esl computer writers: what can we do to help?

Syskwz, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 21-30, Printed in Great Britain

ESL COMPUTER

0346-251X/93 $6.00 + 0.00 0 1993 Pergamon Press Ltd

1993

WRITERS: WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP? KEN HYLAND

International Pacific College, Palmerston North, New Zealand The use of word processors to develop the writing skills of foreign language students has attracted a great deal of interest in recent years. Unfortunately it has also created unrealistically high expectations concerning learning gains that have been impossible to sustain. This paper is based on the premise that, while the medium may facilitate writing, only teachers can improve it. It argues that the positive effects of word processors in the writing class depend on the provision of a supportive learning environment and discusses four key principles of user support employed with EFL learners at a New Zealand college.

INTRODUCTION The use of word processors to develop students’ writing skills has attracted an increasing amount of interest among teachers and researchers during the past decade. In fact, word processing is perhaps the most accepted and universal use of computers in education today. But, while practitioners frequently acknowledge the value of word processors as writing tools and point to a range of positive findings in the literature for support, enthusiasm has not been universal. The research is far from unanimously uncritical and the dangers of extravagant claims and indiscriminate adoption of the medium have been pointed out by Leech and Candlin (1986) and Hawisher and Selfe (1991). Moreover, increasing numbers of teachers are discovering that improvements in student writing behaviour are slow and limited and have begun to question the advantages of the medium itself. As a result, the full potential of computer-assisted writing remains largely unrealised in ELT. Like the language lab movement 20 years ago, the word processor has been cursed by unrealistically high expectations that the technology, in and of itself, would cause dramatic learning results. Only now are we beginning to assess the impact of the medium and employ effective ways to use it for ELT purposes. Essentially, word processors are only machines and no inherent advantages can be directly attributed to them: quite simply, word processing does not teach writing. Any positive effects on writing depend on positive student reactions to the medium and the provision of an appropriate learning environment. There are great benefits to students in using the new technology, but its productivity depends on an approach which teaches composing not computing. This paper argues therefore that to improve writing ability we must focus on facilitating the composing process and discusses how a number of key principles of user support have been applied at a New Zealand college for EFL learners. 21

22

KEN HYLAND

WORD

PROCESSORS

AND TEACHING

WRITING

SKILLS

The power of word processors as writing instruments is well known and the fact that they maximise opportunities for changing text means they provide a perfect environment for language learning. This is said to encourage writers to explore language and experiment with different means of expression and organisation [e.g. Hawisher (1987) and Blanton (1987)]. Despite this interest, however, there has been no comprehensive attempt to systematically relate the properties of word processors to changes in writing behaviour, particularly that of EFL learners. More importantly, there is little evidence to support the view that word processor use improves the motivation, technique or writing quality of either Ll or L2 learners. Research is unable to confirm that the quality of computer written texts is superior to conventionally produced work. While more time may be spent writing, increasing the quantity of output (Roblyer et al., 1988; Hawisher, 1989), writers may tend to plan less and give less attention to the content of their work (Haas, 1989; Thiesmeyer, 1989). Some studies suggest that students revise less than with a pen (Harris, 1985; Daiute, 1986) and, where increases in revision have been found, these tend to be at word and sentence level (Collier, 1983; Daiute, 1984, 1985; Madigan, 1984; Schwartz, 1984). In an extensive review of the literature, Phinney (1988: p. 85) concluded that “using a computer alone does not seem to stimulate different revision behaviour”. Studies of motivational and attitudinal changes towards writing as a result of word processors tend to be more positive [e.g. Daiute (1984, 1985), Schwartz (1984), Roblyer et al. (1988) and Neu and Scarcella (1991)]. On the other hand, negative attitudes may result from mechanical and logistical problems (Lindemann and Willert, 1985) or from the psychologically inhibiting factors of computer use (Pennington, 1990: p. 86). The failure of learner writers to demonstrate dramatic improvements in the quality of their texts or composing strategies has dissipated some of the early enthusiasm for word processors among teachers. But clearly, while computers composing may facilitate writing, it cannot, by itself, improve it. There are positive effects, but these are unrelated to word processor use per se. As Bridwell and Duin (1985: p. 121) conclude, “The effects of the computer interact with the students’ sense of task, their success in learning the word processing system, and their individual writing abilities.” Given these variables it is hardly surprising that the research has produced such diverse findings.

PRINCIPLES

OF TEACHING

SUPPORT

Clearly the effects of using word processors cannot be predicted solely from the medium itself, and simply giving students access to word processors does not automatically make better writers. As with conventional writing, students need support at every step and this must be related to their particular levels of writing proficiency. At International Pacific College, a private residential college in New Zealand with an enrolment of 300 Japanese students, we have tried to establish the kind of support EFL learners require. Following an extensive review of the literature, the following general principles were adopted in our writing programme:

ESL COMPUTER

WRITERS

23

(1) Students must be familiar with the keyboard and software (2) Computer writing activities must be integrated into the ELT curriculum for collaboration (3) Opportunities (4) Learners must receive explicit

and peer support must be provided instruction in computer composition

Figure 1 shows the legs of support provided for word remainder of this paper discusses each in turn.

