. At this stage, the sea level in the Atlantic was lowered, and therefore large amounts of water gushed out of the Mediterranean Sea, which consequently lowered the level of water again (Nilsson, 1983). This led to the appearance of land between the Maltese Islands and Sicily. However, after thousands of years and the re-thawing of ice within the Atlantic, the sealevel rose once again and the Mediterranean Sea was flooded. After this age, which ended approximately 10,000 years ago, the changing tends have slowed down and therefore the land masses have remained islands as they are known today (Azzopardi, 2002) (Waugh, 2000). Despite such extreme events, still during the prehistoric period, there were other factors which contributed to the configuration of the islands in the Mediterranean, including the Maltese Islands. The effects of the sea waves against the rocks, torrential rains, currents, the changes in temperatures and land Page 6 of 66

movements have left an impact on the rock and characteristics of the Maltese Islands. The first signs of the presence of man can be traced back to the more than 5,000 years ago, whereby the Megalithic temples in Malta, date back to the around 3,400 B.C (Hilary, 2002). The first inhabitants learnt how to rear animals, cultivate land and protect themselves from the elements. The islands are known to have originally been a large woodland, which were cut down for building and wood-fire purposes. These endeavours may have been after man’s primitive emergence from caves and before the discovery of the use of stone (Vassallo, 2015).

Rocks of the Maltese Islands Within the Maltese Islands only sedimentary rock is found. Sedimentary rock is formed by the compression and accumulation of debris and sediment, through the process of the historical up-lift, caused by folding, as described above. Each layer weighs upon and compresses the layer below it into solid rock. The resultant rock strata formed are very simple and consist of five basic layers laid on top of each other (Bianco, 2017). The different strata can be identified through their colour, physical texture and characteristics. These layers are always found in the same sequence, even though in certain areas, parts of these layers may be missing. The layer which appears on the surface may vary in different areas around Malta.

Upper Coralline Limestone

Qawwi ta’ Fuq

Greensand

Ġebla s-Safra

Blue Clay

Tafli

Globigerina Limestone

Tal-Franka

Lower Coralline Limestone

Qawwi ta’ Taħt, Żonqor

The types or rock are described below.

Upper Coralline Limestone (UCL) – Qawwi ta’ Fuq This is the uppermost layer and was formed when the land was still submerged under the sea and which was trusted upwards by folding from the Earth’s tectonic movements and natural activities. The limestone is a hard sediment; however, it is still porous and allows water to seep through. This type of rock is often found on hilltops and plateaux, for example o the Dingli-Rabat uplands and the surface of Comino. In areas such as Binġemma, the UCL layer is of considerable thickness, estimated at 162 meters. The soil which forms from UCL is reddish in colour and therefore termed as “terra rossa”. Unfortunately, this type of stone is often exposed to the elements and hence is affected by erosion from rain and wind. In fact, most of these areas are barren. UCL is used in industry and quarried for spalls (żrara) for roadsurfacing an also in the production of concrete. The hardness of the stone does not make it easy for quarrying, and therefore it is not used for building purposes.

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Greensand – Ġebla s-Safra Greensand is found immediately beneath the UCL. It is referred to as ‘Ġebla s-Safra’ due to its’ greenishyellow colour when it is exposed to the weather. This stone may be oxidized to a brownish colour when residue of glauconite grains are present in the rock layer (Savona-Ventura, 2016). The layer of rock is friable and not very compact. When the rock is exposed on hillsides, large boulders are detached and land on the ground below or in the sea. Greensand can be pulverised easily into sand and the sand is then carried away by rain- water and wind into the sea. The thickest area of Greensand is found in Gelmus, Gozo. This rock is important as it preserves fossils of fish and fauna very well and in some places this layer may be absent from the series of rock strata. Greensand is highly porous and can hold large reservoirs of water in it. The rainwater which seeps through the UCL accumulates in this layer, since blue clay is impermeable. This stone is found mostly in Rabat, Gozo and on the West side of Malta. Greensand is not used in the quarrying industry.

Blue Clay – Tafli The layer found beneath Greensand is Blue Clay (Tafli) and as the name implies, the rock layer is bluish in colour when exposed to weathering (Azzopardi, 2002). Blue clay is a soft rock and the fine structure causes quick erosion. Blue clay has variable valance which depends on the condition in which the rock is found. As soon as the blue clay outgrows on a hillside, it slides downwards and covering the layers beneath it – giving the impression that it is very thick. However, the thickness hardy exceeds 230ft (Azzopardi, 2002). Unlike limestone, blue clay is a land-derived sedimentary rock. Since it is impermeable, the water seeps throguh the UCL and the Greensand collects it. With this formation, underground water reservoirs are formed, giving rise to springs and other water outlets.

Figure 1 – Għajn Tuffieħa Blue Clay

Globigerina Limestone – Tal-Franka Globigerina limestone is found right beneath the Blue Clay later. This rock outcrops over large areas in Gozo and in the southern and central regions of Malta. Globigerina Limestone is much harder than Blue Clay, however softer than the UCL when found at the surface (Fort, et al., 2006). Since the stone is relatively soft, it is easily quarried. Globigerina Limestone is used extensively in the quarrying and building industry. The solid formed from Globigerina Limestone is very fertile and is found in areas of agricultural Page 8 of 66

land. The Globigerina Limestone thickness ranges from 75ft to 680ft. The greatest thickness is found in the South of Malta, close to Mqabba and Marsaxlokk, and it thins out towards the northern side of the Maltese Islands.

Lower Coralline Limestone (LCL) – Qawwi ta’ Taħt, Żonqor This layer of rock is the oldest exposed rock in the Maltese Islands (MEPA, 2015) and outcrops to a height of 450ft in the vertical cliffs near Xlendi, Gozo. LCL is also found on the cliff-sides facing the sea near Fomm ir-Riħ to Wied ix-Xaqqa and in Gozo also from Ras ir-Reqqa to Xlendi and Ta’ Ċenċ Cliffs. Such exposure gave rise to the formation of barren plains of heavily corroded rock surface (Xaghri) due to the impact of wind and rain water. The colour of the rock is light grey to dirty white which can eventually turn reddish to buff. Lower Coralline Limestone is compact and very crystalline due to the amount of corals and marine biota which are found embedded within the rock layer. Since the rock is very strong, it is not easily quarried and therefore it is hard to use for extensive industrial activities however it is used for building of breakwaters, flagstones and covering facades of buildings which face the sea (Smith, 2010).

Image: Simplified diagram of the geology of the Maltese Islands, taken from: http://www.geocities.ws/maltashells/Geolmap.jpg

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Topography and Geomorphology of the Maltese Islands The present landscape around the Maltese Islands is a result of the interaction of climate and geology, along with the intense anthropogenic activities over thousands of years which have in turn, altered the original condition of the area (Schembri, 1997). The topography and geomorphology has been extensively studied and are provided by (Pedley, et al., 1976), (Turi, et al., 1990), (Schembri, 1997) and (Azzopardi, 2002). The erosion of the different rocks has given the islands’ topographic characteristics. Topographically, the islands feature rdum (cliffs) and widien (valleys) which are of characteristic importance (Schembri, 1997). The extraction of Limestone can only occur in locations where minerals are found (MEPA, 2002). The islands are riven by faults which are grouped into two main families: those which trend NE-SW which predominate, and those which tend NW-SE. The principle faults are the Great Fault on mainland Malta and the South Gozo Fault in Gozo (Schembri, 1997). Malta can be divided along the Victoria Lines escarpment, which is located facing North and runs across in a SW-NE direction. To the South of the Victoria Lines are: 1. The low-lying Eastern Area which comprises of the main population area 2. The Western Area where the land rises sharply and incorporates karstic limestone plateau, the Dingli-Rabat Plateau and the Western Cliffs. Mineral extraction is limited due to urban development in the East and limited in the West due to areas which are scheduled for the landscape and/or ecological importance. North of the Victoria Lines, lie a series of valleys and ridges with steep sides and rugged limestone exposures. Areas located towards the Northern part of the Islands are particularly constrained ecologically, whilst the coastal and exposed location of many of the quarries, means that the coastal and landscape impacts are key concerns (MEPA, 2002).

Quarrying in Malta Quarrying is referred to as the extraction of rock to be used for various commercial purposes such as construction, road building and industry (Azzopardi, 2002). The quarrying methods to extract the stone are highly dependent on the type of stone being extracted, the size and shape of the stone required and the general characteristics of the stone. Mineral extraction for industrial use is carried out through openpit mining (Bianco, 2017). There are two types of quarriable stone in Malta which are hardstone, which is extracted Coralline Limestone and soft stone, which is extracted from the lower stratum of the Globigerina Limestone. Blue Clay is extracted and used for pottery work.