Word Processor

processor

Integration

Collaboration

Instruction

Basic operations

Scheduling

Sequential

Drafting

Keyboard

Training

Sub-tasks

layout

Classwork

at IPC.

The

Support

Familiarisation

Mouse dexterity

writers

tasks

Revising Formatting

Curriculum Fig. 1. Support

for word processor writers.

Familiarity with the keyboard and software While the electronic keyboard may be a great advantage to those students whose handwriting impedes good composition [e.g. Piper (1987) and Hawisher (1989)], its impersonality and peculiar arrangement can equally present major obstacles to many learners. Joram et al. (1990) argue that successful adaptation to the word processor is more likely if composition classes are preceded by a familiarisation course in keyboarding. Students need to feel comfortable with the machines and not be deterred by typing. In addition, training in the basic elements of word processing is also a vital step in developing writing skills (Bridwell and Ross, 1984). IPC provides a 12-hr orientation course over 6 weeks which is concerned with keyboard layout, mouse dexterity and basic features of Microsoft Word. Macintosh computers and Word software were chosen for their relative ease of use and the fact that the latter offers a wide range of useful composing resources such as windows, a thesaurus, spell checker, etc. which can be gradually introduced over a period as writing skills develop. Materials have been designed to explain and practise basic operations of the word processor such as inserting, deleting, moving and saving text. Word games, a commercial typing tutor, Microsoft Word’s interactive tutorial and a simplified version of the introductory materials are used, some of which are in Japanese. All students, at all levels of English, are required to do this course.

Integration with other ELT activities The integration of word processing activities with the wider learning to the success of the medium. Robinson (1991: p. 160) summarises

environment is crucial a number of studies:

The findings highlight the importance of integrating individual CALL work with the total program of language instruction, including the classroom, rather than configuring it as an independent supplementary activity.

24

Successful integration training and ensuring

KEN HYLAND

has many aspects. At IPC the focus has been on four: scheduling, integration both within and between courses.

(i) Scheduling-sufficient time needs to be provided for students to work on the computers and at least some of this needs to be outside of class time. Bernhardt et al. (1989) found that students considered lack of access to be the worst aspect of writing with computers. Intelligent scheduling is essential, and IPC students have regular access to the computer laboratory during class time and to a self-access computer centre until 11 pm every night. (ii) Word processor training-for both teachers and students. Teachers-both Bernhardt et al. (1989) and Thiesmeyer (1989) found that the teacher’s enthusiasm and knowledge was critical to student improvement, regardless of the method of instruction used. Only those teachers most committed to computer writing are therefore involved in our programmes. They receive training in Word 5 and are assisted by technical staff.

Students-the greatest benefits of using word processors are not available to students in the short term. Pennington (1990) argues that the absence of positive results in some studies may reflect the learners’ lack of word processing skills and Lawlor (1982) has suggested that later improvements in student writing may be predicated on earlier familiarity with the word processor. Phinney (1991) found that at least one semester was needed for positive changes in writing behaviour to occur. Rodrigues (1985), Phinney (1988) and Bernhardt et al. (1989) have voiced similar opinions. In particular, students do not always see the inherent possibilities for prewriting or global revision and continuing instruction in how to exploit the word processor is essential [e.g. Rodrigues (1985)]. Womble (1985) reported that surface revisions were replaced by discourse revision strategies once the students became familiar with the word processor. Such familiarity depends on instruction and a system which displays the teacher’s screen on an overhead projector is invaluable. This allows a new command or feature to be introduced to the whole class as it is needed, demonstrating how it can be applied to a current draft. The IPC curriculum therefore progressively develops computer techniques in tandem with increasingly sophisticated composing skills. (iii) Classwork integration-not all components of the EFL programme involve computer work and those that do are not exclusively computer classes. Hardisty and Windeatt (1989) have stressed the importance of providing pre- and post-computer work. At IPC courses generally involve some kind of research, discussion or planning activity prior to using the word processor and a group presentation or other activity after it. Particularly as learners become more proficient in their writing, the word processor increasingly becomes one element in an integrated range of activities, making an integral contribution to an overall task. (iv) Curriculum integration-an important means of integration involves getting students to use word processors for a variety of language learning tasks and purposes so that it becomes a familar instrument of learning. By authoring texts which focus on a particular linguistic feature such as grammar or cohesion and saving them as Word files, a variety