Coralline Limestone Coralline Limestone is classified as hardstone and is usually used for industrial purposes, for example in the preparation of cement, for concrete mixing and for road beds. The rocks are shattered often using explosives – this is because the stone will be processed into fragments by crushing machines at a later stage and then sorted according to the particle size (Sahlin, 1974). There are two qualities of hardstone which are: 1. The first quality stone – Lower Coralline Limestone (LCL – Qawwi ta’ Taħt, Żonqor) which is very hard, non-porous and resistant to the elements (weathering) 2. The second quality stone – Upper Coralline Limestone (UCL – Qawwi ta’ Fuq) which is softer, more porous and less resistant to the elements (weathering) Page 10 of 66

Coralline Limestone is difficult to quarry and blasting operations are used to obtain the required stone (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2002) (MEPA, 2003). The hardstone extracted is used to create the foundations of buildings, facades of buildings, kerbs or pavements and boulders. The large boulders are processed and crushed into spalls (żrar) which are then used in concrete mixtures, brick and tile production, amongst other uses. In the past, LCL was used as cobbles to pave road surfaces, however nowadays tarmac and asphalt is preferred (Azzopardi, 2002). The Malta Minerals Subject Plan of 2002 states that the hardstone quarries are less concentrated than the soft stone quarries and are in areas alongside the west and northwest cost of Malta, as well as in the central areas alongside Wied il-Għasel and Naxxar/Mosta. Other hardstone quarries are in the South of Malta, Rabat and towards the Eastern Region of Gozo (MEPA, 2002)

Globigerina Limestone Globigerina Limestone (Tal-Franka) is classified as soft stone, is used for building purposes, as often observed in buildings. Limestone is fine-grained, uniform and workable. This type of stone comprises of three categories: 1. The top-quality stone is used for churches and facades 2. The second quality stone is used for the building of houses 3. The poor-quality stone is mostly used in foundations. The quarry operator usually decides what quality of stone the stone should be categorised as, depending on the colour, sonority and appearance. Soft stone is very good for building since as it is exposed to air, it becomes harder and more resistant to the elements. Soft stone is quarried mechanically by means of saws which cut the rock into blocks with pre-defined sizes. Softer stone were previously extracted by a method called channelling or broaching, this method is now outdated (Azzopardi, 2002). The low-strength Globigerina Limestone is cut by using rotary cutters to produce the stone dimensions for the traditional masonry buildings. Unfortunately, this process generates a significant amount of stone waste since the rock is not entirely a freestone. This means that the stone includes many ‘defective’ components and may have intensely bioturbated sections which are unsuitable for use (Gatt, 2002). For ornamental work, pneumatic chancellors are used. Horizontal and vertical cuts are made, and wedges are then inserted to split off the long block (Azzopardi, 2002).

Quarrying Methods There are various other methods of extracting stone. The excavation of blocks can be done by sawing (circular saws or chainsaws) and wire sawing. Wire sawing is done in big deposits, whereby large blocks are sawn from the rock and eventually divided into smaller blocks (Sahlin, 1974). The process involves the use of several pulleys which pass over steel wire. Holes are then drilled into the rock, each hole having enough room to attach a pulley and the shaft to which it is then attached. The cut is deepened by the constant movement of the wire and the pulleys are lowered into the holes. A more modern method of quarrying is with the use of a diamond wire cutter, especially for hardstone. This eliminates the excessive noise, the cloud of dust (since water) is used, the vibrations which may damage the buildings in the surrounding areas and the formation of rubble which would need to be removed at a later stage. Consequently, the use of this method is often unsustainable since the diamond Page 11 of 66

tools are expensive and can break under bad conditions, and the rock needs to be of uniform hardness. Nonetheless, solid blocks of limited size can be extracted from the rock with this method, which can be used as paving slabs, floor tiles or building blocks (Sahlin, 1974).

Statistics on operational quarries in Malta and Gozo Statistics obtained from the Malta Environment and Planning Authority show that in 1999, there were a total of 94 quarries, of which 28 were hardstone quarries and 66 were soft stone quarries. In 2002, new regulations stated that all extractive industry sites must have a development permit from MEPA as well as a Quarry Licence from the Malta Resources Authority. In the 2002, the MRA Annual Report stated that there was a total of 92 quarries in Malta and Gozo, 58 of which were soft stone quarries and 34 were hardstone quarries (MRA, 2002). The number of quarries for 2004 remained unchanged from the previous year, whereby the total number of quarries were 92, of which 58 were soft stone quarries and 34 were hardstone (MRA, 2004). In 2006 there was a total of 88 quarries, of which 28 were hardstone quarries and 60 soft stone quarries (MEPA, 2006). According to the Malta Resource Authority, during 2009 and 2010 there were 47 valid quarry licences in Malta and Gozo, of which 19 are hardstone quarries and 28 are soft stone quarries (MRA, 2009). In 2012, the Malta Resources Authority renewed 67 licenses to operate a quarry, whereby 26 of these were hardstone and 41 were soft stone (MRA, 2009). In 2015, the Malta Resources Authority reported that the agency renewed 51 licenses to operate a quarry, 20 of which were hardstone and 31 were soft stone (MRA, 2015). The results obtained from the annual reports show that the overall number of quarries decreased slowly between 1999 and 2006. There is an evident drop in operational quarries in 2009, which increased again in 2012 and decreased in 2015.

Number of Quarries

A graph showing the number of quarries per time period 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1999

2002

2004

2006

2009

2012

Year Softstone

Hardstone

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Total

2015

Figure 2 - Image: Quarry distribution in Malta and Gozo, 2012 taken from: http://mra.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/quarries.jpg

The quarrying industry and the environment Quarrying is an important activity to provide much of the resources required in the construction industry. However, just like many other anthropogenic activities, quarrying causes significant impacts on the environment (Cohen, 2017). Mineral extraction has a significant impact on the environment since they are a source of vibration, dust and noise pollution. Such activities also have negative impacts on the landscape (MEPA, 2008). The impacts of quarrying on the environment have raised concerns over the years which are hardly new and various environmental groups and public-funded institutions have been preoccupied with both the increase of quarrying in Malta for many years and the impacts which quarrying leaves on the environment (Gatt, 2002).

Environmental Impacts According to a report on quarrying in Malta by Dr. Peter Gatt, the main impacts of limestone quarrying on the environment within the Maltese Islands are associated with increases in lime dust, noise, vibrations and the destruction of habitats in the quarried and surrounding areas. Consequently, these issues arise globally however the current quarrying practices coupled with the inadequate environmental assessment techniques, give disproportionate importance where the environmental impacts are most often insignificant. This approach has led to the establishment of many restrictions upon the quarrying industry in Malta, such as the restriction of quarries to be excavated near the water table and a moratorium on the opening of new quarries is enforced. Whilst these restrictions have both the positive and negative aspects, none of them are applied on various other activities such as landfilling of hazardous waste and on industries which produce toxic waste, which are far more dangerous than quarrying (Gatt, 2002). Visual Impacts The visual impact of open-pit mineral quarries along terrains generate conspicuous scars which extend to the surrounding landscapes (Bianco, 2017). This phenomenon is more pronounced in areas which have a high landscape value. Even though quarrying is an important activity and essential for the social well-being Page 13 of 66

of the community, such developments are irreversible and therefore permanently alter the original landform (Bianco, 2017). This has led to significant conflicts since many quarries are situated near housing and other sensitive land uses (MEPA, 2003). Air Pollution Dust from quarry sites is one of the major sources of air pollution (Babatunde & Kofoworola, 2013). The type of dust produced and the concentration of dust from the quarries is highly dependent on the type of stone which is being extracted. The size of the dust particles also varies depending on the type of stone which is being extracted. Dust tends to disperse in the atmosphere which are later deposited. According to the Mineral Subject Plan of 2002, deposition of particles from quarries have been estimated to range from 250m from the source up to 500m in certain extreme cases (MEPA, 2002). In Malta’s dry climate, whereby the precipitation rate is relatively low, the problems of dust deposition can be significant, not just to dwellings but also to the agriculture industry. The effect of dust pollution on agriculture, and the possible health risks which include asthma and other respiratory problems amongst the population are of concern (MEPA, 2002). Noise Pollution Quarrying operation involves several operations which generate significant amounts of noise. Provided that most of the hardstone quarries are located in close proximity of dwellings, the noise pollution is of a high concern. In the past, quarries operated without taking detailed consideration of the noise produced however nowadays the amenity of the residential dwellings need to be taken into consideration. This has led to much stricter working conditions for the quarry operators. The impacts of noise pollution tend to vary between the soft stone and hardstone quarries, with noise pollution generally greater at hardstone quarries, since these quarries have higher requirements to blast the rock (MEPA, 2002) (MEPA, 2003). Vibration Blasting operation occur at most of the hardstone quarries in Malta and Gozo (MEPA, 2002). Therefore, in addition to the noise which is generated from the blasts, there are also impacts of vibration. The impacts may include damage to surrounding property and other structures within the vicinity. There are two types of vibration which is caused; Ground vibration and Airborne vibration. Ground vibration is a blast induced vibration which comprises of seismic waves and airborne vibration is the detonation of explosives which generate pressure waves in the air. The Mineral Subject Plan of 2002, sets maximum levels for ppm in sensitive locations (MEPA, 2002). Groundwater and Surface Water Quarrying operations could have devastating effects on water resources and therefore the protection of such resources is a key issue when considering proposals for quarrying operations. The basic sources of water in Malta are obtained from rainfall and from sea water which is then desalinated through the reserve osmosis plants (Azzopardi, 2002). Rain water supplies agricultural fields and the countryside. It is also collected in valleys which seeps through the rock to fill the underground stores. Water is accumulated in the aquifers. Since the aquifers are highly susceptible to damage by quarrying, strict regulations apply to ensure sufficient rock buffer between the maximum allowed quarry depth and the top of the water table (MEPA, 2002) (MRA, 2017).

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The perched aquifers are also important for mineral extraction. These comprise of rainwater which is trapped in the permeable layer of the Upper Coralline Limestone caused since the Blue Clay underlying layer is impermeable. These aquifers are used for agricultural irrigation and for drinking water hence making the protection of these aquifers even more important. Some of the issues caused by quarrying is pollution to the water table due to leeching of materials and/or when landfill occurs, and the fact that the extraction of stone removes the protective cover for the aquifer, amongst other issues (MEPA, 2002). Biodiversity Loss One of the biggest negative impacts of quarrying on the environment is the damage which is caused to biodiversity and habitat loss. Quarrying carries the substantial risk of destroying vast areas which support an array of species and habitats, destruction which is most often, beyond repair. Quarrying does not only affect the area of the quarry itself but also the areas surrounding it. Even if the habitats are not directly removed by excavation, they can easily be affected indirectly (Lameed & Ayodele, 2010). Cumulative Issues The more imminent environmental impacts of quarrying are linked to the cheap price of quarry products, which in turn has resulted in unsustainable and inefficient use of quarry material. A large amount of rock waste is generated through the excavation, construction and demolition works and this problem has not been adequately addressed over the years (Cacopardo, 2016) (Gatt, 2002). In addition to this, the 1998 State of the Environment Report, states that; “local geological conservation has not been given the same importance as other designations over the past years and a therefore a number of sites could have been destroyed (especially quarrying) without ever being recorded” (Axiak & Mallia, 1998). Quarry Waste Quarrying operations produce waste products which may not always be used in the construction industry. Such waste needs to be disposed of appropriately. The disposal of inert waste which is generated by the construction industry is regulated under Legal Notice 22 of 2009 and 184 of 2011, as amended (MEPA, 2015). According the 2008 Environment Report, since 1997 construction and demolition waste has been disposed of in various licensed or otherwise disused quarries, facilitating the rehabilitation of these quarries and hence reducing considerable volumes of waste having to be disposed on in the landfill (MEPA, 2008). According to the same report, this process was stepped up in 2003. However, the backfilling of a quarry could also have potential impacts on the environment, particularly with water contamination should the components of the quarry leach into the water table, as discussed above (MEPA, 2002).

Conclusions The summary of the issues highlighted above need to be taken into close consideration simply because the effects of quarrying on the environment can be devastating and this may be one of the main topics for further research.

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The quarrying industry and the economy The rate of increase in construction and development has risen dramatically after the second world war. Between 1957 and 1985, the number of dwellings increased by 71% whilst the population rose by 9.5%. The number of households increased by 42.2% during the same period (Doublet, 1998). Limestone is the principle non-renewable resource in the Maltese Islands (Axiak & Mallia, 1998). The mineral industry is one of the Island’s most important industries, with Limestone being the only rock of economic value (Lino Bianco & Associates, 2000). The quarrying industry gives a substantial contribution to the local economy and also provides employment and cheap construction material (Doublet, 1998). Limestone is used throughout the construction industry, amongst other materials, in the building and maintenance of civil engineering projects, water and sewage systems, dwellings, roads and public, commercial and industrial buildings (MEPA, 2002). According to the Minerals Subject Plan Annex 2 of 2003, the economic viability of the construction industry within the Maltese Islands, with particular reference to the cost of construction, highly depends on sustainable procurement, national plans, international trade agreements, sustainable performance, research and development as well as education and awareness raising. These factors are of utmost importance to ensure the continuous supply of construction materials from quarries (MEPA, 2003).

Gross Domestic Product The economic survey for 2003 states that direct production, comprising of agriculture and fisheries, construction, quarrying and manufacturing accounted for approximately 35 percent of the total domestic activity (Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2003). The table below illustrates the sectoral contributions to Gross Domestic Product between the year 2000 and 2003. The figures below are in Maltese Lira (LM). Figures for the construction and quarrying industry show an overall increase to the GDP between this timeframe (Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2003).

Figure 3- Sectoral Contribution to GDP, taken from: https://mfin.gov.mt/en/epd/Documents/library/economic_survey/es_2003.pdf

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The economic survey for 2016 exhibited below shows the contribution of various sectors to the GDP. The survey for 2016 reported relatively subdued construction. The figure appears depressed because it only considers the activities between January and June.

Figure 4 – Sectoral Gross Value Added, taken from: https://mfin.gov.mt/en/TheBudget/Documents/The_Budget_2017/Economic_Survey_2016.pdf

Annual Production According to a study carried out for the Ministry of Economic Services in 2000, the estimated annual production of hardstone products, which include spalls, aggregate and marble products, amongst others, is within the region of 1,400,000 m3. Unlike soft stone quarrying, the extent of inert waste which is produced constitutes a small part (5% to 15%) of the gross production. This cuts costs related to waste disposal (Lino Bianco & Associates, 2000). The Trends in Malta Report for 2016 reports that between 2010 and 2014 mineral production from quarries decreased by 21 percent. The building permits increased by 34.4 percent in 2015 when compared to 2014 and this is the highest increase which has been registered during the last years, and a figure much higher than the 7.2 percent registered at EU level. Hardstone quarries have recorded a decline over the

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years, with the most significant drop in 2013 and this may be due to the closing down or temporary suspension of quarrying activities (NSO, 2016).

Figure 5 – Building permits issued between 2008 and 2015, taken from: https://nso.gov.mt/en/publicatons/Publications_by_Unit/Documents/D2_Dissemination_Unit/Trends%20in%20Malta%202016. pdf

Figure 6 – Total production from quarries in tonnes, taken from: https://nso.gov.mt/en/publicatons/Publications_by_Unit/Documents/D2_Dissemination_Unit/Trends%20in%20Malta%202016. pdf

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Employment The latest NSO figures indicate that approximately 6% (10,865 out of 184,288) of the gainfully occupied are employed in the construction industry (NSO, 2017). Hardstone quarry operations differ substantially from soft stone (Axiak & Mallia, 1998). Hardstone quarries are generally privately owned and operated (Axiak & Mallia, 1998). According to the 2003 Economic Survey, the employment in stone and non-metallic quarrying, construction and oil drilling ranged between 5,901 in 1999 and 6,865 in 2003 (Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2003) (Schembri, et al., 1991).

Figure 7 – Employment in direct production, taken form: https://mfin.gov.mt/en/epd/Documents/library/economic_survey/es_2003.pdf

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The table below shows the private sector employment for 2016. The mining and quarrying sector has been separated from the manufacturing and construction sectors (Ministry for Finance, 2016). The number of people employed in the mining and quarrying industry ranged from 302 in 2013 up to 373 in 2016.

Figure 8 – Employment in direct production, taken from: https://mfin.gov.mt/en/TheBudget/Documents/The_Budget_2017/Economic_Survey_2016.pdf

Conclusion A large supply of economic reports and surveys are available, however apart from these documents containing embedded statistics on the quarrying and construction industry in general, there are very few local studies on the specific effect and impacts of the quarrying industry on the local economy. A further study could include the thorough examination of the various trends in the quarrying industry on the economy over the past years, and how these trends would impact the future of the industry.

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Methodology In order to complete this project and to reach its aim, three activities were carried out: 1. The compilation of a Literature Review 2. Site visits to obtain visual effects of quarries 3. Consultations with various stakeholders involved in the quarrying industry to elicit their perceptions on the industry, to obtain information on the industry itself and to evoke the problems related to the industry.

Desk Study The initial method used to obtain information on the research topic was a desktop study, compiling various literature from different sources, including journals, books, newspapers, articles, research papers, theses and online material. Various material was used, highlighting the most important and relevant information for this study. Once the basic information was studied, the literature review was compiled and further research was carried out.