ESL COMPUTER

25

WRITERS

of useful activities can be produced. Language manipulation tasks are extremely popular CALL activities and encourage development of a wide variety of language awareness and writing skills: They foster sensitivity to cohesion/coherence features in discourse and encourage considerable hypothesis making procedures on the part of the learner (Clarke, 1986: p. 1). The fact that the word processor facilitates the mutilation and rearrangement of text allows the creation of tasks which both develop language skills and help familiarise students with word processor features. These are discussed in Hyland (1990a) and set out in Fig. 2. rask

Description

rransformation

Guided or parallel writing

1

Example I

curative rewritten from another viewpoint essay transformed into report

(alterations to entire text)

personal content into text structore replace marked words with synonyms

Replacing particular items

substituting

lexical or grammatical focus f ,

words with antonyms

:hanging personal or possessive

pronouns

changing tense markers

Insertion

Reordering Text completion

add punctuation, articles, linking signals

Adding target items lexical or grammatical

focur ) section headings, verb endings, etc

Rearranging items

unscramble words or sentences

(text structlxe focus)

reorganise paragraphs in a text

Fiil oat incomplete texts

write paragraph from topic sentence

(content and organisation)

write introduction from report body -I_

Fig. 2. Word

processor

write punchline for a joke.

manipulation

tasks.

Providing a collaborative environment Support during the writing process itself is crucial. While the teacher can interact with a student as a text develops, invaluable support can be provided by peers, particularly as computer labs encourage student interaction and offer excellent opportunities for joint composition and editing (Daiute, 1985; Phinney, 1991). Not only does the screen provide accessibility to a text by a small group, but the printing of multiple copies enables drafts to be exchanged for comments and reworking, heightening an awareness of audience and increasing opportunities for peer editing and discussion. In addition, a uniform quality of output allows joint compositions, helping to improve both the content of work produced and approaches to writing. Classroom arrangement is important. The main computer laboratory is set up with 15 machines around the periphery and in the centre of a large room. This allows free movement between computers by students and the instructor. Students are able to move to a corner to discuss a hard copy draft, to the front to view a projected image of the teacher’s screen or work privately or in pairs at their own computers. Planning and reviewing activities can be done elsewhere. Collaboration be introduced

is achieved through a number of steps. Importantly, gradually and trust built up between learners through

cooperation class stability.

needs to Students

26

KEN HYLAND

often appear reluctant to share their writing, but this seems less threatening with work in progress so we get students to read and comment on each other’s drafts, initially with peer review sheets then by inserting comments on screen texts in boldface. An interesting innovation is provided by Word 5 which allows users to annotate screen text with spoken comments. Later students are encouraged to work in pairs to develop the content of a text sequentially and eventually to take responsibility for researching and writing different parts of an essay or journal. Finally we allocate subtasks among groups, separating planning and researching, drafting, revising and editing so that text production becomes a shared activity involving a great deal of organising and discussion. It must be noted, however, that not all learners respond equally well to cooperative techniques and some may require more private writing opportunities before they feel comfortable about working closely with others on a piece of work [e.g Piper (1987)].

Explicit instruction to assist learners adopt a different composing style It is clear that the computer alone has had little effect in changing the composing behaviours of basic writers and that improvements depend on instruction. The new technology requires changes in both the way we write and the way we teach writing. The initial careful planning of pen and paper is replaced by greater effort at revision which suggests a guided process approach (Phinney, 1991) based on teacher modelling, student collaboration and extensive practice. A three-stage process of drafting, revising and formatting is used at IPC (Hyland, 1990b).

Drafting. The key to developing

ideas on a word processor is rapid drafting. This not only assists poor handwriters, but helps all users think and work quickly in a non-linear way, removing the apprehension created by the need to produce clear, accurate prose at the first attempt. Because the word processor separates composition from production, the writer can be certain of good-quality final copy, focusing on generating ideas and leaving strictly communicative aspects of writing such as style, register and cohesion until later. This is encouraged in a number of ways. Oral dictation forces learners to type quickly which helps develop proof reading skills and the confidence that errors can be quickly put right later. Brain-storming and focused freewriting are excellent computer techniques as the speed of keyboard writing allows a train of thought to be followed rapidly, while cut and paste and windowing enable key ideas to be grouped, compared and organised into a logical sequence. Lowering screen brightness can help prevent corrections interfering with output by eliminating immediate visual feedback (Marcus, 1984). Learners can also be urged to consider their audience and approach before starting by producing a “nutshell” or outline. On-line “interactive” prompts (Nydhal, 1990) may encourage them to type in a purpose and a summary, or a title and thesis with supporting arguments and possible objections.

Revising. Learners also require skills for refining and reworking

their ideas and for creating a readable product. With a word processor revision is an essential and recursive activity, performed at any point in the writing process on any text segment for any purpose. For many students, however, it simply involves last-minute tinkering, particularly as they are apt to confuse the quality copy computers produce with high-quality writing. Computer revision sessions therefore demand that students receive teacher or peer comment on each draft they produce, developing a cycle of draft-feedback-re-draft-feedback, etc.