Site Visits and Field Work Three ecological assessments for Wied Inċita were carried out in late March 2016, in early February 2017 and mid-May 2017. The area was previously mapped on a google map and was taken on each site visit. The habitats were also recorded. A list of plant species was also compiled and used extensively during the site visits. A book named ‘Flora of the Maltese Islands: A Field Guide’ by Hans Christian Weber and Bernd Kendzior (Weber & Kendzior, 2006). During each site visit, in situ species were recorded, together with the effects of quarrying operations and other anthropogenic activities to the surrounding areas of the quarry. Random sampling was used and photographs were taken for further identification and analysis. The area under study has been subjected to intense anthropogenic interference over a short period of time and therefore the identification of the habitats prior to excavation works could not be carried out. For health and safety purposes, no surveys were held in the pit of the valley but rather a High-Definition camera was used to capture images of the plant species.

Consultations Obtaining first-hand knowledge on the quarrying industry, the environment and the economy was essential especially at the first stages of the project. The following consultations were carried out: 1. Consultation with an architect to obtain information on the quarrying industry and the problems which arise from it 2. Consultation with an economist to gain insight on the economic aspects of quarrying 3. Consultation with a long-term resident in the area of the quarry was also held to obtain information on the quarry itself since literature is scare. 4. Consultation with Alternattiva Demokratika – the Maltese Green Party who heavily opposed the proposed development Page 21 of 66

Project Plan of Implementation Since this project required a lot of work to be done, comprehensive planning was required. During the early stages of the planning process, the requirements of the project and the list of tasks in stages were tabulated in a work breakdown structure to enable better organisation of the project. The project was divided into five stages: Initiation, Planning, Execution, Analysis and Conclusion. For each of these stages, the sub-project, tasks and sub-projects were enlisted. This information was transposed into a Gantt Chart. Therefore, the Gantt Chart was created to facilitate the execution of the tasks required, and monitor the progress being made over the months. The Gantt Chart was created using http://www.smartdraw.com which is an online tool. Since the program is not a free software, the rest of the Gantt Chart was filled in manually over the months. The work breakdown structure and the Gantt Chart can both be found in Appendix V.

Planning, Reporting and Monitoring Strategies The work breakdown structure and Gantt Chart helped greatly in the organisation and execution of the project. However, further monitoring, especially in terms of performance, was required. Dates of site visits, meetings and consultations were tabulated and recorded over the duration of the project. The table used to monitor the site visits and the consultations with stakeholders can be found in Appendix V. Reporting strategies varied between activities. For the consultations, a set of topics were prepared beforehand and notes were taken down with the interviewee’s opinions during the meeting. A summary of these consultations can be found in Appendix III and IV. All relevant literature is recorded in the reference section at the end of this document. For the site visits – a list of flora where tabulated, making use of relevant literature, ‘Flora of the Maltese Islands – A Field Guide’ by Hans Christian Weber and Bernd Kendzior. This book was used extensively during the visits to identify the species. The list was also carried on the site visits to mark the species present. In addition to this, notes were taken which were later transposed into the content of this document or researched further. Finally, the overall monitoring of this project was carried out by means of the Gantt Chart, as explained above.

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Case Study: Wied Incita Introduction The Wied Inċita quarry has been in operation from the 1960s and was previously referred to as Land 895/63. The area covered by the quarry during that time was fifty-five tumuli in total. The map of the area can be found in Annex II. The quarry, located at Wied Inċita (Attard, limits of Ħaż-Żebbuġ) (see Annex II for maps) is a hardstone quarry numbered HM03. HM12 is also part of the quarry site however nowadays it is no longer used as a quarry site but instead is being used as a dumping ground. The quarry falls between the remits of the Malta South Local Plan and the Central Zone Local Plan. The quarry has raised a lot of controversy over the years. Wied Inċita is currently privately owned and has been subject to development applications which have raised concerns by local citizens and political parties for several years. The area hosts a quarry which appears to be in the process of backfilling, as well as a region of waste which has been dumped there several years ago. A short account of the history of Wied Inċita can be found in Annex III. For the purpose of this study, three ecological surveys were carried out in March 2016, February 2017 and May 2017 respectively; in addition to a number of consultations with various stakeholders who provided information on the quarry.

Figure 9 - Wied Incita, HM03 quarry area, mapped in 2017 with 2015/16 updated google maps: https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1ypIfVVCI678VyarcOSxzj4OaQU&ll=35.88369609437464%2C14.436259229293796&z=17

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Quarry area Images in Appendix II show the orthos photos between 1998 and 2016 as well as a copy of the original map outlining the areas in the 1960s. According to the DF7 Report on the area covered by quarries, in 2006, Wied Inċita (HM03) covered an area of 60,183.72 m2 of land (MEPA, 2006) and HM12 covered an area of 56,760.78 m2. Nowadays, HM03 covers an area of approximately 64,000 m2 and HM12 covers an area of 59,200 m2. The depth which has been quarried is approximately at an average of 80m. In previous years, quarrying operations needed to be stopped since they were met with the water table. The main studies were carried out near HM03.

Boundaries Presently, the Wied Inċita quarry is surrounded by an area of low garrigue towards the SW and an area of demolition waste towards the NW and North, alongside the valley. An open space where quarry-related operations are taking place is located to the South of the quarry. The area alongside the perimeter of the quarry on the Eastern also consists of debris and access roads to the quarry, as well as several agricultural fields. The Eastern side of the quarry is also mostly privately-owned fields.

Relevant Images and illustrations1 With reference to Appendix I - Figure 10, 11 and 12 demonstrate the quarry area in March 2016. Figure 11 exhibits the SW area which hosted ruderal species as well as the demolition waste located alongside the valley. Figures 20, 21, 22 and 23 demonstrate the quarry area and the demolition waste in February 2017. Figures 30 – 33 exhibit the quarried area during the site visit in May 2017, as well as the newly expanded road which gives access to the quarry. Figures 34 and 35, taken in May 2017, demonstrate the amount of topsoil in relation to the size of the boulders beneath. Figures 13, 14 and 15 exhibit the landscape alongside the quarry hosting low garrigue and karst habitats in 2016. Figures 24 to 27demonstrate the landscape alongside the quarry in February 2017. The area exhibits low garrigue and karst landscapes dominated by other species. Figures 36 to 41 demonstrate the different habitats surrounding the quarry and alongside the valley, taken in May 2017. Figures 16 and 17; 28 and 29; 42 – 49 demonstrate some of the environmental pressures on the area including waste, discarded by countryside users and demolition waste taken during March 2016, February 2017 and May 2017 site visits respectively. Table 1 in Appendix 2 is a list of flora encountered within the different areas. The flora which are listed were compiled from the wet and dry season surveys. The extent and the distribution of the habitats and different vegetation assemblages have been mapped and transcribed based on the map in Figure 50 of this document. It should be pointed out that there are no sharp boundaries between the habitats where the vegetational communities were observed and may have changed slightly in between site visits. Therefore, these communities were overall graded and tabulated in clusters for each of the site visits. In addition to this, access to the pit of the valley was very difficult due to access and health and safety. Therefore, a high definition camera was used to capture images of the flora for further identification.

1

Images related to Wied Inċita are located in Appendix 1, attached to the end of this project

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Appendix II contains all the site plans and maps of the area during various stages. All images are labelled.

Quarrying and the Environment Land cover The results obtained from the site visits to monitor the land cover are illustrated in Appendix II. These results are discussed in this section and the sections following. During the site visit in March 2016, most of the area surrounding the quarry mainly characterised by degraded garrigue, showing heavy signs of anthropogenic activities which included the effects of dust on the quarry, fly tipping and waste dumping. Most of the waste observed in various areas of the landscape was construction and demolition waste, including recently dumped cement. The first site visit was carried out in a dry period where very limited amount of rainfall had been recorded. The species which dominated the area directly alongside the quarry (Area A) were dried thistles and oat species. Other species such as the Avena sp., Lobularia maritima, Sinapsis arvenis, Euphorbia sp., Thymbra capitata and Foeniucum vulgare were also present in Areas A, B and C. The valley (Area H) flourished with low lying shrubs including the Cupressus sempervirens L., Thymbra capitata and Ceratonia siliqua. Larger shrubs such as the Pistacia lentiscus and Opuntia ficus-indica species were recorded alongside the boundary wall, towards the SW area of the quarry (vicinity of Area E). The same species, including Acacia Spp. Species were also recorded in Area F. This area was also dominated by Ricinus communis, an invasive species which dominated a large area of land alongside the road. Other species were also present in surrounding areas most of which typical to disturbed areas. The overall state of landscape at the time of this site visit appeared disturbed and derelict. During the site visit in February 2017, the habitats were flourishing with different species, many of which were flowering. Areas of degraded garrigue were still present from the year before however and so were the signs of anthropogenic activities. Whilst there, a truck disposed of wet cement at the tip of the valley which was reported immediately. The area closest to the quarry (Area A) was dominated by various species, including Euphorbia sp., Foeniculum vulgare, Oxalis pescaprae, Erica multiflora and Hedera helix. Larger shrubs were also recorded in areas B and C, as well as Ecballium elaterium and Pistacia lentiscus. Species such as Darniella melitensis, Cupressus sempervirens L. and Tetraclinis articulata were also recorded. The Southern and SW area of the quarry consisted of heaps of soil and rubble which created a particular habitat for some species. In this area, species such as the Hypericum aegyptiacium and Carlina involucrata were also common. The species found in the valley and in Area E and F remained unchanged, except that some of the plants were flowering. The valley exhibited the same species and low-lying trees. The overall state of the landscape at the time of this site visit appeared to be in a much better condition than the previous year, despite the amount of waste dumped in the area. Some areas still appeared disturbed and many species present were typical to the habitat. During the final site visit in May 2017, the overall state of the landscape was very similar to the state it was in during the February visit. Some areas began to dry out due to the high temperatures which began to dominate the Maltese Islands in the recent weeks. The species which dominated the area were almost