ESL COMPUTER

WRITERS

27

Effective revision strategies depend on instruction [e.g. Wallace and Haynes (1991)]. If students continue to use word processors and are taught the best ways to revise with them, then writing skills generally are likely to improve. Therefore, in order to increase the quality of their written work, students must see revision as essential to the writing process and practise a variety of techniques. Word-processed texts generally show fewer surface errors, probably as a result of intensive reading and revising of the small portion of text displayed, but little improvement in content or organisation. Revising for content is not just editing errors but evaluating, expanding and filling out the text profile, either on-screen or by peer discussion of printed work (Harris, 1985). Text reworking helps show relationships between ideas or reveal that something is wrong or incomplete, leading to the discovery of further ideas by relating screen text to “subconscious” relevant knowledge. An excellent means of helping students discover new connections and points as they build their texts is through outlines. These transform linear text into a tiered level of headings and indentation of lines representing a hierarchy of ideas. Teaching learners to use the word processor outline facility helps them organise a topic structure and situate subordinate topics, assisting them in visualising an evolving text structure. Students must also learn to critically evaluate their work for coherence and fluency, and the ability has been found to add CALL features to the word processor through macros an invaluable teaching aid [cf. Nydahl (1990)]. A macro is a function which stores and replays a series of operations or a typed message which affect a text or invite the user to participate in a process. Many word processors have an integral macro function but at IPC a utility called “Automat III” is used. A range of macros are employed to assist student editing without creating a dependency on CALL writing prompts. Some adapt Nydhal’s useful suggestions, such as one which jumbles all the paragraphs in a text and forces the writer to examine the coherence of the work by rearranging them. Another copies the first and last sentence in each paragraph to another file which the writer can print out to identify logical connections and highlight any organisational problems. Focusing on paragraph coherence, one macro “explodes” a selected paragraph into a list of component sentences allowing the writer to more easily check both individual sentence structure and the unity of the whole. Another displays a prompt directing the writer to “check if this paragraph has a clear topic” when the writer hits the “return” key to begin a new paragraph. A third, pausing after each response, issues a series of prompts asking students to identify their topic sentences which are then copied to another file. This helps the writer check both their adequacy as topics and the resulting outline they produce. In addition, Automat III allows us to record and replay a whole composing session for the writer and teacher to view and discuss later (Flinn, 1987). A variety of word processor features assist the development of economical expression and good style. Obviously the spell checker, which encourages proof reading for sense, and the word count, which promotes succinctness by enabling writers to meet precise word limits, are useful. Additionally the search facility is a valuable tool, particularly if students build up a file of their common errors to form the basis of search routines. It can also be used to help writers identify long sentences by locating clause boundary markers and

28

KEN

HYLAND

to find and remove such common features of weak writing as passive style markers, nominalised endings and cliches. The thesaurus can then assist by suggesting more direct and readable alternatives. An increasingly popular feature for many learners appears to be the grammar checker. These programmes compare texts with a list of grammar, punctuation and style rules then flag offences and give advice to users. This kind of immediate feedback is useful as it develops an awareness of readability, but grammar checkers are essentially a band aid approach to writing which ignore the importance of audience by focusing on a rule based product. Moreover, they require a near native language competence to use as they misanalyse sentences with unfailing regularity (Landau, 1991; Piller, 1991).

Formatting texts. Formatting

strategies are essential to effective communication as they influence readability and reader motivation. Good presentation is important in signalling document structure, adding emphasis and achieving clear prose. Students need to be made aware fairly early of reader processing and particularly the importance of sectioning information, using subheads, spacing, different fonts and character styles, and the use of tables in presenting information. These issues can be introduced by getting learners to compare different versions of texts or to find information quickly from badly formatted documents. We then ask students to reformat dense and continuous texts or customise existing documents for particular readers. Showing how text formats vary according to purpose and the needs of particular audiences helps increase the level of reader awareness and encourages students to clearly define their writing objectives.

CONCLUSION The educational application of word processors is a tremendous challenge to both teachers and learners alike, and it must be stressed that even this level of support does not provide solutions to the writing difficulties of all learners. Even after two semesters some students continue to employ only the most transparent editing and formatting aspects of word processors while resisting the use of the machine for brainstorming, drafting and global revision. The success of others, however, convinces us that there are great advantages in using computers to develop the writing and problem-solving skills of EFL learners. There is little doubt that support is a critical variable in this success. Quite simply, the most convincing improvements in student writing are not due to computers, but teachers. The full potential of word processing in education will not be realised without further experimentation and research, but in the meantime the kind of supportive teaching programme outlined here will be crucial to the writing of ESL students.

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