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the same as the previous site visit, with a higher amount of thistles, including Chrysanthemum coronarium and Oxalis pescaprae. Species such as the Gelobionis coronaria, Carlina involucrata, Lavatera arborea, were recorded. During this site visit, many colonies of Convolvulus arvensis, Ecballium elaterium, along with isolated species of Orhcis conica and the Antirrhinum toruosum were also recorded.

Disturbance The area surrounding the quarry have been disturbed due to anthropogenic activity. There was a significant difference in the size and depth of the quarry between site visits. The access road to the quarry also increased in size between visits, along with the formation of a new road on the SE side of the quarry. A large construction debris dump is located in the vicinity of the quarry which has changed in size and components between site visits. Quarrying is an ongoing activity in the area. Mineral extraction leads to the release of fine particles which are easily dispersed in the surrounding environments by water runoff and air currents. Even though the flora was still flourishing during the site visits in 2017, there is much left to study to determine the effects of the pollution on the habitats. However, evidently, the destruction of land to create the access roads and provide space for the construction debris has altered the overall habitats in the area. Other anthropogenic activity in the valley includes fly tipping and the dumping of construction material in the vicinity of the valley. There may be a link between the two however this was very difficult to study. The site where the quarry is located and has been expanded is relatively degrades and the plant communities which exist in the vicinity are typical of degraded habitats.

Noise, Vibrations and Dust Blasting operations in the quarry stopped in the late 1980s after dangerous blasting operations caused havoc in the surrounding residential and agricultural areas. Since then, himac stone breakers have been used and still are in use. Operations begin at approximately 05:00 hrs and end during the late hours of the evening. Residents also suffer from problems with dust and vibrations, especially in the areas closest to the quarry. The large amounts are a health hazard, especially to children. These issues have caused a lot of inconvenience to the residents. There have been no reports or records filed in terms of noise, vibration and dust monitoring to the Environmental Authorities over the years.

Waste and Backfill The Wied Inċita quarry is one of the few quarries which has a permit to be backfilled (MEPA, 2015). The initial permit was given by the Nationalist Government in the late 1980s which allowed the company to use the area as a dumping ground. In fact, all the construction waste from the construction of the St. Venera tunnels was dumped there. Most of this waste is located in HM12. There have been no environmental studies carried out prior and after the waste was dumped, therefore there is no guarantee that the material was inert.

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Development applications The quarry size has been extended numerous times without permits. The only application found by the quarry owners is for the recent proposal - An application for the Wied Inċita quarry to be developed as an SME park with overlying solar panels. This application has been submitted under PA/01549/17. The same application established a buffer zone to quarry with the construction of a family recreational park and also a retail outlet. The existing quarry entrance and administrative building office will be relocated to the Żebbuġ side, as well as an extension to the quarry (PA, 2017). An application was also submitted to sanction the shed, security room, entrance, bridge and boundary wall, however this was upheld. Refer to Appendix II for the proposed floor plan. The planning application was heavily criticised by local residents and the Attard local council, as well as Alternattiva Demokratika (TVM, 2017) (The Independent, 2017).

Economic Considerations Obtaining specific information on how the quarry contributes and effects the local economy was particularly difficult due to the lack of information available. However, from the minimal results obtained, it shows that there is an evident lack of transparency when it comes to all quarry operations. This leaves many unanswered questions in this study which merit further research.

Conclusions The quarry has evidently expanded over the years and the area surrounding the quarry has been heavily affected as well due to these activities. Through the site visits carried out, one can establish the evident amount of disturbance and there is urgent need to safeguard the habitats from further destruction. Quarrying is an on-going activity and poses many threats on the surrounding environment. There is a lack of transparency in the economic aspect of the industry, insufficient studies and reports on the environmental impacts of the quarry which definitely merit further study to establish ways of preventing further harm and more sustainable use of the resources. In line with this, much of the area which has been used as dumping grounds has destroyed the underlying habitats and causes a huge eyesore for residents and countryside users. The proposed development is subject to much criticism for various reasons, including increasing the risk of further habitat destruction even though the current quarry will be backfilled and a new open space will be created. Consequently, other impacts such as dust, noise and vibrations on the surrounding environment have not been studied but does merit further research. Fly-tipping in the area is also a concerning matter which has been inappropriately addressed over the years, since waste is still being dumped. The lack of reporting in both the economic and environmental aspects of the quarrying industry suggests that there is inappropriate regulation and inadequate enforcement. This sector is a very important to the local economy and ways to ensure sustainability and transparency need to be addressed.

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Evaluation and Conclusion This section is focussed on evaluating the overall project and the results obtained from the project. One of the main aims of the evaluation is to determine whether the project objectives have been met. The positive and negative factors which contributed to the overall project at various stages are also discussed. Firstly, this research topic was chosen following a preliminary study showing that there is a lack of information on certain aspects of the subject. Quarrying is a very important sector and therefore merits research. The initial question which was aimed to be answered was to determine the impacts of quarrying on the environment and the economy in Malta. The research was aimed at providing trends in the quarrying industry and to hopefully obtain any missing information in terms of the two aspects. Consequently, the hypothesis for the project was the following; “The quarrying industry in Malta is challenged by the limited amount of geological resources available. Due to this, the extensive use of quarrying has had a large impact on the environment and on the economy”. This hypothesis sought to be challenged as the project commenced. The compilation of literature took place as soon as it was decided that this research project will be carried out and texts from documents with relevant information was highlighted to be used in the literature review. It was necessary to learn more about the industry prior to writing about it, especially since this is one of the topics which are not covered by the course yet is of significant importance. It must be pointed out that the amount of literature on the Maltese geology, history and Maltese Stone is sufficient, however there is very limited research on the quarrying and extractive industry itself. This posed as a challenge when writing about the quarry. Once the basic information was established, a project plan followed by a work breakdown structure and a Gantt Chart were compiled following a meeting with the project tutor. Once the majority of the literature review was drafted and a better plan of the project was established, questions were compiled for the consultations and the site visits as well as the consultations were carried out in sequence. It was very difficult to ask quarry owners to give information on their quarries. This may have been since the requested information may have been sensitive information. The initial plan was to work on five active hardstone quarries and five exhausted hardstone quarries. This was later reduced to four, despite having collected preliminary information, and finally just one quarry was used. Wied Inċita was chosen to be used as a case study since it was the quarry which I had compiled the most information on. Additionally, if there are not many studies of individual quarries around Malta, this study may be the start of new research. Obtaining information on the quarry was done using these four methods: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Obtaining background literature Carrying out consultations with residents Carrying out a consultation with the Maltese Green Party Carrying out regular site visits.

As mentioned before, literature was limited however the residents and the Maltese Green Party were very helpful in giving me information on the quarry. The architect and the economist also provided invaluable information on the quarrying industry which I then linked to my study. Page 28 of 66

Since only one quarry was used for the study, an overall account of the quarrying industry and the impacts on the environment and the economy could not be established. This is simply because one quarry cannot be a representative of the overall situation and hence merits further investigation. Three official site visits were carried out to obtain information on the environmental impacts of the quarry. A list of plant species was compiled, together with a map which helped greatly in the identification of the species present. Since the first site visit was carried out during a dry period, many of the plant species were dry and therefore identification of these species was challenging. A camera was used to take photos to enable further identification from third parties. Access to the valley pit was not possible for health and safety reasons. Therefore, the exact plant species and land cover was determined using photographic images which facilitated the identification of the plants. The weather played a very crucial part in the species present as in some cases, some plants were flowering even when it was not their flowering season. The economic aspect of Wied Inċita was based on information from residents who have experienced the quarrying activities for several years. The discussion with residents has given rise to new questions which are worth studying in the future thesis. It is clear that quarrying activities in Wied Inċita have affected the surrounding environment in terms of dust and demolition waste. It is also evident that Wied Inċita is a used as a dumping ground which merits proper protection before the habitat is degraded beyond repair. Consequently, it is difficult to determine the imminent impacts and contributions of this quarry on and/or to the economy. In conclusion, further research is required to fulfil the hypothesis. A lot of invaluable information has been compiled which can be used for further investigation.

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Recommendations At present, the number of studies carried out on the quarrying industry are very limited. There are very little to no studies and surveys directly focused on the environmental impacts from quarrying activities. Information from geological literature and persons specialised in the field, is sufficient however, the indepth analysis of the geology in certain parts of the island are very limited as well. The contribution of the quarrying and construction industry also merits in-depth studies since these too are relatively limited. With a view to ascertain a better understanding of all the impacts of the quarrying industry on the economy and the environment, this study recommends further research on the following aspects of the industry: 1. In-depth analysis of the environmental impacts of quarries (possible also specific to the quarry) on the environment, in terms of habitat destruction, noise, vibration and dust pollution. 2. The environmental impacts of quarrying on the water table and the pollution caused to the waterbody. 3. In-depth studies of the quarrying industry contribution to the local economy and GDP 4. Investigate the possibility of using quarry waste for other uses such as producing fertilisers 5. Investigate the waste dumped into the quarry as backfill 6. Investigate the sustainability of the quarrying industry This study also recommends the following measures to ensure environmental management and sustainability: 1. The structuring of one authority to regulate and monitor the quarrying and construction industry and impacts it has on various aspects, in terms of environment, economy and society. 2. To investigate new methods and costs of extraction, as well as the capital requirements needed to ensure better sustainability. 3. To produce a working document on environmental protection which should be taken into consideration at all stages of the quarrying operations, which includes the necessity of reporting.

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References Axiak, V. & Mallia, E., 1998. State of the Environment Report for Malta, s.l.: Environment Protection Department. Azzopardi, A., 2002. A New Geography of the Maltese Islands. 2nd ed. Valletta: St. Aloysius' College. Babatunde, S. B. & Kofoworola, A. O. O. A. A., 2013. Air Quality Assessment in the Vicinity of Quarry Site. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 3(2), pp. 111-115. Bianco, L., 2017. Landscape Restoration and Rehabilitation: A Geocultural Design Approach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 8(3), pp. 175-181. Briegel, U. & Xiao, W.-J., 2001. Paradoxes in Geology. 1st ed. s.l.: Elsevier. Cacopardo, C., 2016. The impacts of quarrying on the environment and the economy [Interview] (November 2016). Cohen, H.-Y., 2017. The Impact of Quarrying. [Online] Available at: http://www.sustainablefloors.co.uk/the-impact-of-quarrying.html [Accessed May 2017]. Doublet, A. J., 1998. The Scoping Process in the Extractive Industry in Malta, s.l.: Faculty of Science, Institute of Biological Science. EU Commission, 2017. Country Report Malta, Brussels: EU Commission. Felix, R., 1973. Oligo-Miocene Stratigraphy of Malta and Gozo, Wageningen: Department of Soil Science and Geology, Agricultural University. Fort, R., Alvarez de Buergo, M. & Gomez-Heras, M., 2006. Heritage, Weathering and Conservation, Two Volume Set: Proceedings of the International Heritage, Weathering and Conservation Conference (HWC-2006), 21-24 June 2006, Madrid, Spain. Madrid, CRC Press. Gatt, P., 2002. Quarrying in Malta, s.l.: Research Gate. Hartman, L. H. & Murmansk, M. J., 2002. Introductory Mining Engineering. 2nd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hilary, T. D., 2002. Malta: Prehistory and Temples. s.l.: Midsea Books Limited. Lameed, G. A. & Ayodele, A. E., 2010. Effect of quarrying activity on biodiversity: Case study of Ogbere site, Ogun State Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4(11), pp. 740-750. Lino Bianco & Associates, 2000. Retention of the Status Quo Regarding the Exportation of Maltese Stone, s.l.: Ministry for Economic Services. Maslin, M., 2013. Climate: A Very Short Introduction. 1st ed. Oxford: UOP Oxford. MEPA, 2002. Minerals Subject Plan, s.l.: Entec UK Limited. MEPA, 2003. Minerals Subject Plan for the Maltese Islands - Supplementary Documentation. s.l.: MEPA. MEPA, 2006. Area Covered by Operational Quarries in Malta, s.l.: MEPA. MEPA, 2006. DF7 Area Covered by Operational Quarries, Floriana: MEPA. MEPA, 2008. The Environment Report, s.l.: MEPA. MEPA, 2014. Rural Policy and Design Guidance, Floriana: MEPA.

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MEPA, 2015. Malta Environment & Planning Authority. [Online] Available at: https://www.mepa.org.mt/minerals-geology [Accessed October 2016]. MEPA, 2015. MEPA. [Online] Available at: https://www.mepa.org.mt/quarries-backfilling [Accessed March 2017]. MEPA, 2015. Quarries Backfilling. [Online] Available at: https://www.mepa.org.mt/quarries-backfilling [Accessed 2017]. Mifsud, S., 2013. Distribution of some rare or endemic chasmophytic and Rupestral species growing on the coastal cliffs of the Maltese Islands. Webbia - Journal of Plant Taxonomy and Geography, 68(1), pp. 35-50. Ministry for Finance, 2016. Economic Survey 2016, s.l.: Economic Policy Department. Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2003. Economic Survey January - September 2003, s.l.: Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs. Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2006. Economic Survey October-December 2006, s.l.: Economic Policy division. MRA, 2002. Malta Resource Authority Annual Report, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2004. Malta Resources Authority Annual Report, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2009. Malta Resources Authority Annual Report 2009, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2012. List of Policies Relevant to Different Phases of the Extractive Industry, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2012. Malta Resources Authority Annual Report, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2015. Malta Resources Authority Annual Report, s.l.: MRA. MRA, 2017. Malta Resources Authority. [Online] Available at: http://mra.org.mt/about-us/ [Accessed March 2017]. Nilsson, T., 1983. The Pleistocene: Geology and Life in the Quaternary Ice Age. s.l. Springer Netherlands. NSO, 2016. National Statistics Office - Malta. [Online] Available at: https://nso.gov.mt/en/nso/Media/Salient-Points-of-Publications/Pages/Trends-in-Malta-2016.aspx [Accessed 2016]. NSO, 2016. Trends in Malta, s.l.: National Statistics Office. NSO, 2017. Gainfully occupied population: November 2016, s.l.: National Statistics Office. PA, 2017. Full Process- Full Development Applications, Floriana: Planning Authority. Pedley, H., House, M. & Waugh, B., 1976. The Geology of Malta and Gozo, Msida: University of Malta. Sahlin, F., 1974. Quarrying of Hard Stone for the Restoration of Buildings, Paris: UNESCO.

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Savona-Ventura, C., 2016. Maltese Miocene Stratigraphy. [Online] Available at: http://www.shadowservices.com/nature/Maltese/Geomorph/miocene.htm [Accessed October 2016]. Savona-Venura, C., n.d. Ancient and Medieval Medicine in Malta. s.l. S.n. Schembri, J. P., 1997. Topography of the Maltese Islands. GeoJournal, 4(12), pp. 115-125. Schembri, P., 1993. Physical geography and ecology of the Maltese Islands: A brief overview, s.l.: CIHEAM. Schembri, S., Gatt, P. & Schembri, J., 1991. Recent Records of Files from the Maltese Islands, s.l.: s.n. ScienceDaily, 2009. Mediterranean Sea Dried Up Five Million Years Ago, Utrecht: Utrecht University. Smith, J. B., 2010. Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past. 1st ed. s.l.: Geological Society of London. The Independent, 2017. The Malta Independent. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2017-04-22/local-news/Alternattiva-Demokratika-strikesout-at-Wied-Incita-quarry-situation-in-Attard-6736173333 [Accessed May 2017]. Turi, A., Picollo, M. & Valleri, G., 1990. Mineralogy and origin of the carbonate beach sediments of Malta and Gozo, Maltese Islands, Msida: University of Malta. TVM, 2017. Television Malta - Current Affairs. [Online] Available at: http://www.tvm.com.mt/en/news/l-ad-toggezzjona-ghad-objecting-to-quarry-development-at-wiedincitaall-izvilupp-fil-barrieri-ta-wied-incita/ [Accessed April 2017]. Vassallo, 2015. The Architecture of Malta. [Online] Available at: https://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/the-architecture-of-malta/ [Accessed October 2016]. VAT Department, 2003. VAT General Information for Businesses, Birkirkara: VAT Department. Waugh, D., 2000. Geography: An Integrated Approach. 4th ed. s.l. Nelson Thornes Ltd. Weber, C. H. & Kendzior, B., 2006. Flora of the Maltese Islands: A Field Guide. 1st ed. Wiekersheim: Margraf Publishers.

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APPENDIX I Wied Incita – Site Visit March, 20162 Quarried Area

Figure 10 - Quarry

Figure 11 – Area surrounding the quarry

2

All images were taken by the author Page 34 of 66

Figure 12 – Quarried area

Habitats and Landscape

Figure 13 – Landscape exhibiting karst, low garrigue and construction debris in the background

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Figure 14 – Wied Inċita landscape

Figure 15 – Wied Inċita landscape

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Environmental Pressures

Figure 16 – Waste discarded in the environment

Figure 17 – Construction waste and building debris

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Figure 18 – More construction waste and debris discarded in the valley

Figure 19 – Construction waste

Wied Incita – Site Visit February, 20173

3

All images were taken by the author Page 38 of 66

Quarried Area

Figure 20 – Quarried Area

Figure 21 – Quarried area, demolition waste, surrounded by low-lying ruderal species

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Figure 22 – Quarried area

Figure 23 – Demolition waste

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Landscape and habitats

Figure 24 – overflowing water from the reservoir, creating a small stream leading into the valley

Figure 25 – landscape view, exhibiting karst and garrigue habitats

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Figure 26 – landscape view exhibiting karst and low garrigue habitats. Demolition waste is found towards the back of the image

Figure 27 – Garrigue landscape/karst, exhibiting bare rock and ruderal species

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Environmental Pressures

Figure 28 - Litter

Figure 29 – freshly dumped cement (over previously dumped cement)

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Wied Inċita – Site Visit, May 20174 Quarried area

Figure 30 – Part of the access to the quarry and demolition waste

Figure 31 – Widened access to the quarry from the southern part of the valley

4

All images were taken by the author

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Figure 32 – Quarried area

Figure 33 – Part of the quarry

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Figure 34 – image exhibiting the amount of topsoil in relation to the size of the boulders

Figure 35 – Image exhibiting the amount of topsoil and overlying plant species in relation to the size of the boulders beneath

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Habitats and Landscape

Figure 36 – Wied Incita valley

Figure 37 – garigue habitat near the reservoir, dried up vegetation

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Figure 38 – Wied Incita, dried up vegetation, debris in the background

Figure 39 – dried up water course

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Figure 40 – Prominent footpath, various ruderal species, debris in the background

Figure 41 – ruderal species in low lying garrigue, high Maquis

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Environmental Pressures

Figure 42 – construction debris dumped alongside the valley

Figure 43 – discarded stone and debris alongside the valley

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Figure 44 – Discarded stone and debris along the footpath

Figure 45 – The dried cement which was deposited there in February, together with added construction waste and debris

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Figure 46 – valley landscape, littered with construction waste and debris

Figure 47 – construction debris discarded along the footpath

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Figure 48 – ceramic material discarded in the environment

Figure 49 – tanks discarded in the valley

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APPENDIX II Wied Incita Maps and Figures

Figure 50 – Habitats recorded in Wied Inċita and the surrounding area

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Figure 51 – 1960s Map of Wied Inċita quarry, taken from 1960s contracts of sale

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Figure 52 – Wied Incita, Orthos 1998, showing the 10m contour lines (red) and the local plan boundaries (green) taken from: PA, Geoserver

Figure 53 - Wied Incita, Orthos 2008, showing the 10m contour lines (red) and the local plan boundaries (green) taken from: PA, Geoserver

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Figure 54 - Wied Incita, Orthos 2016, showing the 10m contour lines (red) and the local plan boundaries (green) taken from: PA, Geoserver

Figure 7 – Wied Inċita protected area, taken from: http://geoserver.pa.org.mt/publicgeoserver

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Figure 55 – Wied Incita Area Plan proposed by BILOM Group, taken from: http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/68419/attards_wied_incita_quarry_earmarked_for_industrial_park_by_constr uction_company_bilom#.WSxoJ2h97IU

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Species List Table 1: List of flora which was encountered in Areas A, B and C. Showing an indication of the frequency per species for all three site visits Key: C = Common; F = Frequent; S = Scarce; R = Rare Floral Species List

March 2016

February2017

May 2017

Occurrence

Occurrence

Occurrence

Scientific name

English Name

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

Narcissus serotinus

Autumn Narcissus

F

F

S

F

C

C

F

F

F

Pistacia lentiscus

Lentisk

R

R

R

F

C

C

F

F

F

Daucus carota

Wild Carrot

C

C

C

C

F

C

C

C

F

Ferula communis

Giant Fennel

F

F

S

C

C

C

C

C

C

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel

C

C

C

C

F

F

F

C

C

Asparagus aphyllus

Spiny Asparagus

C

C

F

F

F

F

F

C

Asphodelus aestivus

Branched Asphodel

C

F

F

F

F

C

F

C

Asphodelus fistulosus

Pink Asphodel

F

R

C

Atractlis gummifera

Ground Thistle

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Calendula suffructicosa

Shrubby Marigold

R

F

C

C

C

F

F

F

C

Carlina involucrata

Carline Thistle

C

C

C

C

C

C

F

F

C

Cynara cardunculus

Wild Artichoke

C

C

F

C

F

Dittrichia viscosa

Sticky Fleabane

F

C

F

F

F

F

C

F

C

Galactites tomentosa

Boar Thistle

C

C

F

C

F

C

F

F

C

Gelobionis coronaria

Crown Daisy

C

F

C

C

F

C

Hyoseris radiata

Perennial Hyoseris

C

C

C

F

C

F

Jacobea maritima syn. Senecio bicolor

Silvery Ragwort

C

Jasonia bocconei syn. Chiliadenus bocconei

Maltese Fleabane

F

C

Leontodon tuberosus

Tuberous Hawkbit

F

S

Sonchusoleraceus

Smooth Sow Thistle

F

C

Borago officinalis

Borage

C

C

Echium parviflorum

Lsien il-Fart Zgħir

R

Displotaxis tenuifolia

Perennial wall rocket

R

Lobularia maritima

Sweet Alison

F

C

Sinapsis arvensis

Charlock Mustard

R

S

Equisetum ramosissiumum

Branched Horsetail

R

Silene colorata

Red Campion

Silene vulgaris

Four-leaved All-Seed

C

R

S

S C

R C

C

F

S C

F

C

F

F

F

F

F

F

C

C

F

F

C

F

F

F

C

F

C

F

R

C

C

F

F

R

C

C

C

C

C

R

C

C

F

F

C

F

C

C

C

F

F

F

C

R

R

R

R

F

F

R

R C

R C

C

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Darniella melitensis

Maltese salt-tree

S

S

Concolculus arvensis

Field Bindweed

R

S

F

Sedum sediforme

Mediterranean Stonecrop

R

C

F

Tetraclinis articulata

Sandarac Gum Tree

A

B

C

Cupressus sempervirens L.

Common Cypress

F

F

Ecballium elaterium

Squirting cucumber

R

Cuscuta epithymum

Thyme/Clover Dodder

Erica multiflora

Mediterranean Heath

Aloe vera

Aloe Vera

Euphorbia pinea

Pine Spurge

C

C

Euphorbia melitensis

Maltese Spurge

C

C

Euphorbia helioscopia

Sun Spurge

Bituminaria bituminosa

Pitch Clover

C

C

C

C

C

Hedera helix

English Ivy

R

F

C

C

Lotus edulis

Edible Birdsfoot trefoil

C

C

C

Erodium malacoides

Glandular Storksbill

Erodium moschatum

Glandular Storksbill

R

Erodium moschatum

Musk Storksbill

C

Uriginea maritima

Sea Squill

Darniella melitensis

F

S

F

C

C

C

C

S

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

S

F

C

C

F

F

F

R

R

F

C

C

F

F

F

C

C

C

C

F

C

C

C

F

F

F

F

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

F

F

C

F

F

F

F

F

C

F

F

F

F

C

F

C

F

R

C

C

C

C

C

C

F

F

F

C

C

C

C

F

F

C

C

C

F

C

F

R

C

C

S

C

F

C

F

C

F

F

F

F

C

R

C

F

S

C

F

C

Maltese Salt Tree

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

Teucrium fruticans

Olive-leaved Germander

F

S

S

C

C

C

F

S

F

Thymbra capitata

Mediterranean Thyme

R

R

R

F

C

C

F

C

F

Lavatera arborea

Tree Mallow

C

C

C

C

F

C

C

C

F

Lavatera cretica

Cretan Mallow

F

F

F

C

C

C

C

F

C

Allium commutatum

Wild Leek

C

F

C

C

F

F

C

F

C

Acacia saligna

Blue-leaved Acacia

Ceratonia siliqua

Carob

Eucalyptus globulus

Blue gum Eucalyptus

R

Olea europaea

Olive

R

Sisymbrium irio

London Rocket

F

Ophrys bombyliflora

Bumble Bee Orchid

Oxalis pescaprae

Cape Sorrel

C

C

F

C

F

Chrysanthemum coronarium

Crown Daisy

R

R

R

C

C

Hirschfeldia incana

Hoary mustard

C

Pinus halepnsis

Aleppo Pine

Avena sp.

Wild Oat

C

Allium subhirsutum

Hairy Garlic

Ranunculus bullatus

Autumn Buttercup

R

S S R

R

S

S

S

S

R

R

R C

C

F

R C

F

C

F

S

S

F

F

C

C

C

C

F

F

S

F

F

S F

R

F

F S

S

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

F

C

R

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Allium cepa

Onion

F

C

F

Narcissus tazetta

French Daffodil

F

Opuntia ficus-indica

Prickly Pear

Aeonium arbireum

Tree Aeonium

R

Convolvulus arvensis

Field Bindweed

C

Bromus sp.

Brome

C

Hypericum aegyptiacum

Eyptian St. John’s-wort

Ricinus communis

Castor Bean

Hyparrhenia hirta

Beard-grass

Rubia peregrina

Wild Madder

C

Sherardia arvenis

Filed Madder

C

Antirrhinum siculum

Sicilian Snapdragon

F

Antirrhinum toruosum

Greater Snapdragon

F

Urtoca dubia

Large-leaved Stinging Nettle

Anacamptis pyramidalis

Common Pyramidal Orchid

C

Anacamptis urvilleana

Maltese Pyramidal Orchid

C

Orhcis conica

Conical Orchid

Arundo donax

Giant Reed

Papaver rhoeas

Common poppy

Vitis vinifera

Grape Vine

R

C

R

R

C

C

R

C C

R

C

C

R C

C F

F

F

C

R

R

C

F

F

C

C

F

C

R C

C

F

F

F

F

C

F

F

C

C F F

C

F

F

F

C F

F C

C

F

C

C

F

F

F

F

F

F

C

C

C

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APPENDIX III Consultation with Carmel Cacopardo – April 2017 Questions 1. Can you give me a brief account of the quarrying industry in Malta? 2. What, in your opinion, the biggest challenge the quarrying industry is facing? 3. Do you think we should continue building more houses, especially when there are so many buildings which are vacant? 4. In your opinion, what are the biggest environmental impacts on the environment? 5. Do you have any recommendations in terms of the quarrying industry?

Summary This meeting took the form of a discussion. After explaining what the research project was about, Mr. Cacopardo gave me a short introduction on the quarrying industry and how it changed over the years. He mentioned that due to the increase in population, the demand for property increased as well. He pointed out that even though there was and still is a high demand for property, there are also many vacant buildings. This poses a big problem for the Maltese Islands. Provided the limited space available, Government Authorities are seeking alternative areas, such as ODZ land for building permits which is extremely detrimental to our environment; not just in terms of pollution but also because green spaces are being removed to make space for more buildings. Alongside this problem, there is the issue related to the high rent and the high prices to purchase property. Given the current minimum wage, it is extremely difficult for families to pay a rent and feed their members or even purchase a property. Unfortunately, the market caters for the elite. The environmental impacts of quarrying were discussed. These included the effects of quarrying on the water table, the topography of the Maltese Islands and the overall landscape. Unfortunately, quarries become eyesores in open spaces and take up space which cannot be used by people. Consequently, the impacts such as noise, dust and vibration were also addressed during the discussion. Another concern with the quarrying industry is the waste generated from the quarry and construction. In Malta, much of the stone from buildings which is knocked down is landfilled or discarded. It is not common practice to re-use stone from demolished buildings and unfortunately this constitutes to a large amount of wastage. There are many measures which could be taken to save stone and use the resource sustainably. Mr. Cacopardo recommended that the acceptance of new planning applications should be based on the number of dwellings there are vacant in the area. Therefore, if there are already a substantial amount of buildings, then the energy should be diverted to encouraging people to invest in buildings which are present and/or in need of restoration. He also recommended that a thorough study should be carried out to find alternative uses for stone. He also referred me to other studies on quarries which are (for example) being de-scheduled to gain a thorough understanding of the works involved in the quarrying industry.

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APPENDIX IV Consultation with Resident5 The following questions were prepared to obtain information; however, the resident was not able to answer some of them but instead gave me other invaluable information about the quarry. The meeting took the form of a conversation which has been summarised below. The resident who kindly contributed to the study is a long-time resident of the area and watched the quarry develop over the years. He has also been involved in several discussions related to the use of the quarry and the extractive industry.

Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

How has the size and depth of the quarry changed since its’ first operation? What volume of stone has been extracted from the quarry? How much volume of stone are you planning to extract from the quarry? Is the stone processed on site? What methods are used to extract the stone? If blasting is used, how often does it take place and at what intensity? Where are the explosives located? What is the cost of extracting stone and what are the costs involved? How many people are employed to work in the quarry? Can you tell me more about the geology of the area? What is the status of the quarry? What are the future plans for the quarry? What is the stone extracted used for? Where does it go once it has been extracted? The quarry is one of the few which can be backfilled. What material is being used? What is the intended use of the construction debris?

Summary Quarry ownership and History – The two Wied Inċita quarries date back to the early 1960s, when two families operated the quarries. Part of the land was privately owned and part of the land was Government owned. In the 1970s parts of the quarries was sold to another company6. To date, another company is involved in the ownership of the quarry. In the 1980s, the labour government put a lot of pressure on the quarry owners and operations were stalled. The company has also requested a permit to construct bricks but never managed to obtain it. Moreover, the company experienced a time when the stone being extracted was not of good quality, so stone from another quarry (Tal-Msielet, Mġarr) was brought to Wied Inċita for processing. In 1987, the Nationalist Government granted a permit to the company owners on the eve of the elections to use the area as a dumping ground. In fact, this area was used to dump the construction waste from the 5 6

The name of the resident who contributed to the study will remain undisclosed for confidentiality purposes. The name of the company will remain undisclosed for confidentiality purposes

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St. Venera tunnels. HM13 no longer remained a quarry but rather became a large dumping ground of construction and demolition waste. There were no studies or surveys carried out on the type of waste being dumped, eliciting that there is no guarantee that the waste was inert. In addition to this, no studies have been carried out to determine the extent of effect the demolition waste has had on the habitat. At a particular time, quarrying in part of the area was also stalled since the water table had been reached. No studies in this regard were carried out to determine the extent of damage caused. In the 1990s, there were still no environmental impact assessments carried out however several law suits were filed against the owners of the quarry for the damage to be assessed. The quarry owners continued to expand the quarrying area without any permits, also trespassing public land and creating a major eyesore with the ever-growing mountain of waste which was being dumped in several areas of the site. Quarry operations – Blasting for stone extraction took place until the 1980s, when dangerous explosive material and operations were being carried out which affected the residents and much of the debris landed on surrounding area, land and roads. Nowadays, stone is extracted by means of a himac stone breakers. Operations begin at around 05:00 hrs and end late at night. Flood flights are used during the night hours. It is unclear what is happening in the lower part of the quarry, since it appears to be being backfilled. However, when the images of the three site visits are compared, the level of backfill in May 2017 appears to be lower than the site visit in February 2017. The explanation to this could be that some of the waste was removed after it was put there but the resident was not sure. Permits – The quarry has been extended without permits and have several pending enforcement notices. The only planning application available is the one regarding their proposed development. The Attard Local Council has won a court case against the quarry owners and has others pending. Noise, Vibration and Dust Pollution – A large amount of dust is produced due to quarrying operations. This is a major issue for residents especially those which are located closest to the quarry. This is a health hazard to residents, especially to young children who live in the area. No reports or studies have ever been carried out in terms of the socio-environmental impacts of this quarry on residents. Size and depth – The size of the quarry can be obtained from the sale contract and the depth is approximately 80m or more in certain areas. It is difficult to calculate the total amount of stone extracted to date without proper figures. Economic considerations – Many questions were and are still left unanswered. The quarry owner will not provide information and therefore other sources need to be used. However, this discussion did give rise to many questions, such as, the type of taxes that the company or companies pay on (for example) the backfilling of the waste. (This is not just an issue of Wied Inċita but applies to all quarries. There is a lack of transparency in this sector which merits much more research and study. The resident also linked me to various documents and people who could also help in further research on the quarry.

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APPENDIX V Project Planning

Figure 1 – Work breakdown structure

Figure 2 – Detailed Gantt Chart

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Figure 3 – Gantt Chart, compiled at the early planning stages of the project

Figure 4 – Table used to monitor the site visits and consultations with stakeholders

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